In any control system, sensors provide measurements of important plant

variables in a format suitable for the digital microcontroller. Similarly, actuators

are electrically operated devices that regulate inputs to the plant that directly
control its output. For example, as we shall see, fuel injectors are electrically
driven actuators that regulate the flow of fuel into an engine for engine control
applications.

The variables sensed in engine control includes the

following:
1. Mass air flow (MAF) rate
2. Exhaust gas oxygen concentration (possibly heated)
3. Throttle plate angular position
4. Crankshaft angular position/RPM
5. Coolant temperature
6. Intake air temperature
7. Manifold absolute pressure (MAP)
8. Differential exhaust gas pressure
9. Vehicle speed
10. Transmission gear selector position

MAF: Watch https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z3QuuEPef4k

The hot-film element is
incorporated in a Wheatstone bridge. The power supply
for the bridge circuit comes from an amplifier.
The Wheatstone bridge consists of three fixed resistors R1, R2, and R3
and a hot-film element having resistance RHW. With no air flow the resistors
R1, R2, and R3 are chosen such that voltage va and vb are equal (i.e., the
bridge is said to be balanced). As air flows across the hot film, heat is carried
away from the film by the moving air. The amount of heat carried away
varies in proportion to the mass flow rate of the air. The heat lost by the film
to the air tends to cause the resistance of the film to vary, which unbalances
the bridge circuit, thereby producing an input voltage to the amplifier. The
output of the amplifier is connected to the bridge circuit and provides the
power for this circuit. The amplified voltage changes the resistance in such a
way as to maintain a fixed hot-film temperature relative to the inlet
temperature.
The amplifier output voltage vc varies with MAF and serves as a measure
of Rm.
. Crankshaft angular position/RPM sensor: https://youtu.be/AAbSwQlczDU

Imagine that the flywheel is rotated so that the mark is directly on the
reference line. This is an angular position of zero degrees. For our purposes,
assume that this angular position corresponds to the No. 1 cylinder at TDC
(top dead center). As the crankshaft rotates, this angle increases from zero to
360° in one revolution. However, one full engine cycle from intake through
exhaust requires two complete revolutions of the crankshaft. That is, one
complete engine cycle corresponds to the crankshaft angular position going
from zero to 720°. During each cycle, it is important to measure the crankshaft
position with reference to TDC for each cylinder. This information is used by
the electronic engine controller to set ignition timing and, in most cases, to set
the fuel injector pulse timing.

In automobiles having electronic engine control systems, angular

position can be sensed on the crankshaft directly or on the camshaft. Recall
that the piston drives the crankshaft directly, while the valves and the
distributor for the spark ignition are driven from the camshaft. The camshaft
is driven from the crankshaft through a 1:2 reduction drivetrain, which can be
gears, belt, or chain. Therefore, the camshaft rotational speed is one-half that
of the crankshaft, so the camshaft angular position goes from zero to 360° for
one complete engine cycle.
The two most common methods for noncontact coupling to a
rotating shaft employ magnetic fields or optics.
Magnetic Reluctance Position Sensor

The path for the magnetic flux of the reluctance sensor is illustrated in
Figure 6.7. The reluctance of a magnetic circuit is inversely proportional to the
magnetic permeability of the material along the path. The magnetic
permeability of steel is a few thousand times larger than air; therefore, the
reluctance of steel is much lower than air. Note that when one of the tabs of the
steel disk is located between the pole pieces of the magnet, a large part of the
gap between the pole pieces is filled by the steel. Since the steel has a lower
reluctance than air, the “flow” of magnetic flux increases to a relatively large
value.
On the other hand, when a tab is not between the magnet pole pieces, the
gap is filled by air only. This creates a high-reluctance circuit for which the
magnetic flux is relatively small. Thus, the magnitude of the magnetic flux that
“flows” through the magnetic circuit depends on the position of the tab, which,
in turn, depends on the crankshaft angular position.
The magnetic flux is least when none of the tabs is near the magnet pole
pieces. As a tab begins to pass through the gap, the magnetic flux increases. Itreaches a maximum when
the tab is exactly between the pole pieces, and then
decreases as the tab passes out of the pole piece region. In most control systems,
the position of maximum magnetic flux has a fixed relationship to TDC for one
of the cylinders.
The change in magnetic flux induces a voltage, Vo, in the sensing coil that
is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux. Since the magnetic
flux must be changing to induce a voltage in the sensing coil, its output voltage
is zero whenever the engine is not running, regardless of the position of the
crankshaft. This is a serious disadvantage for this type of sensor because the
engine timing cannot be set statically.
As shown in Figure 6.8, the coil voltage, Vo, begins to increase from zero
as a tab begins to pass between the pole pieces, reaches a maximum, then falls to
zero when the tab is exactly between the pole pieces (see Figure 6.8a). (Note
that although the value of magnetic flux is maximum at this point, the rate of
change of magnetic flux is zero; therefore, the induced voltage in the sensing
coil is zero.) Then it increases with the opposite polarity, reaches a maximum,
and falls to zero as the tab passes out of the gap between the pole pieces.
Engine Speed Sensor

An engine speed sensor is needed to provide an input for the electronic

controller for several functions. The position sensor discussed previously can
be used to measure engine speed. The reluctance sensor is used in this case as
an example; however, any of the other position sensor techniques could be
used as well. Refer to Figure above and notice that the four tabs will pass
through the sensing coil once for each crankshaft revolution. Therefore, if
we count the pulses of voltage from the sensing coil in one minute and
divide by four, we will know the engine speed in revolutions per minut

Timing Sensor for Ignition and Fuel Delivery

This sensor detects a reference point on the angular position of the
camshaft that defines a beginning to a complete engine cycle (e.g., power stroke
for all cylinders). Once this reference point has been detected, crankshaft
position measurements (as described above) provide sufficient information for
timing fuel injection pulses and ignition.
In one scheme a variable-reluctance sensor is located near a
ferromagnetic disk on the camshaft. This disk has a notch cut (or it can have
a protruding tab), as shown in Figure 6.9. The disk provides a low-reluctance
path (yielding high magnetic flux) except when the notch aligns with the
sensor axis. Whenever the notch aligns with the sensor axis, the reluctance of
this magnetic path is increased because the permeability of air in the notch is
very much lower than the permeability of the disk. This relatively high
reluctance through the notch causes the magnetic flux to decrease and
produces a change in sensor output voltage.
As the camshaft rotates, the notch passes under the sensor once for every
two crankshaft revolutions. The magnetic flux abruptly decreases, then
increases as the notch passes the sensor. This generates a voltage pulse that can
be used in electronic control systems for timing purposes

Hall effect sensor:

Shielded-Field Sensor
Figure 6.13 shows another concept that uses the Hall-effect element in a
way different from that just discussed. In this method, the Hall element is
normally exposed to a magnetic field and produces an output voltage. When
one of the tabs passes between the magnet and the sensor element, the low
reluctance of the tab and disk provides a path for the magnetic flux that
bypasses the Hall-effect sensor element, and the sensor output drops to near
zero.