Thermal Protection Systems

The thermal protection system consists of various materials applied externally to the
outer structural skin of the orbiter to maintain the skin within acceptable temperatures,
primarily during the entry phase of the mission. The orbiter's outer structural skin, constructed
from aluminum and graphite epoxy, could not withstand temperatures over 175 °C (347 °F)
without structural failure. Aerodynamic heating during reentry would push the temperature well
above this level, so an effective insulator was needed.

Reentry heating differs from the normal atmospheric heating associated with jet
aircraft, and this governed TPS design and characteristics. The skin of high-speed jet aircraft
can also become hot, but this is from frictional heating due to atmospheric friction, similar to
warming one's hands by rubbing them together. The orbiter reenters the atmosphere as a blunt
body by having a very high (40-degree) angle of attack, with its broad lower surface facing the
direction of flight. Over 80% of the heating the orbiter experiences during reentry is caused by
compression of the air ahead of the hypersonic vehicle, in accordance with the
basic thermodynamic relation between pressure and temperature. A hot shock wave creates in
front of the vehicle, which deflects most of the heat and prevents the orbiter's surface from
directly contacting the peak heat. The key to a reusable shield against this type of heating is
very low-density material, similar to how a thermos bottle inhibits convective heat transfer.

The principle design functions of the TPS are to perform as a radiator (to emit heat), a
reflector (to prevent on-orbit heating), and as an insulator (to protect the structure from the
residual heat flux). The TPS is primarily white on the upper surface and black on the lower
surface to control on-orbit heating from solar radiation and to maximize heat rejection during
reentry.

The TPS covers the entire orbiter surface, and consists of seven different materials in
varying locations based on amount of required heat protection:

 Reinforced carbon–carbon (RCC), used in the nose cap, the chin area between the nose cap
and nose landing gear doors, the arrowhead aft of the nose landing gear door, and the wing
leading edges. In this areas, reentry temperature exceeds 1,260 °C (2,300 °F).
 High-temperature reusable surface insulation (HRSI) tiles, used on the orbiter underside.
Made of coated LI-900 Silica ceramics, is used where reentry temperature is below
1260 °C.
 Fibrous refractory composite insulation (FRCI) tiles, used to provide improved strength,
durability, resistance to coating cracking and weight reduction. Some HRSI tiles were
replaced by this type.
 Flexible Insulation Blankets (FIB), a quilted, flexible blanket-like surface insulation, used
where reentry temperature was below 649 °C (1,200 °F).
 Low-temperature Reusable Surface Insulation (LRSI) tiles, formerly used on the upper
fuselage, but were mostly replaced by FIB. Used in temperature ranges roughly similar to
FIB.
 Toughened unipiece fibrous insulation (TUFI) tiles, a stronger, tougher tile which came
into use in 1996. Used in high and low temperature areas.
 Felt reusable surface insulation (FRSI). White Nomex felt blankets on the upper payload
bay doors, portions of the midfuselage and fuselage sides and portions of the upper wing
surface. Used where temperatures stayed below 371 °C (700 °F).
 Fig.1 Maximum recorded surface temperatures

1.Reinforced carbon-carbon (RCC) is a composite material consisting of carbon

fiber reinforcement in a matrix of graphite. It was developed for the nose
cones of intercontinental ballistic missiles, and is most widely known as the material for the
nose cone and wing leading edges of the Space Shuttle orbiter. In addition, the external tank
(ET) is protected by an RCC arrowhead component due to the pyrotechnic shock environment
of the ET separation mechanism. Also, it has been used in the brake systems of Formula One
racing cars since 1976. Carbon–carbon is well-suited to structural applications at high
temperatures, or where thermal shock resistance and/or a low coefficient of thermal

expansion is needed. The RCC has a maximum use temperature of over 2,960°F and has a
density of approximately 103 pcf. The material has a flexural strength of approximately 9,000
psi and a tensile strength of approximately 4,500 psi. While it is less brittle than many other
ceramics, it lacks impact resistance; Space Shuttle Columbia was destroyed during
atmospheric re-entry after one of its RCC panels was broken by the impact of a piece of foam
insulation from the Space Shuttle External Tank.

Fig.2 Reinforced Carbon-Carbon on Endeavour’s nose

The material is made in three stages:

 Firstly, material is laid up in its intended final shape, with carbon filament and/or cloth
surrounded by an organic binder such as plastic or pitch. Often, coke or some other fine
carbon aggregate is added to the binder mixture.

 Secondly, the lay-up is heated, so that pyrolysis transforms the binder to relatively pure
carbon. The binder loses volume in the process, so that voids form; the addition of aggregate
reduces this problem, but does not eliminate it.

 Finally, the voids are gradually filled by forcing a carbon-forming gas such
as acetylene through the material at a high temperature, over the course of several days.
This long heat treatment process also allows the carbon to form into larger graphite crystals,
and is the major reason for the material's high cost, exceeding $100,000 per panel.

2. High-temperature reusable surface insulation tiles (HRSI) are used in areas as the
upper forward fuselage, the entire underside of the vehicle, where RCC is not used, some
portions of the orbital maneuvering system and reaction control system pods, the leading and
trailing edges of the vertical stabilizer, the wing glove areas and the upper body flap surface.
The HRSI tiles protect areas where temperatures are below 2,300 F.
 The HRSI tiles are made of a low-density, high-purity silica 99.8-percent amorphous fiber
(fibers derived from common sand, 1 to 2 mils thick) insulation that is made rigid by ceramic
bonding. Because 90 percent of the tile is void and the remaining 10 percent is material, the tile
weighs approximately 9 pounds per cubic foot.

Fig 3. HRSI components