Iclterpop Section 3

LTE Link Budgets
LTE Link Budgets
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LTE Link Budgets
LTE Link Budgets

Intro to Basic Radio System 4
Typical Link Budget Requirements 6
LTE Link Budget Variables 8
LTE Transmit Power Capability for the UE 10
Additional Factors Affecting UE Power Output 12
eNodeB Power Output Characteristics 14
Typical Losses in the eNB 16
Antenna Characteristics for the UE 18
Antenna Characteristics for eNB 20
Sensitivity Calculation for the eNB 22
Thermal Noise in Radio Systems 24
Type of Service and Impact on Noise Floor 26
Implementation Margin, UE, eNB, (from blue book) 28
Receiver Noise Figure 30
Total Noise Floor 32
Cascaded Noise 34
Typical SNR for LTE Modulation
and Coding Schemes 36
Duplex Gap and Duplex Distance, Effect
on Receiver Sensitivity 38
Calculating System Gain 40
Environmental Factors and Noise Rise 42
Shadow Margin (Slow Fading) 44
Building and Foliage Losses 48
Body Loss 50
Uplink and Downlink Noise Rise 52
Propagation Modelling 54
Coverage from Link Budget 58
Comparison of Models 60
COST 231 Propagation Model 64
The WINNER Model 66
Cell Range Calculations from MAPL 70
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LTE Link Budgets
Intro to Basic Radio System

Every radio system is a series of components and links, from the transmitter to the receiver.
Each element of the system will exhibit some attribute of performance that affects the overall
performance of the end to end system. A typical link budget exercise will need to quantify each
of these performance attributes and understand the impact it may have on the system
performance, i.e. the capacity and coverage.
Many factors can be determined from manufacturers data sheets, thing such as the Tx power,
feeder losses, antenna gains etc..however some parts of the system, the radio interface, must
be modelled in order to determine a satisfactory plan.
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Output power
• Watts, milliwats Gain (directivity)
• dBm, dBW Loss @ oper. freq. • dBi
• dB/length • dBd
TX
Information Xmission
Modulator Amp Antenna
source line
Loss (dB)
• Operating freqency (MHz, GHz)
• Operating freqency (MHz, GHz) L • Distance (km, miles)
• Bandwidth (KHz, MHz) I • Environment
• Signalling rate (Ksps, Msps)
• Modulation (X-PSK, X-QAM) N Time dispersion (μsec, nsec)
• Error correction overhead K • Bandwidth (KHz, MHz)
• Fading (selective, flat)
• Inter-symbol interference
RX
Information Xmission
Demodulator Amp Antenna
source line
Loss @ oper. freq. Gain (directivity)
Sensitivity* • Gain (dB) • dB/length • dBi
• Threshold (dBm) • NFdB • NFdB • dBd
• C/N (dB)
• C/I+N (dB)
• Eb/No (dB)
Fig. 1 – Typical Radio System
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LTE Link Budgets
Typical Link Budget Requirements

One of the main aims of calculating a link budget is to determine the maximum path loss
allowed across the radio link for a given performance objective. The link loss will be due in part
to the performance of the transmitter and receiver components as well as the impact of the
environment through which the signal will propagate.
The goal of link planning is to determine the parameter MAPL (Maximum Allowable Path Loss)
MAPL = System Gain – Margin(fade, body, building, trees)
System Gain is a function of the radiated power from the transmitter system and the minimum
signal power that can be presented to the face of the receiving antenna. The value of System
gain is an indication of the maximum and minimum values in the link budget.
Link Margins are subtracted from the System Gain to determine the maximum path loss for
a given set of assumptions for the transmitting and receiving system. This MAPL can
subsequently converted in to a nominal cell range using an appropriate propagation model.
System gain is determined by subtracting the maximum transmit power from the minimum
receive power.
System Gain = EiRP – IRLmin
Where EiRP and IRLmin are given by:
EiRP = Tx_PWR – Ltx + Gtx
IRLmin = Rx_SENS + Lrx – Grx
The values of feeder and connector (and any other) losses can be determined from manufacturer
data sheets as can the Tx_PWR of the eNB and UE. It is likely that the Rx-SENS will also be
quoted by the vendor for the eNB and UE however the calculation is rather complex and can
involve many parameters that will ultimately have a great impact on the overall system
performance, it is worth therefore, a closer examination.

EiRP = Tx_PWR – Ltx + Gtx
IRLmin = Rx_SENS + Lrx – Grx
Fig. 2 – Basic Link Budget Expressions

LTE Link Budgets
LTE Link Budget Variables

The basic expression from above can be formulated to include aspects of the LTE link budget.
The expressions on the opposite page show how the MAPL for the uplink and downlink may
be calculated. It is assumed in these cases that the UE will have no losses due to cables
or connectors.
Since most cellular systems are limited by the performance of the uplink it is common to being
the link budgeting process with the uplink and look for a link balance with the downlink.

MAPLUL = (Tx_PWRUE + Gtx_UE ) – (Rx_SENSeNB + Lrx_eNB – Grx_eNB ) – Margins(fade, body, building, trees)
MAPLDL = (Tx_PWReNB – Ltx_eNB + Gtx_eNB ) – (Rx_SENSUE – Grx_UE ) – Margins(fade, body, building, trees)
Fig. 3 – LTE Link Budget Expressions

LTE Link Budgets
LTE Transmit Power Capability for the UE

The power output of the UE is pretty straight forward since at the present time only a single
maximum power output is specified. However it could be possible in future to have different
power outputs depending on the power class of the UE in each of the different specified bands.
The following maximum output powers can be assumed:
• 23 dBm for the UE

E-UTRA Class 1 Tolerance Class 2 Tolerance Class 3 Tolerance Class 4 Tolerance
band (dBm) (dB) (dBm) (dB) (dBm) (dB) (dBm) (dB)
1 23 ±2
2 23 ±22
3 23 ±22
4 23 ±2
5 23 ±2
6 23 ±2
7 23 ±22
8 23 ±22
9 23 ±2
10 23 ±2
11 23 ±2
12 23 ±22
13 23 ±2
14 23 ±2
…
17 23 ±2
18 23 ±2
19 23 ±2
20 23 ±2[2]
21 23 ±2
…
33 23 ±2
34 23 ±2
35 23 ±2
36 23 ±2
37 23 ±2
38 23 ±2
39 23 ±2
40 23 ±2
Note:
1. The above tolerances are applicable for UE(s) that support up to 4 E-UTRA operating bands. For UE(s) that
support 5 or more E-UTRA bands the maximum output power is expected to decrease with each additional
band and is FFS
2. For transmission bandwidths (Figure 5.6-1) confined within FUL_low and FUL_low + 4 MHz or FUL_high – 4 MHz and
FUL_high, the maximum output power requirement is relaxed by reducing the lower tolerance limit by 1.5 dB
3. For the UE which supports both Band 11 and Band 21 operating frequencies, the tolerance is FFS
4. PPowerClass is the maximum UE power specified without taking into account the tolerance
Fig. 4 – Typical Transmitter Characteristics for UE

LTE Link Budgets
Additional Factors Affecting UE Power Output

The maximum power output of an LTE UE is specified to be 23dBm, however there other
factors that might result in a reduced power out put, this first is;
Maximum Power Reduction (MPR)

Maximum Power Reduction (MPR) is a reduction in the power output of the UE due to a
high order modulation scheme being used, this reduction in power eases some of the problems
that occur with high peak values in the power amplifier, it is thought that the disadvantages
of reduction in power is out-weighed by reduced complexity in the power amplifier stages
of the transmitter.
Additional-Maximum Power Reduction (A-MPR)

It is possible for the network to signal additional power reductions in specific deployments
where there are tighter requirements of Adjacent Channel Leakage Ration (ACLR) and other
spectrum emission requirements.
The reductions for MPR and A-MPR are shown in the tables opposite.

Maximum Power Reduction
Modulation Channel bandwidth/transmission bandwidth configuration (RB) MPR (dB)
1.4 MHz 3.0 MHz 5 MHz 10 MHz 15 MHz 20 MHz
QPSK >5 >4 >8 > 12 > 16 > 18 ≤1
16 QAM ≤5 ≤4 ≤8 ≤ 12 ≤ 16 ≤ 18 ≤1
16 QAM >5 >4 >8 > 12 > 16 > 18 ≤2
Additional-Maximum Power Reduction

Network E-UTRA Channel Resources A-MPR (dB)
Signalling Band Bandwidth Blocks
Value (MHz)
NS_01 NA NA NA NA
NS_03 2, 4,10, 35, 36 3 >5 ≤1
2, 4,10, 35,36 5 >6 ≤1
2, 4,10, 35,36 10 >6 ≤1
2, 4,10,35,36 15 >8 ≤1
2, 4,10,35, 36 20 >10 ≤1
NS_04 TBD TBD TBD
NS_05 1 10,15,20 ≥ 50 for QPSK ≤1
NS_06 12, 13, 14, 17 1.4, 3, 5, 10 n/a n/a
NS_07 13 10
NS_08 19 10, 15 > 29 ≤1
> 39 ≤2
> 44 ≤3
NS_[09] 21 TBD TBD TBD
…
NS_32 – – – –
Fig. 5 – Additional Factors Affecting UE Power Output

LTE Link Budgets
eNodeB Power Output Characteristics

According to the 3GPP specifications there are 3 classes of base station.
Wide Area Base Stations are characterised by requirements derived from Macro Cell scenarios
with a BS to UE minimum coupling loss equal to 70 dB. No upper limit for power output is
specified by 3GPP for this class of base station (some regional limits apply, in addition there
are CEPT band limits that should also be considered).
Local Area Base Stations are characterised by requirements derived from Pico Cell scenarios
with a BS to UE minimum coupling loss equal to 45 dB. The limitations on power output
depend on the number of antenna ports used and are shown in the table opposite.
Home Base Stations are characterised by requirements derived from Femto Cell scenarios.
The limitations on power output depend on the number of antenna ports used and are shown
in the table opposite.
For link budgets the a typical eNB power outputs for macro cell deployments would however
be in the range 20 – 60W (43 – 48dBm) depending on channel bandwidth.
Typical power outputs may depend on the bandwidth being used:
• 46dBm (10Mhz)
• 43 dBm (5 Mhz, 1.25 MHz)

Wide Area BS – BS to UE link loss <70dB
Local Area BS – BS to UE link loss <45dB
BS Class PRAT (Rated Power Output)
Wide Area BS (note)
Local Area BS ≤ + 24 dBm (for one transmit antenna port)
≤ + 21 dBm (for two transmit antenna ports)
≤ + 18 dBm (for four transmit antenna ports)
Home BS ≤ + 20 dBm (for one transmit antenna port)
≤ + 17 dBm (for two transmit antenna ports)
≤ + 14dBm (for four transmit antenna ports)
Note:
There is no upper limit for the rated output power of the Wide Area Base Station
Wide Area (macro cell) eNB will typically have a value of

20 – 60W (43 – 48dBm)
• 46dBm (10Mhz)
• 43 dBm (5 Mhz, 1.25 MHz)
Fig. 6 – Table of eNB Power Outputs

LTE Link Budgets
Typical Losses in the eNB

Within the eNB system there will be many components that insert loss in to the transmitted and
received signals. It is a general rule that losses should be kept to a minimum. The total amount
of loss will determine the radiated power (EiRP) and the received signal. Additionally the losses
in the receive path will also add noise which change the SINR requirement on the link.
Typical components that may be included in the Rx/Tx system are listed in the table opposite.

Type Frequency Range Typical Losses Comments
Duplexer
Combiner
Filters
Connectors
Cabling
Lightning Arrestors
Fig. 7 – Table of Losses for the eNB

LTE Link Budgets
Antenna Characteristics for the UE

There is much which is yet unknown about the LTE UE antenna systems, given that MIMO
is likely to be present in the devices, this places a great deal of challenge in the design and
implementation of the UE antenna. However for basic link budgeting purposes it is acceptable
to assume a low gain figure for the antenna, typically 0dBi. This of course will depend on the
type of LTE device, USB dongles, handheld smartphone devices and even cameras and other
consumer devices are likely to have differing antenna performances. It will be largely up to the
vendors of the devices to provide the relevant figures.

Samsung LTE USB Dongle
LG Handheld Device
Samsung LTE equipped camera
• Typical Mobile Antenna Gain – 0dBi

• Will depend largely on the Device – could be worse than 0dBi
• There are significant design challenges for LTE mobile
antenna systems
Fig. 8 – Antenna Gains for UE

LTE Link Budgets
Antenna Characteristics for eNB

The eNB in most cases can make use of the familiar cellular antennas that have been used for
other mobile broadband systems such as WiMAX and UMTS/HSPA. A typical example of LTE
antenna specifications is shown on the page opposite.
It is possible of course that the operator will implement spatial multiplexing or transmit diversity,
this will have an impact on the link budget calculations. It is expected that the vendors of these
systems will provide the appropriate figures of gain to be included in any calculations.

Electrical Poperties
Frequency range (MHz) 824-894 880-960 1710-1880 1850-1990 1920-2170
Polarization ± 45°
VSWR ≤ 1.5
Gain (dBi) (°) 0 4 8 0 4 8 0 4 8 0 4 8 0 4 8
(dB) 16.7 16.8 16.5 17.1 17.2 16.9 16.7 16.9 16.6 17.0 17.2 16.9 17.3 17.5 17.2
Side lode (°) 0 4 8 0 4 8 0 4 8 0 4 8 0 4 8
suppression for first
side lode above
(dB) 18 17 16 18 17 16 18 17 16 18 17 16 18 17 16
horizon (dB)
3dB beamwidth (horizontal) 67° 65° 67° 65° 63°
3dB beamwidth (vertical) 8.3° 7.2° 8.0° 7.5° 7.0°
Isolation between portsw (dB) ≥ 30
Front to back ratio (dB) ≥ 28 ≥ 25
Cross polar ratio (dB) 0° ≥ 18
±60° ≥ 10
Electrical downtilt 0° – 8° 0° – 8°
Intermodulation IM3 (dBc) ≤ -150 (2 x 43 dB carrier)
Max. CW input power (W) 300 200
Max. power per combined
500
input (W)
Impedance (Ω) 50
Grounding DC ground
330° 30° 330° 30°
300° 60° 300° 60°
270° -20 -10 90° 270° -20 -10 90°

�dB 0dB �dB 0dB
240° 120° 240° 120°
210° 150° 210° 150°

180° 180°
0dB 0dB
824 – 960 MHz 1710 – 2170 MHz

Fig. 9 – Antenna Gains for eNB

LTE Link Budgets
Sensitivity Calculation for the eNB

In calculating the required or minimum IRL it is necessary to determine the sensitivity of the
receiver. It is highly probable that the vendor of the eNB and mobile devices will quote the
sensitivity in the spec sheets for their product. However it is important to be able to derive
the sensitivity of the receivers for all cases of modulation/coding schemes and resource
block usage.
The expression on the opposite page show the calculation and all the parameters required
to make the calculation. The following pages will explain each parameter.

RXsens_eNB = -174dBm/Hz + 10log(Nrb x 180KHz) + NFeNB + SNR + IM
RXsens_UE = -174dBm/Hz + 10log(Nrb x 180KHz) + NFUE + SNR + IM – 3dB – DFB
Where;
• -174dBm/Hz is k x T (Boltzmann Constant x Temperature)
• Nrb is the Number of Radio Blocks Allocated
• 180KHz is the bandwidth of 1 RB
• NFeNB is the total noise figure of the eNB system
• SNR is the Signal to Noise Ratio required i.e. for the
modulation scheme in use
• IM is an Implementation Margin depends Modulation and
Coding used
• -3dB is the multiple antenna gain for the UE
• DFB is a frequency band specific relaxation factor for the UE
Fig. 10 – Calculating Sensitivity for LTE Link Budgets

LTE Link Budgets
Thermal Noise in Radio Systems

Thermal noise is present in all things, it is a measure of the amount of noise power present
due to the random motion of the atoms and molecules excited by temperature. In electronic
and radio systems the noise is always present and there is little to be done to eliminate the
noise completely.
In radio systems the noise is present in two forms;
• Thermal background noise

• Noise present in the system components
The thermal background noise is present as a result of the “big bang” (cosmic background
radiation), the galaxies, the stars, our own sun and natural radiation from the surface of the
earth and the object upon it. There is no way that we can prevent this kind of noise entering
the radio system but there is a way to quantify the amount of noise present. The expression;
Nt = kTB
Where k is Boltzmann’s Constant 1.38 x 10-23
T is temperature (normally 290K)
B is the Bandwidth of the Channel in Hz
shows that noise is proportional to the bandwidth of the radio systems and temperature.
The bandwidth of the radio system under investigation is really the only variable since
temperature is taken to be that of the “warm earth” or 290K.
The graph opposite show the rise of noise with radio channel bandwidth and the range
of LTE radio channel bandwidths plotted for comparision.

Nt = kTB
Where k is Boltzmann’s Constant 1.38 x 10-23
T is temperature (normally 290K)
B is the Bandwidth of the Channel in Hz
Basic Expression of Thermal Noise
Noise floor (dBm)
-100
-105
-110
Nt = kTB
-115
-120
-125
0.1
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
11.0
12.0
13.0
14.0
15.0
16.0
17.0
18.0
19.0
20.0
21.0
22.0
23.0
24.0
25.0
Bandwidth (MHz)
Fig. 11 – Basic Expression of Thermal Noise

LTE Link Budgets
Type of Service and Impact on Noise Floor

LTE is very flexible,not only in terms of the system bandwidth, but also the amount of bandwidth
or Resource Blocks that can be allocated to a singe mobile device. This variable allocation can
be demonstrated in the following example.
A typical voice call in LTE may require 64Kbps, for example, given that call reliability will be
important across the whole radio cell, robust modulation schemes may be allocated for the
voice call events, QPSK 1/3 for example, in this case only two RBs will be required, a total
allocated bandwidth of 2x180KHz or 360KHz, this figure can be used to work out the thermal
noise floor.
In contrast an device that has attempting to receive 1Mbps will have to be allocated between
2 and 13 RBs, depending on the selected modulation and coding scheme. Thus the noise floor
could rise up to 10dB (or more) for high capacity allocations.
The graph opposite shows the potential noise floor rise for RB allocation between 1 and 25 RB
(25 RB corresponds to an channel bandwidth of 5MHz).

Voice service at 64Kbps – 2 RB Required (QPSK)
Data Service at 1Mbps – depends on modulation scheme
But typically 13 RB for QPSK 1/3

2 RB for 64QAM 2/3
Typical Services and Number of RB Required
Noise floor (dBm)
-105
-107
-109
-111
-113
-115
-117
-119
-121
Nt/RB = -174dBm/Hz + (NRB x 180KHz)
-123
-125
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Number of RB
Fig. 12 – Impact of Number of RB on Noise Floor (5MHz Channel)

LTE Link Budgets
Implementation Margin, UE, eNB, (from blue book)

Included in the sensitivity calculation is a margin due to the implementation of the modulation
scheme. It is not possible for the receiver to be 100% accurate particularly for the higher order
schemes therefore an implementation margin is added. Typical values are given below.
Typical Values
QPSK 2.5dB
16QAM 3dB
64QAM 4dB
The margin accounts for the difference in the theoretical SINR values and the practical
implementation actually possible.

Implementation Margin
A difference in the theoretical SINR values
and the practical implementation (accounts
for errors during processing in the receiver)
Typical Values
QPSK 2.5dB
16QAM 3dB
64QAM 4dB
Fig. 13 – Typical Implementation Margins

LTE Link Budgets
Receiver Noise Figure

Noise will also be present in the receiver it self. The noise performance of the receiver is
normally quoted as the NF (Noise Figure). How much noise is present is largely down to the
design of the receiver by the vendor of that component however is expected that the noise
will be no more then the example figures given below for a typical eNB and UE receiver.
Typical eNB NF 5dB*
Typical UE NF 9dB* (same as WCDMA)
The noise figure (NF) will have an impact on cell range. The LTE documents specify a figure
similar to those for WCDMA devices and it is felt that the figure is a compromise between
reasonable cell range and practical receiver design performance. It is range of values also allow
some scope for the vendors to improve the performance of the device receivers and therefore
improve the sensitivity of the devices, this is also a key differentiator in the device market.

Typical eNB NF 5dB*
Typical UE NF 9dB* (same as WCDMA)
*Figure is likely to be better than this
Fig. 14 – Receiver Noise Figure

LTE Link Budgets
Total Noise Floor

The overall system noise floor is the sum of the external noise present and the total component
noise. This is illustrated in the figure opposite.
Where there are multiple components (active and passive) in the receiver system, the total noise
can be calculated using the cascade method.

System Noise Floor
Total NF
Thermal Noise Floor
Fig. 15 – Total Noise in the System

LTE Link Budgets
Cascaded Noise
When using the Cascade formula, the noise figure reference point can be assigned at any point
before the first active (amplifier) component. The first system component will have the greatest
influence, meaning that the system NFdB can’t be better than the NFdB of the first component, on
the system NFdB. Stages after an amplifier have progressively less impact on total system NFdB.
The performance of a cascaded system of components is based on the configuration and

performance parameters of the individual components. The above two systems use the same
components in different configurations. The key to performance of these two systems is the
placement and performance of the Low Noise Amplifiers (LNA). The first stage in a cascade
of stages limits the receiver system NFdB—it can never be better than the NFdb of the first
component! The purpose of the LNA is to increase the noise floor high enough to reduce the
impact of loss from successive stages while having a minimum effect of the C/N. A high gain
LNA with a low NFdB can provide benefit even if it is after a coax loss. Without sufficient gain,
benefit is minimum. Too much gain can overdrive the receiver in the presence of a strong
receive signal.
System 1: A significant loss in front of the LNA limits the receiver system NFdB. A high gain
in the LNA can help minimize the post-LNA losses. This configuration (indoor-mounted LNA)
can be beneficial if the coax loss to the LNA is reasonably low and the LNA has sufficient gain
relative to the post-LNA losses. A low gain LNA offers little performance benefit in this, or any
deployment. An LNA with too much gain reduces the dynamic range of the receiver and
could overload the receiver, causing other problems.
System 2: Theoretically, this can provide the best performance. If there is a significant amount
of gain in the LNA, the post-LNA losses have little impact on the system NFdB. If a small
amount of gain is used, the LNA provides little or no benefit. In cellular deployments, this is
referred to as a TTA (Tower-Top Amplifier). Since LNAs are typically rated for their operating NFdB
at 23° C ambient temperature, there can be a degradation of performance when the ambient
temperature increases above this value. Remember, an LNA with too much gain reduces the
dynamic range of the receiver and could overload the receiver, causing other problems.

Calculating Noise in Cascade Systems
F2 – 1 F –1 F4 – 1
FRX = F1 + + 3 + +…
G1 G 1 . G2 G1 . G2 . G3
Where:
Gx = Gain (ratio, not dB)
Fx = Noise factor
Example: 3 dB loss 4 dB NF 7 dB loss 8 dB NF
30 db
Coax ÷ WiMAX rcvr
amp
1 2 3 4
NFdB reference point
F1 = 2 G1 = 0.5 2.5 – 1 5–1 6.3 – 1

F2 = 2.5 G2 = 1000 FRX = 2 + + +
0.5 0.5 . 1000 0.5 1000 . 0.2
.
F3 = 5 G3 = 0.2
F4 = 6.3 FRX = 2 + 3 + 0.008 + 0.053 = 5.061
NFdB = 10log10(5.061) = 7dB
Exercise: Calculating Noise in Cascade Systems

C/N
3 dB loss 4 dB NF 7 dB loss 8 dB NF
30 db Rx system 1:
Coax ÷ WiMAX rcvr NFdB = 7.05dB
amp
1 2 3 4
System NFdB
C/N
4 dB NF 3 dB loss 7 dB loss 8 dB NF
30 db Rx system 2:
Coax ÷ WiMAX rcvr NFdB = 7.05dB
amp
1 2 3 4
System NFdB
F2 – 1 F –1 F4 – 1
FRX = F1 + + 3 + +…
G1 G 1 . G2 G1 . G2 . G3
Fig. 16 – Calculating Noise in Cascade Systems

LTE Link Budgets
Typical SNR for LTE Modulation and Coding Schemes

Given that there are different modulation and coding schemes in use for the LTE radio interface
the SINR for each must be determined, this is largely down to the design of the receive and
the efficiency of the error coding schemes used, the table opposite shows the expected values
of SINR and the respective IM, however the actual number may vary between vendors.

System Modulation Code Rate SINR (dB) IM (dB) SINR + IM
(dB)
1/8 -5.1 -2.6
1/5 -2.9 -0.4
1/4 -1.7 0.8
1/3 -1 1.5
QPSK 2.5
1/2 2 4.5
2/3 4.3 6.8
3/4 5.5 8.0
LTE UE 4/5 6.2 8.7
1/2 7.9 10.9
2/3 11.3 14.3
16QAM 3
3/4 12.2 15.2
4/5 12.8 15.8
2/3 15.3 19.3
64QAM 3/4 17.5 4 21.5
4/5 18.6 22.6
UMTS UE QPSK 1/3 1.2 2 3.2
Fig. 17 – Table of Typical SINR for LTE

LTE Link Budgets
Duplex Gap and Duplex Distance, Effect on Receiver Sensitivity

The calculation for UE sensitivity includes an extra parameter which is a margin due to the
separation between the uplink and downlink radio channels. Where the channel bandwidth
is very large and the duplex separation between them is relatively small this causes the UE
receiver to fall directly into the shoulders of the transmitter spectral output. This will require
better filtering in the UE, filters with the characteristics required to eliminate any significant
receiver desensing have a higher insertion loss which therefore contributes to a higher receiver
NF. For the bands affected by this problem a relaxation factor is taken into account when
calculating the sensitivity of the receiver, DFB.
Typical Figures for the DFB margin appear in the table opposite.
It should be noted that this maring only applies to full duplex devices, the margin is note
required for TDD or FDD-HD devices.

Duplex DG
Small DD/DG Large DD/DG
Gap (DG)
Uplink Downlink Uplink Downlink
Duplex frequency Duplex frequency

Distance (DD) Distance (DD)
UE TX port UE antenna UE TX port UE antenna

to antenna to RX port to antenna to RX port
duplexer filter duplexer filter duplexer filter duplexer filter
Table of DG/DD and Margins

Channel bandwidth
Band 1.4 MHz 3 MHz 5 MHz 10 MHz 15 MHz 20 MHz Duplex DD/DG DFB
(dBm) (dBm) (dBm) (dBm) (dBm) (dBm) mode (dB)
1 – – -100 -97 -95.2 -94 FDD 1.46 0
2 -104.2 -100.2 -98 -95 -93.2* -92* FDD 4 2
3 -103.2 -99.2 -97 -94 -92.2* -91* FDD 4.75 3
4 -106.2 -102.2 -100 -97 -95.2 -94 FDD 1.13 0
5 -104.2 -100.2 -98 -95* FDD 2.25 2
6 – – -100 -97* FDD 1.29 0
7 – – -98 -95 -93.2* -92* FDD 2.4 2
8 -103.2 -99.2 -97 -94* FDD 4.5 3
9 – – -99 -96 -94* -93* FDD 1.58 1
10 – – -100 -97 -95.2 -94 FDD 1.18 0
11 – – -98 -95* -93.2* -92* FDD 2.09 2
12 -103.2 -99.2 -97 -94* FDD 2.5 3*
13 -103.2 -99.2 -97 -94* FDD 1.48 3*
14
…
17 -104.2 -100.2 -98 -95* FDD 1.67 1*
…
33 – – -100 -97 -95.2 -94 TDD
34 – – -100 -97 -95.2 -94 TDD
35 -106.2 -102.2 -100 -97 -95.2 -94 TDD
36 -106.2 -102.2 -100 -97 -95.2 -94 TDD
37 – – -100 -97 -95.2 -94 TDD
38 – – -100 -97 -95.2 -94 TDD
39 – – -100 -97 -95.2 -94 TDD
40 – – -100 -97 -95.2 -94 TDD
Fig. 18 – Duplex Gap/Duplex Distance and Margins

LTE Link Budgets
Calculating System Gain

Once all the equipment operating parameters have been determine the EiRP and Sensitivity
can be calculated. From this the System Gain can be determined. System Gain is a measure
of the maximum drop of power from the transmit antenna to the receive and antenna, but
does not take in to account any additional margin from radio interface effects such as fading
and penetration losses.

Power Budget Factors

dBm Coax loss Tx ant gain Path loss Rx ant gain Coax loss
+50 EiRP
+40 D/L
+30
+20
+10
0
-10
-20 System
gain
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
IRLreq
-90
-100 Tx amp out Tx amp in Tx ant out Rx ant in Rx ant out Rx in
Fig. 19 – Power Budget Factors

LTE Link Budgets
Environmental Factors and Noise Rise

Having worked out the System gain it is now possible to determine the MAPL. The Maximum
Allowable Path Loss is the system gain less any environmental margins. Typical margins include:
• Shadow Margin
• Building loss
• Foliage loss
• Clutter margin
• Fading margin
• Body loss
• Noise rise margin

Typical Margins;
• Shadow (fading) Margin
• Building loss
• Foliage loss
• Clutter margin
• Body loss
• Noise rise margin
Fig. 20 – Environmental Factors and Noise Rise

LTE Link Budgets
Shadow Margin (Slow Fading)

When deploying NLOS implementations, shadow fading (due to path obstructions) must be
considered. Measurements have shown that for any distance from a base station, the path
loss at different locations is random and has a log-normal distribution. Over a large number
of measurement locations having the same distance between subscriber unit and base station,
the random shadowing effects are described by a log-normal distribution. This is often referred
to as Log-normal Shadowing (or fading). A common approach is to calculate the lognormal
probability of adequate signal strength in a coverage area.
The probability is a function of the path loss exponent and the standard deviation of signal
values for a given environment. The amount of margin determined from the environmental
values is based on coverage objectives for a given implementation. Mobile radio (cellular)
prioritizes the area service objective, while fixed wireless services may consider margin for
area or edge coverage.
The propagation constant (n), also called the path loss exponent, accounts for the distance
dependent mean of the signal level based on the propagation environment.
The standard deviation () statistically describes the path loss variability for arbitrary locations
with the same distance between subscriber unit and cell site. The ratio of /n is used to
determine the amount of margin required to satisfy an area reliability objective.

Propagation index n
� Signal
�
at UE
eNB Signal
threshold
Environment Path Loss Exponent

Free space 2
Urban 2.7 to 3.5
Shadowed urban 3 to 5
In-building (LOS) 1.6 to 1.8
In-building (NLOS) 4 to 6
ST dev ≡ ST dev ≡ ST dev ≡ ST dev ≡

4 to 6 dB 6 to 8 dB 8 to 10 dB 10 to 12 dB
Dense
urban
Urban
Suburban
Clutter
Rural
Customer density/performance requirements
Fig. 21a – Shadowing in Cellular Networks

LTE Link Budgets

1 1–2ab 1–ab
Fu =
2[ (
1-erf(a) + exp
b2 )(
1-erf
b )]
Where:
(x –a) e
a= 0
σ√2
and b = 10n log10
σ√2 ( )
Fu = fraction of useful service area within a circle
X0 = minimum receivable signal strength at subscriber
α = signal strength at mobile unit for radius r
σ = standard deviationof possible signal values
n = propagation constant (path loss exponent)
Example:
Given a path loss exponent of 3.5, a minimum signal level of -94 dBm
and a standard deviation of 10 dB, what is the margin required for an
area coverage probability of 90%?
........................ dB
Fig. 21b – Calculating a Margin for Shadow Fading

LTE Link Budgets
Building and Foliage Losses

Many studies provide penetration loss data based on frequency, but without other key
information, the values provided can only provide a general idea of what can be expected.
Key information:
• Angle of incidence
• Material composition
• Material thickness
• Material texture
Foliage loss is a function of absorption and scattering. Building loss is primarily absorption loss.
Wet surfaces will generally increase the amount of energy reflected rather than transmitted thus
increasing overall penetration loss.
In both foliage and building loss, it is important to establish local parameters to be used during
planning processes.

Frequency Building Material Loss
2.30 GHz Stone faced bldg 12.8 dB
2.40 GHz University bldg 20 dB
2.57 GHz Suburban houses 9.1 dB
5.85 GHz Brick house 12.5 dB
5.85 GHz Wood siding house 8.8 dB
5.85 GHz Concrete wall house 22.0 dB
5.85 GHz Interior plaster walls 4.7 dB
9.60 GHz 2 dry ¾" plywood sheets 4.0 dB
9.60 GHz 2 wet ¾" plywood sheets 39.0 dB
28.8 GHz 2 dry ¾" plywood sheets 6.0 dB
28.8 GHz 2 wet ¾" plywood sheets 46.0 dB
Frequency Follage Type Loss

5.85 GHz Small deciduous tree 3.5 dB
5.85 GHz Large deciduous tree 10.7 dB
5.85 GHz Large conifer tree 13.7 dB
9.60 GHz Single conifer tree 15.0 dB
28.8 GHz Single conifer tree 15.9 dB
28.8 GHz Single deciduous tree 7.0 dB
Fig. 22 – Building and Foliage Penetrations Losses

LTE Link Budgets
Body Loss
In mobile cellular systems, handheld devices will incur an additional loss due to absorption by
the human body. The actual figure will depend on the use of the device i.e. held near the head,
away from the body holding angle of the device. UE antenna radiation patterns may also affect
the amount of energy lost.
The figure normally assumed for radio planning purposes is 3dB.

Typical Body Loss – 3dB
Fig. 23 – Body Loss

LTE Link Budgets
Uplink and Downlink Noise Rise

Noise rise occurs in TDMA/FDMA systems when the same frequency and time resources
are used simultaneously in neighbouring cells. This will be a key factor for implementing LTE
networks, the eNBs will communicate across the X2 interface regarding resource allocation
either warning of potential noise or simply indicating what resources are currently being used.
In lightly loaded systems the noise rise should be kept to a minimum by the interference
coordination between the base stations, however when the system becomes loaded the noise
rise is likely to have a greater impact on overall system performance.

Factors affecting Noise Rise
• UL and DL system load
• Number of RB used by victim UE
• Number of RBs used by aggressor systems
• Average pathloss between aggressor and victim BS
Affected
resources
Pathloss
eNB
eNB
Nrb_aggressor
Prb_aggressor
Nrb_victim
Pue_victim
Typical Margin for Noise rise = 1 – 10 dB
Fig. 24 – Uplink Noise Rise

LTE Link Budgets
Propagation Modelling
Propagation modelling or prediction is the science of predicting the pathloss of a particular radio
frequency when some of the system attributes are know, typically the radio frequency, tower
and UE heights and distance are the information required, however more complex models can
use the average height of buildings or terrain, relative angle of roads, antenna tilts etc to produce
more accurate results.
The model shown opposite is at the heart of this science. This models the theoretical wave front
from an isotropic radiator and predicts the field strength at a given distance.
If a value for the receive antenna attributes is included it is possible to derive the Free Space
Pathloss model. In the free space pathloss model energy radiated from the source decays
in proportion to the square of the distance, a doubling of distance will increase the path loss
by a factor of 4.

Sphere sarea = 4πr2
1 meter
Isotropic
source
r (meters)
Ls (dB) = 10.log10 (4πr2)
Power transmitted
Put simply – Power density at distance r = Watts/m2
4πr2
As 4 and π are constants we can state:

Path loss is proportional to 1/r2 or 1/distance2
Fig. 25a – The Isotropic Radiator and Power Density

LTE Link Budgets

Pt λ2
Pr = x
4πd2 4π
Isotropic
radiator
Pt
Pr
d Effective
apperture
in m2
This formula, converted to decibel format is:
LF (dB) = 20 log10[d (kM)] + 20 log10[f (MHz)] + 32.45

(Add 60 dB to the 32.45 dB to use GHz instead of MHz)
Fig. 25b – The Free Space Pathloss Model

LTE Link Budgets
Coverage from Link Budget

Having calculate the MAPL above it is now possible to convert the pathloss into a nominal
cell range using an appropriate propagation model. The results will vary according to the
model used. There are many different kinds of model, the classical empirical models such
as Okamura-Hata, Walfisch-Ikegami and those used by RF planning models. It is important
to select the correct model and some model tuning is required to obtain theoretical results
that reflect the actual loss or distance likely to be experienced in the field.
The following is a list of empirical models can be used in the preliminary stages of planning.
Empirical models
• Power law
• Okumura – Hata
• Lee
• COST 231 Hata
• Walfish – Ikagami
• IEEE 802.16 (SUI)
Physical models
• Free space
• Free space + RMD
• TIREM
• Longley-Rice
• Anderson 2D
Pathloss models, Ok-Hata, dedicated RF models.

Empirical models
• Power law
• Okumura – Hata
• Lee
• COST 231 Hata
• Walfish – Ikagami
• IEEE 802.16 (SUI)
Physical models
• Free space
• Free space + RMD
• TIREM
• Longley-Rice
• Anderson 2D
Fig. 26 – Typical Propagation Loss Models

LTE Link Budgets
Comparison of Models
There are of course many different models that can be used under different circumstances,
the choice of model will depend on system design parameters such as the frequency band
used, LOS or NLOS systems, antennas above or below rooftop height etc.
The table on the page opposite shows some of the standard models in common use and
the range of frequencies over which the model will return sensible results.
Some of the models are empirical models which means that they are also dependant on the
circumstances under which they were developed. In many cases different models will return
different pathloss results for the same set of inputs (frequency, tower height, link distance etc)
therefore several models may need to be test to see which model returns the most accurate
results for the are being designed.
Many RF planning tools will allow you to select different propagation models in order that
comparisons can be made, in addition the RF software development companies will offer their
own models that use a combination of empirical and physical models to predicate the pathloss.

Some Common Propagation Models
Okumura hata model 2 1.5GHz 2GHz

ITU530 microwave model 800MHz 70GHz
ITU452 microwave model 800MHz 70GHz
Walkish Ikegami model 800MHz 2GHz
Okumura hata model 1 150MHz 1.5GHz
Longley rice model 30MHz 40GHz
Aeronautical model 30MHz 30GHz
Flat earth model 30MHz 10GHz
Egli urban model 30MHz 10GHz
HCM model 30MHz 2GHz
ITU370 model 30MHz 1GHz
ITU567 model 30MHz 1GHz
CEPT model 30MHz 250MHz
ITU533 shortwave model 3MHz 30MHz
Sky wave model 150KHz 1.7MHz
Ground wave model 10KHz 30MHz
Free space model
0 3 30 300 3 30 300 3 30 300 3 30 300

Hz Hz Hz KHz KHz KHz MHz MHz MHz GHz GHz GHz
VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF
Fig. 27a – Some Common Propagation Models and Frequency Ranges

LTE Link Budgets

Comparison of Coverage Models
Loss (dB)
180
160
140
120
100
80
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Distance (km)
CCIR Hata Walfisch et al
Fig. 27b – Comparison of Pathloss Models

LTE Link Budgets
COST 231 Propagation Model

The model shown on the opposite page is the COST 231 model which is an adaptation
of the well known Okamura-Hata model. The COST 231 is an empirical model designed
to model NLOS radio systems in the frequency range 1.5GHz to 2GHz making it suitable
for cellular systems such as GSM1800, UMTS and even Mobile WiMAX technologies.
This a baseline model which can be used to make comparisons of other empirical and
custom designed models.

L = 46.3 + 33.9.log fc – 13.82.log hb – a(hm) + (44.9 – 6.55.log hb)log R + Cm
Where:
Fc = operating frequency (1500-2000 MHz)
hb = BS antenna height (30-200 m)
hm = mobile antenna height (1-10 m)
R = distance between BS and mobile unit (1-20 km)
Correction factors:
Medium city and suburban
a(hm) = (1.1.log fc – 0.7)hm – (1.56.log fc – 0.8)
Large city
a(hm) = 3.2(log(11.75.hm))2 – 4.97
0 dB medium city and suburban areas

Cm =
3 dB metropolitan centres
Fig. 28 – COST 231 Propagation Model

LTE Link Budgets
The WINNER Model

The WINNER model had been developed by Information Society Technologies (IST) for predication
for indoor and outdoor systems.
The novel features of the WINNER models are its parameterisation, using of the same modelling
approach for both indoor and outdoor environments, new scenarios like outdoor-to-indoor
and indoor-to outdoor, elevation in indoor scenarios, smooth time (and space) evolution of
large-scale and small-scale channel parameters (including cross-correlations), and scenario-
dependent polarisation modelling. The models are scalable from a single single-input-single-
output (SISO) or multiple-input-multiple-output (MIMO) link to a multi-link MIMO scenario
including polarisation among other radio channel dimensions.
WINNER II channel models can be used in link level and system level performance evaluation
of wireless systems, as well as comparison of different algorithms, technologies and products.
The models can be applied not only to WINNER II system, but also any other wireless system
operating in 2 – 6 GHz frequency range with up to 100 MHz RF bandwidth. The models
supports multi-antenna technologies, polarisation, multi-user, multi-cell, and multi-hop networks.

PL = Alog10(d[m]) + B + Clog10 fc[GHz] + X
5.0 ( )
PLfree = 20log10(d) + 46.4 + 20log10(fc/5.0)
Scenario Definition Environment LOS/NLOS Mobility Notes

(km/h)
A1 Indoor offie LA LOS/NLOS 0-5
B1 Urban microcell LA, MA LOS/NLOS 1-70
B4 Outdoor to MA NLOS 0-5
indoor microcell
B5 LOS stationery MA LOS 0 Below rooftop
feeder to street level
C1 Suburban WA LOS/NLOS 0-120
C2 Typical urban MA, WA LOS/NLOS 0-120
macrocell
D1 Rural macrocell WA LOS/NLOS 0-200
D2 (a) Moving WA LOS 0-350 Very large
networks: Doppler
BS-MRS*, rural variability
(b) Moving LA LOS/LOS**/ 0-5 Same as
networks: MRS*, NLOS A1 NLOS
UE, rural
* MRS: Mobile Relay Station.
** OLOS: Obstructed Line-of-sight.
Fig. 29 – The WINNER Model

Scenario Path loss (dB) Shadow Applicability range,
fading std antenna height default
(dB) values
LOS A=18.7, B=46.8, C=20 σ=3 3m < d < 100m,
hBS=hMS=1…2.5m
NLOS1 A=36.8, B=43.8, C=20 and σ=4 Same as A1 LOS,
X=5(nw-1) (light walls) nw is the number of walls
or between the BS and the MS
X=12 (nw-1) (heavy walls) (nw > 0 for NLOS)
A1 NLOS2 light walls A=20, B=46.4, C=20, X=5nw σ=6 Same as A1 LOS,
heavy walls A=20, B=46.4, C=20, X=12nw σ=8 nw is the number of walls
between BS and MS
FL For any of the cases above, nf is the number of floors
add the floor loss (FL), if the BS between the BS and the MS
and MS are in different floors: (nf > 0)
FL=17+4(nf-1), nf>0
A2 NLOS PL=PL3+PLtw+PLin σ=7 3m < dout+din < 1000m,
{
PL3=PLB1 (dout+din)
PLin=14+15(1-cos(θ))2
PLin=0.5din
hBS=3(nn-1)+2m
hMS=1.5,
See 3 for explanation
of parameters
LOS A=22.7, B=41.0, 20 σ=3 10m < d1 < d’BP4
PL-40.0log10(d1)+9.45– σ=3 d’BP < d1 < 5km

17.3log10(h’as)–17.3log10(h’as) hBS=10m, hMS=1.5m
+2.7log10(fc/5.0)
NLOS PL=min(PL(d1, d2), PL(d2, d1) σ=4 10m < d1 5km,
B1 where w/2 < d2 < 2km5
PL(dk, d1)= w=20m (street width)
PLLOS(dk)+20–12.5n, +10, log10 hBS=10m, hMS=1.5m
(d1)+3logn(fc/5.0) when
and nf=max(2.8–0.0024dk, 1.84), 0 < d2 < w/2, the LOS PL
PLLOS is the path loss of B1 LOS is applied
scenario and k, l (1, 2)
B2 NLOS Same as B1 σ=4
LOS A=13.9, B=64.4, C=20 σ=3 5m < d < 100m,
B3 hBS=6m, hMS=1.5m
NLOS A=37.8, B=36.5, C=23 σ=4 Same as B3 LOS
B4 NLOS Same as A2, except antenna heights 3m < dout+din < 1000m,
hBS=10m, hMS=3(nn-1)+1.5m
B5a LOS A=23.5, B=42.5, C=20 σ=4 30m < d < 8km
hBS=25m, hRS=25m
B5c LOS Same as B1 LOS, except antenna σ=3 10m < d < 2000m
heights (hRS is the relay antenna hBS=10m, hMS(= hRS)=5m
height)
B5f NLOS A=23.5, B=57.5, C=23 σ=8 30m < d < 1.5km
hBS=25m, hRS=15m
Fig. 30 – WINNER Model Parameters

Scenario Path loss (dB) Shadow Applicability range,
fading std antenna height default
(dB) values
LOS A=23.8, B=41.2, C=20 σ=4 30m < d < dBP
PL=40.0log10(d)+11.65–16.2log10(hBS) σ=6 dBP < d < 5km,

C1 –16.2log10(hMS)+3.8log10(fc/5.0) hBS=25m, hMS=1.5m
NLOS PL=(44.9–6.55log10(hBS))log10(d)+ σ=8 50m < d < 5km,
31.46+5.83log10(hBS)+23log10(fc/5.0) hBS=25m, hMS=1.5m
LOS A=26, B=39, C=20 σ=4 10m < d < d’BP4
PL=40.0log10(d)+13.47–14.0log10(hBS) σ=6 d’BP < d < 5km

C2 –14.0log10(hMS)+6.0log10(fc/5.0) hBS=25m, hMS=1.5m
NLOS PL=(44.9–6.55log10(hBS))log10(d)+ σ=8 Same as C1 NLOS
34.46+5.83log10(hBS)+23log10(fc/5.0)
C3 NLOS Same as C2 NLOS Same as C2 NLOS
C4 NLOS PL=PLC2(dout+din)+17.4+0.5dn–0.8hMS σ = 10 Same as C2 NLOS
where PLC2 is the path loss function of C2 See 3 for explanation
LOS/NLOS scenario. (Use LOS, if BS to wall of parameters
connection is LOS, otherwise use NLOS.) hBS=25m, hMS=3nF1+1.5m
LOS A=21.5, B=44.2, C=20 σ=4 30m < d < dBP6
PL=40.0log10(d)+10.5–18.5log10(hBS) σ=6 dBP < d < 10km,

D1 –18.5log10(hMS)+1.5log10(fc/5.0) hBS=32m, hMS=1.5m
NLOS PL=(25.11log10(d)+55.3 σ=8 50m < d < 5km
–0.13log10(hBS–25))log10(d/100) hBS=32m, hMS=1.5m
–0.9log10(hMS–1.5)+21.3log10(fc/5.0)
D2a LOS Same as D1 LOS
Fig. 30 – WINNER Model Parameters (cont)

LTE Link Budgets
Cell Range Calculations from MAPL

The link budgets calculations done previously can now be used with the propagation models
to determine the nominal cell range based on the equipment performance assumptions.
The pathloss models require some transposition to derive distance rather than pathloss,
this is best done by modelling within spreadsheets or other software models.

EiRP
IRLreq
eNB MAPL >>Cell Radius
• Link Budget Calculations can be used to determine

cell radius using an appropriate propagation model
Fig. 31 – Determining Cell Radius

Service Coverage Provision
UE Radio Measurements
The 3GPP standards define three key radio measurements that may be performed and reported
by the UE for the evaluation of cell reselection and handovers.
Reference Signal Received Power (RSRP) is a measurement of the power in the reference signal
from the selected or serving cell.
Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) is a measurement of the total receive signal strength,
which includes all transmissions from the selected or serving cell plus all signals received in the
measurement bandwidth from neighbour cells.
Reference Signal Received Quality (RSRQ) is calculated as the ratio (the difference in terms
of values expressed in dB) between the RSRP and RSSI. It is therefore a measure of the
signal‑to‑noise ratio for the reference signals.

UE Definition Value Range
Measurement
RSRP The linear average over the power contributions (in watts) of the IE Value: 0…97
(Reference Signal resource elements that carry cell-specific reference signals within (maps to
Received Power) the considered measurement frequency bandwidth. –140…–44 dBm
with 1 dB
resolution)
RSSI The linear average of the total received power (in watts) observed only –140…–44 dBm
(Received Signal in OFDM symbols containing reference symbols for antenna port 0, (nominal)
Strength in the measurement bandwidth, over N number of resource blocks by
Indicator) the UE from all sources, including co-channel serving and non-serving
cells, adjacent channel interference, thermal noise, etc. If higher-layer
signalling indicates certain subframes for performing RSRQ measurements,
then RSSI is measured over all OFDM symbols in the indicated subframes.
RSRQ The ratio N×RSRP/(E-UTRA carrier RSSI), where N is the number IE Value: 0…34
(Reference Signal of RBs of the E-UTRA carrier RSSI measurement bandwidth. (maps to
Received Quality) The measurements in the numerator and denominator shall be –19.5…–3 dBm
made over the same set of resource blocks. with 0.5 dB
resolution)
Fig. 13 – UE Radio Measurements

Limitations of RSRP and RSRQ for Optimisation

There are obvious parallels between the LTE measurement values RSRP and RSRQ and
the UMTS values CPICH RSCP and CPICH Ec/No, and perhaps even GSM RSSI and
RXQUAL measurements. However, there are some important differences that must be borne
in mind when using these measurements for performance evaluation, coverage estimation
or interference analysis. This arises chiefly because both measurements are based solely
on reference signal performance and that cannot be assumed to map directly to the
performance allocated channel resources.
RSRP is an averaged measurement of the power in a single resource element modulated with
the cell’s reference signal PCI. However, a user’s data will be transmitted over multiple resource
elements in one or multiple RBs using one of many modulation and coding schemes. They are
therefore not like-for-like quantities and there is no direct relationship between measured RSRP
and channel performance for any given service. However, it possible for an optimiser to develop
one or more rule-of-thumb guide measurements for RSRP that will indicate that different
required service types are likely to function acceptably in an tested area of interest.
Note also that the power available for one resource element is likely to be affected by the
configured transmission bandwidth and that therefore the expected value of measured RSRP
could vary dependent on cell configuration. In simple terms, doubling the bandwidth through
the same total transmit power should result in a reduction in expected RSRP of 3 dB unless
power offsets are used between subcarrier types.
Similar consideration must be given to RSRQ when using it to assess performance, because
it is calculated from RSRP.

RSSI is measured across the whole
configured transmission bandwidth
RSRP and
RSRQ relate to
the performance
of a single
reference signal
resource element
User data is
transmitted over
multiple resource
elements in one
or multiple RBs
using one of
many different
modulation and
coding schemes
Fig. 14 – Limitations of RSRP and RSRQ

Formulation of RSRP and RSRQ Performance Targets

The diagram shows a suggested starting point for RSRP and RSRQ targets. However, it is very
important to note that these will be subject to considerable variation dependent on the physical
implementation of a network, its location, the features supported and the particular service type
being considered. More specific targets need to be set as part of the optimisation process
through testing of a network at the earliest opportunity in the rollout phase. This targets should
be reviewed from time to time as more accurate service profiles become available.
In order to make RSRQ a meaningful ratio of RSRP and RSSI they must be modified such that
the measurement bandwidth is the same. The 3GPP standards define that this is done by
multiplying RSRP by the number of resource blocks in the measurement bandwidth for RSSI.
The result is the equivalent of considering the individual SINR for one reference signal resource
element within one RB. Thus the best case occurs when there is no data being transmitted
or external interference source measured with the RB. In this case RSRP is the power in one
resource element and RSSI is the power in two resource elements per RB; the resultant RSRQ
is –3 dB. In the case where data is transmitted on all resource elements with the same power
but there is no external interference source, then the ratio becomes 1/12 and the resultant
RSRQ is –10.8 dB. Anything worse than this suggests the presence of external interference.

Data Performance Measurement Suggested Starting Range
Good RSRP > –75 dBm
RSRQ > –9 dB
Acceptable RSRP –75 dBm to –95 dBm
RSRQ –9 dB to –12 dB
Poor RSRP < –95 dBm
RSRQ < –12 dB
Note:
1. Best case for RSRQ is when no user data is transmitted and no external interference is transmitted. In this
case RSRQ is –3 dB.
2. When full data transmission takes place at equal power per resource element and no external interference is
present RSRQ is –10.8 dB.
3. RSRQ below –10.8 dB suggests the presence of external interference.
Fig. 15 – RSRP and RSRQ Targets

LTE Measurement Tools

Protocol analysis performed on the air interface and in the radio access network has been
a fundamental approach for the optimiser for many years. This remains the case for LTE and
includes drive test tools and interface probes, as shown in the diagram. Ideally. however, protocol
analysis needs to be performed at both ends of the radio link. Unlike UMTS and GSM, where air
interface signalling activity can be monitored within the RAN on the A-bis or Iur interface, in
LTE air interface signalling occurs only on the air interface itself. This means that some form of
tool will be required to capture the eNB end of air interface activity from within. This may involve
a proprietary solution, although a standard for a digital interface between the signal processing
part of the eNB and the antenna referred to as Common Public Radio Interface (CPRI) is
available. For equipment conforming to this standard generalised monitoring may be possible.
There are a number of drawbacks to any approach based only on air interface protocol analysis
of this type, including lack of visibility of multiple users on the same cell and lack of visibility of
scheduling efficiency.
Another approach would be a direct capture from the air interface itself. This is more commonly
used in the context of a lab, but it can be applied in the field and is one way to view the cell
as a whole and performance for multiple users. Tools of this type may also be able to decode
scheduling information and display the results in a graphic format. Some method of analysing
the performance of the scheduling algorithm is certainly required for effective optimisation.
Analysis of KPIs from the OMC is also essential in order to gauge overall performance against
defined metrics. It may also provide some insight into the effectiveness of the scheduling algorithm.
Finally, the optimiser should have access to information regarding the complete network in order
to assess and identify the root cause of any performance issues.

IP interface probe Drive test tool
eNB
HSS MME
PDN
UE
EPC SGW E-UTRAN
P-GW
eNB
Off-air
monitoring
OMC
Fig. 16 – LTE Measurement Tools

The EPS Bearer Concept

An EPS bearer is defined in terms of its end points, an APN at the PDN-GW and an IP address
at the UE, and the applied QoS (Quality of Service) for packets carried in the EPS bearer.
The IP address may be predefined or dynamically allocated and may be in either an IPv4
or IPv6 format. Similarly, an APN could be dynamically allocated, although in the typical case
it will be predefined. APNs may provide access to either public or private PDNs. An EPS
bearer is defined by one APN and one IP address.
QoS is defined in terms of the four key characteristics shown in the diagram: QCI, ARP, GBR
and MBR. Multiple data flows may share a single EPS bearer; however, an EPS bearer has only
one QoS profile and this is applied to all data packets using the bearer.
An EPS bearer is created through the concatenation of a Data Radio Bearer (DRB) between
the UE and the eNB, an S1 Bearer between the eNB and the SGW and an S5/S8 Bearer
between the SGW and the P-GW. Note that air interface testing and optimisation consider
only the characteristics of the DRB, yet the service performance will also depend on factors
relating to the S1 Bearer and the S5/S8 Bearer, as well as the external PDN, the end-point
server and an application’s behaviour.

APN QoS IP Address
(Access Point • QCI – QoS Class Identifier (v4 or v6)
Name) • ARP – Allocation and Retention Priority
• GBR – Guaranteed Bit Rate
• MBR – Maximum Bit Rate
EPS Bearer
S5/S8 Bearer S1 Bearer Data Radio Bearer
PDN P-GW E-UTRAN SGW E-UTRAN
eNB UE
Air interface testing and

optimisation focuses only
on the DRB, but service
performance is affected
by the complete system
Fig. 17 – EPS Bearer Concept

LTE Defined QoS Values

The QCI value of an EPS bearer defines whether or not it operates as GBR (Guaranteed Bit
Rate) or non-GBR, packet priority, delay budget, and packet error loss rate. There are nine
defined QCI values, as indicated in the table. The 3GPP standards also provide examples of
the types of service assumed to be appropriate for each of the QCI values. However, this should
only be considered as guidance and it is up to the operator how QCI values are used in practice.
Note that the QCI value applied to a particular EPS bearer is bounded by the EPS itself.
The way packets associated with an EPS bearer are treated outside the EPS domain is not
managed by the LTE network.

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LTE Link Budgets

LTE Link Budgets

© Informa Telecoms & Media

LTE Link Budgets

© Informa Telecoms & Media

Intro to Basic Radio System

4 © Informa Telecoms & Media

Fig. 1 – Typical Radio System

© Informa Telecoms & Media 5

Typical Link Budget Requirements

MAPL = System Gain – Margin(fade, body, building, trees)

System Gain = EiRP – IRLmin

Where EiRP and IRLmin are given by:

EiRP = Tx_PWR – Ltx + Gtx

IRLmin = Rx_SENS + Lrx – Grx

6 © Informa Telecoms & Media

IRLmin = Rx_SENS + Lrx – Grx

System Gain = EiRP – IRLmin

MAPL = System Gain – Margin(fade, body, building, trees)

Fig. 2 – Basic Link Budget Expressions

© Informa Telecoms & Media 7

LTE Link Budget Variables

8 © Informa Telecoms & Media

Fig. 3 – LTE Link Budget Expressions

© Informa Telecoms & Media 9

LTE Transmit Power Capability for the UE

The following maximum output powers can be assumed:

• 23 dBm for the UE

10 © Informa Telecoms & Media

Fig. 4 – Typical Transmitter Characteristics for UE

© Informa Telecoms & Media 11

Additional Factors Affecting UE Power Output

Maximum Power Reduction (MPR)

Additional-Maximum Power Reduction (A-MPR)

12 © Informa Telecoms & Media

Additional-Maximum Power Reduction

Fig. 5 – Additional Factors Affecting UE Power Output

© Informa Telecoms & Media 13

eNodeB Power Output Characteristics

Typical power outputs may depend on the bandwidth being used:

14 © Informa Telecoms & Media

Wide Area (macro cell) eNB will typically have a value of

Fig. 6 – Table of eNB Power Outputs

© Informa Telecoms & Media 15

Typical Losses in the eNB

16 © Informa Telecoms & Media

Fig. 7 – Table of Losses for the eNB

© Informa Telecoms & Media 17

Antenna Characteristics for the UE

18 © Informa Telecoms & Media

Samsung LTE equipped camera

• Typical Mobile Antenna Gain – 0dBi

Fig. 8 – Antenna Gains for UE

© Informa Telecoms & Media 19

Antenna Characteristics for eNB

20 © Informa Telecoms & Media

330° 30° 330° 30°

300° 60° 300° 60°

270° -20 -10 90° 270° -20 -10 90°

240° 120° 240° 120°

210° 150° 210° 150°

824 – 960 MHz 1710 – 2170 MHz

© Informa Telecoms & Media 21

Sensitivity Calculation for the eNB