Petroleum reservoir

A petroleum reservoir or oil

and gas reservoir is a
subsurface pool of hydrocarbons
contained in porous or fractured
rock formations. Petroleum
reservoirs are broadly classified as
conventional and
unconventional reservoirs. In
case of conventional reservoirs,
the naturally occurring
hydrocarbons, such as crude oil or
natural gas, are trapped by
overlying rock formations with
lower permeability. While in
unconventional reservoirs the A structure map, looking downward,
rocks have high porosity and low generated by contour-map software
permeability which keeps the for an 8,500-ft-deep gas and oil
hydrocarbons trapped in place, reservoir in the Erath field, Erath,
Louisiana. The left-to-right gap near
therefore not requiring a cap rock.
the top indicates a fault line between
Reservoirs are found using
the blue and green contour lines
hydrocarbon exploration and the purple, red, and yellow
methods. lines. The thin red circular line in the
middle indicates the top of the oil
reservoir. Because gas rises above
oil, this latter line marks the gas-
and-oil contact zone.
Contents
Formation
Traps
 Structural traps
Stratigraphic traps
Hydrodynamic traps
Seal/ cap rock

Estimating reserves
Production
Drive mechanisms
Solution-gas drive
Gas cap drive
Aquifer (water) drive
Water and gas injection
Gravity drainage
Gas & gas condensate
reservoirs
See also
References

Formation
Crude oil is found in all oil reservoirs formed in the Earth's crust from the
remains of once-living things. Evidence indicates that millions of years of
heat and pressure changed the remains of microscopic plant and animal into
oil and natural gas.

Roy Nurmi, an interpretation adviser for Schlumberger oil field services

company, described the process as follows:

Plankton and algae, proteins and the life that's floating in the
sea, as it dies, falls to the bottom, and these organisms are
going to be the source of our oil and gas. When they're buried
with the accumulating sediment and reach an adequate
temperature, something above 50 to 70 °C they start to cook.
 This transformation, this change, changes them into the liquid
hydrocarbons that move and migrate, will become our oil and
gas reservoir.[1]

In addition to the aquatic environment, which is usually a sea, but might also
be a river, lake, coral reef or algal mat, the formation of an oil or gas reservoir
also requires a sedimentary basin that passes through four steps:[2]

Deep burial under sand and mud.

Pressure cooking.
Hydrocarbon migration from the source to the reservoir rock.
Trapping by impermeable rock.
Timing is also an important consideration; it is suggested that the Ohio River
Valley could have had as much oil as the Middle East at one time, but that it
escaped due to a lack of traps.[2] The North Sea, on the other hand, endured
millions of years of sea level changes that successfully resulted in the
formation of more than 150 oilfields.[3]

Although the process is generally the same, various environmental factors

lead to the creation of a wide variety of reservoirs. Reservoirs exist anywhere
from the land surface to 30,000 ft (9,000 m) below the surface and are a
variety of shapes, sizes and ages.[4]

Traps
A trap forms when the buoyancy forces driving the upward migration of
hydrocarbons through a permeable rock cannot overcome the capillary forces
of a sealing medium. The timing of trap formation relative to that of
petroleum generation and migration is crucial to ensuring a reservoir can
form.[5]

Petroleum geologists broadly classify traps into three categories that are
based on their geological characteristics: the structural trap, the stratigraphic
trap and the far less common hydrodynamic trap.[6] The trapping
mechanisms for many petroleum reservoirs have characteristics from several
categories and can be known as a combination trap.

Structural traps
Structural traps are formed as a result of changes in
the structure of the subsurface due to processes such as
folding and faulting, leading to the formation of domes,
anticlines, and folds.[7] Examples of this kind of trap Fold (structural)
are an anticline trap,[8] a fault trap and a salt dome trap
trap. (see salt dome)

They are more easily delineated and more prospective

than their stratigraphic counterparts, with the majority
of the world's petroleum reserves being found in
structural traps. Fault
(structural) trap

Stratigraphic traps
Stratigraphic traps are formed as a result of lateral and vertical variations in
the thickness, texture, porosity or lithology of the reservoir rock. Examples of
this type of trap are an unconformity trap, a lens trap and a reef trap.[9]

Hydrodynamic traps
Hydrodynamic traps are a far less common type of trap.[10] They are caused
by the differences in water pressure, that are associated with water flow,
creating a tilt of the hydrocarbon-water contact.

Seal/ cap rock

The seal is a fundamental part of the trap that prevents hydrocarbons from
further upward migration.
A capillary seal is formed when the capillary pressure across the pore throats
is greater than or equal to the buoyancy pressure of the migrating
hydrocarbons. They do not allow fluids to migrate across them until their
integrity is disrupted, causing them to leak. There are two types of capillary
seal [11] whose classifications are based on the preferential mechanism of
leaking: the hydraulic seal and the membrane seal.

The membrane seal will leak whenever the pressure differential across the
seal exceeds the threshold displacement pressure, allowing fluids to migrate
through the pore spaces in the seal. It will leak just enough to bring the
pressure differential below that of the displacement pressure and will
reseal.[12]

The hydraulic seal occurs in rocks that have a significantly higher

displacement pressure such that the pressure required for tension fracturing
is actually lower than the pressure required for fluid displacement – for
example, in evaporites or very tight shales. The rock will fracture when the
pore pressure is greater than both its minimum stress and its tensile strength
then reseal when the pressure reduces and the fractures close.

Estimating reserves
After the discovery of a reservoir, a petroleum engineer will seek to build a
better picture of the accumulation. In a simple textbook example of a uniform
reservoir, the first stage is to conduct a seismic survey to determine the
possible size of the trap. Appraisal wells can be used to determine the location
of oil-water contact and with it, the height of the oil bearing sands. Often
coupled with seismic data, it is possible to estimate the volume of oil bearing
reservoir.

The next step is to use information from appraisal wells to estimate the
porosity of the rock. The porosity, or the percentage of the total volume that
contains fluids rather than solid rock, is 20-35% or less. It can give
information on the actual capacity. Laboratory testing can determine the
characteristics of the reservoir fluids, particularly the expansion factor of the
oil, or how much the oil expands when brought from high pressure, high
temperature of the reservoir to "stock tank" at the surface.

With such information, it is possible to estimate how many "stock tank"

barrels of oil are located in the reservoir. Such oil is called the stock tank oil
initially in place (STOIIP). As a result of studying factors such as the
permeability of the rock (how easily fluids can flow through the rock) and
possible drive mechanisms, it is possible to estimate the recovery factor, or
what proportion of oil in place can be reasonably expected to be produced.
The recovery factor is commonly 30-35%, giving a value for the recoverable
reserves.

The difficulty is that reservoirs are not uniform. They have variable porosities
and permeabilities and may be compartmentalised, with fractures and faults
breaking them up and complicating fluid flow. For this reason, computer
modeling of economically viable reservoirs is often carried out. Geologists,
geophysicists and reservoir engineers work together to build a model which
allows simulation of the flow of fluids in the reservoir, leading to an improved
estimate of reserves.

Production
To obtain the contents of the oil reservoir, it is usually necessary to drill into
the Earth's crust, although surface oil seeps exist in some parts of the world,
such as the La Brea tar pits in California, and numerous seeps in Trinidad.

Drive mechanisms
A virgin reservoir may be under sufficient pressure to push hydrocarbons to
surface. As the fluids are produced, the pressure will often decline, and
production will falter. The reservoir may respond to the withdrawal of fluid in
a way that tends to maintain the pressure. Artificial drive methods may be
necessary.
Solution-gas drive
This mechanism (also known as depletion drive) depends on the associated
gas of the oil. The virgin reservoir may be entirely liquid, but will be expected
to have gaseous hydrocarbons in solution due to the pressure. As the reservoir
depletes, the pressure falls below the bubble point, and the gas comes out of
solution to form a gas cap at the top. This gas cap pushes down on the liquid
helping to maintain pressure.

This occurs when the natural gas is in a cap below the oil. When the well is
drilled the lowered pressure above means that the oil expands. As the
pressure is reduced it reaches bubble point and subsequently the gas bubbles
drive the oil to the surface. The bubbles then reach critical saturation and
flow together as a single gas phase. Beyond this point and below this pressure
the gas phase flows out more rapidly than the oil because of its lowered
viscosity. More free gas is produced and eventually the energy source is
depleted. In some cases depending on the geology the gas may migrate to the
top of the oil and form a secondary gas cap.

Some energy may be supplied by water, gas in water, or compressed rock.

These are usually minor contributions with respect to hydrocarbon
expansion.

By properly managing the production rates, greater benefits can be had from
solution-gas drives. Secondary recovery involves the injection of gas or water
to maintain reservoir pressure. The gas/oil ratio and the oil production rate
are stable until the reservoir pressure drops below the bubble point when
critical gas saturation is reached. When the gas is exhausted, the gas/oil ratio
and the oil rate drops, the reservoir pressure has been reduced and the
reservoir energy exhausted.

Gas cap drive

In reservoirs already having a gas cap (the virgin pressure is already below
bubble point), the gas cap expands with the depletion of the reservoir,
pushing down on the liquid sections applying extra pressure.

This is present in the reservoir if there is more gas than can be dissolved in
the reservoir. The gas will often migrate to the crest of the structure. It is
compressed on top of the oil reserve, as the oil is produced the cap helps to
push the oil out. Over time the gas cap moves down and infiltrates the oil and
eventually the well will begin to produce more and more gas until it produces
only gas. It is best to manage the gas cap effectively; that is, placing the oil
wells such that the gas cap will not reach them until the maximum amount of
oil is produced. Also a high production rate may cause the gas to migrate
downward into the production interval. In this case over time the reservoir
pressure depletion is not as steep as in the case of solution based gas drive. In
this case the oil rate will not decline as steeply but will depend also on the
placement of the well with respect to the gas cap.

As with other drive mechanisms, water or gas injection can be used to

maintain reservoir pressure. When a gas cap is coupled with water influx the
recovery mechanism can be highly efficient.

Aquifer (water) drive

Water (usually salty) may be present below the hydrocarbons. Water, as with
all liquids, is compressible to a small degree. As the hydrocarbons are
depleted, the reduction in pressure in the reservoir allows the water to expand
slightly. Although this unit expansion is minute, if the aquifer is large enough
this will translate into a large increase in volume, which will push up on the
hydrocarbons, maintaining pressure.

With a water-drive reservoir the decline in reservoir pressure is very slight; in

some cases the reservoir pressure may remain unchanged. The gas/oil ratio
also remains stable. The oil rate will remain fairly stable until the water
reaches the well. In time, the water cut will increase and the well will be
watered out.[13]

The water may be present in an aquifer (but rarely one replenished with
surface water). This water gradually replaces the volume of oil and gas that is
produced out of the well, given that the production rate is equivalent to the
aquifer activity. That is, the aquifer is being replenished from some natural
water influx. If the water begins to be produced along with the oil, the
recovery rate may become uneconomical owing to the higher lifting and water
disposal costs.

Water and gas injection

If the natural drives are insufficient, as they very often are, then the pressure
can be artificially maintained by injecting water into the aquifer or gas into
the gas cap.

Gravity drainage
The force of gravity will cause the oil to move downward of the gas and
upward of the water. If vertical permeability exists then recovery rates may be
even better.

Gas & gas condensate reservoirs

These occur if the reservoir conditions allow the hydrocarbons to exist as a
gas. Retrieval is a matter of gas expansion. Recovery from a closed reservoir
(i.e., no water drive) is very good, especially if bottom hole pressure is
reduced to a minimum (usually done with compressors at the well head). Any
produced liquids are light coloured to colourless, with a gravity higher than
45 API. Gas Cycling is the process where dry gas is injected and produced
along with condensed liquid.
See also
Drilling
Well stimulation

References
1. "The Making of Oil: Birth of a Reservoir" (https://web.archive.org/web/200
51120073151/http://www.seed.slb.com/en/scictr/watch/makingoi/birth/ind
ex.htm). Schlumberger Excellence in Educational Development. Archived
from the original (http://www.seed.slb.com/en/scictr/watch/makingoi/birth/
index.htm) on November 20, 2005. Retrieved January 30, 2006.
2. "What is a Reservoir?" (https://web.archive.org/web/20060427134445/htt
p://www.seed.slb.com/en/scictr/watch/makingoi/birth/birth.htm).
Schlumberger Excellence in Educational Development. Archived from
the original (http://www.seed.slb.com/en/scictr/watch/makingoi/birth/birth.
htm) on April 27, 2006. Retrieved January 30, 2006.
3. "Rise and Fall of the North Sea" (https://web.archive.org/web/200511222
32002/http://www.seed.slb.com/en/scictr/watch/makingoi/birth/nsea.htm).
Schlumberger Excellence in Educational Development. Archived from
the original (http://www.seed.slb.com/en/scictr/watch/makingoi/birth/nsea.
htm) on November 22, 2005. Retrieved January 30, 2006.
4. "What is a Reservoir? - What are some characteristics?" (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20110816134826/http://www.planetseed.com/node/15282).
Schlumberger Excellence in Educational Development. Archived from
the original (http://www.planetseed.com/node/15282) on August 16,
2011. Retrieved January 30, 2006.
5. Gluyas, J; Swarbrick, R (2004). Petroleum Geoscience. Blackwell
Publishing. ISBN 978-0-632-03767-4.
6. Basin Analysis: Principles and Applications. Allen, P.A. & Allen, J.R.
(2005). Second Edition. Publ. Blackwell Publishing
7. Structural traps (http://www.priweb.org/ed/pgws/systems/traps/structural/
structural.html)
8. Schlumberger - Search Results (http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/Displ
ay.cfm?Term=anticlinal%20trap)
 9. The Oil Trap (http://www.priweb.org/ed/pgws/systems/traps/traps_home.
html)
10. Gluyas, J; Swarbrick, R (2004). Petroleum Geoscience. Blackwell
Publishing. p. 148. ISBN 978-0-632-03767-4.
11. Watts, N.L., 1987, Theoretical aspects of cap-rock and fault seals for
single- and two-phase hydrocarbon columns, Marine and Petroleum
Geology, 4, 274-307.
12. Peter J. Ortoleva (1994). "Basin compartments and seals" (https://books.
google.com/books?id=K-UO2-hM5nQC&printsec=frontcover&source=gb
s_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false). AAPG Memoir. AAPG.
61: 34. Retrieved 15 March 2012.
13. Waterdrive (http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/en/Terms/w/waterdrive.as
px) at Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary

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