Basic Engineering Thermodynamics

MINISTRY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF
TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
ME - 01013
BASIC ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS
A.G.T.I (First Year)
Mechanical Engineering
CONTENTS
Chapter Title Page
1. General Introduction 1
2. Gases and Single Phase Systems 29
3. Gas Power Cycles 50
CHAPTER ONE
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of energy. Although everybody has a

feeling of what energy is, it is difficult to give a precise definition for it. Energy can
beviewed as the ability to cause changes.
The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme (heat) and dynamics
(power), which is most descriptive of the early efforts to convert heat into power. Today the
same name is broadly interpreted to include all aspects of energy and energy transformations,
including power production, refrigeration, and relationships among the properties of matter.
1.1. Working substance
All thermodynamic systems require some working substance in order that the various
operations required of each system can be carried out. The working substances are, in
general, fluids which are capable of deformation in that they can readily be expanded and
compressed. The working substance also takes part in energy transfer. For example it can
receive or reject heat energy or it can be the means by which work is done. Common
examples of working substances used in thermodynamic systems are air and steam.
1.2. Properties and State
Any characteristic of the substance which can be observed or measured is called a
property of the substance. Examples of properties are pressure, volume and temperature. This
type of property which is dependent upon the physical and chemical structure of the
substance is called an internal or thermostatic property.
Properties which are independent of mass, such as temperature and pressure, are said
to be intensive properties.
Properties which are dependent upon mass, such as volume and energy in its various
forms, are called extensive properties.
If a property can be varied at will, quite independently of other properties, then the
property is said to be an independent property. The temperature and pressure of a gas, for
example, can be varied quite independently of each other and thus, in this case, temperature
and pressure are independent properties.
It will be found, however, when discussing the formation of a vapour, that the
temperature at which a liquid boils depends upon the pressure at which the formation of the
vapour is occurring. Here, if the pressure is fixed then the temperature becomes dependent
upon the pressure.
2
General Introduction
Hence the pressure is an independent property but the temperature is a dependent

property.
A knowledge of the various thermostatic properties of a substance defines the state of
the substance. If a property, or properties, are changed, then the state is changed.
Properties are independent of any process which any particular substance may have
passed through from one state to another, being dependent only upon the end states. In fact, a
property can be identified if it is observed to be a function of state only.
Since, at a particular state, a substance will have certain properties which are
functions of that state, then there will be certain relationships which exist between these
properties.
1.3. Phase
When a substance is of the same nature throughout its mass it is said to be in a phase.
Matter can exist in three phases, solid, liquid and vapour or gas. If the matter exists in only
one of these forms then it is in a single phase. If two phases exist together then the substance
is in the form of a two-phase mixture. Examples of this are when a solid is being melted into
a liquid or when a liquid is being transformed into a vapour. In a single phase the substance is
said to be homogenous. If it is two-phase it is said to be heterogenous. A heterogenous
mixture of three phases can exist.
1.4. Process
When the state of a substance is changed by means of an operation or operations
having been carried out on the substance, then the substance is said to have undergone a
process. Typical processes are the expansion and compression of a gas or the conversion of
water into steam. A process can be analysed by an investigation into the changes which occur
in the properties of a substance, and the energy transfers which may nave taken place.
1.5. Cycle
If processes are carried out on a substance such that, at the end, the substance is
returned to its original state, then the substance is said to have been taken through a cycle.
This is commonly required in many engines. A sequence of events takes place which must be
repeated and repeated. In this way the engine continues to operate. Each repeated sequence of
events is called a cycle.
1.6. The System
All physical things in nature have some form of boundary whose shape in general
identifies it as the object that it is. Inside its boundary there are certain things with particular
functions to carry out. This inside arrangement is called a system. Outside the boundary of
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Basic Engineering Thermodynamics
the object are the surroundings and the reaction between the system and surroundings in
general controls the behaviour pattern of the object. Heat engines and allied arrangements,
which are the concern here, are other systems. It is not necessary that at any one time a
complete object need be under investigation. Only part may be under study and this part may
then be considered as the system. In other words, a system can be defined as a particular
region which is under study. It is identified by its boundary around which are the
surroundings.
The boundary need not be fixed. For example, a mass of gas (the system) may expand
and hence the boundary in this case will modify and interactions will occur with the
surroundings at the boundary. If the mass of a system remains constant then the system is
said to be a closed system. If, on the other hand, the mass of a system changes, or is
continuously changing, then the system is said to be an open system. for example, an air
compressor is an open system since air is continuously treaming into and out of the machine,
in other words, air mass is crossing ts boundary. This is called a two-flow boundary system.
Another example is air leaving a compressed air tank. This would be a one-flow
boundary system since air is only leaving the tank and none is entering.
In any system, energies such as work and heat could be arranged to cross the
boundary. Closed and open systems are illustrated in Fig. 1.1.
Fig. 1.1. Closed and Open Systems

1.7. Control Volume
If the volume of a system under study remains constant then this volume is called the
control volume. The control volume is bounded by the control surface.
A control volume and its surface are illustrated in Fig. 1.2. It is shown as a fixed
volume enclosing a steam turbine and condenser. Various masses and energies can be
investigated as they cross the control surface into, or out of, the control volume. The control
volume is similar in concept to the open system. In the case of the control volume, however,
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both the volume and position are fixed whereas with an open system he volume could change
both in size and position.
Fig. 1.2. The Control Volume and its Surface

1.8. Energy
Energy is defined as that capacity a body or substance possesses which can result in
the performance of work. Here, work is defined, as in mechanics, as the result of moving a
force through a distance. The presence of energy can only be observed by its effects and these
can appear in many different forms.
An example where some of the forms in which energy can appear is in the motor car.
The petrol put into the petrol tank must contain a potential chemical form of energy
because by burning it in the engine, the motor car, through various mechanisms, is propelled
along the road. Thus, work, by definition. is being done because a force is being moved
through a distance.
As a result of burning the petrol in the engine, the general temperatures of the
working substances in the engine, and the engine, will be increased and this increase in
temperature must initially have been responsible for propelling the motor car.
Due to the increase in temperature of the working substances then. since the motor car
is moved and work is done, the working substance at the increased temperature must have
contained a form of energy resultant from this increased temperature. This energy content
resultant from the consideration of the temperature of a substance is called internal energy.
Some of this internal energy in the working substances of the engine will transfer to
the cooling system of the engine because the cooling water becomes hot. A transfer of energy
in this way, because of temperature differences, is called heat-transfer.
The motor car engine will probably have an electric generator which rotated by the
engine and is used to charge the battery. The battery, by its construction and chemical nature,
stores energy which can appear at the battery terminals as electricity. The electricity from the
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battery can ug used to rotate the engine starter which, in turn, rotates and starts the engine. By
rotating the engine to start it, the electric motor must be doing work and thus, electricity must
have the capacity for doing work, and hence is a form of energy.
To stop the motor car the brakes are applied. After the motor car i has stopped the
brake drums are hot and thus, as discussed above, the internal energy of the brake drum
materials must have been increased. This internal energy increase resulted from the stopping
of the motor car and hence there must have been a type of energy which the motor car
possessed while it was in motion. This energy of motion is called kinetic energy.
From this discussion it will be seen that energy can appear in many forms and further,
it appears that energy, through the action of various devices, can be converted from one form
into another.
1.9. Temperature
To understand the meaning of temperature it is necessary, first, to refer to the human
sense of feeling. It is common experience to talk about some things feeling hot and other
things feeling cold. There are, however, many things which require a high degree of accuracy
when determining their degree of hotness or coldness. The sense of feeling is not good
enough in these cases. It is therefore necessary to devise some method other than personal
feeling for the determination of hotness or coldness.
A scale of hotness or coldness must be devised, however, such that each device will
record the same degree of hotness or coldness when used in the same conditions. Having
fixed a scale, it is useful to have a single word to denote reference to this scale. The word is
temperature and the scale is called the temperature scale. The subject of temperature
investigation is called thermometry. It is necessary here, however, to investigate the
temperature scales used.
The work has culminated in the generally accepted use of two temperature scales.
These are the Fahrenheit and the Celsius scales. The Celsius scale was the most commonly
used scale in the countries using a metric system of units. The customary temperature scale
adopted for use with the SI system of units is the Celsius scale. The thermodynamic
temperature scale in the SI is the Kelvin scale. The temperature unit on this scale is the
kelvin, which is designated by K (not °K). The lowest temperature on the kelvin scale is 0 K.
Using nonconventional refrigeration techniques, scientists have approached absolute zero
kelvin.
6
The thermodynamic temperature scale in the English system is the Rankine scale. The
temperature unit on this scale is the rankine, which is designated by R.
The Kelvin scale is related to the Celsius scale by
T(K) = T(°C) + 273.15 --- (1.1)
The Rankine scale is related to the Fahrenheit scale by
T(R) = T(°F) + 459.67 --- (1.2)
The temperature scales in the two unit systems are related by
T(R) = 1.8 T(K) --- (1.3)
T(°F) = 1.8 T(°C) + 32 --- (1.4)
Note that the magnitudes of each division of 1 K and 1°C are identical. Therefore,
when we are dealing with temperature differences ∆T, the temperature interval on both scales
is the same.
∆T(K) = ∆T(°C) --- (1.5)
∆T(R) = ∆T(°F) --- (1.6)
1.10. Pressure
Pressure is the force exerted by a fluid per unit area. We speak of pressure only when
we deal with a gas or a liquid. The counterpart of pressure in solids is stress. For a fluid at
rest, the pressure at a given point is the same in all directions. The pressure in a fluid
increases with depth as a result of the weight of the fluid, as shown in Fig. 1-3. This is due to
the fluid at lower levels carrying more weight than the fluid at upper levels. The pressure
varies in the vertical direction as a result of gravitational effects, but there is no variation in
the horizontal direction. The pressure in a tank containing a gas may be considered to be
uniform since the weight of the gas is too small to make a significant difference (Fig. 1-34).
Since pressure is denned as force per unit area, it has the unit of newtons per square meter
(N/m2), which is called a pascal (Pa). That is,
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
The pressure unit pascal is too small for pressures encountered in practice. Therefore,
its multiples kilopascal (1 kPa = 103 Pa) and megapascal (1 MPa = 106 Pa) are commonly
used. Two other common pressure units are the bar and standard atmosphere:
1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa
1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bars
In the English system, the pressure unit is pound-force per square inch (lbf/in2, or psi), and 1
atm = 14.696 psi.
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Fig. 1.3. The pressure of a fluid at rest increases with depth (as a result of added weight)
The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure, and it is
measured relative to absolute vacuum, that is, absolute zero pressure. Most pressure-
measuring devices, however, are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere (Fig. 1-4), and so
they indicate the difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure.
This difference is called the gage pressure. Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called
vacuum pressures and are measured by vacuum gages that indicate the difference between the
atmospheric pressure and the absolute pressure.
Fig. 1.4. A pressure gage open to the atmosphere

Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures are all positive quantities and are related to
each other by
Pgage = Pabs - Patm (for pressures above Patm ) --- (1.7)
Pvac = Patm - Pabs (for pressures below Patm ) --- (1.8)
This is illustrated in Fig. 1.5.
Fig. 1.5. Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures.

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Example. 1.1.
A vacuum gage connected to a chamber reads 5.8 psi at a location where the
atmospheric pressure is 14.5 psi. Determine the absolute pressure in the chamber.
Solution:
The absolute pressure is easily determined from eq. (1.8)
Pabs = Patm - Pvac = 14.5 - 5.8 = 8.7 psi
Note: Often the letters "a" (for absolute pressure) and "g" (for gage pressure) are added to
pressure units (such as psia and psig) in order to clarify what is meant.
Manometer
Small and moderate pressure differences are often measured by using a manometer,
which mainly consists of a glass or plastic U-tube containing a fluid such as mercury, water,
alcohol, or oil. To keep the size of the manometer at a manageable level, heavy fluids such as
mercury are used if large pressure differences are anticipated.
Consider the manometer shown in Fig. 1.6 that is used to measure the pressure in the
tank. Since the gravitational effects of gases are negligible, the pressure anywhere in the tank
and at position 1 has the same value. Furthermore, since pressure in a fluid does not vary in
the horizontal direction within a fluid, the pressure at 2 is the same as the pressure at 1, or P2
= Px.
Fig. 1.6. The basic manometer Fig. 1.7. Free body diagram of
a fluid column of height h
The differential fluid column of height h is in static equilibrium, and its free-body
diagram is shown in Fig. 1.7. A force balance in the vertical direction gives
AP1 = APatm + W
where W = mg = ρVg = ρAVg
Thus, P1 = Patm + ρgh --- (1.9)
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In the above relations, W is the weight of the fluid column, p is the density of the fluid
and is assumed to be constant, g is the local gravitational acceleration, A is the cross-
sectional area of the tube, and Patm is the atmospheric pressure. The pressure difference can
be expressed as
∆P = P1-Patm = ρgh (kPa) --- (1.10)
Note that the cross-sectional area of the tube has no effect on the height differential h,
and thus the pressure exerted by the fluid.
Example. 1.2.
A manometer is used to measure the pressure in a
tank. The fluid used has a specific gravity of 0.85, and the
manometer column height is 55 cm, as shown in the figure. If
the local atmospheric pressure is 96 kPa, determine the
absolute pressure within the tank. ( take g = 9.807 m/s2 and
ρwater = 1000 kg/m3).
Solution:
The density of the fluid is obtained by multiplying its specific gravity by the density
of water.
ρ fluid = S fluid × ρ H O = 0.85 × 1000 = 850 kg/m3
2
From eqn. 1.9,

P1 = Patm + ρgh
1 kPa
= 96 kPa + (850 kg/m3 ) (9.807 m/s2) (0.55 m) = 100.6 kPa
1000 N/m 2
The inclined manometer
This type of manometer is used when very small pressure differences are to be
measured, something up to, say, 50 mm of water. The main essentials of the manometer are
illustrated in Fig. 1.8.
Fig. 1.8. Inclined manometer

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A large reservoir A is connected to a sloping manometer tube B. The cross-sectional

area of the reservoir A is made considerably larger than the cross-sectional area of the sloping
manometer tube. The assembly is suitably positioned on the backboard of stand C with the
manometer tube at some slope a. Into the base of the stand are screwed three levelling screws
D by means of which, in conjunction with spirit-level E, the manometer can be set level. This
ensures that the manometer tube is always at angle a to the horizontal. Scale F is now fixed
along the manoter tube. This scale is calibrated directly in terms of vertical height, for it is
changes in vertical height of the liquid in the manometer which are required. The length of
the scale, and hence the degree of accuracy of the scale, are controlled by angle α.
1.11. Volume
Volume is a property, being that property which is associated with cubic measure.
The unit of volume is the cubic metre (m3) together with its multiples and submultiples.
Sometimes the litre (1) may be used. 1 litre = 1 cubic decimetre (1 dm3 = [10-1 m]3).
Although in the SI system of units the litre is a non-preferred unit, it is already in such
common usage.
If the volume of a substance increases then the substance is said to have been
expanded. If the volume of a substance decreases then the substance is said to have been
compressed.
Specific volume is given the symbol v. The volume of any mass, other than unity, is
given the symbol V.
1.12. Internal Energy
If a hot body is placed in contact with a cold body then the temperature of the hot
body begins to fall while at the same time the temperature of the cold body begins to rise. To
account for this it is said that the hot body gives up heat and hence its temperature falls, while
the cold body receives this heat and its temperature rises.
It is important, however, to think a little more about the theory that heat is a result of
the degree of agitation of the particles which make up a body. If a particle is in motion, then
it will possess kinetic energy, which is a function of the velocity at which the particle is
moving. It appears that the greater the kinetic energy which can be imparted to the particles
which make up a body then, in general, the higher the temperature of the body will become.
It has now become clear that the store of energy which results from the motion of the
atoms and molecules of a body would be far better referred to as internal energy, leaving the
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term heat to be used to describe that energy transfer process which results from a temperature
difference.
At any one particular state the atoms and molecules will have a particular degree of
motion and, in a pure substance, this degree of motion will be the same each time the
substance returns to that state. The degree of motion must therefore be a property. Since
internal energy is a function of the degree of motion, then internal energy must be a property.
In the case of internal energy, specific internal energy is designated u, the internal
energy of any mass, other than unity, is designated U.
1.13. Enthalpy
It has been shown that internal energy, pressure and volume are properties.
The combination is in the form u + Pv and because this combination has a particular
significance in some processes, it is given a name. The name is enthalpy and is given the
symbol h. Thus, h = u + Pv. Note that, since pressure, volume and temperature are properties,
then the combination of these properties in the form of enthalpy makes enthalpy a property
also.
Specific enthalpy is designated h. The enthalpy of any mass, other than unity is
designated H. It should be noted that enthalpy was at one time referred to as 'total heat'.
1.14. Work
If a system exists in which a force at the boundary of the system is moved through a
distance, then work is done by or on the system. Note that as soon as the force ceases to be
moved then any work which was being done also ceases. Work is therefore a transient
quantity being descriptive of that process by which a force is moved through a distance.
Work, being a transient quantity, is therefore not a property.
Work is given the symbol W. If it is required to indicate a rate at which work is being
done then a dot is placed over the symbol W. Thus
W& = work done/unit time
1.15. Heat
During the discussion on internal energy it was suggested that at one time it was
considered that a body could contain heat. This is now not considered as being the case, the
internal store of energy being now referred to as internal energy, which is a property.
However, it was further suggested, that during an energy transfer process which
results from the temperature difference between one body and another, the energy so
transferred is called heat. The heat, having been transferred, will then disperse into other
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forms of energy such as internal energy or work, the dispersal being a function of the system
employed.
Note that heat is a transient quantity, it being simply descriptive of the energy transfer
process through a system boundary resulting from temperature difference. If there is no
temperature difference, then there is no heat transfer.
Note, also, that since the term heat is used to describe a transfer process, then heat
energy ceases to exist when the process ceases. Thus heat is not a property.
Heat energy is given the symbol Q. To indicate a rate of heat transfer, a dot is placed
over the symbol Q. Thus
Q& = heat transfer/unit time
1.16. Relationship between heat and work
Fig. 1. 9 shows two containers each containing a mass of water = m and each having a
thermometer inserted such that temperature measurement can be made. In each case, the mass
of water is the system.
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.9. Example of energy transfer
At (a) it is arranged that an external heater can transfer heat energy Q through the
system boundary into the water. At (b) it is arranged that a paddle wheel is immersed in the
water such that external paddle or stirring work Wis done when the wheel is rotated.
In each case it is assumed that there is no energy loss from the system. Consider the
arrangement at (a). It is common experience to heat water in some containing vessel by
means of some external heating device.
Let the initial temperature as recorded on the thermometer be t, and after heating, in
which heat energy = Q is transferred into the water, let the final temperature be t2.
Consider, now, the arrangement at (b). The container once again contains a mass of
water = m but in this case a paddle wheel is introduced into the water. It is common
experience that friction makes things warm. The simple experience of rubbing one's hands
together in a brisk manner will show this. In the case under consideration it is possible to
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rotate the paddle wheel against the frictional resistance of the water. Assume that the initial
temperature of the water is t1 and, after doing an amount of work = W on the paddle wheel,
the final temperature is t2.
Now a similar effect has been produced in both cases (a) and (b) in that a mass of
water = m starting at a temperature = t1 has experienced a rise in temperature = (t2 — t1)
On the one hand, however, it was heat which was transferred to produce the effect but
on the other, it was a work transfer which produced an exactly similar effect.
The conclusion from this must therefore be that there is a relationship between heat
and work. If the unit of energy for both work and heat is the same, then, since the same effect
was produced in each case, the relationship is of the form
W= Q --- (1.11)
The unit of energy in the SI system of units is the joule (J)
1 J = 1 Nm
which has the units kg.m/s2 . m = kg.m2/s2
From equation (1.11), since W= Q, then the unit of energy for both work and heat is
the joule.
1.17. Specific heat capacity
The specific heat capacity of a substance is defined as the amount of heat which
transfers into or out of unit mass of the substance while the temperature of the substance
changes by one degree. Thus, if,
c = specific heat capacity of substance
m = mass of substance
t1 = original temperature of substance
t2 = final temperature of substance
Q = heat transferred to produce temperature change then,
Q = mc(t2-t1) --- (1.12)
Specific heat capacity may vary with temperature. For example, the specific heat
capacity of water falls slightly from 0°C to a minimum at about 35°C and then it begins to
rise again.
Now reference to eqn. (1.12) shows that, to use the equation, it is assumed that the
specific heat capacity is constant.
Where specific heat capacity varies, it is common practice to take an average value
within the temperature range considered and then use this average value as being constant
when used in eqn (1.12).
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The basic unit for specific heat capacity is joules/kilogramme kelvin (J/kgK). Such a
multiple as kilojoules/kilogramme kelvin (kJ/kgK) may also be employed.
Table 1.1 gives a few examples of average specific heat capacities of some solids and
liquids.
Table 1.1. Table of average specific heat capacities
Solids Liquids
Specific heat Specific heat Specific heat
Substance capacity Substance capacity Substance capacity
J/kgK J/kgK J/kgK
Aluminium 917 Steel 480 Ethyl alcohol 2303
Brass 385 Lead 130 Benzene 1718
Copper 674 Nickel 460 Ether 2219
Crown glass 674 Tin 230 Glycerine 2429
Cast iron 477 Zinc 394 Mercury 138
Example 1.3.
5 kg of steel, specific heat capacity 480 J/kgK, is heated from 15°C to 100°C. How
much heat is required?
Solution: From eqn.(1.12):
Heat required = m c (t2 - t1)
= 5 × 480 × (100 - 15)
= 204000 J = 204 kJ.
Example 1.4.
A copper vessel of mass 2 kg contains 6 kg of water. If the initial temperature of the
vessel plus water is 20°C and the final temperature is 90°C, how much heat is added to
accomplish this change, assume that there is no heat loss?
Solution: From table 1.1.
Specific heat capacity of copper = 394 J/kgK
Heat required by copper vessel = 2 × 394 × (90-20)
= 55160 J
From steam table
Specific heat capacity of water at 20°C = 4181.6 J/kgK
Specific heat capacity of water at 90°C = 4204.8 J/kgK
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Average specific heat capacity of water in the temperature range 20°C to 90°C
4181.6 + 4204.8
= = 4193.2 J/kgK
2
∴heat required by water = 6 × 4193.2 × (90-20)
= 1761144 J
∴heat required by vessel + water
= 55160 + 1761144
= 1816304 J = 1.816304 MJ
Example 1.5.
An iron casting of mass 10 kg has an original temperature of 200°C. If the casting
loses heat to the value 715.5 kJ, what is the final temperature?
Solution: From table 1.1
Specific heat capacity of cast iron = 477 J/kgK
Heat transferred from casting = m c (t2 - t1)
Heat transferred = -715.5 kJ = -715500 J
(Note: the negative sign indicates a heat loss)
therefore, -715500 = 10 x 477 x (t2 - 200)
t2 = 50°C.
Example 1.6.
A liquid of mass 4 kg is heated from 15°C to 100°C and 714 kJ are required to
accomplish this. What is the specific heat capacity of the liquid?
Heat required = m c (t2 - t1)
Heat required 714000
c= =
m( t 2 − t 1 ) 4 × (100 − 15)
= 2100 J/kgK.
1.18. Calorimetry
The subject of calorimetry is concerned with the determination of standard heat
quantities, such as specific heat capacity and the calorific value of fuels. The principle can be
explained in the simple type of experiment used for the determination of the specific heat of a
solid.
Fig. 1.10 shows a sketch of an apparatus used. It consists of an outer can A inside
which is contained a smaller can B which is supported on supports G. This small can B is
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called a calorimeter and is very often made of copper. The calorimeter is first weighed and is
then partly filled with water. It is then reweighed. From the
difference between the two weights the mass of water in the
calorimeter is determined. The calorimeter with its water content
is then placed on its supports in the outer can and a cover plate F
is placed over the top. A thermometer C and a stirrer D are placed
through this cover plate such that they have their ends immersed
in the water. This assembly is then left to attain a steady
Fig. 1.10 Sketch of temperature, which be observed on the thermometer. In the

calorimeter meantime a piece of the solid, E to be tested, is weighed and then
heated to some known temperature. For example, it could be placed in the steam over boiling
water. It could then be assumed that after a reasonable period of time the piece of solid would
have reached the temperature corresponding to boiling point. When this is so, and the
temperature of the apparatus is steady, the cover nlate is quickly lifted and the solid very
quickly transferred into the water of the calorimeter, making sure that surplus water is not
carried over with it from the heating vessel. The cover plate is quickly replaced and stirring
immediately commenced in order to ensure as even a distribution of temperature as possible.
A careful check is now kept of the thermometer which will record an increase in temperature.
This temperature increase will continue until a maximum has been reached. This maximum
temperature is recorded.
Now consider what has happened inside the calorimeter after the hot solid has been
introduced. Due to its higher temperature it will, immediately, upon introduction, transfer
some heat to its surroundings. Hence its temperature will begin to fall. On the other hand, the
surroundings, receiving this heat, will have their temperature elevated. This transfer of heat
will continue, and can only continue until a common temperature has been reached by the
whole apparatus. This final common temperature will lie somewhere between the original
solid and apparatus temperatures. Since at this final common temperature all heat exchange
ceases, then at this condition it can be stated that,
Heat lost by solid = Heat gained by water --- (1.13)
or,
Specific Specific
Mass Temperature Mass
heat heat Temperature
of × × drop of = of × ×
capacity capacity rise of water
solid solid water
of solid of water
--- (1.14)
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Let,
mw = mass of water
ms = mass of solid
c = specific heat capacity of solid
cp = specific heat capacity of water
t1 = original temperature of water
t2 = original temperature of solid
t = final common temperature
then, from eqn. (1.14),
ms × c × (t2 - t) = mw × cp × (t-t1)
from which,
m w c p (t − t 1 )
c= --- (1.15)
m s (t 2 − t)
Now it has already been stated that the specific heat capacity of water varies with
temperature and hence eqn. (1.15) assumes that the value, of the specific heat capacity of
water, cp, used is the average within the temperature range t1 to t.
Now it has already been stated that the specific heat capacity of water varies with
temperature and hence eqn. (1.15) assumes that the value, of the specific heat capacity of
water, cp, used is the average within the temperature range tt to t.
A more accurate way to determine the heat transfer into or out of water is as follows.
If a process is carried out at constant pressure, then the heat transfer appears as a change of
enthalpy in the substance at constant pressure. Specific enthalpy is given the symbol h.
Now the water in the experiment already described is at constant pressure and hence,
in this case, heat transfer will appear in the water as a change in enthalpy = mw(h-h1) where,
mw = mass of water
h = specific enthalpy of water at temperature t
h1 = specific enthalpy of water at temperature tl
Eqn. (1.15), now becomes,
m w (h − h 1 )
c= --- (1.16)
m s (t 2 − t)
Steam table gives values of specific enthalpy for water in J/kg.
A further point which needs correction is that, in eqn. (1.15) and (1.16) no account
has been taken of the fact that, as well as the water being heated by the hot solid, so also has
18
the apparatus such as the calorimeter, the stirrer and the thermometer. They have also been
heated through exactly the same temperature range and have thus received some of the heat
given up by the solid. A correction for this may be made as follows Let,
m1 = mass of calorimeter
m2 = mass of thermometer immersed
m3 = mass of stirrer immersed
c1 = specific heat capacity of calorimeter
c2 = specific heat capacity of thermometer
c3 = specific heat capacity of stirrer
then since,
Heat gained = Heat lost
mwcp (t - t1) + m1c1( t - t1) + m2 c2 (t - t1) + m3 c3 (t - t1) = ms c (t2 - t)
or (mwcp+ m1c1+ m2 c2+ m3 c3)(t - t1) = ms c (t2 - t) --- (1.17)
Now before continuing, consider the heating of the calorimeter alone. The amount of
heat absorbed by the calorimeter is given by m1c1( t - t1).
Let the mass of water which would be raised through the same temperature change ( t
- t1) by this same quantity of heat be me1.
Then, since both heat quantities are the same, it follows that:
me1 cp (t - t1) = m1 c1 (t - t1) or
me1 cp = m1 c1 --- (1.18)
The mass me1, is called the water equivalent of the calorimeter.
Note that cp in this case is the average value within the range t1 to t. From eqn. (1.18),
in a similar way,
me2 cp = m2 c2 and me3 cp = m3 c3.
Then substituring back into eqn. (1.17)
(mwcp+ me1cp+ me2 cp+ me3 cp)(t - t1) = ms c (t2 - t) --- (1.19)
or (mw+ me1+ me2 + me3)(t - t1) = ms c (t2 - t) --- (1.20)
which can be written
(mw+ me)(t - t1) = ms c (t2 - t) --- (1.21)
where me = me1+ me2 + me3 --- (1.22)
me = the total water equivalent of the apparatus. This can be estimated by substituting eqn.
(1.18) in eqn.(1.22)
19
m 1c1 + m 2 c 2 + m 3 c 3
me = --- (1.23)
cp
Also, by the use of the enthalpy table for water, eqn.(1.21) becomes,
(mw + me) (h-h1) = ms c (t2 - t) --- (1.24)
Example. 1.7.
A calorimeter of mass 0.11 kg contains 0.34 kg of water. The initial temperature of
the water and calorimeter is 16°C. A piece of solid of mass 0.41 kg is heated to a temperature
of 100°C and at this temperature it is immersed in the water of the calorimeter. The
temperature of the calorimeter system rises to 32°. Neglecting heat loss and the water-
equivalent of the calorimeter, estimate the specific heat capacity of the solid.
Solution:
From steam table,
Specific enthalpy of water at 32°C = 134101 J/kg
Specific enthalpy of water at 16°C = 67218 J/kg
m w (h − h 1 ) 0.34(134101 − 67218)
From eqn. (1.15): c= = = 815 J/kgK.
m s (t 2 − t) 0.41(100 − 32)
Example. 1.8.
If the specific heat capacity of the material of the calorimeter in the above example is
394 J/kgK, estimate the specific heat capacity of the solid including the water equivalent of
the calorimeters.
Solution: From steam table,
cp for water at 16°C = 4184.6 J/kgK
cp for water at 32°C = 4178.0 J/kgK
Average cp for water in the temperature range 16°C to 32°C
= (4184.6 + 4178.0)/2 = 4181.3 J/kgK
From eqn.(1.18)
394
me = 0.11 × = 0.0104 kg
4181.3
From eqn. (1.24)
(m w + m e )(h − h 1 ) (0.34 + 0.0104)(134101 − 67218)
c= = = 840 J/kgK.
m s (t 2 − t) 0.41(100 − 32)
20
Example. 1.9.
An experiment was carried out on a calorimeter system to determine its water
equivalent by using a piece of copper of known specific heat = 394 J/kgK. The calorimeter
contained 0.25 kg of water, initially at a temperature of 13°C. The mass of the piece of
copper was 0.545 kg and it’s the water in the calorimeter. After cooling correction had been
carried out, the final temperature of the calorimeter system was found to be 24°C. Determine
the water equivalent of the calorimeter system.
Solution:
From eqn. (1.24)
(mw + me) (h-h1) = ms c (t2 - t)
m s c( t 2 − t )
mw + me =
(h − h 1 )
From which
m s c( t 2 − t ) 0.545 × 394 × (95 − 24)
me = − mw = − 0.25
(h − h 1 ) 100672 − 54659
= 0.081 kg.
1.19. Work and the P-V diagram

Consider Fig. 1.11. In the lower half of the diagram is shown a cylinder in which a
fluid at pressure P is trapped by means of a piston of area A. The fluid here is the system.
From this,
Fig. 1.11. Example of P-V diagram

21
Force on piston = PA
Let this force PA be just sufficient to overcome some external load. Now let the
piston move back a distance L along the cylinder while at the same time the pressure of the
fluid remains constant. The force on the piston will have remained constant.
Work done = Force x distance = PA x L
This equation could be rearranged to read
Work done = P x AL
But
AL = volume swept out by the piston, called the 'swept' or 'stroke' volume
= (V2-Vl)
Work done = P(V2 - V1) --- (1.25)
Above the diagram of the piston and cylinder is shown a graph of the operation
plotted with the axes of Pressure and Volume. Such a graph is called a P-V diagram or graph,
sometimes said to be illustrated on a P-V plane. The graph appears as horizontal straight line
ab whose height is at pressure P and whose length is from original volume V1 to final volume
V2.
Now consider the area abcd under this graph.
Area = P(V2 - V1) --- (1.26)
But this is the same as the work done equation (3). Hence it follows that the area under a P-V
diagram gives the work done. This can be shown to be true by an analysis of the units.
The pressure is in newtons/metre2 (N/m2) and the volume is in cubic metre (m3) then,
by eqn. (1.25), the work done is given by the product of pressure and change in volume.
∴ units of work done = N/m2 × m3 = Nm, which is the unit of work.
1.20. The conservation of energy
We have already known that, by designing suitable devices, then one form of energy
can be transformed into another. In a power-station, the potential chemical energy in the fuel
produces a high-temperature furnace. From the furnace, heat energy is transferred into the
steam being formed, which is passed into a turbine where some of it is converted into work.
The work is put into an alternator where some is converted into electrical energy. The
electricity generated is then passed out of the station to the public, who use it in various
devices to produce heat, light and power. Actually, not all the energy which is put into the
furnaces of the power-station ultimately appears as electrical energy. There are many losses
through the plant, as indeed there are in any power plant.
22
However, it is found that, in any energy transformation system, if all the energy forms
are added up, and including any energy losses which may have occurred, then the sum is
always equal to the energy input. Naturally, all the various energies must appear with the
same units in order to do this.
The fact that the total energy in any one energy system remains constant is called the
principle of the Conservation of Energy. This states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed but can only be changed in form.
1.25. The steady-flow energy equation
This equation is a mathematical statement of the principle of the Conservation of
Energy as applied to the flow of a fluid through a thermo-dynamic system. The various forms
of energy which the fluid can have are as follows.
(a) Potential .energy
If the fluid is at some height Z above a given datum level, then, as a result of its mass
it possesses potential energy with respect to that datum. Thus, for unit mass of fluid, in the
close vicinity of the earth,
Potential energy = gZ
(b) Kinetic energy
If the fluid is in motion then it possesses kinetic energy. If the fluid is flowing with
velocity C then, for unit mass of fluid,
C2
Kinetic energy =
2
(c) Internal energy
All fluids store energy. The store of energy within any fluid can be increased or
decreased as the result of various processes carried out on or by the fluid. The energy stored
within a fluid which results from the internal motion of its atoms and molecules is called its
internal energy. It is usually designated by the letter U.
If the internal energy of unit mass of fluid is being discussed then this is called the
specific internal energy and is designated by u.
(d) Flow or displacement energy
Any volume of fluid entering or leaving a system must displace an equal volume
ahead of itself in order to enter or leave the system, as the case may be. The displacing mass
must do work on the mass being displaced, since the movement of any mass can only be
achieved at the expense of work.
23
Thus, if the volume of unit mass of liquid (its specific volume) is v1, at entry and its
pressure is P1 then in order to enter a system it must displace an equal specific volume v1
inside the system. Thus work to the value P1v1 is done on the specific volume inside the
system by the specific volume outside the system. This work is called flow or displacement
work and at entry it is energy received by the system.
Similarly, at exit, flow work must be done by the fluid inside the system on the fluid
outside the system in order that it may leave. Thus, if at exit, the pressure is P2 and the
specific volume is v2 then
Flow or displacement work rejected = P2 v2
(e) Heat received or rejected
During its passage through the system the fluid can have a direct reception or
rejection of heat energy through the system boundary. This is designated by Q. This must be
taken in its algebraic sense. Thus if,
Heat is received then Q is positive. Heat is rejected then Q is negative. If heat is
neither received nor rejected then Q = 0.
(f) External work done
During its passage through the system the fluid can do external work or have external
work done on it. This is usually designated by W. This must be taken in its algebraic sense.
Thus if,
External work is done by the fluid then W is positive. External work is done on the
fluid then W is negative. If no external work is done on or by the fluid then W = 0.
Fig. 1.12. A thermodynamics system

Fig. 1.12 illustrates some thermodynamic system into which is flowing a fluid with
pressure P1 specific volume vu specific internal energy u2 and velocity C1. The entry is at a
height Zl above some datum level.
In its passage through the system, external work W may be done on or by the fluid
and also heat energy Q may be received or rejected by the fluid from or to the surroundings.
24
The fluid then leaves the system with pressure P2, specific volume v2,
specific internal energy u2 and velocity C2. The exit is at height Z2 above the datum
level. Applying the principle of conservation of energy to the system, then,
Total energy entering the system = Total energy leaving the system
or, for unit mass of substance,
C12 C 22
gZ1 + u 1 + P1 v1 + + Q = gZ 2 + u 2 + P2 v 2 + +W --- (1.27)
2 2
This is called the steady-flow energy equation.
In applying this equation to any particular system it may be found that certain energy
forms do not apply. If this is the case then the particular energy forms concerned are omitted
from the energy equation.
Again consider eqn.1.27. In section 1.13 it was stated that the particular combination
of properties of the form, u + Pv is called specific enthalpy and is designated as h.
In eqn.1.27 this particular combination actually appears as follows,
C12 C 22
gZ1 + (u 1 + P1 v1 ) + + Q = gZ 2 + (u 2 + P2 v 2 ) + +W
2 2
From this then, it will be noted that the steady-flow energy equation can also be
written,
C12 C2
gZ1 + h 1 + + Q = gZ 2 + h 2 + 2 + W --- (1.28)
2 2
Example. 1.10.
In a steady-flow system, a substance flows at the rate of 4 kg/s. It enters at a pressure
of 620 kN/m2, a velocity of 300 m/s, internal energy 2100 kJ/kg and specific volume 0.37
m3/kg. It leaves the system at a pressure of 130 kN/m2, a velocity of 150 m/s, internal energy
1500 kJ/kg and specific volume l.2 m3/kg. During its passage through the system the
substance has a loss by heat transfer of 30 kJ/kg to the surroundings. Determine the power of
the system in kilowatts, stating whether it is from or to the system. Neglect any change in
potential energy.
Solution:
Neglecting change in potential energy, the steady-flow energy equation becomes, per
unit mass of substance,
C12 C2
(u 1 + P1 v1 ) + − Q = (u 2 + P2 v 2 ) + 2 + W
2 2
Q is written negative since 30 kJ/kg are lost to the surroundings.
25
C12 − C 22
Specific W = (u 1 − u 2 ) + (P1 v1 − P2 v 2 ) + −Q
2
(300 2 − 150 2 )
= (2100 -1500) + (620 × 0.37 - 130 × 1.2) + - 30
2 × 10 3
= 676.75 kJ/kg.
The substance flows at the rate of 4 kg/s.
∴ Output (since W is positive) = 676.75 × 4 = 2707 kJ/s = 2707 kW.
Example. 1.11.
Steam enters a turbine with a velocity of 16 m/s and specific enthalpy 2990 kJ/kg. The
steam leaves the turbine with a velocity of 37 m/s and specific enthalpy 2530 kJ/kg. The heat
lost to the surroundings as the steam passes through the turbine is 25 kJ/kg. The steam flow
rate is 324000 kg/h. Determine the work output from the turbine in kilowatts.
Solution:
Neglecting changes in potential energy,
C12 C2
h1 + − Q = +h 2 + 2 + W
2 2
Q is negative since heat is lost from the steam to the surroundings
C12 − C 22
Specific W = (h 1 − h 2 ) + −Q
2
16 2 − 37 2
= (2990 - 2530) + − 25 = 434.443 kJ/kg
2 × 10 3
Steam flow rate = 324000 kg/h = 324000/3600 = 90 kg/s
W = 434.443 × 90 = 39099.87 kJ/s (or) 39099.87 kW
≈ 39100 kW
≈ 39.1 MW
1.26. The non-flow energy equation
It has been shown that the steady-flow energy equation connecting the energies before
and after the flow of unit mass of substance through a system is of the form,
C12 C2
gZ1 + u 1 + P1 v1 + + Q = gZ 2 + u 2 + P2 v 2 + 2 + W
2 2
In the case of a closed system, however, in which the fluid mass remains constant, no
substance passing through the system boundary, the flow terms in eqn.1.27 will not apply.
Thus the terms Pv and C2/2 are neglected. The system is then said to be non-flow.
26
During a non-flow process, there may be a change of mass centre, in which case there
is a change in potential energy. However, in thermodynamic systems, the density of the
substance used is quite small and any change in potential energy which may occur would be
very small. Thus the terms gZ can be neglected.
Thus, from eqn. 1.27, the energy equation for the non-flow case becomes,
ul + Q = u2 + W --- (1.29)
from which,
Q = (u2 - u1) + W (or) Q = ∆u + W --- (1.30)
This is for unit mass. If any mass is being considered, then eqn.(1.30) becomes,
Q = ∆U + W --- (1.31)
In words, for a non-flow process, this means that,
Heat transferred through Change of internal Work transferred through the
= +
the system boundary energy system boundary
Remember, however, that the terms in eqn.1.31 must be taken their algebraic sense.
Thus, if,
Heat is received: Q is positive
Heat is rejected: Q is negative
Heat neither received nor rejected (adiabatic): Q=0
Internal Energy increases: ∆U is positive
Internal Energy decreases: ∆U is negative
Internal Energy neither increases nor decreases: ∆U = 0
Work done by system: W is positive
Work done on system: W is negative
No work done on or by system: W=0
A typical non flow process is the expansion or compression of a substance in a cylinder.
Example. 1.12
During the compression stroke of an engine, the work done on the working substance
in the engine cylinder is 75 kJ/kg and the heat rejected to the surroundings is 42 kJ/kg. Find
the change of internal energy, stating whether it is an increase or decrease.
Solution:
This is a non-flow process and, hence, from eqn.(1.30),
Q = ∆u + W (or)
∆u = Q - W
27
= -42 - (-75)
Note: Heat is lost. Work is negative.
∆u = 33 kJ/kg
This is an increase in internal energy.
1.27. The first law of thermodynamics
In section 1.16 it was shown that there is a relationship between heat and work. This
relationship was shown to be of the form,
W=Q --- (1.32)
where, W = Work
Q = Heat
The fact that there is a relationship between heat and work, is a statement of the First
Law of Thermodynamics.
Eqn. 1.32 is not meant to imply that if a certain amount of work is done on a system,
then it is all converted into heat or, conversely, if a certain amount of heat is supplied to a
system, then it is all converted into work.
Eqn. 1.32 simply means that if some work is converted into heat or some heat is
converted into work then the relationship between the heat and work so converted will be of
the form W = Q.
Actually, it is possible to convert work completely into heat by friction, for example.
The reverse process of converting heat completely into work is impossible.
An extension of eqn. 1.32 may be found in the Non-Flow Energy Equation,
Q = ∆U+W
This equation takes into account that not all the energy need be of a eat-work or work-
heat conversion form. Some energy may be concerned with an internal energy change. A
further extension of eqn. 1.32 appears in work with thermoynamic cycles. To complete a
cycle a working substance is taken through a sequence of events and is returned to its original
state. If the working substance is returned to its original state then its final properties anre
identical with its orginal properties before the cycle.
If work is transferred during the cycle then, since there is no final change in the
properties of the working substance, the energy to provide the work must have been
transferred as heat and must exactly equal the work. Now, during some processes in a cycle,
work will be done by the substance, while, during others, work is done on the substance.
28
Similarly, during some processes heat is transferred out of the substance, while, during
others, it is transferred into the working substance.
Thus, for a cycle, since there is no nett property change,
Nett heat = Nett work
or as it is written symbolically,
∫Q = ∫W
The symbol ∫ means the summations round cycle.
Exercise:
1.1. 4.5 kg of water are heated from 15°C to 100°C. How much heat transfer is required?
1.2. A vacuum gage connected to a tank reads 30 kPa at a location where the barometric
reading is 755 mmHg. Determine the absolute pressure in the tank. Take ρHg = 13590
kg/m3.
1.3. A pressure gage connected to a tank reads 500 kPa at a location where the
atmospheric pressure is 94 kPa. Determine the absolute pressure in the tank.
1.4. A manometer containing oil (ρ = 850 kg/m3) is attached to a tank filled with air. If the
oil-level difference between the two columns is 45 cm and the atmospheric pressure is
98 kPa, determine the absolute pressure of the air in the tank.
1.5. A piece of steel of mass 0.9 kg has a temperature of 95°C. It is immersed in a copper
calorimeter which contains 0.45 kg of water at a temperature of 20°C. The final
temperature of the calorimeter system, after cooling correction had been taken into
account, became 32°C. If the specific heat capacity of steel is 480 J/kgK and that of
copper is 394 J/kgK, determine the water equivalent of the calorimeter system.
1.6. In a non-flow process there is a heat loss of 1055 kJ and an internal energy increase of
210 kJ. How much work is done?
1.7. Air passes through a gas turbine system at the rate of 4.5 kg/s. It enters with a velocity
of 150 m/s and a specific enthalpy of 3000 kJ/kgK. At exit, the velocity is 120 m/s
and the specific enthalpy is 2300 kJ/kg. The air has a heat loss to the surroundings of
25 kJ/kg as it passes through the turbine. Determine the power developed by the
turbine.
CHAPTER TWO
GASES AND SINGLE PHASE SYSTEMS
This is an investigation into single-phase systems. The single-phase being considered

is that phase above the critical point when a substance is called a gas.
2.1. Boyle's law
With any mass of gas it is possible to vary the pressure, volume and temperature. In
this experiment it is arranged that the temperature of a fixed mass of gas remains constant
while corresponding changes in pressure and volume are observed.
Fig. 2.1. PV diagram of a gas
Taking any point on the curve of fig. 2.1, 1 say, the product of its corresponding
pressure and volume P and V will equal some number, C say. Investigation of other points
such as 2 and 3, shows that, within the limits of experimental error, the products of their
corresponding pressures and volumes also equal this same number, or,
P1V1 = P2V2 = P3V3 = C, a constant --- (2.1)
Further experiments at different fixed temperatures, with different fixed masses
and also with different gases yield the same result although the constant C will be different
with each quantity of gas taken, each temperature fixed and each type of gas used.
From the results then, a general statement may be made as follows: During a change
of state of any gas in which the mass and the temperature remain constant the volume varies
inversely as the pressure, or,
PV = C, a constant --- (2.2)
This is known as Boyle's Law.
30
Gases and Single Phase System
Example. 2.1
During an experiment on Boyle's Law, the original volume of air trapped in the
apparatus, with the two mercury levels of the same, was 20000 mm3. The apparatus was then
modified such that the volume of air became 17000 mm3, while the temperature remained
constant. If the barometer reading was 765 mm Hg, what was the new pressure exerted on the
air in mm Hg? Also, what was the difference in the two mercury column levels?
Solution:
Since both levels of mercury are the same at the beginning, then
Pi = atmospheric pressure = 765 mm Hg
Now Boyle's Law states that PV = C, a constant
From this then,
V1 765 × 20000
P1V1 = P2V2 (or) P2 = P1 = = 900 mm Hg
V2 17000
Since the final pressure P2 = 900 mm Hg and the atmospheric pressure = 765 mm Hg,
then, Difference in height of the two mercury columns = 900 - 765 = 135 mm
Example. 2.2.
A gas whose original pressure and volume were 300 kN/m2 and 0.14 m3 is expanded
until its new pressure is 60 kN/m2 while its temperature remains constant. What is its new
volume?
Solution: Since the temperature remains constant then this is an expansion according to
Boyle's Law.
P 300
P1V1 = P2V2 or V2 = V1 1 = 0.14 × = 0.7 m3
P2 60
2.2. Charle's Law

.
Fig. 2.2. V-T diagram when pressure remains constant

31
The relationship between volume and temperature of a fixed mass of gas when the
pressure remains constant is of the linear form:
V = Ct + V0 --- (2.3)
where, V = volume,
t = temperature,
C = slope,
V0 = intercept on V axis
An interesting point however is that if all the straight lines obtained are produced back
to cut the temperature axis, they all cut this axis at the same point. It would be better to use
this point as a new origin and the law of the graph would then become:
V=CT --- (2.4)
where, T is the temperature recorded from the new origin.
V
It follows that, = C, a constant --- (2.5)
T
In words this may be stated as follows: During the change of state of any gas in which
the mass and pressure remain constant, the volume varies in proportion with the absolute
temperature.
This is known as Charle's law.
Example. 2.3.
During an experiment on Charles's Law, the volume of gas trapped in the apparatus
was 10000 mm3, when the temperature was 18° C. The temperature of the gas was then
raised to 85° C. What was the new volume of gas trapped in the apparatus if the pressure
exerted on the gas remained constant?
Solution:
Now according to Charle's law,
V
= C, a constant
T
V1 V2
From this, then = .
T1 T2
In order to use this equation the temperatures T1 and T2 must be absolute
temperatures.
T1 = 18 + 273 = 291 K and T1 = 85 + 273 = 358 K
T2 358
V2 = V1 = 10000 × = 12302 mm3.
T1 291
32
Example. 2.4.
A quantity of gas whose original volume and temperature are 0.2 m3 and 303° C,
respectively, is cooled at constant pressure until its volume becomes 0.1 m3. What will be the
final temperature of the gas?
Solution: Again, this is a change according to Charles's Law.
V1 V2 V
= (or) T2 = 2 × T1
T1 T2 V1
The temperatures must be absolute temperatures.
T1 = 303 + 273 = 576 K
0.1
T2 = × 576 = 288 K
0.2
t2 = 288 - 273 = 15° C.
2.3. The characteristic equation of a perfect gas

Consider a gas whose original state is pressure P1, volume V1 and temperature T1 and
let this gas pass through a change of state such that its final state is P2, V2 and T2. Inspection
of Fig. 2.3 will show that there are an infinite number of possible paths connecting states 1
and 2 when the process is shown on a P-V diagram. The concern at the moment, however, is
not in how the state changed from 1 to 2, but in the fact that since states 1 and 2 can exist for
the same mass of gas, then is there any law connecting these two states? This being the case
then, a choice of path from 1 to 2 is quite arbitrary, and it is therefore reasonable to assume a
path about which something is already known.
Fig. 2.3. Possible paths of connecting states 1 and 2

Boyle's and Charles's laws supply the answer. Figure 2.4 shows that it is quite
possible to move from 1 to 2 by first carrying out a Boyle's Law change down to some
intermediate state A, say, and then carrying out a Charles's Law change to the final condition.
33
Consider the Boyle's Law change from 1 to A. In this case the temperature remains
constant at T1. Also
P1V1 = PAVA --- (2.6)
Fig. 2.4. Boyle's Law change and Charle's Law change in PV diagram
All the pressure change must take place during this process since there will be no
change in pressure during the Charle's Law process which follows. In this case PA = P2.
P1V1
∴eqn. (2.6) becomes P1V1 = P2VA (or) VA = --- (2.7)
P2
Consider now the Charle's Law change from A to 2. In this case the pressure remains
constant at P2. Also
VA V2
= --- (2.8)
TA T2
During the Boyle's Law change from 1 to A the temperature remained constant.
∴TA = T1
VA V2
from which eqn. (2.8) becomes = --- (2.9)
T1 T2
P1 V1
But VA = from eqn. (2.7) and substituting this in eqn. (2.9)
P2
P1 V1 V2
= from which
P2 T1 T2
P1 V1 P2 V2
= -- (2.10)
T1 T2
Now any change of state from state 1 would produce a similar result, and hence
eqn.(2.10) could be extended to read
P1 V1 P2 V2 P3 V3 P4 V4
= = = = L , etc. --- (2.11)
T1 T2 T3 T4
where 3 and 4 represent other new conditions of state of the same mass of gas.
34
From eqn.(2.11) then, it follows that for any fixed mass of gas, changes of state are
PV
connected by the equation, = constant --- (2.12)
T
Now sooner or later it will be necessary to know the actual mass of gas used during
any particular process.
Let v = volume of 1 kg of gas, the specific volume. Then from eqn.(2.12),
Pv
= constant --- (2.13)
T
When 1 kg of gas is considered, this constant is written R and is called the
characteristic gas constant, sometimes, the specific gas constant.
∴for 1 kg of gas,
Pv
=R --- (2.14)
T
Now consider the case when there are m kg of gas. Multiply both sides of eqn.(2.14)
Pmv
by m, then = mR (or) PV = mRT --- (2.15)
T
This is known as the characteristic equation of a perfect gas.
The units of R can be obtained from eqn.(2.14). If pressure is in N/m2, specific
volume is in m3/kg and temperature in K, then,
Pv N m 3 1 N.m J
=R= 2 × × = =
T m kg K kgK kgK
For air, the value of R is usually of the order of 0.287 kJ/kg K.
Example. 2.5
A gas whose original pressure, volume and temperature were 140 kN/m2, 0.1 m3 and
25°C, respectively, is compressed such that its new pressure is 700 kN/m2 and its new
temperature is 60°C. Determine the new volume of the gas.
By the characteristic equation,
P1 V1 P2 V2
=
T1 T2
P1 T2 140 333
V2 = V1 = × × 0.1 = 0.0223 m3
P2 T1 700 298
Example 2.6.
A quantity of gas has a pressure of 350 kN/m2 when its volume is 0.03 m3 and its
temperature is 35°C. If the value of R = 0.29 kJ/kg K, determine the mass of gas present. If
35
the pressure of this gas is now increased to 1.05 MN/m2 while the volume remains constant,
what will be the new temperature of the gas?
By the characteristic equation,
PV = mRT
PV 350 × 10 3 × 0.03
m= = = 0.118 kg
RT 0.29 × 10 3 × 308
For the second part of the problem
P1 V1 P2 V2
= and in this case, V1 = V2
T1 T2
P1 P2 P 1.05 × 10 6
= (or) T2 = T1 2 = 308 × = 924 K = 651°C.
T1 T2 P1 0.35 × 10 6
2.4. The specific heat capacities of a gas
The specific heat capacity of a substance may be defined as the amount of heat
transfer required to raise unit mass of a substance through 1 degree difference in temperature.
(a) The specific heat capacity at constant volume
This is defined as the amount of heat which transfers to or from unit mass of gas
while the temperature changes by 1 degree and the volume remains constant. This is
written cv.
(b) The specific heat capacity at constant pressure
This is defined as the amount of heat which transfers to or from unit mass of gas
while the temperature changes by 1 degree and the pressure remains constant. This is
written cp.
Both the specific heat capacities at constant volume and at constant pressure rise in
value with temperature. For calculation purposes, it is usual to assume an average value of
specific heat capacity within the temperature range being considered. Average values
commonly assumed for air are of the order cp = 1.005 and cv = 0.718, Unit, kJ/kg K.
2.5. The constant volume heating of a gas.

Let a mass of gas m be heated at constant volume such that its temperature rises from
T1 to T2 and its pressure rises from P1 to P2. Then
Heat received by Specific heat capacity at
= Mass × × rise in temperature
the gas constant volume
= m cv (T2 - T1) --- (2.16)
36
Now constant volume heating is a particular case of a non-flow process carried out on
a gas. Consider, then, the non-flow energy equation applied to constant volume heating.
Q = ∆U + W --- (2.17)
Now no external work is done during constant volume heating. This can be seen by
inspecting fig. 2.5, in which pressure is plotted against volume. The process appears as a
vertical straight line. There is no area beneath this line and hence there is no external work
done.
Fig. 2.5. PV diagram of constant volume heating process

∴W = 0
From this then, eqn. 2.17 becomes
Q = ∆U (or) mcv(T2 - T1) = U2 - U1 --- (2.18)
It follows, therefore, that all the heat added during constant volume heating goes
completely into increasing the stock of internal energy of the gas. Conversely, if a gas is
cooled at constant volume, the heat rejected will be at the expense of the stock of internal
energy of the gas. If the new pressure is required then this may be found by the application of
the characteristic equation of a perfect gas from which,
P1 V1 P2 V2
= and for this case, V1 = V2.
T1 T2
P1 P2 T2
∴ = or P2 = P1
T1 T2 T1
Example. 2.7.
2 kg of gas, occupying 0.7 m3, had an original temperature of 15°C. It was then
heated at constant volume until its temperature became 135°C. How much heat was
transferred to the gas and what was its final pressure? Take, cv = 0.72 kJ/kgK and R = 0.29
kJ/kgK.
37
Solution:
Heat transferred at constant volume = mcv(T2 - T1)
= 2 × 0.72 × (135 - 15) = 172.8 kJ.
Now P1V1 = m R T1
mRT1 2 × 0.29 × 288
P1 = = = 238.6 kN/m2
V1 0 .7
Since the volume remains constant, then,
P1 P2 T2 408
= or P2 = P1 = 238.6 × = 338.1 kN/m2
T1 T2 T1 288
2.6. The constant pressure heating of a gas
Let a mass of gas m be heated at constant pressure such that its temperature rises from
T1 to T2 and its volume increases from V1 to V2. Then
Heat received by Specific heat capacity at
= Mass × × rise in temperature
the gas constant pressure
= mcp (T2 - T1)
Now constant pressure heating is a particular case of a non-flow process carried out
on a gas. Consider, then, the non-flow energy equation applied to constant pressure heating.
Q = ∆U + W --- (2.19)
Fig. 2.6. PV diagram of constant pressure heating process

In this case external work is done by the gas. Fig. 2.6 shows a graph of a constant
pressure process plotted on a PV diagram. This graph shows that there is a definite area
beneath the constant pressure line, which gives the work done = P (V2 - V1), where P = the
constant pressure = P1 = P2. In this constant pressure case then, eqn. 2.19 becomes,
mcp (T2 - T1) = (U2 - U1) + P (V2 - V1) --- (2.20)
= (U2 + PV2) - (U1 + PV1)
= H2 - H1 --- (2.21)
i.e. Heat transferred at constant pressure = Change of enthalpy
38
From eqn. (2.19)

U2 - U1 = mcp (T2 - T1) - P(V2 - V1) or
U2 - U1 = mcp (T2 - T1) - mR(T2 - T1) --- (2.22)
since PV = mRT
If the new volume is required after a constant pressure process then this again may be
obtained by the use of the characteristic equation of a perfect gas, from which,
P1 V1 P2 V2
= and for this case, P1 = P2
T1 T2
V1 V2 V1T2
∴ = or V2 =
T1 T2 T1
Example. 2.8.
A gas whose pressure, volume and temperature are 275 kN/m2, 0.09 m3 and 185°C,
respectively, has its state changed at constant pressure until its temperature becomes 15°C.
How much heat is transferred from the gas and how much work is done on the gas during the
process? Take R = 0.29 kJ/kgK, cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK.
Solution:
First determine the mass of gas use.
Now, P1V1 = m R T1
P1 V1 275 × 10 3 × 0.09
∴m = = = 0.186 kg.
RT1 0.29 × 10 3 × 458
Heat transferred = m cp (T2 - T1)
= 0.186 × 1.005 × (288 - 458)
= -31.78 kJ
Notice the negative sign indicating that the heat has been extracted from the gas.
Since the pressure remains constant, then,
V1 V2 T2 288
= ∴ V2 = V1 = 0.09 × = 0.0566 m3
T1 T2 T1 458
Work done = P(V2 - V1)

= 275 × (0.0566 - 0.09)
= -9.19 kJ
2.7. The difference of the specific heat capacities of a gas
It has been shown above that if a mass of gas m has its temperature changed from T1
to T2 then the change of internal energy can be determined by the expressions,
39
U2 - U1 = mcv(T2 - T1) --- (2.23)

and U2 - U1 = mcp (T2 - T1) - mR(T2 - T1) --- (2.24)
If the temperature change is the same for both expressions then it follows that eqn.
2.23 = eqn. 2.24, for the change of internal energy, is a function of temperature only.
mcv(T2 - T1) = mcp (T2 - T1) - mR(T2 - T1)
from which, cv = cp - R
since m(T2 - T1) is common throughout.
∴ cp - cv = R --- (2.25)
2.8. The polytropic process and a gas

A gas is no exception to this concept and so, if a mass of gas is expanded or
compressed, the general law of expansion or compression is of the polytropic form,
PVn = C --- (2.26)
For two state points 1 and 2, then
P1 V1n = P2 V2n --- (2.27)
P1 V1 − P2 V2
Further, Work done = --- (2.28)
n −1
Now, by the characteristic equation, PV = mRT --- (2.29)
Substituting eqn. 2.29 in 2.28
mR (T1 − T2 )
Work done = --- (2.30)
n −1
Applying the non-flow energy equation,
Q = ∆U + W
= (U2 - U1) + W
P1 V1 − P2 V2
= mcv(T2 - T1) + --- (2.31)
n −1
mR (T1 − T2 )
= mcv(T2 - T1) + --- (2.32)
n −1
2.9. The combination of the polytropic law PVn = C and the characteristic equation
of a perfect gas
The law PVn = C wil lenable calculations to be made of the changes in pressure and
volume which occur during a polytropic process. Combining this with the characteristic
equation of a perfect gas will enable variations in temperature to be determined.
40
Consider a polytropic process in which the state of a gas changes from P1, V1, T1 to
P2, V2, T2.
By the polytropic law, P1 V1n = P2 V2n --- (2.33)
P1 V1 P2 V2
By the characteristic equation, = --- (2.34)
T1 T2
T1 P1 V1
From eqn. 2.34, = --- (2.35)
T2 P2 V2
n
P1 ⎛ V2 ⎞
From eqn. 2.33, =⎜ ⎟ --- (2.36)
P2 ⎜⎝ V1 ⎟⎠
Substituting eqn. 2.36 in eqn. 2.35.

n −1
T1 ⎛ V1 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ --- (2.27)
T2 ⎜⎝ V2 ⎟⎠
1/ n 1/ n
V ⎛P ⎞ V ⎛P ⎞
From eqn. 2.36, 2 = ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ or 1 = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ --- (2.28)
V1 ⎝ P2 ⎠ V2 ⎝ P1 ⎠
n −1
T1 ⎛ P1 ⎞ n
Substituting eqn. 2.28 in eqn. 2.35, =⎜ ⎟ --- (2.29)
T2 ⎜⎝ P2 ⎟⎠
Combining eqn. 2.27 and 2.29 then,

n −1
n −1
T1 ⎛ P1 ⎞ n ⎛V ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ --- (2.30)
T2 ⎜⎝ P2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ V1 ⎠
Example. 2.9.
A gas whose original pressure and temperature were 300 kN/m2 and 25°C,
respectively, is compressed according to the law PV1.4 = C until its temperature becomes
180°C. Determine the new pressure of the gas.
Solution:
It has been shown that for a polytropic compression, the relatioship between pressure
and temperature is
n −1
T1 ⎛ P1 ⎞ n
=⎜ ⎟
T2 ⎜⎝ P2 ⎟⎠
n
P1 ⎛ T1 ⎞ n −1
From this, =⎜ ⎟
P2 ⎜⎝ T2 ⎟⎠
41
n 1.4
⎛T ⎞ n −1
⎛ 453 ⎞ 0.4
∴ P2 = P1 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ = 300 × ⎜ ⎟ = 1299 kN/m = 1.299 MN/m
2 2
⎝ T1 ⎠ ⎝ 298 ⎠
Example. 2.10.
A gas whose original volume and temperature were 0.015 m3 and 285°C, respectively,
is expanded according to the law PV1.35 = C until its volume is 0.09 m3. Determine the new
temperature of the gas.
Solution:
The relationship between volume and temperature during a polytropic expansion of a
gas is,
n −1
T1 ⎛ V2 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟
T2 ⎜⎝ V1 ⎟⎠
n −1 1.35 −1
⎛V ⎞ ⎛ 0.015 ⎞
T2 = T1 ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ = 558 × ⎜ ⎟ = 298.4 K
⎝ V2 ⎠ ⎝ 0.09 ⎠
t2 = 298.4 - 273 = 25.4°C.
Example. 2.11.
0.675 kg of gas at 1.4 MN/m2 and 280°C is expanded to four times the original
volume according to the law PV1.3 = C. Determine:
(a) the original and final volume of the gas,
(b) the final pressure of the gas,
(c) the final temperature of the gas.
Take R = 0.287 kJ/kgK.
Solution:
(a) Now P1V1 = m R T1
mRT1 0.675 × 0.287 × 10 3 × 553
∴ V1 = = = 0.0765 m3 = original volume.
P1 1.4 × 10 6
Since the gas is expanded to four times its original volume, then,
V2 = 4V1 = 4 × 0.0765 = 0.306 m3 = final volume
(b) P1 V1n = P2 V2n
n
⎛V ⎞
1.3
⎛1⎞
P2 = P1 ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ = 1.4 × ⎜ ⎟ = 0.231 MN/m2 = 231 kN/m2 = final pressure
⎝ V2 ⎠ ⎝4⎠
P1 V1 P2 V2
(c) =
T1 T2
42
P2 V2 0.231
∴ T2 = T1 = 553 × × 4 = 365 K
P1 V1 1 .4
t2 = 365 - 273 = 92°C = final temperature.
2.10. The adiabatic process and a gas

When dealing with the general case of a polytropic expansion or compression it was
stated that this process followed a law of the form PVn = C. Now the adiabatic process can be
a particular case of the polytropic process in which no heat is allowed to enter or leave during
the progress of the process. From this, then, it appears that there should be a particular value
of the index n which will satisfy this condition. An investigation is therefore necessary to see
if this is the case.
Consider an adiabatic expansion or compression in which a change of state occurs
from P1, V1, T1 to P2, V2, T2. Then
Change of internal energy = m cv (T2 - T1) --- (2.31)
P1 V1 − P2 V2 mR (T1 − T2 )
Also Work done during the process = = --- (2.32)
γ −1 ( γ − 1)
where γ (gamma) is the particular index which will satisfy the case of an adiabatic process.
From the polytropic law then, if γ is the adiabatic index
P1 V1γ = P2 V2γ --- (2.33)
Also, from the polytropic law,
γ −1
γ −1
T1 ⎛ P1 ⎞ γ ⎛V ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ --- (2.34)
T2 ⎜⎝ P2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ V1 ⎠
P1 V1 P2 V2
and by the characteristic equation = --- (2.35)
T1 T2
Applying the non-flow energy equation Q = ∆U + W

For an adiabatic process Q = 0. ∴0 = ∆U + W
or W = -∆U --- (2.36)
i.e. Work is done at the expense of internal energy during an adiabatic expansion. Internal
energy increases at the expense of work during an adiabatic compression.
Substituting eqn. 2.31 and 2.32 in 2.36
mR (T1 − T2 )
= - m cv (T2 - T1)
( γ − 1)
43
mR (T1 − T2 )
∴ = - m cv (T1 - T2)
( γ − 1)
R
from which = cv (since m(T1 - T2) is a common term to both sides.)
( γ − 1)
R R R + cv
From this, = ( γ − 1) (or) γ= +1 = --- (2.37)
cv cv cv
Now R = cp - cv and hence, substituting in eqn. 2.37
cp − cv + cv cp
γ= = --- (2.38)
cv cv
From this, then, the law for an adiabatic expansion or compression of a gas is PVγ = C,
cp
where γ = , the ratio of the specific heat capacities at constant pressure and constant
cv
volume. The theoretical adiabatic is sometimes said to be a frictionless adiabatic. The average
value of γ, the adiabatic index, for air is of the order of 1.4.
Example. 2.12
A gas expands adiabatically from a pressure and volume 700 kN/m2 and 0.015 m3,
respectively, to a pressure of 140 kN/m2. Determine the final volume and the work done by
the gas. What is the change of internal energy in this case? Take cp = 1.046 kJ/kgK, cv =
0.752 kJ/kgK.
Solution:
Adiabatic index = γ = cp/cv = 1.046/0.752 = 1.39
For an adiabatic expansion,
P1 V1γ = P2 V2γ
1/ γ
⎛P ⎞
1 / 1.39
⎛ 700 ⎞
from which V2 = V1 ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ = 0.015 × ⎜ ⎟ = 0.048 m3 = final volume
⎝ P2 ⎠ ⎝ 140 ⎠
P1 V1 − P2 V2 700 × 0.015 − 140 × 0.048

Workdone = = = 9.69 kJ
γ −1 1.39 − 1
For an adiabatic expansion,
W = -∆U (or) ∆U = -W
∴Change of internal energy = -9.69 kJ
This is a loss of internal energy from the gas.
44
2.11. The isothermal process and a gas

An isothermal expansion or compression is defined as a process carried out such that
the temperature remains constant throughout. This is evidently the same as a process carried
out according to Boyle's Law. The law for an isothermal expansion or compression of a gas is
therefore,
PV = C, a constant --- (2.39)
Thus, for a change of state from 1 to 2,
P1V1 = P2V2 --- (2.40)
T1 = T2 = T = constant temperature --- (2.41)
Now the law PV = C is that of a rectangular hyperbola.
V2
Work done = PV ln --- (2.42)
V1
This, therefore, is the expression which will give the work done during an isothermal process
on a gas.
From the characteristic equation,
PV = mRT --- (2.43)
Substituting eqn. 2.43 in 2.42
V2
Work done = mRT --- (2.44)
V1
Applying the non-flow energy equation, Q = ∆U + W.

Since for an isothermal process T = constant, and by Joule's Law, the internal energy of a gas
is a function of temperature only then, if T = constant, then there is no change of internal
energy. Hence, for an isothermal process, ∆U = 0
V2 V
∴The energy equation becomes, Q = W = PV ln = mRT 2 --- (2.45)
V1 V1
From this, then, it follows that during an isothermal expansion all the heat received is
converted into external work. Conversely, during an isothermal compression, all the work
done on the gas is rejected by the gas as heat.
Example. 2.13.
A quantity of gas occupies a volume of 0.3 m3 at a pressure of 10 kN/m2 and a
temperature of 20°C. The gas is compressed isothermally to a pressure of 500 kN/m2 and
then expanded adiabaticallyto its initial volume. Determine, for this quantity of gas:
(a) the heat received or rejected (state which) during the compression,
45
(b) the change of internal energy during the expansion

(c) the mass of gas.
Assume for this gas that γ = 1.4 and cp = 1.0 kJ/kgK.
Solution:
(a) For the isothermal compression,
P1V1 = P2V2
V2 = V1 × P1/P2 = 0.3 × 100/500 = 0.06 m3
Now Q = ∆U + W and for an isothermal process on a gas ∆U = 0
∴Q =W
P1
= PV ln r = PV ln = 100 × 0.3 × ln(100/500) = -48.3 kJ.
P2
This is heat rejected.

(b) For the adiabatic expansion,
P2 V2γ = P3 V3γ
γ
⎛V ⎞
1.4
⎟⎟ = 500 × ⎛⎜
0.06 ⎞
P3 = P2 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟ = 52.6 kN/m2
⎝ V3 ⎠ ⎝ 0.3 ⎠
Now Q = ∆U + W and for an adiabatic process Q = 0

− (P2 V2 − P3 V3 )
∴0 = ∆U + W or ∆U = -W =
γ −1
− (500 × 0.06 − 52.6 × 0.3)
= = −35.5 kJ.
1.4 − 1
This is a loss of internal energy.
(c) cp - cv = R and cp/cv = γ
from which, cv = cp/γ
∴(cp - cp/γ) = R = cp (1 - 1/γ ) = 1.0(1 - 1/1.4) = 0.286 kJ/kgK
P1V1 = m R T1
P1 V1 100 × 10 3 × 0.3
m= = = 0.358 kg.
RT1 0.286 × 10 3 × 293
2.12. The non-flow energy equation and the polytropic law PVn = C
Consider the expansion or compression of a gas according to the law PVn = C in
which the state changes from P1, V1, T1 to P2, V2, T2.
It has been shown that the change of internal energy
= ∆U = mcv (T2 - T1) --- (2.46)
46
Also, the work done during the change

mR (T1 − T2 )
=W= --- (2.47)
n −1
Substituting eqn. 2.46 and 2.47 in the non-flow energy equation, Q = ∆U + W, then,
mR (T1 − T2 )
Q = mcv (T2 - T1) + --- (2.48)
n −1
R
Now cp - cv = R and cp/cv = γ then cv = --- (2.49)
( γ − 1)
Substituting (2.49) into eqn. (2.48)
R R
Q=m (T2 − T1 ) + m (T1 − T2 )
( γ − 1) (n − 1)
R R
=m (T2 − T1 ) − m (T2 − T1 )
(γ − 1) (γ − 1)
⎧ 1 1 ⎫
= mR (T1 − T2 )⎨ − ⎬
⎩ (n − 1) (γ − 1) ⎭
⎧ (γ − 1) − (n − 1) ⎫
= mR (T1 − T2 )⎨ ⎬
⎩ (n − 1) (γ − 1) ⎭
⎧ (γ − n) ⎫
= mR (T1 − T2 )⎨ ⎬
⎩ (n − 1)(γ − 1) ⎭
( γ − n ) mR (T1 − T2 )
= --- (2.50)
(γ − 1) (n − 1)
(γ − n)
or Q = × Polytropic work
(γ − 1)
Now from this equation it is possible to examine what happens to the hat received or
rejected during an expansion or compression of a gas if the value of the index n is varied. For
a compression the work done is negative. For an expansion the work done is positive.
(γ − n)
If n = γ, then = 0 and hence Q = 0, i.e. this is the adiabatic case.
(γ − 1)
(γ − n)
If n = 1, then =1 and hence Q = Workdone, i.e. this is the isothermal case.
(γ − 1)
Now, substituting eqn. 2.49 in eqn. 2.50.
( γ − n ) mc v (γ − 1)(T1 − T2 )
=
(γ − 1) (n − 1)
47
(γ − n)
= mc v (T − T ) --- (2.51)
(n − 1) 1 2
= mc n (T1 − T2 ) --- (2.52)
(γ − n)
where cn = c v , is called the polytropic specific heat capacity.
(n − 1)
Example 2.14.
A gas expands according to the law PV1.3 = C, from a pressure of 1 MN/m2 and a
volume 0.003 m3 to a pressure of 0.1 MN/m2. How much heat was received or rejected by the
gas during this process? Determine, also, the polytropic specific heat. Take, γ = 1.4, cv =
0.718 kJ/kgK.
Solution:
Now, P1 V1n = P2 V2n
1/ n
⎛P ⎞
V2 = V1 ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ = 0.003× (1/0.1)1/1.3 = 0.0176 m3
⎝ P2 ⎠
Heat received or rejected
(γ − n) ( γ − n ) P1 V1 − P2 V2
Q = × Work done = ×
(γ − 1) (γ − 1) n −1
(1.4 − 1.3) 1 × 0.003 − 0.1 × 0.0176
= × = 0.00103 MJ = 1.03 kJ.
(1.4 − 1) 1.3 − 1
This is positive and hence heat is received by the gas.
(γ − n) 1.4 − 1.3
cn = c v = 0.718 × = 0.239 kJ/kgK.
(n − 1) 1.3 − 1
Exercises:
2.1. A quantity of gas has an initial pressure of 140 kN/m2 and volume 0.14 m3. It is then
compressed to a pressure of 700 kN/m2 while the temperature remains constant.
Determine the final volume of the gas.
2.2. A quantity of gas has an initial volume of 0.06 m3 and a temperature of 15°C. It is
expanded to a volume of 0.12 m3 while the pressure remains constant. Determine the
final temperature of the gas.
2.3. A mass of gas has an initial pressure of 1 bar and a temperature of 20°C. The
temperature of the gas is now increased to 550°C while the volume remains constant.
Determine the final pressure of the gas.
48
2.4. A mass of air has an initial pressure of 1.3 MN/m2, volume 0.014 m3 and temperature
135°C. It is expanded until its final pressure is 275 kN/m2 and its volume becomes
0.056 m3. Determine:
(a) the mass of air;
(b) the final tempetature of the air.
Take R = 0.287 kJ/kgK.
2.5. A quantity of gas has an initial pressure and volume of 0.1 MN/m2 and 0.1 m3,
respectively. It is compressed to a final pressure of 1.4 MN/m2 according to the law
PV1.26 = constant. Determine the final volume of the gas.
2.6. A mass of gas has an initial pressure and temperature of 0.11 MN/m2 and 15°C,
respectively. It is compressed according to the law PV1.3 = constant until the
temperature becomes 90°C. Determine the final pressure of the gas.
2.7. 0.23 kg of air has an initial pressure of 1.7 MN/m2and a temperature of 200°C. It is
expanded to a pressure of 0.34 MN/m2 according to the law PV1.35 = constant.
Determine the work done during the expansion. Take R = 0.29 kJ.kgK.
2.8. A certain mass of air, initially at a pressure of 480 kN/m2 is expanded adiabatically to
a pressure of 94 kN/m2. It is then heated at constant volume until it attains its initial
temperature, when the pressure is found to be 150 kN/m2. State the type of
compression necessary to bring the air back to its original pressure and volume. Using
the infomation calculate the value of γ. If the initial temperature of the air is 190°C,
determine the work done/kg of air during the adiabatic expansion. Take R for air =
0.29 kJ/kgK.
2.9. One kilogramme of a certain gas is at 0.11 MN/m2 and 15°C. It is compressed until its
volume is 0.1 m3. Calculate the final pressure and temperature if the compression is
(a) isothermal, (b) adiabatic. Calculate, also, the work done, change of internal energy
and heat transfer in each case. Distinguish between positive and negative quantities.
Take, cp = 0.92 kJ/kgK; cv = 0.66 kJ/kgK/
2.10. A certain gas has a density of 0.09 kg/m3 at 0°C and 1.013 bar. Calculate the
characteristic gas constant and hence find the volume of 1 kg of this gas at 70°C and
2.07 bar. If a volume of 5.6 m3 of this gas at 1.02 bar and 0°C is heated at constant
pressure to 50°C, calculate:
(a) the heat transfer; (b) the change of internal energy; (c) the work done.
Take cv = 10.08 kJ/kgK.
49
2.11. At the beginning of compression in an oil engine cylinder, the pressure is 95 kN/m2,
the volume 14 litre and the temperature 100°C. The index for the compression curve
is 1.3 and the volume ratio of the compression is 14 to 1. Calculate the work done,
change of internal energy and the heat transfer during compression. Take R = 0.28
kJ/kgK; cv = 0.72 kJ/kgK.
2.12. Prove the relationship between the two principal specific heat capacities and the
characteristic gas constant for a perfect gas.
2.13. 0.45 kg of a certain gas expands adiabatically in a cylinder fitted with a piston. The
initial pressure and temperature are 690 kN/m2 and 185°C, respectively. The final
pressure is 138 kN/m2 and the temperature falls by165°C during the expansion. If the
gas does 53 kJ of work on the piston, calculate the two principal specific heat
capacities of the gas.
2.14. An engine cylinder of 75 mm diameter and 150mm stroke contains 1 g of air at a
temperature of 15°C. Calculate the work required to compress the air isothermally to
a pressure of 700 kN/m2. Neglect the clearance volume.
Take cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK; cv = 0.717 kJ/kgK.
2.15. A quantity of air occupies a volume of 30 litre at a temperature of 38°C and a pressure
of 104 kN/m2. The temperature of the air can be raised,
(a) by heating at constant volume until the pressure is 208 kN/m2 ; or,
(b) by adiabatic compression until the volume is 6 litre.
Find, for each case, the final temperature, the external work done, the change of
internal energy, and the heat transferred.
2.16. 0.25 kg of air at a pressure of 140 kN/m2 occupies 0.15 m3 and from this condition it
is compressed to 1.4 MN/m2 according to the law PV1.25 = C. Determine:
(a) the change of internal energy of the air,
(b) the work done on or by the air,
(c) the heat received or rejected by the air.
Take cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK, cv = 0.718 kJ/kgK.
CHAPTER THREE
GAS POWER CYCLES
3.1. Introduction
In the cycles, as the word 'cycle' implies, a sequence of processes takes place in which
the gas is eventually returned to its original state, thus allowing for the repetition of the cycle.
During some of the processes, heat will be transferred into or out of the gas. Also, during
some processes, work will be transferred into or out of the gas. By the First Law of Thermo-
dynamics, then, for the cycle,
∫Q = ∫W
This will be one way in which the nett work, ∫ W will be determined. Another way in
which the nett work of the cycle will be assessed is by means of the nett area of the pressure-
volume diagram. The general cycle analysis will be made by the employment of the gas laws
as dealt with in Chapter 2. The thermal efficiency of the cycle will be determined using the
equation,
Heat received - Heat rejected
Thermal efficiency, η = --- (3.1)
Heat received
An assessment of the cycle using the temperature-entropy chart will also be included.
3.2. The Carnot Cycle

The Carnot cycle is sometimes referred to as the constant temperature cycle, since
heat is transferred during isothermal processes only. In fig. 3.1. (a) is shown the P-V diagram
and fig. 3.1(b) is shown the temperature-entropy (T-s) diagram, which, it will be observed,
appears as a rectangle.
Fig. 3.1. P-V and T-s diagrams of a Carnot Cycle

51
Gas Power Cycles
From the T-s diagram,

Heat received from 1 to 2 = T1 (s1 - s2) = area under 1-2
Heat rejected from 3 to 4 = T3 (s3 - s4) = area under 3-4
Thermal efficiency, η =
Heat received
T1 (s 2 − s1 ) − T3 (s 3 − s 4 )
=
T1 (s 2 − s1 )
(T1 − T3 )(s 2 − s1 )
= , since (s2 - s1) = (s3 - s4)
T1 (s 2 − s1 )
T1 − T3
= --- (3.2)
T1
The thermal efficiency of the Carnot cycle is a function of the sink and source temperatures
only, and the thermal efficiency relation for the Carnot cycle conveys an important message
that is equally applicable to both ideal and actual cycles: Thermal efficiency increases with an
increase in the average temperature at which heat is supplied to the system or with a decrease
in the average temperature at which heat is rejected from the system.
Work done/cycle = ∫ W = Heat received - Heat rejected
= (T1 - T2) (s2 - s1) --- (3.3)
Note that this cycle will have the highest thermal efficiency possible with in the
temperature limits of the cycle.
3.2. An overview of Internal Combustion Engines (Reciprocating Engines)

Despite its simplicity, the reciprocating engine (basically a piston-cylinder device) is
one of the rare inventions that has proved to be very versatile and to have a wide range of
applications. It is the powerhouse of the vast majority of automobiles, trucks, light aircraft,
ships, and electric power generators, as well as many other devices.
The basic components of a reciprocating engine are shown in fig. 3.2. The piston
reciprocates in the cylinder between two fixed positions called the top dead center (TDC), the
position of the piston when it forms the smallest volume in the cylinder and the bottom dead
center (BDC), the position of the piston when it forms the largest volume in the cylinder. The
distance between the TDC and the BDC is the largest distance that the piston can travel in
one direction, and it is called the stroke of the engine. The diameter of the piston is called the
52
bore. The air or air-fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder through the intake valve, and the
combustion products are expelled from the cylinder through the exhaust valve.
Fig. 3.2. Nomenclature for Fig. 3.3. Displacement and clearance

reciprocating engines volumes of a reciprocating engine
The minimum volume formed in the cylinder when the piston is at TDC is called the
clearance volume (fig. 3.3). The volume displaced by the piston as it moves between TDC
and BDC is called the displacement volume. The ratio of the maximum volume formed in the
cylinder to the minimum (clearance) volume is called the compression ratio r of the engine:
Vmax VBDC
r= = --- (3.4)
Vmin VTDC
Notice tha tthe compression ratio is a volume ratio and should not be confused with the
pressure ratio.
Reciprocating engines are classified as spark-ignition (SI) engines or compression-
ignition (CI) engines, depending on how the combustion process in the cylinder is initiated.
In SI engines, the combustion of the air-fuel mixture is initiated by a spark plug. In CI
engines, the air-fuel mixture is self-ignited as a result of compressing the mixture above its
self-ignition temperature. In the next two sections, we discuss the Otto and Diesel cycles,
which are the ideal cycles for the SI and CI reciprocating engines, respectively.
3.2.1 Two stroke engines
As the name implies, all the events in the two-stroke cycle are completed in two
strokes. In two strokes, the crankshaft makes one revolution and hence the two-stroke cycle is
complete in one revolution. The engine and its cycle are illustrated diagrammatically in fig.
3.4. Control of admission and exhaust in this engine is by means of ports let into the side of
the cylinder and also by means of the piston. The piston in this type of engine is also the
engine valve.
53
Gas Power Cycles
(a) (b) (c)
(d)
Fig. 3.4. Operations of two stroke engine and its indicator diagram
The crankcase is made gas-tight, since the incoming air-fuel mixture passes through
the crankcase on its way into the cylinder. There is an inlet port in the bottom of the cylinder
through which the air-fuel mixture passes into the crankcase. A transfer port is led from the
crankcase into the cylinder through which the air-fuel mixture is transferred from crankcase
to cylinder.
There is a further port, the exhaust port, from cylinder to atmosphere, through which
the combustion products are exhausted to atmosphere.
Referring to fig. 3.4 the cycle of events is as follows.
At (a), the piston is moving upwards and the piston is also sealing the transfer and
exhaust ports. There is a fresh air-fuel charge in the cylinder above the piston and this is
being compressed. Since the crankcase is hermetically sealed, there will be a reduction in
pressure produced m the crankcase as the piston rises. As a result of this reduction in
pressure, as soon as the piston uncovers the inlet port in the bottom of the cylinder, an air-fuel
mixture charge will be sucked into the crankcase. Just before the top of the stroke, the
compressed charge above the piston is ignited.
At (b), the piston has been pushed down by the rapidly expanding products of
combustion. This is the power stroke. Eventually, as the piston descends, the exhaust port
will be uncovered, as shown, and since the combustion products are still above atmospheric
pressure, they will then rapidly expand through the exhaust port into atmosphere. Sometimes
54
the top of the piston in the two-stroke engine is so shaped as to assist in deflecting the gases
to and from the ports. Such a piston top is illustrated and the piston is called a deflector
piston. Also, during this power stroke, the piston, as it descends, will eventually cover the
inlet port. This will lock up an air-fuel charge in the hermetically sealed crankcase. As the
piston further descends, this air-fuel charge will be compressed in the crankcase.
At (c), the piston has descended to the bottom of its stroke. The transfer port has been
opened and the compressed air-fuel charge in the crankcase is transferred to the cylinder via
the transfer port. The deflector piston deflects this charge to the top of the cylinder, and this
displaces further combustion products out through the exhaust port. Displacing the
combustion products out of the cylinder is called scavenging.
By deflecting the incoming charge to the top of the cylinder, it ensures that, as nearly
as possible, there is not a direct blow through to exhaust with the consequent loss of fuel.
There is always a slight loss in this way in the two-stroke cycle engine.
Scavenging in some large Diesel engines, such as are installed in ships, is assisted by
blowing compressed air through the cylinder. Rotary compressors are commonly used here,
driven by exhaust driven gas turbines.
From the bottom of its stroke, the piston will now ascend. In doing so, it will again
close off the transfer and exhaust ports and once more charge will be compressed in the
cylinder while eventually the inlet port will open and a fresh-air-fuel charge will be sucked
into the crankcase. The cycle is now complete.
At (d) is shown a sketch of an indicator card taken from a two-stroke cycle engine
cylinder. The various events, as they occur, are indicated. Note the reduction in pressure in
the expansion line as the exhaust port opens. Note also the similarity of shape between this
and the theoretical constant volume cycle.
3.2.2. The four-stroke cycle
In an engine running on the four-stroke cycle there are mechanically operated valves
which control admission and exhaust to and from the engine cylinder.
The inlet and exhaust ports run into the combustion space at the top of the cylinder
and are circular in section. The valves, called poppet valves, are circular discs and are
operated through a central spindle. The edges of the valves are chamfered to mate with
similarly chamfered faces cut at the combustion space orifices of the inlet and exhaust ports.
The valves are held central by, and operate through, valve guides. They are held down in
their closed position, with the chamfered faces mating, by means of valve springs. The
opening and closing of the valves is controlled by means of cams which are fixed to a
55
Gas Power Cycles
camshaft or shafts. The camshaft is operated by means of a gear drive or chain drive from the
crankshaft.
If the valves open upwards into the combustion space, as shown in fig. 3.5, then the
engine is said to be a side-valve engine.
If the valves open downward from the top into the combustion space, then the engine
is said to be an overhead valve engine.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(e)
Fig. 3.5. Operations of four stroke engine and its indicator diagram
Sometimes the camshaft is set up over the top of the valves in an overhead valve
engine. In this case the engine is said to be an overhead cam shaft engine.
Referring to fig. 3.5 the operation of the four stroke is as follows.
At (a), both the inlet and exhaust valves are closed. The air-fuel charge has been
ignited and the combustion products are rapidly expanding pushing the piston down on its
power stroke. Toward the bottom of the power stroke the exhaust cam has rotated such that it
begins to lift the exhaust valve while the inlet valve remains closed.
At (b), the exhaust valve is fully open and the piston is ascending. As the piston
ascends, it pushes the combustion products out through he open exhaust port. Toward the top
of the exhaust stroke the exhaust -alve begins to close and the inlet valve begins to open as a
result of cam action.
56
At (c), the inlet valve is fully open and the exhaust valve is closed. The piston is
descending and, by this action, is sucking a fresh air-fuel charge into the cylinder through the
open inlet valve. Toward the bottom of the suction stroke the inlet valve begins to close.
At (d), both the inlet and exhaust valves are closed. The piston is ascending and is
compressing the fresh air-fuel charge up into the combustion space. Ignition of this charge
occurs toward the top of this stroke nd after this stroke the piston once more begins to
descend on the power troke.
It will be noted that the piston has made four strokes, two up and two down, in order
to complete the cycle. Hence the name, the four-stroke cycle. At the same time the crankshaft
has made two revolutions. For this cycle, then, there is one power stroke in two revolutions. It
will be noted also that since the valves open once only during the cycle then it means that the
cams must rotate once only in two revolutions of the crankshaft. Thus the camshaft is geared
down 1:2 to the crankshaft.
At (e) is illustrated the P-V diagram taken from a four-stroke engine cylinder.
Compression, ignition and expansion appear in a similar manner to the two-stroke cycle.
After expansion in this cycle, however, there is a definite exhaust stroke which will appear as
a line on the P-V diagram. The atmospheric pressure line is drawn on this diagram. It will be
noted that the exhaust pressure line is slightly above the atmospheric pressure line. This is
always the case, since the piston builds up a pressure inside the cylinder above atmospheric
pressure in order that there will be a positive nett pressure from inside the cylinder to outside.
The combustion products will then move from inside the cylinder to outside and will thus be
exhausted. During the suction stroke, which follows the exhaust stroke, it will be noted that
the suction pressure is slightly below atmospheric pressure. This occurs as the piston
descends and there will, therefore, be a nett pressure from outside to inside the cylinder. Thus
a fresh charge will move into the cylinder. The difference between atmospheric and suction
pressures is called the intake depression. After the suction stroke, the compression stroke
follows, and so on. Note the four distinct lines, compression, expansion, exhaust and suction
which clearly show the four-stroke nature of this cycle.
3.2.3. Valve timing diagrams for internal combustion engines
These diagrams give the phasing of the valve operations with respect to the angular
position of the crank.
Two-stroke cycle timing diagram
Fig. 3.6 shows the timing diagram for a two-stroke cycle engine. It will be noted that
the diagram consists of a circle upon which are marked the angular positions of the various
57
Gas Power Cycles
cycle events. It will be observed that the diagram is for a vertical engine. For a horizontal
engine the diagram will appear on its side. Note that with the two-stroke cycle the inlet and
exhaust ports open and close at equal angles on either side of the B.D.C. position. This is
because the piston in this type of engine is also the inlet and exhaust valve and hence port
opening and closing will occur at equal angles on either side of the dead centre position.
Angles shown are representative only.
Fig. 3.6 Valve timing diagram of two-stroke cycle engine

Four-stroke cycle timing diagram
Fig. 3.7. shows the timing diagram for a four-stroke cycle engine. This diagram really
consists of two circles, one superimposed on the other, smce the four-stroke cycle is
completed in two revolutions. It will be noted that the inlet and exhaust valves do not
commence to operate at the dead centre positions but at some degrees on either side of these
positions.
Fig. 3.7. timing diagram of four-stroke cycle engine

58
The inlet valve opens before T.D.C. and closes after B.D.C. This is arranged in an
attempt to get as much air-fuel mixture into the cylinder as possible. When the inlet valve
opens the air-fuel mixture outside the valve has to be accelerated up to inlet velocity. This
takes time, and in order that maximum inlet velocity shall occur at the earliest possible
moment in the induction stroke the inlet valve is opened early. Now when the air-fuel mixture
is moving it possesses kinetic energy. It is the kinetic energy which is used at the end of the
induction stroke to produce a ramming effect by closing the inlet valve some degrees after
B.D.C. More air-fuel mixture is pushed into the cylinder in this way, this increasing the
potential output of the engine.
In order to exhaust as much of the products of combustion as possible, the exhaust
valve opens early, that is, some degrees before B.D.C. Thus some of the exhaust gas leaves
by virtue of its excess pressure above atmosphere and hence it is flowing freely from the
cylinder by the time the piston commences the exhaust stroke. By closing the exhaust valve
late, that is some degrees after T.D.C, the kinetic energy of the exhaust gas can be utilised to
assist in maximum exhausting of the cylinder before the exhaust valve closes.
Note that the inlet valve begins to open before the exhaust valve closes. This is called
valve overlap.
3.3. The constant volume cycle (Otto cycle)
This cycle is sometimes referred to as the Otto cycle after Dr A. N. Otto, a German
scientist, who successfully applied the cycle to an internal combustion engine in 1876. The
cycle was originally developed by a Frenchman named Beau de Rochas in 1862.
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.8 P-V diagram and T-s diagram of a constant volume cycle
The fig. 3.8 (a) is represented the P-Vdiagram of the constant volume cycle and (b) is
represented the corresponding T-s diagram. The cycle is arranged as follows:
59
Gas Power Cycles
1-2 Adiabatic compression of the gas according to the law PV = C.

Pressure increases from P1 to P2.
Volume decreases from Vl to V2.
Temperature increases from T1 to T2.
Entropy remains constant at s1 = s2.
2-3 Constant volume heat addition.
Volume remains constant at V2 = V3.
Pressure increases from P2 to P3.
Entropy increases from s2 to s3.
3-4 Adiabatic expansion of the gas according to the law PVγ = C.
Pressure decreases from P3 to P4.
Volume increases from V3 to V4.
Temperature decreases from T3 to T4.
4-1 Constant volume heat rejection.
Volume remains constant at V4 = V1.
Entropy decreases from s4 to s1
This process completes the cycle and returns the gas to its original state at 1.
An analysis of the properties P, V and T at state points 1, 2, 3 and 4 will now be made
and it will be assumed that P1, Vl and T1 are known.
1. P1, V1, T1.
2. Assume that the volume ratio V1/V2 is known. In this connection it should be noted
that this cycle is the theoretical cycle for a petrol or gas engine. The ratio V1/V2 for a petrol or
gas engine is often referred to as the compression ratio of the engine.
γ −1 γ −1
T1 ⎛ V2 ⎞ ⎛V ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ ⇒ ∴ T2 = T1 ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ = T1 ⋅ r γ −1
T2 ⎜⎝ V1 ⎟⎠ ⎝ V2 ⎠
V1
where r = = adiabatic compression, volume ratio,
V2
V4
= = adiabatic expansion, volume ratio.
V3
γ
⎛V ⎞
γ
Also P1 V = P2 V
1
γ
2 ⇒ ∴ P2 = P1 ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ = P1 ⋅ r γ
⎝ V2 ⎠
3. V3 = V2, since the volume remains constan.
P3 P2 P3 P3
= ⇒ ∴ T3 = T2 = ⋅ T1 ⋅ r γ −1 from 2
T3 T2 P2 P2
60
γ −1 γ −1
T3 ⎛ V4 ⎞ ⎛V ⎞ P3 r γ −1 P
4. =⎜ ⎟ =r γ −1
, ⇒ ∴ T4 = T3 ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟ = ⋅ T1 ⋅ γ −1 = 3 ⋅ T1 from 3
T4 ⎜⎝ V3 ⎟⎠ ⎝ V4 ⎠ P2 r P2
γ
⎛V ⎞ P
γ
Also, P3 V = P4 V
3
γ
4 ⇒ ∴ P4 = P3 ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟ = γ3
⎝ V4 ⎠ r
Also, from the constant volume process 4-1,

P4 P1 P4 P
= ⇒ ∴ T4 = T1 = T1 3 , from above.
T4 T1 P1 P2
P4 P3
From this it follows that = .
P1 P2
The work done during the cycle may be obtained as follows:
Process 3-4 is an expansion which gives positive work done.
Process 1-2 is an compression which gives negative work done.
The net work done is the sum of the work done by these two processes.
∴Net work done = ∫ W = area under (3-4) - area under (1-2)
= area 1 2 3 4 = area of diagram.

(P3 V3 − P4 V4 ) (P2 V2 − P1 V1 )
∴∫W = −
γ −1 γ −1
(P3 V3 − P4 V4 ) − (P2 V2 − P1 V1 )
= --- (3.4)
γ −1
=
mR
{(T3 − T4 ) − (T2 − T1 )} --- (3.5)
γ −1
Alternatively, the cycle work done can be determined using the equation ∫W = ∫Q
(or)
Cycle workdone = ∫ W = Heat received - Heat rejected --- (3.6)
It should be noted that this eqn. (3.6) will hold good for any cycle.
Now in this cycle heat is received and rejected only during constant volume processes.
Hence the name, the constant volume cycle. There are also two adiabatic processes, but
during an adiabatic process no heat is received or rejected.
In this cycle,
Heat is received from 2-3 = m cv (T3 - T2) --- (3.7)
Heat is rejected from 4-1 = m cv (T4 - T1) --- (3.8)
61
Gas Power Cycles
∴ ∫ W = m cv (T3 - T2) - m cv (T4 - T1) --- (3.9)
= m cv {(T3 - T2) - (T4 - T1)} --- (3.10)

The thermal efficiency of the cycle may be determined from the equation,
Thermal efficiency, η =
Heat received
Heat rejected mc v (T4 − T1 )
= 1− = 1−
Heat received mc v (T3 − T2 )
and assuming that cv remains constant
(T4 − T1 )
Thermal efficiency, η = 1 − --- (3.11)
(T3 − T2 )
This eqn. 3.11 gives the thermal efficiency in terms of temperature. Also, substituting
temperatures in terms of T1 in eqn. 3.11
P3
( T1 − T1 )
P2
Thermal efficiency, η = 1 −
P3
( T1 r γ −1 − T1 r γ −1 )
P2
⎛P ⎞
T1 ⎜⎜ 3 − 1⎟⎟
=1 − ⎝ P2 ⎠ = 1− 1 --- (3.12)
γ −1 ⎛ P3 ⎞ r γ −1
T1 r ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟
⎝ P2 ⎠
Now consider the adiabatics 1-2 and 3-4
γ −1 γ −1
T2 ⎛ V1 ⎞ T ⎛V ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ and 3 = ⎜⎜ 4 ⎟⎟
T1 ⎜⎝ V2 ⎟⎠ T4 ⎝ V3 ⎠
But V1/V2 = V4/V3 = r,

T2 T3 γ-1
= =r
T1 T4
T1 T
∴from eqn. 3.12, Thermal η = 1 - =1- 4
T2 T3
Note that from eqn. 3.1, ∫W = Heat received × Thermal η
= m cv (T3 - T2) × Thermal η --- (3.13)

62
Example. 3.1.
One kg of air is taken through a constant volume cycle thus:
1-2 Compressed adiabatically through a volume ratio of 6:1, the initial pressure
and temperature being 103 kN/m2 and 100°C, respectively
2-3 Heated at constant volume until the pressure is 3450 kN/m2.
3-4 Expanded adiabatically to its original volume.
4-1 Cooled at constant volume to its original state.
Calculate and tabulate the values of the pressure, volume and temperature for each of
the state points 1, 2, 3 and 4. Calculate the amount of heat transferred to the air between state
points 2 and 3.
For air, R = 0.287 kJ/kgK, γ = 1.4.
Solution:
For point 1, Pressure = 103 kN/m2, Temperature = 100°C = 373 K

P1V1 = m R T1
mRT1 1 × 0.287 × 373
∴ V1 = = = 1.04 m3
P1 103
For point 2, P1 V1γ = P2 V2γ

γ
⎛V ⎞
P2 = P1 ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ = 103 × 6 0.4 = 1268 kN/m2
⎝ V2 ⎠
V2 = V1 / 6 = 1.04/6 = 0.173 m3
P1 V1 P2 V2
=
T1 T2
P2 V2 1268 0.173
∴ T2= T1 = × × 373 = 763 K
P1 V1 103 1.04
t2 = 763-273 = 490°C
γ −1
γ −1
T2 ⎛ V1 ⎞ ⎛P ⎞ γ
This result could also have been achieved by using the eqn. =⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
T1 ⎜⎝ V2 ⎠ ⎝ P1 ⎠
63
Gas Power Cycles
For point 3
V3 = V2 = 0.173 m3, P3 = 3450 kN/m2
P3 P2 P3 3450
= ⇒ ∴ T3 = T2 = 763 × = 2080 K
T3 T2 P2 1268
t3 = 2080 - 273 = 1807°C

For point 4
γ
⎛V ⎞
1.4
⎛1⎞
P3 V = P4 V ⇒ ∴ P4 = P3 ⎜⎜ 3
3
γ γ
4
⎟⎟ = 3450 × ⎜ ⎟ = 281 kN/m2
⎝ V4 ⎠ ⎝6⎠
V4 = V1 = 1.04 m3
P4 P1 P4 281
= ⇒ ∴ T4 = T1 = 373 × = 1020 K
T4 T1 P1 103
t4 = 1020 - 273 = 747°C

Tabulated results
State Pressure Volume Tempetature
Point kN/m2 m3 °C
1 103 1.04 100
2 1268 0.173 490
3 3450 0.173 1807
4 281 1.04 747
R 0.287
Now, cv = = = 0.717 kJ/kgK.
γ − 1 1.4 − 1
Heat transferred to the air between state points 2 and 3
= m cv (T3 - T2) = 1 × 0.717 × (2080 - 763) = 943 kJ.
Example. 3.2.
In an ideal constant volume cycle the pressure and temperature at the beginning of
compression are 97 kN/m2 and 50°C, respectively. The volume ratio of compression is 5:1.
The heat supplied during the cycle is 930 kJ/kg of working fluid. Determine:
(a) the maximum temperature attained in the cycle;
(b) the thermal efficiency of the cycle;
(c) the work done during the cycle/kg of working fluid.
Assume, γ= 1.4 and cv = 0.717 kJ/kg K.
64
Solution:
γ −1 γ −1
T1 ⎛ V2 ⎞ ⎛V ⎞
(a) =⎜ ⎟ ⇒ ∴ T2 = T1 ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ = 323 × 5 0.4 = 615 K
T2 ⎜⎝ V1 ⎟⎠ ⎝ V2 ⎠
For constant volume heating
Q = m cv (T3 - T2) = 1 × 0.717 × (T3 - 615)
930
T3 = + 615 = 1910 K ⇒ ∴ t3 = 1910 - 273 =1637°C
0.717
This is the maximum temperature attained in the cycle.
1 1
(b) Thermal η = 1− γ −1
= 1− 1.4 −1
= 0.475
r 5
= 47.5%
(c) (Work done/kg) / cycle
= Heat received /kg / cycle × Thermal η
= 930 × 0.475 = 442 kJ
Alternatively,
Workone = Heat received - Heat rejected
= cv (T3 - T2) - cv (T4 - T1)
γ −1
⎛V ⎞ 1910
where T4 = T3 ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟ = = 1002 K
⎝ V4 ⎠ 5 0.4
Workdone/kg / cycle = 930 - 0.717 (1002 - 323)

= 442 kJ
3.4. The constant pressure cycle

This cycle is sometimes referred to as the Joule cycle after the same scientist who was
responsible for the early determination of the mechanical equivalent of heat. Joule originated
this cycle for use in an air engine. The cycle is also sometimes referred to as the Brayton
cycle, so named after George Brayton, an American engineer, who in about 1870, attempted
the use of this cycle in a gas engine.
It is probable, however, that John Ericsson developed this cycle at an earlier date than
both Joule or Brayton.
Fig. 3.9(a) is represented the P-Vdiagram of the constant pressure cycle and (b) is
65
Gas Power Cycles
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.9. P-V diagram and T-s diagram of a constant pressure cycle
1-2 Adiabatic compression according to the law PVγ = C.

Pressure increases from Pl to P2.
Volume decreases from V1 to V2.
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition.
Pressure remains constant at P2 = P3.
Entropy increases from s2 to s3.
3-4 Adiabatic expansion according to the law PVγ = C.
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection.
Pressure remains constant at P4 = P1
Entropy decreases from s4 to s1.
This process completes the cycle and returns the gas to its original state.
It should be noted that in practice this cycle has been mostly considered for use in
engines which do not carry out all processes in a single unit, a cylinder, for example.
Compression and expansion have been arranged for in separate units. For example, Joule's
concept of an air engine is illustrated diagrammatically in fig. 3.10(a).
The arrangement of the engine was that of a reciprocating air com pressor connected
in tandem, through a coupling rod, to a reciprocating expander. The nett work output from the
expander appears at the piston rod. Air from the compressor was fed through an externally
fired heater in which it was expanded, theoretically at constant pressure. From the heater the
air was fed to the expander. From the expander the air entered a cooler in which it was
66
cooled, theoretically at constant pressure. The air was then fed to the compressor for
recirculation. Note that the system is closed, the same air being circulated through the engine
(neglecting losses).
(a)
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3.10. P-V diagrams of compressor and expander
At (b) and (d) in fig. 3.10 are shown the compressor and expander P-V diagrams. The
combined diagrams are shown at (c). The nett diagram for the engine is given by 1 2 3 4,
which, it will be recognised, is the same as that shown in fig. 3.9. The nett diagram 1 2 3 4 is
called the constant pressure cycle and its area will give the theoretical nett work output. Note
that the expander must provide the internal work for the compressor as well as the nett work
output. Of further interest, it should be noted that by replacing the reciprocating compressor
and expander by a rotary compressor and a turbine this same arrangement becomes the basic
design for a constant pressure gas turbine. A further point of interest is that by reversing the
air flow and driving the machine, this arrangement was used as a refrigerator.
Referring to fig. 3.9, an analysis of the properties at state points 1, 2, 3 and 4 will now
be made. It will be assumed that P1, V1 and T1 are known.
1. P1, V1, T1
2. Assume that the volume ratio V1/V2 is known.
γ −1 γ −1
T1 ⎛ V2 ⎞ ⎛V ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ ⇒ ∴ T2 = T1 ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ = T1 ⋅ r γ −1
T2 ⎜⎝ V1 ⎟⎠ ⎝ V2 ⎠
67
Gas Power Cycles
V1
where r = = adiabatic compression, volume ratio,
V2
γ
⎛V ⎞
γ
Also P1 V = P2 V
1
γ
2 ⇒ ∴ P2 = P1 ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ = P1 ⋅ r γ
⎝ V2 ⎠
3. P3 = P2, since the pressure remains constant.
V3 /T3 = V2/T2
⎛V ⎞ V
∴ T3 = T2 ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟ = 3 T1 ⋅ r γ −1
⎝ V2 ⎠ V2
γ −1 γ −1
T3 ⎛ V4 ⎞ ⎛V ⎞
4. =⎜ ⎟⎟ =r γ −1
, ⇒ ∴ T4 = T3 ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟
T4 ⎜⎝ V3 ⎠ ⎝ V4 ⎠
Now consider the adiabatics 1-2 and 3-4. Both have the same pressure P2/P1 = P3/P4.
For adiabatic 1-2
γ
P2 ⎛ V1 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟
P1 ⎜⎝ V2 ⎟⎠
For adiabatic 3-4,

γ
P3 ⎛ V4 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟⎟
P4 ⎜⎝ V3 ⎠
But P2 / P1 = P3/ P4. Therefore it follows that
V1 V4
= = r = Adiabatic compression and expansion, volume ratio
V2 V3
Hence, from above,
γ −1
⎛V ⎞ T3 V3 r γ −1 V3
T4 = T3 ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟ = = T ⋅ = T1
r γ −1 V2 r γ −1 V2
1
⎝ V4 ⎠
Note also that for the constant pressure process 4-1, V4/T4 = V1/T1,
∴T4 = T1. V4/V1
V4 V3
it follows that = = Constant pressure processes volume ratios
V1 V2
V1 V4 V V
This could also have been obtained from the fact that since = = r , then 4 = 3 .
V2 V3 V1 V2
γ
⎛V ⎞ P
γ
Also, P4 V = P3 V
4 3
γ
∴ P4 = P3 ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟ = γ3
⎝ V4 ⎠ r
68

Process 2-3 and 3-4 are expansions and give positive work done.
Process 4-1 and 1-2 are compressions and give negative work done.
The net work done during the cycle will be the sum of the work done during these
processes.
Hence,
∫W = Area under (2-3) + area under (3-4) - area under (4-1) - area under (1-2)
(P3 V3 − P4 V4 ) (P V − P1 V1 )
= P2 (V3 − V2 ) + − P1 (V4 − V1 ) − 2 2
γ −1 γ −1
(P3 V3 − P4 V4 ) − (P2 V2 − P1 V1 )
= P2 (V3 − V2 ) − P1 (V4 − V1 ) + --- (3.14)
γ −1
= mR (T3 - T2) - mR (T4 - T1) +

mR
{(T3 − T4 ) − (T2 − T1 )}
γ −1
⎡ {(T − T4 ) − (T2 − T1 )}⎤

= mR ⎢(T3 − T2 ) − (T4 − T1 ) + 3 ⎥
⎣ γ −1 ⎦
⎡ {(T − T4 ) − (T2 − T1 )}⎤
= mR ⎢(T3 − T4 ) − (T2 − T1 ) + 3 ⎥
⎣ γ −1 ⎦
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ γ −1+1⎞
= mR{(T3 − T2 ) − (T4 − T1 )}⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟ = mR{(T3 − T2 ) − (T4 − T1 )}⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ γ −1⎠ ⎝ γ −1 ⎠
γ
= mR {(T3 − T2 ) − (T4 − T1 )} --- (3.15)
γ −1
Alternatively, the work done may be obtained from the equation,
Workdone = Heat received - Heat rejected
In this cycle, heat is received during the constant pressure process 2-3 and rejected during
constant pressure process 4-1.
No heat is received or rejected during the adiabatic processes. Hence,
∫W = mcp (T3 - T2) - mcp (T4 - T1)
= mcp {(T3 - T2) - (T4 - T1)}

Again, the work done may be obtained from the equation,
∫W = Heat received × Thermal η
∴ ∫ W = mcp (T3 - T2) × Thermal η
The thermal efficiency may be obtained as follows

69
Gas Power Cycles
Heat rejected mc p (T4 − T1 )

1− = 1−
Heat received mc p (T3 − T2 )
and assuming that cp remains constant,

(T4 − T1 )
Thermal η = 1 − --- (3.16)
(T3 − T2 )
This eqn. (3.16) gives the thermal efficiency in terms of temperature.

Also, substituting temperature in terms of T1 in eqn. (3.16)
⎛ V3 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟T1 − T1
Thermal η = 1 − ⎝ V2 ⎠ 1
= 1 − γ −1 --- (3.17)
⎛ V3 ⎞ γ −1 r
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟T1 r − T1 r γ −1
⎝ V2 ⎠
Now consider the adiabatics 1-2 and 3-4. Each have the same pressure ratio.
( γ −1) / γ γ −1
T2 ⎛ P2 ⎞ ⎛V ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ = ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ = r γ −1
T1 ⎜⎝ P1 ⎟⎠ ⎝ V2 ⎠
and since P2/P1 = P3/P4, then
T2 T3
= = r γ −1
T1 T4
Hence, from eqn. (3.17)
Thermal η = 1 - (T1/T2) = 1 - (T4/T3) --- (3.18)
Now for a constant pressure process,
Heat received or rejected = Change of enthalpy
∴Using a T-s chart,
Heat received = h3 - h2
Heat rejected = h4 - h1
Heat rejected (h − h 1 )
Thermal η = 1 − = 1− 4 --- (3.19)
Heat received (h 3 − h 2 )
Also ∫W = Heat received - Heat rejected
= (h3 - h2) - (h4 - h1)

Once again, this will give the work done/unit mass/cycle since the chart will be made
out for unit mass of gas.
70
Example. 3.3.
In an ideal constant pressure cycle, using air, the overall volume ratio of the cycle is
8:1. Adiabatic compression begins at 2/7th of the compression stroke when the conditions of
the air are 100 kN/m2, 0.084 m3 and 28°C. If γ= 1.4 and cp = 1.006 kJ/kg K, determine:
(a) the pressure, volume and temperature at the state points of the cycle;
(b) the heat received/cycle;
(c) the work done/cycle;
(d) the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
Solution:
71
Gas Power Cycles
72
73
Gas Power Cycles
Example. 3.4.
A gas turbine operating on a simple constant pressure cycle has a pressure
compression ratio of 8:1. The turbine has a thermal efficiency of 60% of the ideal. The fuel
used has a calorific value of 43 MJ/kg. If γ = 1.4 determine:
(a) the actual thermal efficiency of the turbine;
(b) the specific fuel consumption of the turbine in kg/kW h.
74
3.5. The Diesel Cycle

This cycle is so named after Rudolph Diesel (1858-1913). From about 1890, he
pioneered a great deal of work on fuel injection oil engines. He had a considerable interest in
the use of coal as a fuel for use in internal combustion engines. As a result of his work,
engines using fuel oil are commonly called Diesel engines. The cycle which bears his name is
illustrated in fig. 3.11.
Fig. 3.11. P-V and T-s diagram of Diesel cycle.

In Fig. 3.11.(a) is represented the P-V diagram of the Diesel cycle and (b) is
This process completes the cycle and returns the gas to its original state. This cycle is
sometimes referred to as the modified constant pressure cycle. If, instead of cutting off the
75
Gas Power Cycles
expansion at 4, the gas was allowed to expand completely to 5, then, in order to return the gas
to its original state at 1, constant pressure heat rejection would have to take place from 5 to 1.
This is shown with dotted line. The diagram 12 3 5 is the constant pressure cycle and, by
cutting off the part 1 4 5, it is modified into the Diesel cycle.
In practice, by cutting off part 1 4 5 of the cycle a considerable saving in cylinder
volume would be obtained. The area 1 4 5 represents a small amount of work which does not
really justify the increase of the cylinder volume from V1, to V5.
An analysis of the properties at state points 1, 2, 3 and 4 can be made. Again it is here
assumed that P1, V1 and T1 are known.
76
The work done during the cycle may be determined as follows:

Processes 2-3 and 3-4 are expansions and hence give positive work done. Process 1-2
is a compression and hence will give negative work done. The net work done during the cycle
will be the sum of the work done during these processes.
Hence,
Alternatively, the work done may be obtained from the equation,

Work done = Heat received - Heat rejected.
In this cycle, heat is received during constant pressure process 2-3 and rejected during
constant volume process 4-1. No heat is received or rejected during the adiabatic processes.
Hence,
or
This gives the thermal efficiency in terms of temperatures. Also, substituting

temperatures in terms of T1 into the above equation, then,
77
Gas Power Cycles
Now, for a constant pressure process,

Heat received or rejected = Change of enthalpy
For a constant volume process,
Heat received or rejected = Change of internal energy.
∴Using the T-s chart,
Heat received = h3 — h2
Heat rejected = u4 - u1
Also,
Once again this gives the work done/unit mass/cycle, since the chart will be made out
for unit mass of gas. It should be noted here that the Diesel cycle does not in fact follow the
cycle of a modern Diesel engine. The actual cycle is more closely approximated by the cycle
which follows, namely, the dual combustion cycle.
Example. 3.5.
An engine uses air as the working substance. At the beginning of compression the
pressure is 90 kN/m2 and the temperature is 40°C. During the adiabatic compression the
volume is reduced to one-sixteenth of its value at the beginning of the compression stroke.
Heat is then added at constant pressure until the temperature is 1400°C. The stroke is
completed by adiabatic expansion until the initial volume is reached, when the cycle is closed
by a constant volume process.
(a) Sketch the P-V diagram for the engine;
(b) Calculate the temperature and pressure at all four corners of the diagram;
78
(c) Determine the thermal efficiency of the cycle.

Take γ = 1.4, cp = 1.004 kJ/kgK.
Solution:
(a) This is the Diesel cycle.

79
Gas Power Cycles
Example. 3.6.
In an ideal Diesel cycle, the compression ratio is 15:1 and the expansion ratio is 7.5:1.
The pressure and temperature at the beginning of compression are 98 kN/m2 and 44°C,
respectively, and the pressure at the end of expansion is 258 kN/m2. Determine:
(a) the maximum temperature attained during the cycle;
(b) the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
Take γ = 1.4.
Solution:
80
Example. 3.7.
An oil engine works on the ideal Diesel cycle. The overall compression ratio is 11:1
and constant pressure energy addition ceases at 10% of the stroke. Intake conditions are 96
kN/m2 and 18°C. The engine uses 0.05 m3 of air/s. If γ = 1.4, determine:
(a) the thermal efficiency of the cycle;
(b) the indicated power of the engine.
Solution:
(a) Swept volume = 11 - 1 = 10 volumes
10% of swet volume = 10 × 0.1 = 1 volume
81
Gas Power Cycles
82
3.6. The Dual Combustion Cycle

This cycle is sometimes referred to as the composite cycle. In this cycle heat is
received partly at constant volume and partly at constant pressure, hence the name, dual
combustion cycle. Heat is rejected at constant volume.
This cycle fits the actual cycle of an oil engine rather more closely than the Diesel
cycle. This is because in an actual oil engine part of the fuel burns very nearly , at constant
volume followed by the remainder of the fuel burning very nearly at constant pressure.
The cycle is sometimes also referred to as the high-speed Diesel cycle.
(a) (b)
Fig. 3. 12. P-V and T-s diagram of Dual combustin Cycle
In fig. 3.12(a) is represented a P-V diagram of the dual combustion cycle and (b) is
1-2 Adiabatic compression according to the law PVγ = C.
Pressure increases from P1 to P2
Entropy remains constant at s1 = s2
83
Gas Power Cycles
This process completes the cycle and returns the gas to its original state.
An analysis of the properties at state points 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 can be made. It is here that P1, V1,
and T1 are known.
84

Processes 3-4 and 4-5 are expansions and hence give positive work done.
Process 1-2 is a compression and hence gives negative work done.
The net work done during the cycle will be the sum of the work done during these
processes. Hence,
∫ W = Area under 3-4 + area under 4-5 - area under 1-2

85
Gas Power Cycles
Alternatively, the work done may be obtained from the equation.

Work done = Heat received - Heat rejected
In this cycle heat is received during constant volume process 2-3 and constant pressure
process 3-4 and rejected during constant volume process 5-1.
No heat is received or rejected during the adiabatic processes.
Alternatively,
∫W = Heat received × Thermal η
= {m cv (T3 - T2) + m cp (T4 - T3)} × Thermal η

The thermal efficiency may be determined as follows:
Heat rejected
Thermal η = 1−
Heat received
This gives the thermal efficiency in terms of temperatures.

Also, substituting temperatures in terms of T1 into the above eqn., then,
Note that this expression contains the expressions for thermal efficiency of both the
constant volume and the Diesel cycles.
If β = 1, then there is no constant pressure heat addition since V4 = V3 and substituting
this into the above eqn.
86
1
Thermal η = 1 − , i.e. constant volume cycle.
r γ −1
If α = 1, then there is no constant volume heat addition, since P3 = P2 and substituting
this into the efficiency eqn.
Thermal η = 1 −
1 1 βγ −1 ( ,
) i.e. the Diesel cycle.
r γ −1 γ (β − 1)
For the dual combustion cycle, using the T-s chart,
Heat received at constant volume = u3 - u2
Heat received at constant pressure = h4 - h3
Heat received at constant volume = u5 - u1
Heat rejected
Thermal η = 1−
Heat received
(u 5 − u 1 )
=1-
(u 3 − u 2 ) + (h 4 − h 3 )
∫W = (u3 - u2) + (h4 - h3) - (u3 - u1)
Again, this gves the work done/unit mass cycle, since the chart will be made out for
unit mass of gas.
Example. 3.8
An ideal internal combustion engine cycle includes the following successive processes:
(a) Adiabatic compression during the whole stroke.
(b) Heat added at constant volume.
(c) Heat added at constant pressure for 3 % of the expansion stroke.
At the beginning of compression the pressure of the gas is 103 kN/rn and its
temperature is 22 C. The compression ratio is 16 and the added at constant volume is 244
kJ/kg of gas. Determine:
(a) the pressure and temperature at the end of compression
(b) the pressure and temperature after heat is added at constant volume.
(c) the temperature after heat is added constant pressure.
Take γ = 1.4, cv = 0.717 kJ/kgK
87
Gas Power Cycles
Solution:
88
Example 3.9.
A dual combustion cycle has an adiabatic compression, volume ratio of 15:1. The
conditions at the commencement of compression are 97 kN/m2, 0.084 m3 and 28°C. The
maximum pressure of the cycle is 6.2 MN/m2 and the maximum temperature of the cycle is
1320°C. If cp = 1006 kJ/kg K and cv = 0-717 kJ/kg K, determine:
(a) the pressure, volume and temperature at the corners of the cycle;
(b) the work done/cycle;
(c) the thermal efficiency of the cycle;
(d) the heat received/cycle.
Solution:
89
Gas Power Cycles
90
91
Gas Power Cycles
Exercise
3.1. Prove that the air standard efficiency of an engine working on the constant volume
1
(Otto) cycle is given by: 1−
r γ −1
where r = volume ratio of compression
γ = the adiabatic index
Calculate the air standard efficiency of an engine working on this cycle, if the
pressures at the beginning and end of the compression are 103.5 kN/m2 and 827.5
kN/m2, respectively. Take γ = 1.4.
3.2. An ideal Otto cycle has a compression ratio is 8. At the beginning of the compression
process, air is at 95 kPa and 27°C, and 750 kJ/kg of heat is transferred to air during
the constant-volume heat-addition process. Taking into account the variation of
specific heats with temperature, determine:
(a) the pressure and temperature at the end of the heat-addition process;
(b) the net work output;
(c) the thermal efficiency. Take γ = 1.4.
3.3. The diameter of the piston of a petrol engine is 100 mm and the stroke is 100 mm.
The clearance volume is 0.105 litre. If its relative efficiency is 40%, calculate the
actual thermal efficiency. Take γ = 1.4.
3.4. Show that for the ideal constant pressure (Joule) cycle, the thermal efficiency is given
1
by, 1 −
r γ −1
where γ = the adiabatic index
and r = adiabatic compression and expansion volume ratio.
In an engine working on the ideal constant pressure cycle, the adiabatic compression
and expansion volume ratio is 4.5 and 50 kJ are rejected at constant pressuer per
cycle. Determine the work done per cycle. Take γ = 1.4
3.5 0.5 kg of air is taken through a constant pressure cycle. Conditions at the beginning of
adiabatic compression are 96 kN/m2 and 15°C. The pressure ratio of compression is 6.
Constant pressure heat addition occurs after adiabatic compression until the volume is
doubled. If γ = 1.4 and R = 0.287 kJ/kgK, determine:
(a) the thermal efficiency of the cycle;
(b) the heat received per cycle;
92
(c) the work done per cycle.

3.6. In an ideal Diesel cycle the pressure and temperature at the beginning of compression
are 98.5 kN/m2 and 60°C, respectively. The maximum pressure attained during te
cycle is 4.5 MN/m2 and the heat received during the cycle is 580 kJ/kg of working
fluid. Determine:
(a) the compression ratio;
(b) the temperature at the end of compression;
(c) the temperature at the end of combustion.
Assume, γ = 1.4 and cp = 1.003 kJ/kgK.
3.7. A Diesel engine has a clearance volume of 0.00025 m3 and a bore and stroke of 152.5
mm and 200 mm respectively, A charge of air at 100 kN/m2 and 20°C is taken into
the cylinder and compressed adiabatically (γ = 1.4). After combustion at constant
pressure the temperature is 1090°C. The expansion which follows is adiabatic. Find:
(a) the temperature and pressure at the end of compression;
(b) the temperature and pressure after expansion;
(c) the ideal thermal efficiency of the engine.
3.8 In an ideal dual combustin cycle conditions at the commencement of adiabatic
compression are 93 kN/m2. 0.05 m3 and 24°C, respectively. The adiabatic
compression volume ratio is 9:1. The constant volume heat addition pressure ratio is
1.5 and the constant pressure heat addition volume ratio is 2. If cp = 1.05 kJ/kg.K and
cv = 0.775 kJ/kg.K, determine:
(a) the pressure, volume and temperature at the state points of the cycle;
(b) the thermal efficiencyo f the cycle;
(c) the work done per cycle.
3.9. The compression ratio of an ideal dual cycle is 14. Air is at 100 kPa and 300 K at the
beginning of the compression process and at 2200 K at the end of the heat-addition
process. Heat transfer to air takes place partly at constant volume and partly at
constant pressure, and it amounts to 1520.4 kJ/kg. Assuming variable specific heats
for air, determine:
(a) the fraction of heat transferred at constant volume and
(b) the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
Take cp = 1.05 kJ/kg.K and cv = 0.775 kJ/kg.K.

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Basic Engineering Thermodynamics

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MINISTRY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

BASIC ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

A.G.T.I (First Year)

Chapter Title Page

Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of energy. Although everybody has a

Hence the pressure is an independent property but the temperature is a dependent

Fig. 1.1. Closed and Open Systems

Fig. 1.2. The Control Volume and its Surface

Fig. 1.4. A pressure gage open to the atmosphere

Fig. 1.5. Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures.

From eqn. 1.9,

Fig. 1.8. Inclined manometer

A large reservoir A is connected to a sloping manometer tube B. The cross-sectional

Fig. 1.10 Sketch of temperature, which be observed on the thermometer. In the

1.19. Work and the P-V diagram

Fig. 1.11. Example of P-V diagram

Fig. 1.12. A thermodynamics system

This is an investigation into single-phase systems. The single-phase being considered

Fig. 2.1. PV diagram of a gas

2.2. Charle's Law

Fig. 2.2. V-T diagram when pressure remains constant

2.3. The characteristic equation of a perfect gas

Fig. 2.3. Possible paths of connecting states 1 and 2

2.5. The constant volume heating of a gas.

Fig. 2.5. PV diagram of constant volume heating process

Fig. 2.6. PV diagram of constant pressure heating process

From eqn. (2.19)

Work done = P(V2 - V1)

U2 - U1 = mcv(T2 - T1) --- (2.23)

2.8. The polytropic process and a gas

Substituting eqn. 2.36 in eqn. 2.35.

Combining eqn. 2.27 and 2.29 then,

t2 = 365 - 273 = 92°C = final temperature.

2.10. The adiabatic process and a gas

Applying the non-flow energy equation Q = ∆U + W

P1 V1 − P2 V2 700 × 0.015 − 140 × 0.048

2.11. The isothermal process and a gas

Applying the non-flow energy equation, Q = ∆U + W.

(b) the change of internal energy during the expansion

This is heat rejected.

Now Q = ∆U + W and for an adiabatic process Q = 0

Also, the work done during the change

3.2. The Carnot Cycle

Fig. 3.1. P-V and T-s diagrams of a Carnot Cycle

From the T-s diagram,

3.2. An overview of Internal Combustion Engines (Reciprocating Engines)

Fig. 3.2. Nomenclature for Fig. 3.3. Displacement and clearance

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 3.6 Valve timing diagram of two-stroke cycle engine

Fig. 3.7. timing diagram of four-stroke cycle engine

1-2 Adiabatic compression of the gas according to the law PV = C.

Also, from the constant volume process 4-1,

= area 1 2 3 4 = area of diagram.

∴ ∫ W = m cv (T3 - T2) - m cv (T4 - T1) --- (3.9)

= m cv {(T3 - T2) - (T4 - T1)} --- (3.10)

But V1/V2 = V4/V3 = r,

Note that from eqn. 3.1, ∫W = Heat received × Thermal η

= m cv (T3 - T2) × Thermal η --- (3.13)

For point 1, Pressure = 103 kN/m2, Temperature = 100°C = 373 K

For point 2, P1 V1γ = P2 V2γ

t3 = 2080 - 273 = 1807°C

t4 = 1020 - 273 = 747°C

Workdone/kg / cycle = 930 - 0.717 (1002 - 323)