INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF YOGA THERAPY — No.

10 (2000) 11

Stress Management through Yoga

Ellen Serber

Abstract noted that stress-related symptoms prompt two-thirds of

the office visits to family physicians.' Exercise and al-
Stress is a common condition, a response to a physi- ternative therapies are now commonly prescribed for
cal threat or psychological distress, that generates a host stress-related complaints and illness. Even a recent is-
of chemical and hormonal reactions in the body. In es- sue of Consumer Reports suggests Yoga for stress
sence, the body prepares to fight or fiee, pumping more relief.^ Many books and articles claim, as does Dr. Susan
blood to the heart and muscles and shutting down all Lark, that practicing Yoga will "provide effective relief of
nonessential functions. As a temporary state, this reac- anxiety and stress."^ But is this an accurate promise?
tion serves the body well to defend itself When the stress
reaction is prolonged, however, the normal physical func-
tions that have in response either been exaggerated or What Is the Stress Response?
shut down become dysfunctional. Many have noted the
benefits of exercise in diminishing the stress response, A review of the current thinking on stress reveals
and a host of studies points to these benefits. Yoga, too,that the process is both biochemical and psychological.
has been recommended and studied in relationship to A very good summary of research on the stress response
stress, although the studies are less scientifically repli-
is contained in Robert Sapolsky's Why Zebras Don't Get
cable. Nonetheless, several researchers claim highly ben- Ulcers.'^
eficial results from Yoga practice in alleviating stress He first outlines the physiological experience of
and its effects. The practices recommended range from stress, explaining that the sympathetic nervous sys-
intense to moderate to relaxed asana sequences, along tem is responsible for reacting to emergencies, em-
yNith.pranayama and meditation. In all these approaches ploying the fright and flight refiexes. "Originating in
to dealing with stress, one common element stands out: the brain, sympathetic projections exit your spine and
The process is as important as the activity undertaken. branch out to nearly every organ, every blood vessel,
Because it fosters self-awareness. Yoga is a promising and every sweat gland in your body," Sapolsky writes.
approach for dealing with the stress response. "The sympathetic nervous system kicks into action dur-
ing emergencies, or what you think are emergencies The
nerve endings of this system release adrenaline Sym-
Yoga and the Stress Response pathetic nerve endings also release the closely related
substance noradrenaline."^
Stress has become a common catchword in our soci- In the United States, adrenaline, which is secreted
ety to indicate a host of difficulties, both as cause and by the sympathetic nerve endings in the adrenal gland, is
effect. The American Academy of Family Physicians has referred to as epinephrine; noradrenaline, which is se-
12 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF YOGA THERAPY — No. 10 (2000)
creted by all other sympathetic nerve
endings throughout the body, is re-
ferred to as norepinephrine. These are
the chemicals that—within sec-
onds—signal the organs into action.
This is called the "neural route," be-
cause the action of one cell, a neu-
ron, travels to the next cell in line and
through that cellular link mobilizes
activity in response to a stressor.
When the neuron secretes a messen-
ger that "percolates into the blood
stream and affects events far and
wide, that messenger is a hormone,"
Sapolsky continues. "All sorts of
glands secrete hormones; the secre-
tion of some of them is turned on dur-
ing stress, and the secretion of others
is turned off."^ The parasympathetic
nervous system, which mediates
calm, is inhibited by the sympathetic
nervous system during a stressful
emergency.
The brain is the master gland. "It
is now recognized that the base ofthe
brain, the hypothalamus, contains a
huge array of these releasing and in-
hibiting hormones, which instruct the
pituitary, which in tum regulates the
secretions ofthe peripheral glands."''
When the brain experiences or
thinks of something stressful, these
hormones will be released. In addi-
tion to epinephrine and norepineph-
rine another group of hormones is re-
leased. These are called glucocorti-
coids. Whereas epinephrine acts im-
mediately, the glucocorticoids come
into play within minutes or hours. Ac-
cording to Sapolsky, the hormonal
path ofthe stress response moves like
this: "When something stressful hap-
pens or you think a stressful thought,
the hypothalamus secretes an array of
releasing hormones into the hypotha-
lamic-pituitary circulatory system . . .
The principal such releaser is called
CRF (corticotropin releasing factor),
while a variety of minor players
synergize with CRF. Within fifteen
seconds or so, CRF triggers the pitu-
itary to release hormone ACTH (also response to end. The brain must think
know as corticotropin). After ACTH and understand that it is over, or the
is released into the bloodstream, it cycle continues, becoming a hin-
reaches the adrenal gland, and drance to health. It is not that stress
within a few minutes triggers glucocor- itself makes us sick, but its continua-
ticoid release. Together, glucocorti- tion creates the conditions for other
coids and the secretions ofthe sjonpa- ailments to make us ill.
thetic nervous system (epinephrine and The cardiovascular stress re-
norepinephrine) account for a large per- sponse is a good illustration of this.
To paraphrase Sapolsky once more:
Under stress there is an increase in
It is not that stress
cardiovascular output in order to de-
itself makes us sick, liver oxygen and energy to exercis-
but its continuation ing muscles. The blood moves faster
creates the condi- and with more force. A vascular re-
sponse of constriction of the major
tions for other ail-
arteries makes the blood pressure
ments to make us ill. rise. The blood is delivered with
greater speed to the muscles, decreas-
centage of what happens in your body ing blood flow to the momentarily
during stress. These are the work horses unessential parts ofthe body (diges-
of the stress response."^ One way re- tive tract, kidneys, and skin). Vaso-
searchers measure stress is by taking pressin reabsorbs water into the cir-
blood levels of glucocorticoids. culatory system to keep the blood
There are other chemical changes volume up so that it can deliver glu-
in the body that facilitate the stress cose and oxygen to muscles. A con-
response and are crucial in an emer- tinued stress response, however,
gency. The pituitary gland and brain keeps the cardiovascular system in
secrete substances to blunt pain this heightened state, wearing out the
known as endorphins and enkepha- heart and arteries. What begins as a
lins. The pancreas is stimulated to benefit becomes a detriment.
produce glucagon, which helps raise A short list of diseases and con-
levels ofthe sugar glucose needed by ditions that have been linked to an
the muscles to mobilize energy. The overactive stress response, besides
pituitary secretes prolactin, which cardiovascular disease, includes de-
suppresses reproduction. Other repro- pression, anxiety states, obessive-
ductive hormones—estrogen, progest- compulsive disorder, some types of
erone, and testosterone—are inhibited. diabetes mellitus, some autoim-
Emergencies are obviously no time to mune diseases, colitis, irritable bowel
reproduce. Vasopressin, an antidiuretic, syndrome, reproductive problems,
is secreted from the pituitary. Growth- and suppression of the immune sys-
related hormones and insulin are both tem. It is interesting to note that be-
inhibited as the body mobilizes its re- cause the stress response is a con-
sources for immediate survival and fu- dition of both the body and the
ture needs are disregarded. And therein mind, its effects are both physical
lies the catch. and psychological.
All this arousal in an emergency The stress response has its pur-
becomes pathological if it is not pose, however. It saves us in emer-
turned off when the threat is over. It gencies when we need to react
is not just the threat of physical dan- quickly and forcefully. It is a biologi-
ger that must recede, however, for the cal survival mechanism built into our

systems. But when it stays active be-
yond the immediate needs of a situa-
tion, when one is under the constant
barrage of hormonal arousal and
rapid heartbeat, tense muscles, diges-
tive upset, etc., then steps must be
taken to break into the cycle and stop
it before more injury occurs.
Dr. Chandra Patel's The Com-
plete Guide to Stress Management
contains many excellent resources
for understanding and dealing with
stress. She also makes an interesting
point that often is unmentioned in
other works, "Recognizing the prob-
The present status of re-
search on Yoga therapy
is largely preliminary in
nature.
lem is half the battle. Without know-
ing what stress is, and how it may
strain our health, we will not be able
to recognize it. Awareness is of pri-
mary importance if we are to learn
to manage stress effectively. Our
body is often the first place to reveal
signs of a problem. Unfortunately,
our upbringing often trains us to be
stoic, and in our anxiety not to ap-
pear weak, we often deny signs of
stress."^
If one doubts the wisdom of this
advice, a look at Sapolsky's descrip-
tion ofthe effect of stress on the im-
mune system may be convincing. He
says glucocorticoids "initially stimu-
late the (immune) system and then
help it to return to baseline. It is only
with major stressors of longer dura-
tion, or with really major exposure
to glucocorticoids, that the immune
system does not just return to base-
line, but plummets below into a range
that really does qualify as immuno-
suppressing."'" If one is able to rec-
ognize the signs ofthe stress response
in its initial stages and break into the
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF YOGA THERAPY — No. 10 (2000) 13
cycle and restore calm, then these more exercise and mental and physical
extreme conditions will not occur. health are based on aerobic activities
such as running, jogging, stationary
bike riding, or resistance training
with weights. There are excellent re-
Current Research view articles on these studies that
summarize their results.'^
on the Stress Response
The research on Yoga and men-
Many experiments have been tal and physical health is not as so-
conducted with both rats and humans phisticated nor as well controlled as
to explore the stress response. Con- the studies that Fox has reviewed. A
clusions from these experiments, re- 1982 review ofthe studies on Yoga
ports Sapolsky, show that "stress re- states, "The review ofthe . . . reports
sponses can be modulated or even on yoga therapy shows that none of
caused by psychological factors, in- these studies [has] been done under
cluding loss of outlets for frustration real scientific discipline. There [are]
and social support, a perception of hardly any controlled scientific
things worsening and under some cir- clinical [trials] reported on yoga
cumstances, a loss of control and therapy. Secondly, it is seen that
predictability."" However, there are different workers have used differ-
many stressors that are out of our con- ent sets of yoga practices for the
trol: being bom into poverty, for ex- same disease, which does not per-
ample, or war, or pollution. Yet stud- mit assessment ofthe reproducibil-
ies confirm that it is our response to ity of results. In most cases, combi-
stressors which is of crucial impor- nations of many practices have been
tance and that each of us sees and ex- used. . . . Thus the present status of
periences these stressors through our research on yoga therapy is largely
own personal filter. preliminary in nature."'''
There are ways, of course, in Disregarding the problematic
which we can modify our stress re- methodology of some studies, a 1990
sponse. In a review ofthe current re- review ofthe literature of Yoga research
search on exercise and mental well- concludes, "In summary, this review of
being that examines several hundred the literature suggests that Hatha yoga
studies and over 30 narrative or has potential as a useful intervention
meta-analytic reviews of research in for improved physical well-being, re-
this field. Dr. Kenneth R. Fox con- ducing anxiety, and enhancing person-
cludes, "There is growing evidence ality development . . . Hatha yoga
demonstrating that exercise can be could be a helpful adjunct to medi-
effective in improving the mental cal and psychological treatment when
well-being of the general public, practiced regularly by clients on their
largely through improved mood and own to improve feelings of physical
self-perceptions. There is good evi- health, reduce their anxiety, and en-
dence to demonstrate that exercise hance their self-concepts and emo-
is effective as a treatment for clini- tional tone."''
cal depression and anxiety. To- In Stress and Its Management by
gether this adds to the already con- Yoga,^^ K. N. Udupa outlines his re-
vincing literature that exercise re- search on normal, healthy subjects
duces morbidity and mortality from and on patients in his clinic. He
coronary heart disease, diabetes, treated 1,007 cases of various stress
obesity and some cancers.'"^ disorders with a combination prac-
Almost all ofthe large studies on tice of asana, pranayama, and medi-
14 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF YOGA THERAPY — No. 10(2000)
tation. He reports, "The patients
[with] high blood pressure, diabetes
and asthma who came to us at an
early stage showed very good im-
provement. Those who came later,
their drug requirement was consid-
erably reduced after starting yogic
practice."'"'
Another review of articles pub-
lished in 1996 summarizes twenty-
one studies on Yoga in modern
medicine.'^ This review again con-
firms that "Yoga therapy seems to be
of great value [for] asthma, cardiac
patients, multiple sclerosis, migraine,
rheumatoid arthritis and rehabil-
itation."'' These are conditions in
which stress may play a part in the
course of the disease.^"
Other studies have looked at
discrete parts of yogic practice to
measure their effectiveness in re-
ducing specific aspects of the stress
response. A number of studies ex-
amine the physiology of the head-
low position.^' In both rat and hu-
man studies, Udupa found that the
head-low posture reduced the cat-
echolamine (epinephrine and nor-
epinephrine) content of the heart
and the blood. It also increased stress
tolerance, and therefore, Udupa con-
jectures, may act as a tranquilizer."
Another study produced the
interesting finding that fine motor co-
ordination improved more for those
who had volunteered for Yoga train-
ing than for those who were recruited
for the program. The motivation to
learn Yoga appeared to infiuence the
magnitude of increase in skill more
than other variables." The physical
practice itself is not the only key in a
study; the attitude of the subjects also
is important.
Where Do the Benefits Lie? these things are not automatically
positive: What about the critical
In his review of the current lit- teacher, the competitive class, the
erature on physical activity and men- environment of coercion that exists
tal health, Kenneth Fox concludes, in some situations? These might elicit
"Currently the evidence suggests that advanced performance of asana, but
factors associated with the process of certainly not a reduction in stress.
exercise rather than the physiologi- Yoga postures, breathing, and medi-
cal adaptations resulting fi'om regu- tation may or may not be stress-re-
ducing. Under some circumstance
It is possible that some they might actually increase stress.
of the most beneficial
aspects of Yoga prac-
Yoga to Stop the Stress
tice are the sense that
Response
things are improving
and that one has some The recommendations for asana
practice to change the stress response
control over what is are different in different traditions.
happening. A Yoga practice that focuses only on
physical remedies is limited, for it
lar exercise training are primarily re- deals only with physiology and not
sponsible for improvements in short- psychology. Similarly, a practice that
and long-term well-being."^" The fac- is formed around moral precepts and
tors he is referring to, he explains, are exhortations to change one's lifestyle
issues of self-esteem and body image, has distinct limitations, for behavior
the empowerment that achieving modification is not simple. K. N.
change provides, an improved percep- Udupa suggests, "Thus, a combined
tion of competence, and the social in- practice of physical postures, breath-
teraction that activity can offer. ing exercises and meditation in a se-
Similarly, it is not the physical ac- quence is the best compromise to
tivity alone that makes Yoga trans- meet the present day needs of the so-
formative. Headstand, for example, ciety. The results of these practices
might lead someone into great panic. can be enhanced much more if one
Meditating may cause more, not less, follows all the recommended re-
anxiety. Pranayama might lead to in- straints and observances in everyday
creased obsessiveness, not more calm.
What, then, makes any of these prac- The restraints and observances
tices beneficial instead of harmful? he refers to are the yamas and
It is possible that some of the niyamas of Classical Yoga. The eth-
most beneficial aspects of Yoga prac- ics and morality of the traditional
tice are the sense that things are im- texts help lay the groundwork for
proving and that one has some con- moderate, compassionate living, but
trol over what is happening, two fac- behavior change is complex and
tors that help mediate stress. There one's personality is rooted in layers
is the support and encouragement of of unconscious conditioning.
the teacher and the social interaction Some teachers recommend a
of the class or center, both of which simple, varied asana practice with
provide a buffer from isolation, an- specific pranayama techniques. An
other well-known stressor. Of course example of this approach is contained

in Swami Shivapremananda's Yoga
for Stress Relief?^ He suggests a
three-month program that begins
with simple chest opening in a seated,
cross-legged position. He introduces
nadi-shodhana (alternate nostril
breathing) and ujjayi (breathing with
a slight contraction in the glottis) in
the first weeks. He then moves into
forward-bending postures that are
dynamic in nature in order to open
the hips.
In order to change the
stress response it is nec-
essary to become famil-
iar with relaxation.
The following weeks introduce
sarvanga-asana (shoulder stand)
along with variations. This is fol-
lowed by setu- bandha-asana (bridge
pose), then a dynamic pashcim-
ottana-asana (seated forward bend).
shitali (tongue curled on inhale) and
sitkari (tip of the tongue to palate)
pranayama are suggested. Finally,
after eight weeks, come ardha-
shirsha-asana (modified headstand
with feet on the ground), shalabha-
asana (locust), vyaghra-asana (cat),
dhanur-asana (bow), and ardha-
matsyendra-asana (simple twist). In
the last weeks of the program one is
introduced to Sun Salutation and
kapalabhati (cleansing breath), along
with meditation and deep relaxa-
tion." In other words, a complete and
varied Yoga practice is prescribed.
Judith Lasater advocates sup-
ported restorative poses, gently open-
ing the chest in moderate, supported
back bends and inverting in viparita-
karani-mudra along with supported
forward bends. Nothing that requires
exertion or is uncomfortable.^*
Roger Cole, taking a more tradi-
tional Iyengar perspective, outlines
a rigorous relaxation sequence that
aims at changing the physiological
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF YOGA THERAPY — No. 10 (2000) 15
response of the stress response.^' He conditioned relaxation responses in
advocates the following: "To pro- the nervous system."^'
mote deepest relaxation, one must (1)
minimize stimulation of the brain's
reticular activating system (RAS),
Relaxation
posterior hypothalamus and sympa-
thetic nerve centers in the brainstem, In order to change the stress re-
and (2) maximize stimulation of the sponse it is necessary to become fa-
brain centers that actively inhibit themiliar with relaxation. Shava-asana
RAS and promote parasympathetic (corpse pose) provides the perfect
activity."^'' training ground for relaxation. Here
Cole's series of postures begins is an area where Yoga clearly differs
with adhomukha-shvan-asana (down- from a simple exercise prescription
ward dog), uttana-asana (standing for stress relief. Training the body to
forward bend) with head support, and respond to the request for relaxation
short adhomukha-vriksha-asana on a muscular level and breathing
(handstand) as preparation for 5a- deeply create a habit of relaxation that
lamba-shirsha-asana (headstand). can be very helpful in turning off the
This is followed by supported dvi- stress response.
pada-viparita-danda-asana (back But shava-asana practice is not
bend supported on a chair), supported the solution for everyone. A severely
kapota-asana (again, back arching stressed and depressed person, or
off chair with arms in headstand po- someone in acute mental distress,
sition on the floor), setu-bandha- might find that shava-asana practice
sarvanga-asana (supported bridge), worsens his or her symptoms. Like-
salamba-sarvanga-asana{c\\ai\x-su^- wise, meditation is not always good;
ported shoulder stand), hala-asana for some people it may cause in-
(supported plow), viparita-karani- creased disorientation and distur-
mudra (supported partial shoulder bance. Each person's approach to
stand), supta-vira-asana (reclining stress reduction must fiow from his
bent-knee pose), supta-baddha- or her particular situation. For some,
kona-asana (reclining, soles of feet the aerobic challenge of a powerful
together, knees apart), reclining ashtanga practice, generating endor-
ujjayi-pranayama (with an emphasis phins and profuse sweat, is the best
on the exhalation), sukha-asana or way to learn the sensation of release,
padma-asana (sitting posture to el- as the body is flooded with chemical
evate baroreceptor firing and so in- change and the mind quiets when the
crease alertness without excess practice ends. For others, the pro-
physiological activation), and finally foundly relaxing, supported, restor-
shava-asana. This sequence empha- ative postures are the best solution to
sizes the head-down positions and stress. All these practices are only
chest expansion. Cole adds, "Note tools to achieve certain states of
that many physiological changes re- mind.
quire a good deal of time (e.g., ten No matter how many postures
minutes to one hour) to express them- one does, in whichever sequence or
selves, so devote sufficient time to style, no matter how many cycles of
each relaxation practice. Repeated breathing in intricate patterns of in-
practice of relaxation techniques im- halations and exhalations, no matter
proves their effectiveness by reduc- how many hours of meditation one
ing novelty, increasing physical and sits in, chanting or not chanting man-
psychological comfort and creating tras, the stress response may or may
16 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF YOGA THERAPY — No. 10(2000)

not be affected. In the complex cycle lows for fresh perception. . . . The literature. The Journal of the International
of body and mind there are no me- way of Yoga is not a simple, linear Association of Yoga Therapists, 1990,
I(I&II):24. (This article was originally
chanical answers. Searching for one path. Rather, it is a complex method published in Research Bulletin of the Hi-
would only be a stressful endeavor. involving a radical change in the way malayan International Institute/Eleanor N.
we experience the world and con- Dana Laboratory, 1983, 5[l&2].)
ceive the process of knowing our- 16. K. N. Udupa, Stress and Its Manage-
What Promise Can selves. It gives us techniques with ment by Yoga (Delhi, India: Motilal Banar-
which to analyze our own thought sidass, 1985).
Yoga Make?
processes and finally to lay bear our 17. Ibid., p. 141.
Exercise may indeed be stress-re- true human identity."^^ 18 Balmakund Bhala, Yoga in modern
The promise of Yoga is not the medicine. International Journal of Alter-
ducing, as multiple studies have con-
native and Complementary Medicine, Apr
cluded, but the self-observation nec- easy arithmetic of "do this and that 1996. (Reprinted in Yoga & Health, Aug
essary to recognize and stop the del- will happen." The promise is that 1996, pp. 11-13.)
eterious effects of the stress response Yoga offers a path to self-discovery. 19. Ibid., p. 13.
before it spirals out of control is the 20. Sapolsky, op. cit., chapter 8.
key. One can learn to feel the stress
21. W. Selvatnurthy et aL, A new physi-
response as physical symptoms: rapid ological approach to control essential hy-
heartbeat; fast, shallow breathing; pertension, Indian Journal of Physiology
Endnotes and Pharmacology, Apr 1998, 42(2):205-
gastrointestinal upset; sleep distur-
bances. The decision to stop and ad- 1. Ways stress affects individuals, http:// 13; Roger Cole, Relaxation, physiology
and practice, self-published by Synchrony
dress the problem, to admit that it is www.drkoop.com/conditions/stress. Applied Health Sciences, 1994.
there and that it is no longer accept- 2. All the right moves for stress relief,
22. Udupa, op. cit., pp. 146-161.
able or productive, is difficult. One Consumer Reports, Feb 2000, pp. 38-45.
needs to interrupt a cycle of behav- 3. Susan Lark, Anxiety & Stress (Los Al- 23. N. K. Manjunath et al.. Factors influ-
encing changes in tweezer dexterity scores
ior already set in motion. Perhaps the tos, Calif.: Westchester Publishing Co., following yoga training, Indian Journal of
stress response actually feels com- 1993), p. 201. Physiology and Pharmacology, Apr 1999,
fortable, for it is known, habitual. A 4. Robert Sapolsky, Why Zebras Don 't Get 43(2):225-229.
daily Yoga practice provides the time Ulcers (New York: W. H. Freeman and Co., 24. Fox, op. cit., p. 415.
1998).
and space to experience the sensa- 25. Udupa, op. cit., p. 135.
tions of the body and to interpret 5. Ibid., pp. 22-23. 26. Shivapremananda, op. cit.
them. Is the breath short, are the 6. Ibid., p. 24. 27. Shivapremananda, op. cit.
muscles tense? But a practice may 7. Ibid., p. 30.
28. Judith Lasater, 10 ways to relax deeply.
also mask symptoms if it is driven by 8. Ibid., pp. 32-33. Yoga Journal, Jan/Feb 1992, pp. 74-81.
a list of actions to do and ways to do 9. Candra Patel, The Complete Guide to 29. Cole, op. cit.
them. Then the desire to do the Stress Management (New York: Plenum
30. Ibid., p. 1.
"right" thing, the "right" way, or to Press, 1991), p. 233.
31. Ibid., p. 1.
do the most "spiritual" thing, becomes 10. Sapolsky, op. cit., p. 136.
11. Ibid., p. 227. 32. Barbara Stoller Miller, Yoga: Disci-
another prison, not a liberation.
pline of Freedom (Berkeley and Los An-
The heart of Yoga practice re- 12. Kenneth R. Fox, The influence of geles, Calif.: University of California
physical activity on mental well-being.
sides in self-awareness, so it is ap- Public Health Nutrition, 1999, 2(3a):411- Press, 1996).
propriate that we tum to it for behav- 418.
ior modification. In this way Yoga 13. D. M. W. de Coverly Veale, Exercise © 2000 Ellen Serber
may provide a framework to address and mental health, Acta Psychiatrica
Email: Serber@nbn.com
the chronic stress response. It is not Scandinavica, 1987, 76:133-120; Taylor URL: http://www.MyDailyYoga.com
only a daily exercise sequence, but et al.. The relation of physical activity and
exercise to mental health. Public Health
as Barbara Stoller Miller writes in her Reports, Mar-Apr 1985, 100(2): 195-202.
translation of the Yoga-Sutra, "The
14. R. H. Singh, R. M. Shettiwar, and K.
goal of yogic transformation is real- N. Udupa, Physiological and therapeutic stud-
ized in contemplative practice. The ies on yoga. The Yoga Review, 1982, 2(4).
Path to freedom consists of a gradual 15. Arpita, Physiological and psychologi-
unwinding of misconceptions that al- cal effects of Hatha yoga: A review of the