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Companies who through the years have provided the opportunity to study, learn, and develop
the themes presented in this text. This includes customers of the past and present who have
had the courage to venture into sometimes uncharted waters in the area of induction heating
design and development in order to reap the projected gains provided by this technology.
1. Introduction..............................................................................................................................1
vii
3. Theoretical Background....................................................................................................... 51
3.1 Basic Electromagnetic Phenomena in IH................................................................. 51
3.1.1 Electromagnetic Properties of Metallic Materials...................................... 53
3.1.1.1 Electrical Resistivity (Electrical Conductivity)........................... 53
3.1.1.2 Magnetic Permeability and Relative Permittivity
(Dielectric Constant)....................................................................... 55
3.1.2 Skin Effect........................................................................................................ 60
3.1.3 Electromagnetic Proximity Effect................................................................ 66
3.1.4 Electromagnetic Slot Effect............................................................................ 69
3.1.5 Electromagnetic Ring Effect.......................................................................... 71
3.1.6 Electromagnetic Force.................................................................................... 72
3.1.7 Introduction to Electromagnetic End and Edge Effects............................ 78
3.1.7.1 Electromagnetic Longitudinal End Effect................................... 79
3.1.7.2 Helix Effect....................................................................................... 85
3.1.7.3 Electromagnetic Transverse Edge Effect.....................................85
3.1.7.4 Electromagnetic Effect of Joined Materials with Different
Electromagnetic Properties (EEJ Effect)....................................... 88
3.2 Thermal Phenomena in IH.........................................................................................90
3.2.1 Thermal Properties of the Materials............................................................ 90
3.2.1.1 Thermal Conductivity....................................................................90
3.2.1.2 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat................................................... 91
3.2.2 Three Modes of Heat Transfer...................................................................... 92
3.2.2.1 Thermal Conduction....................................................................... 92
3.2.2.2 Convection Mode of the Heat Transfer........................................ 93
3.2.2.3 Radiation Mode of the Heat Transfer........................................... 94
3.3 Estimation of the Required Power and Dynamics of IH....................................... 95
3.3.1 Estimation of the Required Power for IH.................................................... 95
3.3.2 Intricacies of the Dynamics of IH................................................................. 99
3.4 Advanced Induction Principles and Mathematical Modeling............................ 102
3.4.1 Mathematical Modeling of the Electromagnetic Field............................ 103
3.4.2 Mathematical Modeling of the Thermal Processes................................. 109
3.4.3 Numerical Computation of the Process..................................................... 111
3.4.3.1 Traditional Methods of Calculation........................................... 111
3.4.3.2 Finite Difference Method............................................................. 112
3.4.3.3 Finite Element Method................................................................. 119
3.4.3.4 Mutual Impedance Method......................................................... 126
3.4.3.5 Boundary Element Method......................................................... 129
3.4.3.6 Coupling of the Electromagnetic and Thermal Problems...... 130
3.4.3.7 Comparison of Different Numerical Techniques
and Final Remarks Regarding Computer Modeling............... 132
3.4.4 Limitations of Generalized All-Purpose Commercial Programs.......... 133
3.4.5 Crucial Tips Executives Must Know Regarding Computer
Modeling of IH.............................................................................................. 136
5. Joining Applications...........................................................................................................463
5.1 Brazing and Soldering by Induction.......................................................................463
5.1.1 Overview........................................................................................................ 465
5.1.2 Types of Joints............................................................................................... 466
5.1.3 Size and Shape Factors................................................................................. 467
5.1.4 Frequency Selection...................................................................................... 468
5.1.5 Types of Inductors and Coil Design Features........................................... 469
5.1.6 Overview of Filler Materials and Flux Selection...................................... 473
Epilogue........................................................................................................................................ 689
Appendix A: Periodic Table of the Elements........................................................................ 691
References.................................................................................................................................... 693
Index.............................................................................................................................................. 719
This second edition of the Handbook of Induction Heating, originally published in 2002,
reflects a number of substantial advances that have taken place over the last decade in
the practice and science of induction heating and heat treating, computer modeling, semi-
conductor power supplies, quality assurance, and process technology. This edition con-
tinues to be a synthesis of information, discoveries, and technical insights that have been
accumulated at Inductoheat Inc., an Inductotherm Group company, and in industry and
academia.
Before beginning our work on the second edition, we were informed by CRC Press that
the publication of the first edition of the Handbook of Induction Heating was an undispu-
table success. During the first 10 years, this book has continued to be on the publisher’s
“bestseller” list. An overwhelming amount of letters and calls of appreciation regarding
the publishing of the first edition have supported our belief that by writing the Handbook,
we have succeeded with our effort to provide the industry and academia with a helpful
engineering guide to modern induction heating and heat treating.
Some materials presented in the first edition have been completely rewritten for the sec-
ond edition. Several chapters have been expanded significantly, including but not limited
to the following:
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verified by the tool-room tags of the users. Other benefits of this remarkable tech-
nology include a measurable improvement in process robustness and dramati-
cally reduced process sensitivity.
• Common misassumptions and misleading postulations associated with the theory
and practice of electromagnetic induction heating are clarified in the second edition.
• The discussion of the causes for crack initiation and the propagation during fast
heating and intense quenching and means to control or eliminate cracking has
been greatly expanded. Problems associated with reaching excessive tempera-
tures, occurrence of grain boundary liquation (incipient melting), grain coars-
ening, and other metallurgical factors are reviewed. A “fishbone” diagram of
cracking and prevention is provided.
• Subtleties of induction tempering are reviewed and novel technologies are
described.
• Advanced designs (patented and patent pending) focus on ensuring the metallur-
gical quality of heat-treated components and improving process robustness and
machine flexibility.
• Intricacies and limitations of computer modeling of induction heating using
commercially available codes (what managers and analysts should know) are
discussed.
• Simple solutions for typical induction heating challenges when heat treating irreg-
ularly shaped parts are unveiled.
• Subtleties of quenching techniques applied to induction hardening are discussed.
• Several unique coil designs (patented and patent pending) are reviewed.
• The subject of induction contour hardening of complex geometry parts (includ-
ing but not limited to gears and gear-like components, crankshafts, raceways, and
other critical components) is also thoroughly discussed, describing inventions and
innovations that have occurred in the last 3–5 years.
• Reduction of shape/size distortion of heat-treated components and elimination of
the necessity of a subsequent straightening operation when hardening shaft-like
components are examined. An introduction to the CamPro Technology is pro-
vided, and the achievement of an almost undetectable distortion when hardening
camshafts is looked into.
• An appreciable amount of information is provided with respect to process anneal-
ing and stress relieving of tubular workpieces. An introduction to FluxManager
Technology is provided.
• Aspects related to the failure analysis of hardening inductors and induction
coils used in different applications and prevention of their premature failure are
examined.
• Various design concepts and advanced process recipes/protocols were analyzed
to help reduce the energy consumption of induction equipment. Novel semicon-
ductor inverter technologies, including but not limited to simultaneous dual-
frequency power supplies, and inverters with independent and instant frequency
and power regulation (IFP-Technology) are studied.
• Essentials of induction heating of ferrous versus nonferrous metallic materials, as
well as metallurgical specifics and process subtleties of induction heating billets
and bars made of carbon steels versus microalloy steels versus stainless steels
versus Ni-based superalloys, Al-based, Cu-based alloys, and so on, are reviewed.
• The modular design concept in induction heating for hot and warm forming is
discussed with pictures of actual equipment and its description that provides ulti-
mate system flexibility and true temperature control technology in induction bil-
let heating. An introduction to InductoForge® Technology is provided.
• Best practices and recommendations related to equipment maintenance, Do’s and
Dont’s items are discussed.
• The load-matching section was substantially updated, and engineering proce-
dures assuring a proper “coil-to-power supply” load-matching characteristics are
reviewed.
• Safety principles and recommendations are discussed.
• Special attention has been paid to modern requirements for quality assurance of
components heated by means of electromagnetic induction as well as many other
subjects.
This edition embarks on the next step, the design of practical, cost-effective, and energy-
efficient induction heating and heat-treating processes and equipment, providing numer-
ous case studies, ready-to-use tables, diagrams, rules-of-thumb, simplified formulas, and
graphs. Plots of electromagnetic fields, temperature profiles, and photographs of a variety
of production installations are provided to show not only that the task has been previously
accomplished but also why and how it has been done. An extensive list of references is
provided here.
In order to avoid an unreasonably large number of pages in the second edition, material
related to metallographic sample preparation and review of basic temperature measure-
ment techniques has been eliminated. Several excellent texts have been published exclu-
sively covering those subjects. Therefore, we refer readers to review those texts, if required.
We would also like to acknowledge the contribution of the employees of Inductoheat
Inc. and Inductotherm Group Companies. Their professional attitude and commitment to
quality have made them the benchmark in the induction heating and heat-treating indus-
try and have made this work possible.
We would like to acknowledge our sincere appreciation to Mr. Micah Black (Tucker
Induction Systems, Inc.) for his work as coauthor of the first edition of this Handbook.
Many thanks must go to the authors’ families. It goes without saying that a technical
book of this magnitude requires many hours of meticulous work, hours that often have
infringed upon or restricted planned family activities.
We present this work in the hope that the second edition of the Handbook of Induction
Heating will carry on the success of the first edition, providing an aid to practitioners,
students, engineers, metallurgists, managers, and scientists revolving around induction
heating technologies.
xxi