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Laplace Transforms
Purpose: Converts linear differential equation
in t into algebraic equation in s
t= 0
Convergence/existence of integral:
|f(t)| < M e- at , a + Re(s) > 0
so that e-[a + Re(s)]t finite as t → ∞
Procedure:
• Convert Linear Differential Equations
x˙ = Ax + f (t)
dxn
d x dx n"1
dx 2
+a +!+ a +a + a x = f (t)
dt dt dt dt
n n"1 n"1 2 2 1 0
x(t) = L-1{X(s); s→ t }
M.D. Bryant ME 344 notes 03/25/08 4
x(0) = xo , x˙ (0) = x1
• Apply Laplace transform
∞
L= ⌠⌡ { . } e- st dt to all terms in equation:
t= 0
# # #
$
t= 0
x˙˙(t)e dt + $ 2%& x˙ (t)e dt + $ & x(t)e dt
" st
t= 0 n
" st
t= 0
2
n
" st
∞
= ⌠
⌡ Ho us(t) e- st dt
t= 0
• factor constants and apply definition for
! us(t) :
∞ ∞
⌠
2
d x - st ⌠ dx 2 ∞
e dt + 2ζω e- st dt +ω ⌠ ⌡ x e- st dt
⌡ dt 2 n ⌡ dt n
t= 0 t= 0
t= 0
∞
= Ho ⌠
⌡ e- st dt
t= 0
M.D. Bryant ME 344 notes 03/25/08 5
∞
• Define X(s) = x(t) e- st dt
⌠
⌡
t= 0
• Integrate by parts
∞
dx - st ∞ dx - st
⌠
- st ∞
dt e |t=0 +s
dt
⌡
e dt +2 ζωn {x(t) e |t=0
t= 0
∞ 2 ∞
⌠
+s x(t) e
⌡ - st dt } + ωn X(s) = H e- st|t=0 O
t= 0 ("s)
• Rearrange, note lim e = 0
t "#
$ st
- x˙ (0) + s (- x(0) + s !
X(s) ) + 2ζωn {- x(0) +
2 Ho
s X(s) } + ωn X(s) = s
!
Note: L {dx/dt} = - x(0) + s X(s)
L {d2x/dt2} = L {d x˙ /dt} =- x˙ (0) + sL {dx/dt}
!
M.D. Bryant ME 344 notes 03/25/08 6
• Solve
Ho
s + x1 + ( s + 2 ζ ωn) xo
X(s) = 2
2
s + 2 ζ ωn s + ω n
• Note:
o characteristic equation in denominator
o terms from initial conditions x1 ,
H
xo grouped with excitation term O
!
M.D. Bryant ME 344 notes 03/25/08 7
Transfer Functions
• Method to represent system dynamics, via
s representation from Laplace transforms.
Transfer functions show flow of signal
through a system, from input to output.
h(t) x(t)
G(s)
H(s) X(s)
X(s) 1
G(s) = H(s) = 2
s2 + 2 ζ ωn s + ωn
• Note:
o characteristic equation in denominator
o denominator roots => eigenvalues
o transfer function’s eigenvalues called
poles
M.D. Bryant ME 344 notes 03/25/08 11
"x˙ + x = f (t)
• Apply Laplace transform, define
• Transfer function
1
G(s) =X(s)/F(s) =
"s +1
• Note:
o characteristic equation in denominator
o transfer function’s eigenvalues = poles
o p1 = λ1 = - 1/τ
!
M.D. Bryant ME 344 notes 03/25/08 12
x˙ = Ax + f (t)
• Explicit equation form
n
x˙ = " a x + f (t)
k
j=1
jk j k
! • Define
sX k
(s) = " a jk
X (s) + F (s)
j k
! j=1
!
M.D. Bryant ME 344 notes 03/25/08 13
det{[ sI " A] }
! X (s) = kth column replaced by F ( s )
det[ sI " A]
k
! X (s)
G (s) = k
F (s)
kj
!
M.D. Bryant ME 344 notes 03/25/08 14
s X + 3s X + 2s X + 2sX + X = 2sF + 5F
4 3 2
!
M.D. Bryant ME 344 notes 03/25/08 15
Block Diagrams
h(t) x(t)
G(s)
H(s) X(s)
• Output:
• Cascaded Blocks
CD player amplifier
H (s)
1
X (s)
2
2 1
Note:
X (s) X (s)
G (s) = 1
, G (s) = 2
,
H (s) X (s)
1 2
X(s)
G (s) =
X (s)
3
! !
!
M.D. Bryant ME 344 notes 03/25/08 19
Example
H(s) 3 2s !1 X(s)
s +1 s + 4s +1
2
• Transfer function:
X(s) 3 2s #1
G(s) = = G (s)G (s) = "
H (s) s +1 s + 4s +1
1 2 2
X1(s)
-
X2(s) + X(s)
+
X3(s)
+ E(s) X(s)
R(s) G(s)
H(s)
Formulate:
E(s) = R(s) " H (s)X(s)
X(s) = G(s)E(s)
! Eliminate E(s):
X(s) = G(s)E(s) = G(s)[ R(s) " H (s)X(s)]
!
! Solve for closed loop X(s)/R(s):
! X(s) G(s)
G (s) = =
R(s) 1+ G(s)H (s)
cl
!
M.D. Bryant ME 344 notes 03/25/08 22
H(s)
c p
! X(s) G (s)
G (s) = = p
c p
!
M.D. Bryant ME 344 notes 03/25/08 23
G (s)G (s)
X(s) = c
R(s)p
! G (s)
+ D(s)
p