CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE
Design of interlocking bricks for enhanced wall construction,

flexibility, alignment accuracy and load bearing

Abstract

The worldwide housing shortage has stimulated a search for

appropriate, easy, fast and cost-effective new ways of wall

construction. Among many technologies found to have promise is

mortarless technology using dry-stack interlocking bricks/blocks.

This thesis is about such mortarless walling technology and in

particular: how to improve wall-construction flexibility, the

effects of brick irregularities on wall alignment accuracy and

wall behaviour (stiffness, strength) when subject to lateral

forces. The flexibility of mortarless technology (MT) has been

enhanced by the development of new bricks (centre-half bat and tee

brick): the introduction of closer bricks led to the formation of

two new bonds (patterns) namely Shokse and Lijuja bonds. It is now

possible to construct more than half-brick-thick walls, to attach

more than half-brickwide piers (buttresses) onto walls, and, using

special bricks, to construct polygonal and curved walls using

interlocking bricks. Three methods (theoretical modeling, physical

experiments and computer simulation) were used to analyze the

effects of brick imperfections on wall alignment accuracy.

Theoretical analysis confirmed that brick moulders should

concentrate on achieving parallel top and bottom faces rather than

achieving true square-ness. Physical column assembly compared

three brick-laying strategies namely: “random”, “reversing” and

“replace”. The columns assembled using the “reversing” and

“replace” strategies realized alignment improvement factors of 1.6

and 2.9 respectively over “random” strategy. The research also

revealed that grooving, to prevent bricks making contact near their

centre lines, improved column alignment by factor 2.13 and

stiffness by factor 2.0, thus allowing construction of longer and

higher walls without strengthening measures. In order to attain

alignment accuracy in accordance with BS 5628-3:2005 in a dry-

stack mortarless wall, this research recommends using full bricks

with top and bottom surface irregularities not exceeding ±0.5mm

for un-grooved bricks, and up-to ±0.9mm for grooved bricks. Further

analysis was undertaken with respect to resource-use implications

(cement, water, soil) of employing MT. Using MT will save 50% of

wall construction cost and 50% cement consumption, which

ultimately will reduce 40% of carbon emissions.

Simion Hosea Kintingu

University of Warwick. Department of Engineering

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/41484580_Design_of_inte

rlocking_bricks_for_enhanced_wall_construction_flexibility_align

ment_accuracy_and_load_bearing

(March 1, 2018)
Use Of Waste Plastic In Concrete Mixture As Aggregate Replacement

Abstract

Industrial activities in Iraq are associated with significant

amounts of non-biodegradable solid waste, waste plastic being

among the most prominent. This study involved 86 experiments and

254 tests to determine the efficiency of reusing waste plastic in

the production of concrete. Thirty kilograms of waste plastic of

fabriform shapes was used as a partial replacement for sand by 0%,

10%, 15%, and 20% with 800 kg of concrete mixtures. All of the

concrete mixtures were tested at room temperature. These tests

include performing slump, fresh density, dry density, compressive

strength, flexural strength, and toughness indices. Seventy cubes

were molded for compressive strength and dry density tests, and 54

prisms were cast for flexural strength and toughness indices tests.

Curing ages of 3, 7, 14, and 28 days for the concrete mixtures

were applied in this work. The results proved the arrest of the

propagation of micro cracks by introducing waste plastic of

fabriform shapes to concrete mixtures. This study insures that

reusing waste plastic as a sand-substitution aggregate in concrete

gives a good approach to reduce the cost of materials and solve

some of the solid waste problems posed by plastics.

Zainab Z.Ismail and Enas A.AL-Hashmi

Department of Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering,

University of Baghdad, Iraq

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956053X07002

784

(March 1, 2018)

Development of low-cost fly ash bricks

Abstract

Fly ash is produced in vast quantities as a by-product of the

burning of fossil fuels for the thermal generation of electricity.

At present 10-15% of the fly ash produced in Australia is utilised

in cement manufacturing and concrete industry, with the remaining

majority requiring costly disposal processes. Due to growing

environmental concerns and the need for cleaner production, the

management of fly ash has become an important issue facing the

power generation industry. For that reason, many researchers are

actively working to find new and improved methods of combating the

fly ash waste disposal problem, particularly by establishing its

useful and economic utilisation. One such example that is gaining

considerable interest in many parts of the world is the utilisation

of fly ash in brick manufacturing. This paper examines the

potential for using Class F fly ashes from Queensland as major

constituents in the manufacture of common residential building

bricks. Scaled-down pressed bricks were made by varying

proportions of fly ash, sand, hydrated lime, sodium silicate and

water. Both fired, oven-dried and air-cured bricks were tested for

their properties including compressive strength, tensile strength,

water absorption, and durability. In the paper, the test results

are analysed and effects of variables discussed. Recommendations

and conclusions as to whether or not the fly ash bricks can perform

adequately alongside the clay bricks are included.

Andreas Nataatmadja

University of Southern Queensland

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229025029_Development_o

f_low-cost_fly_ash_bricks

(March 1, 2018)

Experimental Study On Low Cost Bricks Using Copper Slag And Rice

Husk Ash

Abstract

Since the large demand has been placed on building material

industry especially in the last decade owing to the increasing

population which causes a chronic shortage of building materials,

the civil engineers have been challenged to convert waste to useful

building and construction material like brick. Recycling of such

waste as raw material alternatives may contribute in the exhaustion

of the natural resources; the conservation of non renewable

resources; improvement of the population health and security

preoccupation with environmental matters and reduction in waste

disposal costs. In the review of utilization of those waste, this

paper reviewed recycling various waste like copper slag and rice

husk ash(RHA) in bricks production. In this study, primary RHA and

copper slag, RHA heat-treated at 500̊c and medium grained copper

slag were used to substitute red soil as partial replacement in

raw material mixtures. The experiments are conducted for variation

in properties i.e, compressive strength, water absorption,

hardness and soundness. The effects of those wastes (copper slag

and RHA) on the bricks properties as physical, mechanical

properties will be reviewed and recommendations for future

research as out comings of this review will be given. This reviewed

approach on bricks making from waste is useful to provide potential

and sustainable solution.

K.Mahendran

Assistant Professor

Department of Civil Engineering

P.S.R Engineering college,

Sivakasi , India.
M.Bala Nivetha & P.Kaleeswari

Under Graduate Student ,

Department of Civil Engineering

P.S.R Engineering college,

Sivakasi , India.

SSRG International Journal of Civil Engineering- (ICRTCETM-2017)

- Special Issue – April 2017