Adeel Raza Functional English

Prepositions

Prepositions are short words (on, in, to) that usually stand in front of nouns
(sometimes also in front of gerund verbs).

There are hardly any rules as to when to use which preposition. The only way to learn
prepositions is looking them up in a dictionary, reading a lot in English (literature) and
learning useful phrases off by heart

The following table contains rules for some of the most frequently used prepositions in
English:

Prepositions – Time

English Usage Example

 on  days of the week  on Monday

 in  months / seasons  in August / in winter

 time of day  in the morning
 year  in 2006
 after a certain period of in an hour
time (when?)

 at  for night  at night

 for weekend  at the weekend
 a certain point of time (when?)  at half past nine

 since  from a certain point of time (past since 1980

till now)

 for  over a certain period of time (past for 2 years

till now)

 ago  a certain time in the past  2 years ago

 before  earlier than a certain point of time before 2004

 to  telling the time  ten to six (5:50)

 past  telling the time  ten past six (6:10)

to / till /  marking the beginning and end of from Monday to/till Friday
until a period of time

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English Usage Example

till / until  in the sense of how long He is on holiday until Friday.

something is going to last

by  in the sense of at the latest  I will be back by 6 o’clock.

 up to a certain time  By 11 o'clock, I had read five
pages.

Prepositions – Place (Position and Direction)

English Usage Example

 in  room, building, street, town, in the kitchen, in London

country  in the book
 book, paper etc.  in the car, in a taxi
 car, taxi  in the picture, in the world
 picture, world

 at  meaning next to, by an object  at the door, at the station

 for table  at the table
 for events  at a concert, at the party
 place where you are to do at the cinema, at school, at
something typical (watch a film, work
study, work)

 on  attached  the picture on the wall

 for a place with a river  London lies on the Thames.
 being on a surface  on the table
 for a certain side (left, right)  on the left
 for a floor in a house  on the first floor
 for public transport  on the bus, on a plane
 for television, radio  on TV, on the radio

 by, next to,  left or right of somebody or Jane is standing by / next
beside something to / beside the car.

 under  on the ground, lower than (or the bag is under the table
covered by) something else

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English Usage Example

 below  lower than something else but the fish are below the
above ground surface

 over  covered by something else  put a jacket over your shirt

 meaning more than  over 16 years of age
 getting to the other side walk over the bridge
(also across)  climb over the wall
 overcoming an obstacle

 above  higher than something else, but not a path above the lake
directly over it

 across  getting to the other side (also over)  walk across the bridge
 getting to the other side  swim across the lake

 through  something with limits on top, drive through the tunnel

bottom and the sides

 to  movement to person or building  go to the cinema

 movement to a place or country  go to London / Ireland
 for bed  go to bed

 into  enter a room / a building  go into the kitchen / the

house

 towards  movement in the direction of go 5 steps towards the

something (but not directly to it) house

 onto  movement to the top of something  jump onto the table

 from  in the sense of where from  a flower from the garden

Other important Prepositions

English Usage Example

 from  who gave it  a present from Jane

 of  who/what does it belong to  a page of the book

 what does it show  the picture of a palace

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English Usage Example

 by  who made it  a book by Mark Twain

on  walking or riding on horseback  on foot, on horseback

 entering a public transport vehicle get on the bus

in  entering a car / Taxi  get in the car

off  leaving a public transport vehicle  get off the train

out  leaving a car / Taxi  get out of the taxi

of

by  rise or fall of something  prices have risen by 10 percent

 travelling (other than walking or by car, by bus
horseriding)

 at  for age  she learned Russian at 45

 abou  for topics, meaning what about  we were talking about you
t

SKIMMING & SCANNING

Skimming and scanning are reading techniques that use rapid eye movement and
keywords to move quickly through text for slightly different purposes. Skimming is
reading rapidly in order to get a general overview of the material. Scanning is reading
rapidly in order to find specific facts. While skimming tells you what general
information is within a section, scanning helps you locate a particular fact. Skimming is
like snorkeling, and scanning is more like pearl diving.

Use skimming in previewing (reading before you read), reviewing (reading after you
read), determining the main idea from a long selection you don't wish to read, or when
trying to find source material for a research paper.

Use scanning in research to find particular facts, to study fact-heavy topics, and to
answer questions requiring factual support.

Skimming to save time

Skimming can save you hours of laborious reading. However, it is not always the most
appropriate way to read. It is very useful as a preview to a more detailed reading or
when reviewing a selection heavy in content. But when you skim, you may miss

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important points or overlook the finer shadings of meaning, for which rapid reading or
perhaps even study reading may be necessary.

Use skimming to overview your textbook chapters or to review for a test. Use skimming
to decide if you need to read something at all, for example during the preliminary
research for a paper. Skimming can tell you enough about the general idea and tone of
the material, as well as its gross similarity or difference from other sources, to know if
you need to read it at all.

To skim, prepare yourself to move rapidly through the pages. You will not read every
word; you will pay special attention to typographical cues-headings, boldface and italic
type, indenting, bulleted and numbered lists. You will be alert for key words and
phrases, the names of people and places, dates, nouns, and unfamiliar words. In general
follow these steps:

1. Read the table of contents or chapter overview to learn the main divisions of ideas.
2. Glance through the main headings in each chapter just to see a word or two. Read
the headings of charts and tables.
3. Read the entire introductory paragraph and then the first and last sentence only of
each following paragraph. For each paragraph, read only the first few words of each
sentence or to locate the main idea.
4. Stop and quickly read the sentences containing keywords indicated in boldface or
italics.
5. When you think you have found something significant, stop to read the entire
sentence to make sure. Then go on the same way. Resist the temptation to stop to
read details you don't need.
6. Read chapter summaries when provided.

If you cannot complete all the steps above, compromise: read only the chapter
overviews and summaries, for example, or the summaries and all the boldfaced
keywords. When you skim, you take a calculated risk that you may miss something. For
instance, the main ideas of paragraphs are not always found in the first or last sentences
(although in many textbooks they are). Ideas you miss you may pick up in a chapter
overview or summary.

Good skimmers do not skim everything at the same rate or give equal attention to
everything. While skimming is always faster than your normal reading speed, you
should slow down in the following situations:

 When you skim introductory and concluding paragraphs

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 When you skim topic sentences

 When you find an unfamiliar word
 When the material is very complicated

Scanning for research and study

Scanning, too, uses keywords and organizational cues. But while the goal of skimming is
a bird's-eye view of the material, the goal of scanning is to locate and swoop down on
particular facts.

Facts may be buried within long text passages that have relatively little else to do with
your topic or claim. Skim this material first to decide if it is likely to contain the facts you
need. Don't forget to scan tables of contents, summaries, indexes, headings, and
typographical cues. To make sense of lists and tables, skim them first to understand
how they are organized: alphabetical, chronological, or most-to-least, for example. If
after skimming you decide the material will be useful, go ahead and scan:

1. Know what you're looking for. Decide on a few key words or phrases–search terms, if
you will. You will be a flesh-and-blood search engine.
2. Look for only one keyword at a time. If you use multiple keywords, do multiple scans.
3. Let your eyes float rapidly down the page until you find the word or phrase you
want.
4. When your eye catches one of your keywords, read the surrounding material
carefully.

Scanning to answer questions

If you are scanning for facts to answer a specific question, one step is already done for
you: the question itself supplies the keywords. Follow these steps:

1. Read each question completely before starting to scan. Choose your keywords from
the question itself.
2. Look for answers to only one question at a time. Scan separately for each question.
3. When you locate a keyword, read the surrounding text carefully to see if it is
relevant.
4. Re-read the question to determine if the answer you found answers this question.
Scanning is a technique that requires concentration and can be surprisingly tiring. You
may have to practice at not allowing your attention to wander. Choose a time and place
that you know works for you and dive in.

What are Cohesive Devices?

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Adeel Raza Functional English

Cohesive devices, sometimes called linking words, linkers, connectors, discourse

markers or transitional words and these are words or phrases that show the
relationship between paragraphs or sections of a text or speech.

What are some examples of Cohesive Devices?

There are many examples of cohesive devices, they can be grouped by category. If you
want so show similarity, you can use; and, also, too, similarly, equally, identically,
equally and important.

If you want to introduce an item in a series, you can use first, in the first place, * in
the second place, then, in addition, finally and last

If you need a full list of cohesive devices, have a look at my Full List of Cohesive Devices
by Category

What are the Different Types of Cohesion?

Cohesion is the grammatical and lexical linking within a text or sentence that holds a
text together and gives it meaning. There are two main types of Cohesion, grammatical
cohesion and lexical cohesion.

Methods of Cohesion with Examples

1. Anaphoric reference means that a word in a text refers back to other ideas in the
text for its meaning.
Example
‘I went out with Jo on Sunday. She looked awful.’ ´She` clearly refers to Jo, there is no
need to repeat her name.

2. Cataphoric reference means that a word in a text refers to another later in the text
and you need to look forward to understand

Example
‘When he arrived, John noticed that the door was open’.

3. Exophoric reference refers to an idea outside the text. This is a reference to world
knowledge shared by the reader

Example

” The Prime Minister responded quickly to the threat. Here we are expected to know
who the Prime Minister is”

4. Tense agreement refers to the way that writers use tenses to make a text hang
together

Example

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“She knew then that he… “had found her letter” is a logical ending to the sentence. We
are not surprised to see past perfect after simple past in a narrative sentence.”

5. Linkers refers to words or phrases that describe the relationship between ideas in
the text

Example

“And, but, therefore, first of all”

6. Substitution or Ellipsis refers to replacing words, or leaving them out– this is how
writers reduce repetition in a text

Example

“Now we’re finishing our essays. I know you want to go out, but before you can do that,
please finish. ‘do that’ avoids a repetition of ‘go out’. Instead of repeating ‘finish our
essays’ ‘our essays’ is dropped from the sentence”

What is a Paragraph?
Paragraphs are comprised of sentences, but not random sentences. A paragraph is a
group of sentences organized around a central topic. In fact, the cardinal rule of
paragraph writing is to focus on one idea. A solidly written paragraph takes its readers
on a clear path, without detours. Master the paragraph, and you’ll be on your way to
writing “gold-star” essays, term papers, and stories.
How to Write a Paragraph Using the Four Essential Elements
A basic paragraph structure usually consists of five sentences: the topic sentence, three
supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence. But the secrets to paragraph writing
lay in four essential elements, which when used correctly, can make a okay paragraph
into a great paragraph.

1. Element #1: Unity. Unity in a paragraph begins with the topic sentence. Every
paragraph has one single, controlling idea that is expressed in its topic sentence,
which is typically the first sentence of the paragraph. A paragraph is unified
around this main idea, with the supporting sentences providing detail and
discussion. In order to write a good topic sentence, think about your theme and all
the points you want to make. Decide which point drives the rest, and then write it
as your topic sentence.
2. Element #2: Order. Order refers to the way you organize your supporting
sentences. Whether you choose chronological order, order of importance, or
another logical presentation of detail, a solid paragraph always has a definite
organization. In a well-ordered paragraph, the reader follows along easily, aided by

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the pattern you’ve established. Order helps the reader grasp your meaning and
avoid confusion.
3. Element #3: Coherence. Coherence is the quality that makes your writing
understandable. Sentences within a paragraph need to connect to each other and
work together as a whole. One of the best ways to achieve coherency is to use
transition words. These words create bridges from one sentence to the next. You
can use transition words that show order (first, second, third); spatial
relationships (above, below) or logic (furthermore, in addition, in fact). Also, in
writing a paragraph, using a consistent verb tense and point of view are important
ingredients for coherency.
4. Element #4: Completeness. Completeness means a paragraph is well-developed.
If all sentences clearly and sufficiently support the main idea, then your paragraph
is complete. If there are not enough sentences or enough information to prove
your thesis, then the paragraph is incomplete. Usually three supporting sentences,
in addition to a topic sentence and concluding sentence, are needed for a
paragraph to be complete. The concluding sentence or last sentence of the
paragraph should summarize your main idea by reinforcing your topic sentence.

Tips for Writing a Paragraph

Characteristics of a good paragraph:

 Topic sentence, which includes the topic and a controlling idea.

 Supporting ideas (usually 3 - 6), which support the topic sentence.
 RENNS (reasons, examples, names, numbers, senses), which develop the
supporting ideas by giving details and explanation.
 Optional concluding sentence, which expresses the importance of the
information in the paragraph, may summarize the supporting ideas if the
paragraph is long, or provides a transition to the next paragraph of the
essay.
 Unity, which means that all sentences in the paragraph directly support
the topic sentence.
 Coherence, which means that all the information of the paragraph is well-
organized, logically ordered and easy to follow. This is accomplished by:
o Repetition of key words and phrases (often from the topic
sentence)
o Parallel grammatical structure
o Transition words and phrases. Click here for a web site with many
of these expressions.

Process of Writing a Paragraph:

1. Compose your topic sentence. Think of a topic and a controlling idea that
will narrow the topic enough to support it well in one paragraph.
2. Brainstorm supporting ideas. Choose 2 - 6 supporting ideas that do a good
job supporting your topic sentence.
3. Write your paragraph in topic outline form as follows. Don't actually write
sentences in the outline, except for the topic sentence.

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Topic sentence:
A. Supporting idea 1.
1.
2.
3.
B. Supporting idea 2.
1.
2.
3.
C. Supporting idea 3.
1.
2.
3.
Concluding sentence:

4. Put your supporting ideas in a logical order.

5. For each supporting idea, think of RENNS that further explain the idea.
For balance, each supporting idea should have about the same number of
RENNS.
6. Think of a concluding sentence.
7. Write your paragraph using sentences. Use the coherence strategies to
make your paragraph easy to follow.

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