Document PDF

!
" #

$ %&&%
'

! (" )(

#

* ( + ,

GCLC

$ - %&./ 0
1
(" ) + "

.2 %&./ 0

!

N K
"

K
#

N K K

$

Æ%

&

&

'(

) *

! "# # # # !$
## # # !

"%& ' !( %( "%
# # #
# ) !* "# # # # $
* # # # !( ! &

* +
%#
, # #
!(
!( #" "% - ' ! .
(
! # #' !( #
! / #
( & ( 0 !*$
#
! "# # # #

1!- # # #
%# %#

2%# !- # # # J
% #3
l
-
#
'
'( # V ( % $
%0 "%
x, y, z, ..., x , y , z , ..., x , y , z , ...4
1 1 1 n n n

! "# +#,-. -. /&0,-.
# %#'
"# {⊥, ∧, ∨, ⇒}( ⊥
"#(
∧, ∨ ⇒ -
"*4
# #
!# {∀, ∃}( ∀
"( ∃ " $
* #
!# 4
# ' - # %
"( "

/%# !- # # # J %
#3
# * #' - 5# 6( # P 4
# * #' 5!#* #'6 -( # O4
#
' # ( # C
7#
P ( O C
0 -
7
# * # $
-
# * # - " J #
- n( n ≥ 1( , -
8* # - "%
%0 α, β, ρ, α , β , ρ ((
<( =( ⊆( * # - f, g, h, f , g , h (( ∗( +( ·( •(
1 1 1

# a, b, c, a , b , c (( ( ( %
1 1 1
+-
#
* #' -( * #' -
1 1 1

' #

#3
P = {ρ , ρ , ..., ρ , ..., ρ , ρ , ..., ρ , ..., ρ , ρ , ..., ρ , ...}(
1
1
2
1
j
1
1
2
2
2
j
2
1
i
2
i
j
i
O = {f , f , ..., f , ..., f , f , ..., f , ..., f , f , ..., f , ...}

1
1
2
1
j
1
1
2
2
2
j
2
1
i
2
i
j
i
C = {c , ..., c , ...}(
1 i
& # * #' * #' -

, ' -( & "# "% -
,
1!- # # # !#
%# J 9 "%
!- # # #
# #
' V ( %#
"#(
l
#
!# - 7 ( %# !-
# # # J ( # 0 "
"#( , & /( "

&
,' % # # # 5 # #' !6
, # "% #
* #' -( * #' $
-
' # ( % ,
"%
"* 8* "#
#
* # - )# # # !
#
" " # Æ "# J

# # !$
"# J
+

!* # "# J

"#"# ,) .-. +#,-. -# /&0,-#

J
56 :
# "# J

56 1# t , ..., t f * # - "# J ,
n( f (t , ..., t )
1 n
1 n
56 9 #%

56 56

!*
/ ( # " # "# J #
P ( O C #%(
J "
-# # # ,
&'
.'
# "# J
+ "# J = {=, +, a, 0}( = * #
- , ( + * # - , a 0
$
# /
"# J $

# a 0

# V
1
## ,' "# J 3
+(0, a)( +(z, 0)( +(x, y) +(+(+(x, z), 0), +(+(y, z), +(x, a)))
; % " ' -' %#' * 5 $
-&( ,&( 6 - * 0
$
# & *( "Æ ' )#(
+(x, y) 0 (x+y) <

, "# J "
#3
(0 + a)( (z + 0)( (x + y) (((x + z) + 0) + ((y + z) + (x + a)))
7 !0 # # ! # "# J

J
56 / %#
"# ⊥ # # !
56 1# t , ..., t ρ * # - , n "# J (
ρ(t , ..., t ) # # !
1 n
1 n
56 1# A B # # !( (A ∧ B)( (A ∨ B)

(A ⇒ B) # # !
56 1# A # # ! x

(
∀xA ∃xA # # !
56 +# # ! #%

56( 56( 56 56
!*
/
# # !( ! "
56 56 !$
*( 5 #6 # # !
:
#

"
# $

( # # ! %0 !
! "# +#,-. -. /&0,-.
)

& ,' ! 0

0& " 9#( ( " "
3 0 + a( z + 0( x + y ((x + z) + 0) + ((y + z) + (x + a))(
! (A ∧ B)( (A ∨ B) (A ⇒ B) A ∧ B( A ∨ B A ⇒ B

"# J # # # !$
"#
+ "# J = {α, ∗, c}( α * #( ∗
* # - , c
# /$

& * # - ,
( #
(
, "
# * #
- ρ , (

" 3 ρ(x, y) x ρ y
"
## * # - #
&' =
## # #' ! "# J 3
α(x, c) α(x ∗ y, (c ∗ z) ∗ x)
∀xα(c, x) ∀x∃yα(x, y)
∀y((α(c ∗ x, y) ∧ α(c, c)) ⇒ ∃xα(x, y))

! ! /( "

-
∀x∃zα(x, y, z)( ∀x∃y(x ∗ y = c) ∀xα(x ∗ y ∗ z, c)
! "# J
" - α " #
* # - , ( α !* * # $
- , /" - ∀x∃y(x∗y = c) ! "#
J & #0 - # "#( $
- = "
- * #' $
* #' -(
- "# J &'
,

! , ' - Æ ( "
- x ∗ y ∗ z # , - (x ∗ y) ∗ z( x ∗ (y ∗ z)(

5# "
-6 #
<
# #" !
# # # ! !$
#
'
' ! /(
! %
!- 5!- # # # Æ &
%#
J # "# J 6(
# & % ( # # #
!( ! ! 7
! # # #
l
! % # ! !

7#
' ! ! F ( # P (F )( #
!$
0 %3
f
56 ! F # P (F )4f

"#"# ,) .-. +#,-. -# /&0,-#
56 # A ∧ B ∈ P (F )( A ∈ P (F ) B ∈ P (F )4
f f f
# A ∨ B ∈ P (F )( A ∈ P (F ) B ∈ P (F )4
f f f
# A ⇒ B ∈ P (F )( A ∈ P (F ) B ∈ P (F )4
f f f
# ∀xA ∈ P (F )( A ∈ P (F )4

f f
# ∃xA ∈ P (F )( A ∈ P (F )

f f
+ ! ∀y((α(c ∗ x, y) ∧ α(c, c)) ⇒ ∃xα(x, y)) "

7# ! ! #3
{∀y((α(c ∗ x, y) ∧ α(c, c)) ⇒ ∃xα(x, y))( (α(c ∗ x, y) ∧ α(c, c)) ⇒ ∃xα(x, y)( ∃xα(x, y)(
α(c ∗ x, y) ∧ α(c, c)( α(c ∗ x, y)( α(c, c)( α(x, y)}
; # ! F
, -
& &' ! &(

& ! A ! F !0 #
& % A
% F :
( # #" *(
#
' ! #
! -, ## # !
!
+ # # !
/# ∀y((α(x, y)∨α(c, c)) ⇒ ∃x(α(x, y)∨α(c, c)))
! "# J " ( ! F 7
# $
! α(x, y)∨α(c, c)( α(x, y) α(c, c) ! F

&
&( #
' &' ! 3
{∀y((α(x, y)∨α(c, c)) ⇒ ∃x(α(x, y)∨α(c, c)))( α(x, y) ∨ α(c, c)( α(x, y)(
α(c, c)( (α(x, y) ∨ α(c, c))⇒∃x(α(x, y) ∨ α(c, c))( ∃x(α(x, y) ∨ α(c, c))}
) - (
' ! # ! F ( "-,

& ' !( - ( # #" *( !

! F

56 1# F !(
! F ( D(F )(
%
# ! F
56 1# F -# A∧B( A∨B( A⇒B(
! F (
D(F )3
D(A) D(B)
D(A)
! A D(B)
! B
56 1# F -# ∀xA ∃xA(
! F ( D(F )3
D(A)
D(A)
! A

! "# +#,-. -. /&0,-.
)
! F " 3 α(x, y) α(c, c)
α(x, y) α(c, c) α(x, y) ∨ α(c, c)
α(x, y) ∨ α(c, c) ∃ x(α(x, y) ∨ α(c, c))
(α(x, y) ∨ α(c, c)) ⇒ ∃ x(α(x, y) ∨ α(c, c))
∀ y((α(x, y) ∨ α(c, c)) ⇒ ∃ x(α(x, y) ∨ α(c, c)))

"-,

& &' ! α(x, y)( α(c, c)
α(x, y) ∨ α(c, c)( #

&
' ' ! ! F
/ #
# #" * !$
* %#'
"# ⇔( ¬ 8* # # *
!*(
( &
# # !
)#( " # # # ! A B( 3
A ⇔ B =def (A ⇒ B) ∧ (B ⇒ A)
¬A =def A ⇒ ⊥
=def ⊥ ⇒ ⊥.
; # %#'
"# J !- # # #
-
# # {⊥, ∧, ∨, ⇒}(
- # -" %#'
"# /(
l

# # ! -# A ⇔ B( ¬A (
#
& %& # !*
"# ⇔( ¬

# !
,
#

#
!# # # ! > #
# $
# # ! F # "# J % !- # #
# +
x( #
! F ( %
% F ;
x( #
# %( ,
0
&
%( ! F >,
#
&
x ! F
< -
#
!# # !
# $
-0 - ∀ ∃ " &' % -# ∀x ∃x( x

" #
' V +
x " #
' % ∀x
∃x -
" #
!# ∀ ∃( " #
!#

x
Æ
#
# ! F "#

" -( &' !

" -

&
! F ; * "
# ! F (

&
x & ! -# ∀xA ∃xA
"

&
x F (
&
& ! F -
+#,

"#"# ,) .-. +#,-. -# /&0,-#
: "# J = {<, =, +, ◦, 0}( < =
$
* # - - , ( ◦ +
* # - ,
# +
! "# J
# #
!# ( !3
0 + (z ◦ x) < x + y
?
&
# &
(
#
&
' x(
y z ( -
& '
' : 0 %( "
- # ! # "#
,
&

-
& 1( # !

#
!#

"
-
& +( "# J ( ! F 3
(∀x(x < y)) ∧ z < 0
&

x( y z #
$
!# (
" #
!# ∀ # $

x : ! ! F -# ∀xA( !$
∀x(x<y)(

&
x ! F

"
& x & ! )#( x

"

& ! F 3 " #
!# % # !
∀x(x < y)
& & ! x<y +
y

& ! F ( & ! ∀x(x < y) #
-# ∀xA( #
!# ∀
y(
-
&
y F 9#Æ(
&

z & -
& ! F
1
!*

(1) 1# F !(
#
& $

x F -
&
x ! F
(2) 1# F ! -# A ∧ B ( A ∨ B A ⇒ B (
#
-
&
x ! A ! B
-
&
x ! F 4
#

"
&
x A B
"
&

x ! F
(3) 1# F ! -# ∀xA ∃xA(
(3.1) "
y "% x
# & -
&
A -
&
y ! F 4
#

"
& y A
"
&
y
! F 4
(3.2)
# -
& x ! A
"

&
x ! F #,
&

x
#
!# # % # !$
F 4
#
"
& x A
"
&

x ! F 4
! "# +#,-. -. /&0,-.
(3.3)
&
x " #
!# # % #
! F
"
& x ! F
/

!* !* ⇔ ¬( " ! A ⇔ B 5 ¬A6
3
# -
& #
x A B 5 A6 $
-
& x ! A ⇔ B 5 ! ¬A64
#
"
&
#
x A B 5 A6
"
& x ! A ⇔ B 5
! ¬A6 <

" -
&
'
# !( !0 & -
"

+
x -
! F # x -
-
& F +
x
"

! F # x -
"
& F
7

! 0 + (z ◦ x) < x + y " 0
( # - # !(
# -

! Æ ( ! F " ( ! #
!#$
(
"
x( & -
y z /(

. -
"
! F 3
∀x(0 < (x + y) ∧ ∃y(y < 0))
# ! "# J " ! F

&
x y(
x

&( y

& .-
&
x F
" @
%
&
y F 3
&
&(
! ∃y(y < 0)
"( &
& !
0 < (x+y) -
&
! F )#(
x
"( y
" -
! F
+ !*(
" (
# !$
, -
&
" -
.'
&3 , "-(
#
-
-
"A .
3 - # ! F
,
& &
"
x # 0
#
& ! -# ∀xA ∃xA

& x 5# (
(

"6 " #

#
!
F 5+" ! F ! # -

&
%# # #

5
! " #
" # 66 ; ! ∃y(y < 0) 0 !
F " -
& &
"
y , "
#(

( #
! F (

z 9# - ! F 3
∀x(0 < (x + y) ∧ ∃z(z < 0))

"#"# ,) .-. +#,-. -# /&0,-#
#

x( y z(

&
' x z
"(

& 5 6
y - )#(
"

! F
,

&
(

" -( x z

"( y -

! :
#( " - # ! F ( # #
x &
-
"
(
# & ! -# ∀xA
∃xA ,

&
x " #
$

#
! F / % - ! #

x -

; "
# # ! F
& -

( % # -'
' !( # SP (F )
+ -
"
, ! #$

-'
"'
&
' /( # $
-'
' # ! F ( # SP (F )( , !
#3
# F !(

#
!
F SP (F )4 # F ! -# A ∧ B ( A ∨ B A ⇒ B (
SP (F ) # SP (A) ∪ SP (B)4 # F ! -# ∀xA ∃xA(
SP (F ) # SP (A)\{x} :"
!* " !*
"# ⇔
¬ - 0 SP (A ⇔ B) = SP (A) ∪ SP (B) SP (¬A) = SP (A) 7(
#
!* # -'
'( #,3 $
-
# ! F
# &
#
# SP(F )4 # "
x ! ! F -#
∀xA ∃xA " #
, x ∈ SP (A)( x
"
!
F .
# ! -
"
# ! -0
# Æ 0 !* -'
"'

& , #
" 0 !* # -'

' ! F ( SP (F )( # "
!*
( # - SP (F ) "
-# ! F
7# -'
' ! F " ( # SP (F )(
{y}( &
"
% # {x, y} ; ! F ( # $

&
"'
& y ! F z( # -'

' {y}( # &'
"'
' {x, z}(

#
#
+# # ! # -'
' "
%*
5 "
!6 1# ! F %* x , ..., x

& -( Æ - "% (
( %* ∀x ...∀x F
1 n
"
& ! F 1# F %*(
"
&
1 n
/( " # ! F "%

F (x , ..., x ) x , ..., x &$
-
9 Æ ( "% ! F #
1 n 1 n
-

( x , ..., x
"
!$
F .' #
# "% -'
' < -
1 n

# #' !( * # $
# #( -
-
" /(

5 ,6 - # # # ! "

! "# +#,-. -. /&0,-.
&' -'

' +
-

! ,
!
. ( -

, # # # #
< ! # ! # " #

9 # ! -

5 %( -
&
'6 - "&
$
? # ! #
z
"(
!$
( # "
z # ( -
! + # "&
&(
!*( "'
!$
( & -
# "&
"$

Æ
+ !*( "

" ( -
( " # &
- $

"
" : "# J = {α, ∗, c} " # #
! "#( ! F 3
∀yα(y ∗ c, x) ∨ α(x, c)
-
(
x( #

-
& F ;& x # t # 0

& -
& " t 9 t ,
"% -#
;( #
( "
x #

x
" B # $
- " x x ! F )( # -

" #
' 5 #

"
"
6
0
" / (
! F
x "& "

(c ∗ c) ∗ c - !3
∀yα(y ∗ c, (c ∗ c) ∗ c) ∨ α((c ∗ c) ∗ c, c)
#
" ?0
"
! -
" %

& ! 0 ! F

x "& z ∗ z ( - !3
1 2
∀yα(y ∗ c, z1 ∗ z2 ) ∨ α(z1 ∗ z2 , c)

"
1 ##
"
A +(
"
#
x 0 ! F "( ( $
y ∗ z 9 " - ! F 3
∀yα(y ∗ c, y ∗ z) ∨ α(y ∗ z, c)
#
y y ∗ z
#
!# ∀(

y y ∗ z
"
! F
+ ## # ! F

0
" &
-
xA +#,
0 ! F
"#"# ,) .-. +#,-. -# /&0,-#
7-
x ! F -
& &
! ∀yα(y ∗ c, x)( ! -# ∀yA ;
#
t( # ' "
x( $

y( - " &

0

#
!# ∀
"
! # $
"
0 % " "
! F ( & -

x # t
"'
" " -#3 "

y t ! ! F -# ∀yA #

x -
! A 1#
"'
&( #,
t - "
x ! F 0 (
t - " #
x ! F
#
-( - -
x ! F - "&
t )!0
## "&
#

9 - "
x s t "%

t ( #
!0 %3
x
s
5656 # t
# c( t c4 x
s
56 # t

y( y=x( t y4 x
s
56 # t

x( t s4 x
s
56 # t -# f (t , ..., t )( t , ..., t f $
1 1
* # - "# J , n( t f (t , ..., t )
n n
x x x
s 1s ns
1
!* "&
&
#
!

B - "
x t ! F "$
%
F ( #
!0 %3
x
t
56 # F %#
"# ⊥( ⊥ ! ⊥4
x
t
56 # F -# ρ(t , ..., t )( F ! ρ(t , ..., t )4
1 n
x
t 1t
x x
nt
5656 # F -# A ∧ B( F ! A ∧ B 4

t
x x
t
x
t
56 # F -# A ∨ B( F ! A ∨ B 4
t
x x
t
x
t
56 # F -# A ⇒ B( F ! A ⇒ B 4
x
t
x
t
x
t
5656 # F -# ∀xA ∃xA( F ! F 4
x
t
56 # F -# ∀yA(
x "% y
t - " x ! F ( F ! ∀yA 4
x
t
x
t
56 # F -# ∃yA(
x "% y
t - " x ! F ( F ! ∃yA
x
t
x
t
! "# +#,-. -. /&0,-.
< x
"
! F 5

&

x F
"6 x
& F ( ! # "

x # t ! F ! F

-
"%& # #' ! < %
#"' !( # "
# # # !
& -
# &
5

6( !
, 5 6

# Æ
&
# #" ! 5 CD6

& #"

* -
5 6 $
3 ( ,3 ; ( "
* #"'

!( !#* *( %
!
+
# # ! 5 ,6 %
; # # # ! F
- " "# J #
# # !
&
( $
*
' - "# /(
- "- *$
#$* # # # % " # S ( # * "Æ
&
' * &
9 # -
"# J )#( - "- " # S( # "
% 5
6 + ( - "# J
#3
# * # $
- ρ "# J , m % * ,
m # S4
# * # - f "# J , n
% * " # S # S4 #
#

n
# "# J % " S 5

*6 . (

" #
' V
- % S(
#
( #

( - " # S

=
'
: "# J ={α, ∗, c}( α * #( ∗ $
* # -( - , c
# ;
% - # ' -
N 9 "%

" # V # "# J ( # c( "
"
# ' -
? "# J

!" ! !

"## #.) ,-. +#,-. -# /&0,-#
* &
' -3 * # - α $
- * # = ' -
( $
* # - ∗ - * -&( + : N → N( 2
# c # - 1 8* #$* # #$

(N, =, +, 1) ( !* # ( 0
"# J = {α, ∗, c}

I = (S, I J ) J
? "# J * #$* # #
% % # " # S( * * Æ

& 5!#*6 I ! %3
J
56
# * # - 5# 6 ρ "# J ( % ,
m(
% * , m # S( ρ ⊆ S ( m
I (ρ) = ρ 4
I
J
I
56
# * # 5!#* #6 - f "# J ( %
, n(
% * 5!#*6 f ,
n( f :S → S( I (f ) = f 4
I
n J
I I
56
#
# c "# J
%
c # S( I (c) = c
I
J
I
9 "# J "%

I = (S, I )( # S "
%
J
5 6 I = (S, I ) J
+ -( # "# J # {ρ , ..., ρ , f , ..., f , c , ..., c }(

k( m n # -
( I = (S, I )
1 k 1 m 1 n
J
"

#3 (S, ρ , ..., ρ , f , ..., f , c , ..., c )
1I kI 1I mI 1I nI
"# J = {α, ∗, c}( (N, =, +, 1) ."$
% Z # *'( R # ' -
59 "# " *
-
# 6 . * #$* # #
(Z, ≤, ·, −1) (R, <, ·, 0) # "# J ={α, ∗, c} 1( (
* #$* # # (R, =, <, 0) "# J
# * # - ∗ , "# J -
* <E
< " # "# J &
I = (S, I )( ( # J
( #

' V
" %
( # S B#* ı : V → S( #
#
" V
" % S *
' % S
I = (S, I ) "
$ * ı 5/%0 (
&
J
" % #

' -
/ CD(
#
&
#
'
V ( x , x , ...( " s = (b , b , ...)( b ∈ S( k ∈ {1, 2, ...}6
1# " $ * ı(
x # d % S
,
1 2 1 2 k
ı(x)=d( d

x $ * ı
;( I = (S, I ) # "# J $ *
J
ı : V → S( * I = (I, ı) = ((S, I ), ı)( * I

ı
J
ı
! "# +#,-. -. /&0,-.
; Æ * I = (I, ı) = ((S, I ), ı) ,

J
&3 ## Æ

# # ! 5
ı
"# J 6 *A +% * ?

t "# J %
#
" * # $
- * I = (I, ı) = ((S, I ), ı)

#

J
t " % S # , $ *
ı
ı4

# &

# * # -
% S ## * % S #
# * # - # !#* I + ( J
* I " #' * $

% S( # % S 0 #, !*
ı
# ( !*

# *

> 5 "%&6 t * I =(I, ı) Æ
I = (S, I ) "# J $ * ı : V → S( "%$
ı
J

I (t) !0 %3
ı
# t #
x( I (t) = ı(x)4 ı
# t # # c( I (t) = c 4 ı I
# t -# f (t , ..., t )( t , ..., t f $

* # - "# J , n( I (t) = f (I (t ), ..., I (t ))
1 n 1 n
ı I ı 1 ı n
+

/
## "# J = {∗, c}(
∗ * # - , ( c
# 3
x( c( (c ∗ x) ∗ y ((c ∗ x) ∗ c) ∗ y
+ ,
' * I # $
Æ (N, +, 1) "# J $ * ı : V → N "
ı
# ı(x) = 3 ı(y) = 5 > ' #

% ( # ' -
N3
I (x) = ı(x) = 3(
ı I (c) = c = 1(
ı I
I ((c ∗ x) ∗ y) = I (c ∗ x) + I (y) = (I (c) + I (x)) + I (y) = (1 + 3) + 5 = 9(

ı ı ı ı ı ı
Iı (((c ∗ x) ∗ c) ∗ y) = Iı ((c ∗ x) ∗ c) + Iı (y) = ((Iı (c) + Iı (x)) + Iı (c)) + Iı (y)

= ((1 + 3) + 1) + 5 = 10
> "

* 3 $

# * # # !$
+ 0 !*
# # ! #
*( !0 * "Æ $ * 1# "
I = (S, I ) "# J (
x " #
' V
$
J
* ı, j : V → S
,3 ı(y) # j(y) "

y "
# V , # y -0
x( ı j * ( x
"## #.) ,-. +#,-. -# /&0,-#
ı j ? * #

* #
'
$ * " #
' V % S
x x

> 5
6 # # ! F #
* I = (I, ı) Æ I = (S, I ) "# J J
$ * ı : V → S( "%

I (F ) !0
ı

#3
ı
# F ! ⊥( I (⊥) = 04 ı
# F ! -# ρ(t , ..., t )( 1 n
I (ρ(t , ..., t )) = ρ (I (t ), ..., I (t ))4

ı 1 n I ı 1 ı n
# F ! -# A ∧ B (

I (A ∧ B) = min(I (A), I (B))4
ı ı ı
# F ! -# A ∨ B (

I (A ∨ B) = max(I (A), I (B))4
ı ı ı
# F ! -# A ⇒ B (

I (A ⇒ B) = max(1 − I (A), I (B))4
ı ı ı
# F ! -# ∀xA(

I (∀xA) = 1 # "
# j : V → S( j ı
, I (A) = 1(
ı x j
% I (∀xA) = 04
ı
# F ! -# ∃xA(

I (∃xA) = 1 # j : V → S( j ı " # I (A) = 1(
ı x j
% I (∃xA) = 0
ı
1# " * I =(I, ı) ! F

, I (F )=1(
#, ! F * I 5
ı ı
I "

! F 6 1 # I (F ) = 0( ! F
ı
5,6 * 5 I "

!$
ı ı
F 6
ı
+

# # #' ! A∧B( A∨B A⇒B
"

&' ! A B % #

#" ! -# &'
' ! 5

CD6 . ( !*
"# ( ¬ ⇔ " " #"
# " % Æ
&
! -# ( ¬A
A⇔B ( " # * I = (I, ı) # # ! F
,3
# F ! ( I () = 14
ı
# F ! -# ¬A( I (¬A) = 1 − I (A)4

ı
ı ı

! "# +#,-. -. /&0,-.
# F ! -# A ⇔ B ( I (A ⇔ B) = 1( # I (A) = I (B)4

% I (A ⇔ B) = 0
ı ı ı
: # #

x -
! F (
ı
" * I =(I, ı)

I (F ) "

ı(x)(
I (x) /( " # * I =(I, j) I $
ı ı
"# J ( # -

x -
j(x) "% ı(x)(
ı j
I (F )( , - "%

I (F ) 1( # !
F %*( ! # -'
'(
#
j ı
* I = (I, ı)

I (F ) "
I = (S, I ) $ J
"# J ( $ * ı

,

3 " #
ı ı
* I = (I, ı) ! F

I (F ) "

-'
' ! F $ * ı .
#"
ı ı
+
- Æ
&
# #'
! -# ∀xA ∃xA # *
+ "# J = {α, ∗, c} "

# # ! "#3
∀xα(c, x) ∃xα(x, c) ∀xα(x, x ∗ c)
56 .
' # #' ! $
* I # ({0, 1, 2}, ≤, +, 0) "# J #
$ * ı : V → {0, 1, 2}
ı
: * I
! 3 ∀x (0 ≤ x)
/
!*
! -# ∀xA # $
ı
*( 3 # ' I (∀xα(c, x)) = 1(

- I (α(c, x)) = 1 "
$ * j( j : V → {0, 1, 2}(
ı
" #
, j ı ;
# $ * j(
#
j
' $ * j( j ı( * I ! α(c, x)

x
0 ≤ j(x)( j(x) # " % {0, 1, 2} ; (

x j
# "
j( j ı - I (α(c, x)) = 1( "% -
0 ≤ d "
d ∈ {0, 1, 2}( - 3 0 ≤ 0
x j
0 ≤ 1 0 ≤ 2 )#(
Iı (∀xα(c, x)) = 1
# # I (α(c, x)) = 1 "
# j( j ı
j x
# # 0 ≤ 0 0 ≤ 1 0 ≤ 2

7#
%( #
!# ∀
%#

"# ##* /( # ! ∀xA(
$

* I ! A # 0

x $ * j "

" % :
j
! ∀xA #

*
! A( # ##* ' *
? ' * ! A ##
% < % #% #( #
0 (
#% &'
"' ##*( (
# "
( #% ##*
0
"## #.) ,-. +#,-. -# /&0,-#
#% ##*( ##* 0 ≤ 0 0 ≤ 1 0 ≤ 2( $
( "#% ! ∀xα(c, x) $
* I =(({0, 1, 2}, ≤, +, 0), ı)
+ Æ
&
0 ! ∀xα(c, x) $
ı
* (({0, 1, 2}, ≤, +, 0), ı) "

"- $ $
* ı /( !( ! "

%*( "
' ! # *
I = (I, ı) "
"- I "# J )#( " $
I = ({0, 1, 2}, ≤, +, 0) "# J
' !

ı
* I = (I, ı) # 56

"# J (
(

ı
! * I = (({0, 1, 2}, ≤, +, 0), ı)

ı
: * I ! ∃x (x ≤ 0)
1# ' I (∃xα(x, c))=1( ( !*

ı
! -# ∃xA # *(

Æ
ı
- $ * j( j ı( " #

, I (α(x, c)) = 1
;
# $ * j 5 - j ı6 $
x j
* I ! α(x, c) j(x) ≤ 0( j(x) # "

x
{0, 1, 2} )#( - - I (∃xα(x, c)) = 1( " - $

j
d " {0, 1, 2} d ≤ 0( 3

ı
0 ≤ 0 1 ≤ 0 2 ≤ 0 > ( ## #

!# ∀

" ##*( # #
!# ∃
" $
#*3 ! -# ∃xA # -

' ' * ! A 5# -
# 0 x "

" % "# J (

# {0, 1, 2}6( # &'
#*
0 #* #%
*
;%( " # $ * j ( j ı( # # x
( I (α(x, c))=1 )#( $ * j( j ı(
0 0 x
" # I (α(x, c)) = 1(

, I (∃xα(x, c)) = 1 7 !
j0 x
∃xα(x, c) * I =(({0, 1, 2}, ≤, +, 0), ı)

j ı
ı
: * I ! ∀x (x ≤ x + 0)
< #
!( - ! ∀xα(x, x ∗ c) -
ı
* I -

##*3 0≤0 + 0
1 ≤ 1 + 0 2 ≤ 2 + 0( )#( -
ı
I (∀xα(x, x ∗ c)) = 1 ! ∀xα(x, x ∗ c)

* I =(({0, 1, 2}, ≤, +, 0), ı)
ı
ı
56 .

' # #' ! $
* I # (N, <, +, 2) "# J #
$ * ı : V → N
ı
; ! ∀xα(c, x) * I (

# 56( - 2 < j(x)( "

j(x) "
ı
% N( - 3 2 < 0 2 < 1 2 < 2 2 < 3

5.
" ##*( - #%( - #%
! "# +#,-. -. /&0,-.
% 6 : &

% (
"#% I (∀xα(c, x)) = 0 ! ∀xα(c, x)
* I =((N, <, +, 2), ı)
ı
ı
@ % ! ∃xα(x, c) * I (

# 56( - 3 0 < 2 1 < 2 2 < 2
ı
3 < 2 57( % #

!# ∃(
" #* - #%( #
% 6
:

% ( " $ * j (
j ı( # x # 5 6
, I (α(x, c)) = 1 )#(
0
$ * j( j ı( " # I (α(x, c)) = 1( !

0 x j0
∃xα(x, c) * I =((N, <, +, 2), ı)

x j
ı
/ #( * I ! 3 ∀x (x < x + 2)

ı
; &
* I -
$
I (α(x, x ∗ c)) "
$ * j : V → S( j ı )#(
ı
-
' ! d < d + 2( d
j x

x # j( j ı 50 "% d ,
- - # -6
( - $
x
3 0 < 0 + 2 1 < 1 + 2 2 < 2 + 2 7

# %
"
##* ( I (α(x, x ∗ c)) = 1 "
$ *
j( j ı( I (∀xα(x, x ∗ c)) = 1 )# ! ∀xα(x, x ∗ c)
j
* I =((N, <, +, 2), ı)

x ı
ı
+ 0

+ "# J = {α, ∗, c} " $
! # -'
'( ! F 3
∀xα(x, x ∗ y)
-
y /# " "# J (
(Z, <, +, 0) ;
#( "
$ * ı( ı : V → Z(
* ((Z, <, +, 0), ı) !
∀x 5x < x + ı(y)6
) -
! F # *
I = ((Z, <, +, 0), ı) "
ı(y) "
$
* I = ((Z, <, +, 0), ı )( #
& $ *
ı
ı ( ı : V → Z(
y # 0( ı (y) = 0 : * I
ı1 1
! F ∀x (x <x + 0) )#( 0 ! F

1 1 1 ı1
* I 1 " I = ((Z, <, +, 0), ı )( $$

* ı ( ı : V → Z( ı (y) = 1 : * I !
ı1 ı2 2
F ∀x (x < x+1)( ! F $

2 2 2 ı2
* I > ! ∀xα(x, x ∗ y) "

"# J ( (Z, <, +, 0)( " "% $ *
ı2
#
' V ( " "%

-

y( "%

"## #.) ,-. +#,-. -# /&0,-#
? "
# # # ! F # "# J "$
% * I = (I, ı) = ((S, I ), ı) # ( J
" #
, I (F )=1 9#
* "
" ! F
ı
ı

1# ! F * I = (I, ı) = ((S, I ), ı)( J
* (I, ı) " ! F "

ı
(I, ı) |= F
0 ! ∀xα(x, x ∗ y) *

I = ((Z, <, +, 0), ı ) * " ! ∀xα(x, x ∗ y)
1 ! * I = ((Z, <, +, 0), ı )
ı2 2
" * # " ! ∀xα(x, x ∗ y)

ı1 1
1# "# J &

I = (S, I )( % " $ J
"
t J # * I = (I, ı)
I (t) "

5 * I 6 ' #
'
ı ı
#
t )#( # " I = (S, I ) "# J
ı
J

* I = (I, ı) I = (I, j) #
"
#
x $
t
, ı(x) = j(x) 5 I (x) = I (x)6( I (t) = I (t)
ı j
#"

ı j ı j

# Iı = (I, ı) Ij = (I, j) $ I = (S, I J )

J ı, j : V → S %& '

x
t

J ( Iı (x) = Ij (x)$
)
Iı (t) = Ij (t).

)#" - #* , t( - $
* #' - t
/
#
5- *$
#' - & 6 1# t # # c(
'(
!*
*(
I (t) = c = I (t) 1# t #
x (
I (t) = I (x ) = ı(x ) I (t) = I (x ) = j(x ) ##
, -
ı I j 1
I (x ) =I (x )( 3 I (t)=I (t)

ı ı 1 1 j j 1 1
1 1
/# t -# f (t , ..., t )( " - # t , ..., t
ı j ı j
"
* # - f , m "# J +$
1 m 1 m

t
t , ..., t ; "
#

, * I I 5 $ * ı j6
1 m
#
"
&'

0(
ı j
& , t 5 t - * #

- 5 - f 6
0
# &'6 )#( " &'
,
#* #
#( 3
I (t ) = I (t )( "
# t ( 1 ≤ l ≤ m
ı l j l l
! "# +#,-. -. /&0,-.
9(

!*
$
*( 3
Iı (t) = fI (Iı (t1 ), ..., Iı (tm )) = fI (Ij (t1 ), ..., Ij (tm )) = Ij (t).
;#%

, "
"# J
♦
1 #"
! # * I "

&' -'
' * I
ı
ı

# Iı = (I, ı) Ij = (I, j) $ I = (S, I J )

J ı, j: V → S %& '

x

F
J ( Iı (x) = Ij (x)$
)
Iı (F ) = Ij (F ).

)#" - #* , ! F ( -
n( # "- - %#'
"# - #
!#
! F
" #*( n = 0( F # ! 1# F
! ⊥( '(
!*
!
*( I (⊥)=0=I (⊥) 1# F -# ρ(t , ..., t )(
ρ * # - , m( t , ..., t # (
ı j 1 m

&
5# ' 6 -( " &'
,
1 m
#
* I I Æ &
"

t , ..., t ( ( ( 3
ı j
1
I (t ) = I (t )( "
# t ( 1 ≤ l ≤ m
m
ı l j l l
< - !*
! $
*( -3
Iı (F ) = ρI (Iı (t1 ), ..., Iı (tm )) = ρI (Ij (t1 ), ..., Ij (tm )) = Ij (F ).
:#* #
#3
, "
# ! F #
& n %#'
"# #
!#
)#"
, " ! n
"# #
!#
+ ! F # n %#'
"# #
!#$
B F , ' -#3
A ∧ B( A ∨ B( A ⇒ B( ∀xA ∃xA
<# SP (A ∧ B)=SP (A ∨ B)=SP (A⇒B)=SP (A) ∪ SP (B)( #
F -# A∧B( A∨B A⇒B(
-

! A B " SP (F ) ; "
-

! A B
* I
I # 9 ! & , F ( " &'
,
ı
#* #
#3 I (A) = I (A) I (B) = I (B) 7 (
j
!*
! *( -3
ı j ı j
"## #.) ,-. +#,-. -# /&0,-#
# F -# A ∧ B(
Iı (F ) = min(Iı (A), Iı (B)) = min(Ij (A), Ij (B)) = Ij (F ) 4
# -#
F A∨B (
Iı (F ) = max(Iı (A), Iı (B)) = max(Ij (A), Ij (B)) = Ij (F ) 4
# -#
F A⇒B (

Iı (F ) = max(1 − Iı (A), Iı (B)) = max(1 − Ij (A), Ij (B)) = Ij (F )
. 0
%
# ! F -# ∀xA
∃xA /
- SP (∀xA) = SP (∃xA) = SP (A)\{x}(
# -'
' ! A( # SP (A)( SP (F )
, 0
x )#( "
# -

z ! A( , z = x(
, I (z) = I (z) ı j
/# ! F -# ∀xA
1# I (∀xA) = 0( # $ * ı( ı : V → S

ı ı " #
, I (A)=0 + $ *
ı
j( j : V → S

j j ı(x) = j(x) ; ! A( #
x ı
& , ! F (

# & -

x
z * I I I (z) = I (z) 5 I (x) = I (x)(

- * I I !* ( " z = x
ı j ı j ı j

, I (z)=I (z)=I (z)=I (z)6( " &'
, #* # $
ı j x

#3 I (A) = I (A) )#( " * I -
ı ı j j
j j
,3 I (A) = 0 7 (
!*
!$
ı j j
*( I (∀xA) = 0 / %

x j
#" # I (∀xA) = 0( I (∀xA) = 0 )#

j

,3
j ı
I (∀xA) = 0 ## I (∀xA) = 0

9# #" # F -# ∀xA(
,3 I (F )= I (F )
ı j
ı j
: 0 % # ! F -# ∃xA + #
% # F -# ∀xA( , #" 3
I (∃xA)=1ı ## I (∃xA)=1 j
- # F -# ∃xA
,3 I (F )=I (F ) ı j
)#( "#% ,

, "
# #
! F # "# J
♦
/ #
# !0 " # # #' !

1# " * I = (I, ı) = ((S, I ), ı) "
# ! F J
" # # # #' ! Γ

, I (F )=1( #,
ı
* I " # ! Γ

ı
ı
! "# +#,-. -. /&0,-.

; * #" # * "" (
#" ! # " - #
* &'
' #"'

7

# , "'
# # ! $
"# J ( # %

( ! -

# * I = (I, ı) " I = (S, I ) "# J
J 5 " I "# J

# * I = (I, ı) - $
ı
" !6 , ,

03 ! -
ı

# * I = (I, ı) "
# I = (S, I ) "# J + $
J

% # !
* I = (I, ı)
ı
I = (S, I ) "# J

ı
J

I
1# " ! F # "# J ( # I = (S, I ) J
"# J
# $ * ı( ı : V → S(
# $
* I = (I, ı)(
, I (F ) = 1( #, I "
! F ( ! F
I 0 I |= F
ı ı
+ '

: "# J = {α, ◦}( α ◦ * #
* # - , + # # !
∀x∃yα(x, y)
"# J (R, <, +) "# 7
"% * I = ((R, <, +), ı) # -
"% ' $ * ı( ı :V → R ;
# I = ((R, <, +), ı)
ı
* !

ı
∀x∃y(x < y)

)# ! ∀x∃yα(x, y)
*$
I = ((R, <, +), ı)( ! ∀x∃yα(x, y)

(R, <, +) "
#3 (R, <, +) |= ∀x∃yα(x, y)
ı
/# 3

! "
$$
* %* -'
'
7, - 0 + $
! ∀xα(x, x ◦ y)
-
y I = (N, ≤, +) "# J :

"% $ * ı( ı:V →N 9 $ $
* -
y # "% -

! ∀xα(x, x ◦ y) * I = (I, ı)
- "% + Æ *
ı
I =(I, ı ) : * I ! 3

∀x(x ≤ x + ı (y))(
ı0 0 ı0
0
" I (y) = ı (y) = c (
-
y #
c " % I "# J ( # N +#,
ı0 0 0
0
"## #.) ,-. +#,-. -# /&0,-#

I (∀xα(x, x ◦ y)) )#( #, "
# $
* j - j ı
,3 I (α(x, x ◦ y))=1(
ı0
j(x)≤j(x) + c <# $ * j( j ı ( $

x 0 j

x , - "%
j(x) " # $
0 x 0
' -
( d ≤ d + c " "

5
#6 - d 9 (
,
0
I (∀xα(x, x ◦ y)) = 1 ;%( ! ∀xα(x, x ◦ y)

* I (N, ≤, +) "# J #

ı0
& -

y - c ( I (y) = c .'
ı0
## d ≤ d + c "

# d " # N(
0 ı0 0
"
# c " N( d ≤ d + c "

0
d c % (N, ≤, +) "# J /

(

0
I (∀xα(x, x ◦ y)) = 1 "

# * I = ((N, ≤, +), ı)
5 "
# * - (N, ≤, +)
ı ı

' ' $ * ı( ı : V → N6 /( "
#
* I = ((N, ≤, +), ı )( #
- $

y # - c ( I (y) = ı (y) = c ( 3
ı1 1
0 ! ∀xα(x, x ◦ y) * #

1 ı1 1 1
"
# - d d ≤ d+c )#( -

I (∀xα(x, x ◦ y)) -
# * I = ((N, ≤, +), ı) (
1
d ≤ d + c( " - #

- c
ı ı
d +0
,( "#% I (∀xα(x, x ◦ y)) = 1 "

# * I =((N, ≤, +), ı) )#( ! ∀xα(x, x◦y)
ı

(N, ≤, +)(
ı
(N, ≤, +) |= ∀xα(x, x ◦ y)
; 0 "% !

# "#( $

0 ; "# J ( &
! "
3 ({0, 1, 2}, ≤, +, 0) |= ∀xα(c, x)
({0, 1, 2}, ≤, +, 0) |= ∃xα(x, c)
({0, 1, 2}, ≤, +, 0) |= ∀xα(x, x ∗ c)
(N, <, +, 2) |= ∃xα(x, c)
(N, <, +, 2) |= ∀xα(x, x ∗ c)
> ! #
* I = (I, ı)
I = (S, I )(

!
ı
J
"# J 1( # 0 % #

#( ,
0
0 , /( , , # !
F ( "# J ( -
# * I = (I, ı)(
I = (S, I ) - # "# J ( ! F -

ı
J

# "# J ) #
!A + =

" : "# J = {β}( β * # - ,
( ! "#3
! "# +#,-. -. /&0,-.
β(x) ∨ ¬β(x).
;
# I =(S, β ) "# J
# $ * ı:V →S(
ı(x)=d( * !
I
βI (d) ∨ ¬βI (d).

βI (d), - , % (
¬β (d) - ,( %( # β (d)
,( ¬β (d) ;%( - % -
I I
β (d)∨¬β (d) )#( "

# I = (S, β ) "# J
I

# $ * ı:V →S ! β(x)∨¬β(x) (
I I I

# I = (S, β ) "# J B
# - "

!
I

1# # # ! F # "# J

#
"#( ! F
!
0 |= F
> ! * * # # #
# 0 * * #" #
+
,
" "Æ
' ! /(
# #

! .' $

# +
! " "
$
! #
( - " ( p ∨ ¬p >$
! β(x) ∨ ¬β(x) - # 0 p ∨ ¬p &
#"
p "& # # ! β(x) / &3
#( # - # # # !(
, -
!A .
3 + 0 #,(

# #' "# 1# p , ..., p
( Æ - "% (
#"
#" ! F ( ! "%

1 n
F (p , ..., p ) )( " "

Æ - "% # # !
A , ..., A ( # # !( # - # #" !
1 n
F (p , ..., p )
#
& #"
p " ! A ( "
# k
1 n
51 ≤ k ≤ n6( "%
F (A , ..., A ) 7 , ! $
1 n k k
- # # "

&
' ! 3 #
1 n
F (p , ..., p ) A , ..., A "

# # !
# "# J ( F (A , ..., A )
!
1 n 1 n
" #" ! F (p) 5 #"

p6 $
1 n
p∨¬p( # # ! # "& & #"
p
! β(x)( # # ! F (β(x)) -0 # $
# ! β(x) ∨ ¬β(x) " # #"
!
/ ! F (p) F (β(x)) " 0 "( ! p ∨ ¬p
β(x)∨¬β(x)( #" ##
" Æ
&
v(F (p , ..., p ))
5" "

* v #"' !6 Æ
&

1 n
I (F (A , ..., A )) 5" "

* I # #' !6
+ # Æ
& '
#"' !(
ı 1 n ı
"## #.) ,-. +#,-. -# /&0,-#
" #
* v
v(F (p)) = v(p∨¬p) >* v
#
#"
! F (p) 5 % 0 !
p6 -
#
v(p) % v(F (p))=v(p ∨ ¬p) %3
v(F (p)) = v(p ∨ ¬p) = max(v(p), 1 − v(p)).
; #
* v #"
p ,
$
( , v(p) - "% v(p)( v(F (p)) %
% #
v(p)3 #
v(p) 1 − v(p)
> # # # I (F (β(x))) = I (β(x) ∨ ¬β(x))
" # * I * I ! β(x)

ı ı
I (β(x))( I (F (β(x))) = I (β(x) ∨ ¬β(x)) %

#3
ı ı
ı ı ı
Iı (F (β(x))) = Iı (β(x) ∨ ¬β(x)) = max(Iı (β(x)), 1 − Iı (β(x))).
; # * I
! β(x)( I (β(x))( ,
- "% I (β(x))(
I (β(x) ∨ ¬β(x)) %
ı ı
"
I (β(x)) "# # * I 3 #
ı ı
I (β(x)) 1 − I (β(x))

ı ı
;

v(F (p)) v(p) "

I (F (β(x)))
ı ı
I (β(x)) !#*(

ı
ı
v(F (p)) = h(v(p)) I (F (β(x))) = h(I (β(x)))(ı ı
h : {0, 1} → {0, 1}( h(z) = max(z, 1 − z)( v "

* #"$
' ! I "
* # #' !
.
-
, "
# #" ! F (p , ..., p ) # # !$
ı
F (A , ..., A ) # - " #" ! % #

1 n

/( !#* "

1 n
v(F (p , ..., p )) v(p ), ..., v(p ) 5" - #

* v #"' !6
"

I (F (A , ..., A )) I (A ), ..., I (A ) 5" - # $
1 n 1 n
* I # #' !6( "

# !$
ı 1 n ı 1 ı n
#* h : {0, 1} → {0, 1}

,3
ı
n
v(F (p , ..., p )) = h(v(p ), ..., v(p ))

1 n 1 n
I (F (A , ..., A )) = h(I (A ), ..., I (A ))

1 1
1 #" #
&
' ! $
ı n ı ı n
( #
(
#
$
- #
, " %&
! F (p , ..., p ) F (A , ..., A ) 1 n 1 n

'

F (p1 , ..., pn )

A1 , ..., An
$

F (A1 , ..., An )
&

+
A , ..., A # # ! "# J
+ - #"
# * I = (I, ı)(
1 n
I = (S, I ) "# J (

I (F (A , ..., A )) #
ı
J
1
; #" ! F (p , ..., p )
#
* v #"$
ı n

p , ..., p -
v(p ), ..., v(p ) # !#*
1 n
1 n 1 n
! "# +#,-. -. /&0,-.
3
h {0, 1}n → {0, 1} 5 "

*6( "

$
v(F (p1 , ..., pn ))
(
v(p1 ), ..., v(pn )
v(F (p1 , ..., pn )) = h(v(p1 ), ..., v(pn )).
7 ( " !
# *
F (A1 , ..., An ) Iı
"

Iı (F (A1 , ..., An )) Iı (A1 ), ..., Iı (An )
!#* # "

h
v(F (p1 , ..., pn ))
(
v(p1 ), ..., v(pn )
Iı (F (A1 , ..., An )) = h(Iı (A1 ), ..., Iı (An )).
+ "
( - #( * Iı = (I, ı)

9 * $
Iı (F (A1 , ..., An ))
# # ! -

A1 , ..., An Iı (A1 ), ..., Iı (An )
)(
* # #"
v p1 , ..., pn
! -

#3
F (p1 , ..., pn )
#
v(pk ) ( "
# (
Iı (Ak ) k 1≤k≤n
<# ! "
#
F (p1 , ..., pn )

*
' #"'
( "
* )#(
p1 , ..., pn v

1 = v(F (p1 , ..., pn )) = h(v(p1 ), ..., v(pn ))
<%( #

-( "%

! F (A , ..., A ) "
*
I = (I, ı)( "% I (F (A , ..., A ))3
1 n
ı ı 1 n
Iı (F (A1 , ..., An )) = h(Iı (A1 ), ..., Iı (An ))

= h(v(p1 ), ..., v(pn )) ( v(p ) = I (A )( 1 ≤ k ≤ n
k ı k
= v(F (p1 , ..., pn )) = 1.

;%( "
* I = (I, ı)
!
F (A , ..., A ) 7 "#%
# *
ı

! F (A , ..., A ) ( F (A , ..., A )

1 n
!
1 n 1 n
/

"
& - #"' # #' ! $
#" *
"
Æ& & '-
# ! ( $
modus ponens 5MP 6( %

#"' !3 (

,3 # A A ⇒ B ( B 5

5 MP 6 # CD6 : '-
# !
# # #
"
Æ& modus ponens 5MP 6 5

#
6
%

# #' !3
"(
,3 # A A⇒B
!( B

M P
'

A A ⇒ B
$
B
&

: ! A A⇒B
!( "
# $
"## #.) ,-. +#,-. -# /&0,-#
* I = (I, ı)
,3 I (A) = 1 I (A ⇒ B) = 1 <

!*
! *( "
ı ı ı

# * I -3
1 = I (A ⇒ B) = max(1 − I (A), I (B)) = max(0, I (B)) = I (B)
ı
)#( - I (B) # "

# * I (
ı ı ı ı ı
! B
!
ı ı
F-
# ! # # #
MP
0
"
Æ&(
generalizacije 5Gen 6 5
#

6 : "
Gen
,

%

(
#
Gen
'

A
$
∀xA
&

+ "
* I = (I, ı) :
! A
( 0 "% ! A

ı
* 7 (

* I #

j ı( ! A ( I (A) = 1 9(
!$
j
*
! *( "% I (∀xA)
x j
1 )#( " "

* I - I (∀xA)=1(
ı
"#% ∀xA

!
ı ı

" "Æ
"
Æ& Gen
(

,
3 # ∀xA
!( A
$
! + !*
!
( #

# ∀xA
!( " "
* I
#,
, I (A) = 1 + #( "
*
ı
I <# ∀xA
!( I (∀xA) = 1 7 (
!$
ı
* I ( "
# j - j ı
, I (A)=1 + #$
ı ı
' $ *( $ * j ( " # j (x) = ı(x) /

ı x j
!*

j (x) = ı(x)( "
# -

0 0
y ! A
, I (y) = I (y)( ( - I (A) #
x 0
I (A)( I (A) )#( " "

* I -
j0 ı ı
I (A) = 1 ;%( A
! /

-
j0 ı ı
Gen(
,
ı

*
A

∀xA
&

,
- # #' !
! "# +#,-. -. /&0,-.

!

$ Æ

$
x1 $&&&$xn
F ()
F

∀x1 ...∀xn F
&

)#" "
#* -
' x , ..., x 1 n
" #*( n = 13 '(
( 3
F
! ## ∀x F
!
1
:#* #
#3 n − 1
'(

x , ..., x
1 (
,
n−1
F
! ## ∀x ...∀x 1 F
!
n−1
+ ! F n

'(
x , ..., x
/

,3
1 n
F
! ## ∀x F
!
n
?0( " ! ∀x F

x (( x ( #' n − 1(

, #* #
#3
n 1 n−1
∀x F
! ## ∀x ...∀x1 ∀x F
!
)#3 F
! ## ∀x ...∀x F
!
n n−1 n
1 n
+ *
,

# # # ! F
& "
&( #
!
! F
## & "
&
!
1# ! F %* & "
& ! F (

, 1# ! F %*( x , ..., x

&( Æ - "% ( -
.'(
1 n

( 3
F
! ## ∀x ...∀x F
!(
1
F
! ## & "
&
!
n
#" *
#" ! A B %# #

# ! A ⇔ B .
# # ! A B -
%# #

# A ⇔ B
!

)
# # ! A B # "# J %#
#

5 # ( #

6 # ! A ⇔ B
$
( |= A ⇔ B
! +#,

#

' !3
! A B #

# # "
# $
* I = (I, ı)(
,3 I (A) = I (B)
ı ı ı
"## #.) ,-. +#,-. -# /&0,-#
+
! A B #

)#(
A⇔B
!( |= A⇔B 9 "% "
# $
* I = (I, ı)
, I (A ⇔ B) = 1 :" I (A ⇔ B) = 1(

!*
! -# A⇔B *( $
ı ı ı
- I (A) # I (B)3 I (A) = I (B)

7 ( # "
# * I I (A) = I (B)(
ı ı ı ı
( !*
I (A⇔B)( "
# *
ı ı ı
I
, I (A⇔B) # )#( A ⇔ B
!(
ı
! A B #

ı ı
/ #
' # #' ! # "# J , !$
- *( * ≡( # - * ≡
#
' #"' ! 5 CD6 ;% 3
A ≡ B # # ! A B #

)#" # #" % * ≡ *
#

*
# # #' ! "# J
! +#,

' !( # -
#0 #"
& '

# #' !
56 1# |= A ⇔ B |= B ⇔ C ( |= A ⇔ C
:" |= A ⇔ B |= B ⇔ C (
!*
' !
I (A)=I (B) I (B)=I (C) "
# * I )#

, I (A) = I (C) "
# * I ( A ⇔ C

ı ı ı ı ı
!( |= A ⇔ C
ı ı ı
56 1# |= A ⇔ B( |= C ⇔ D |= A ⇒ C ( |= B ⇒ D

)!*
' ! 3 I (A) = I (B)( I (C) = I (D)
I (A ⇒ C) = 1 "
# * I <
(
ı ı ı ı
!*
! *( "
# $
ı ı
* I -3 ı

1=I (A⇒C)=max(1−I (A), I (C))=max(1−I (B), I (D))=I (B ⇒D).
)#( ! B ⇒D
!
ı ı ı ı ı ı
#" 0 # - #

' # $
#' !

# A B

J &
+, '
|= A ⇔ B $
|= ¬A ⇔ ¬B
+, '
|= A ⇔ B $

C J ()
+∧, |= (C ∧ A) ⇔ (C ∧ B) +∧, |= (A ∧ C) ⇔ (B ∧ C)4
+∨, |= (C ∨ A) ⇔ (C ∨ B) +∨, |= (A ∨ C) ⇔ (B ∨ C)4
+⇒, |= (C ⇒ A) ⇔ (C ⇒ B) +⇒, |= (A ⇒ C) ⇔ (B ⇒ C)4
+⇔, |= (C ⇔ A) ⇔ (C ⇔ B) +⇔, |= (A ⇔ C) ⇔ (B ⇔ C)
+, '
|= A ⇔ B $
|= ∀xA ⇔ ∀xB
! "# +#,-. -. /&0,-.
+, '
|= A ⇔ B $
|= ∃xA ⇔ ∃xB

)
56 56 #" #
56 56

#" * 5" CD6
56 :" |= A ⇔ B #

! A B( "
#
* I = (I, ı) = ((S, I ), ı)
,3 I (A) = I (B) +#,$
J
( "
# * I
, I (∀xA) = I (∀xB)
ı ı ı
)#( - #( "

*
ı ı ı
I " & #, - /

!*

! *( -
I (∀xA)
ı

I (∀xB) "
I (A)
$
ı
I (B)( "
$ * j( j : V → S( - j ı
ı j
<#
! A B Æ - # "
# $
j x
*(

, "
# * I ( % $$
* j - j ı )#( " "
$
j
* I 3
x
ı
Iı (∀xA) = 1
## "
# ( (
,3 I (A) = 1( !
!
j j x ı j
## "
# j( j ı(
,3 I (B) = 1( I (A) = I (B)
x j j j
## I (∀xB) = 1(
ı !
!
9 "% ! ∀xA ∀xB #

( !
∀xA ⇔ ∀xB

56 )#" # 56
♦
"* # ( ! %-(

# "%

!( #' % " ! $ "
! +#,
56 ∀x∀yA ⇔ ∀y∀xA
56 ∃x∃yA ⇔ ∃y∃xA
56 ∀xA ⇔ ∀yA ( y
#
! A
x
y
56 ∃xA ⇔ ∃yA ( y
#
! A
x
y

!
56 +0 ! ∀x∀yA ⇔ ∀y∀xA -# C ⇔D( -

# ! ∀x∀yA ∀y∀xA #

) -
#"
#" "
# *
,3
I (∀x∀yA)=0 # # I (∀y∀xA)=0 + "

* I =((S, I ), ı) +

(
,3
ı ı
J
ı
I (∀x∀yA)=0(
ı
"## #.) ,-. +#,-. -# /&0,-#
j ( j ı( I (∀yA)=0( !
! (
0 0 x j0
( j ( I (A)=0( !
! (
0 0 y 0 0
" "
# ( ( I (∀xA)=0( !
! (
x 0
#
3 (x) = ı(x)(1 1 x 0 1
3 I (∀xA)=0 ı( ! - j , , (

1 1 y y 0 0 1
#( I (∀y∀xA)=0(
ı !
!
/ % #"
# I (∀y∀xA)=0( I (∀x∀yA)=0
ı ı
)# " "
* I =((S, I ), ı)
,3 ı
J
I (∀x∀yA)=0 # # I (∀y∀xA)=0(

ı ı
! ∀x∀yA ∀y∀xA #

7 "#%
! ∀x∀yA ⇔ ∀y∀xA

56 / % # " ! 56 #" "
# $
* I =((S, I ), ı)
,3
ı
J
I (∃x∃yA) = 1 # # I (∃y∃xA) = 1

0 ! ∃x∃yA ∃y∃xA #

)#( !$
ı ı
∃x∃yA ⇔ ∃y∃xA

#" ! 56 56
# -3
" # ! A ! A ( y
# x

A( "
* I = ((S, I ), ı)
,
y
J
ı
"
# $ * j ( j ı( $ * (
#
ı I (A)=I (A )( -
0 0 x 0
x
0
.' #,
- : #( $ *
y j0 0 y
j ( j ı /
!* ( $ * j #

j (z) = ı(z) "

z "% x( 0
0 0 x x 0

x $ * # # s ∈ S( j (x) = s(
0
# - # ı(x) 9 $ *

0
#
3 ı 5 (z) = ı(z) = j (z) "
#
z
"% x y (x) = ı(x)6 (y)=s=j (x) ; (

0 0 y 0 0
!* -

y
A(
,3
0 0 0 0
I (A)=I (A ) / % #" "

# $
y
x
* ( ı $ * j ( j ı( #

j0 0 y
I (A )=I (A)
0 0 y 0 0 x
x
7 ( # !*

! $
0 y j0
*
-( #" 0 ! 56 56

56 < # ! 56 56 - #" "
#
* I = ((S, I ), ı)
, I (∀xA) = I (∀yA ) ;
# J x
* I = ((S, I ), ı)

ı ı ı y
J
ı
Iı (∀xA) = 0
## "
# j( j ı3 I (A)=1( x j !
!
! "# +#,-. -. /&0,-.
## j ( j ı( " # I (A)=0

0 0 x j0
## ( ı( " # I (A )=0( #" -

0 0 y 0
x
y
## "
# ( ı3 I (A )=1 y
x
y
## I (∀yA ) = 0(
ı
x
y !
!
)# #" ( # y
A( ! ∀xA
∀yA #

( ( "
# ! A #

x
y ( ! ∀xA ⇔ ∀yA

y
x
y
56 / % # # ! 56 #" "
#
* I =((S, I ), ı) " ! A #
y3
J
I (∃xA) = 1 ## I (∃yA ) = 1

ı
x
0 "% ( "
# ! A #
y( !
ı ı y
∃xA ⇔ ∃yA
!
x
> ! (3) (4) "

!- #
& 7$
y
# 5 6

$

&
"'
' "
! F ( "(
& ! -# ∀xA ∃xA(
'
"'
&

x
#
F /

$
' ! !- #
& (

& - ! # #

! F
! 0
! -# ∀xA
∃xA , # "
' !
"'
##* #*( # % #
" ##*( #* ; %# &$
'
*( ! ¬∀xA ¬∃xA( * ' "

##* #*( " &'
, )
"#3
¬(A ∧ B) ⇔ (¬A ∨ ¬B) ¬(A ∨ B) ⇔ (¬A ∧ ¬B) 9 " 0
!
56 ¬∀xA ⇔ ∃x¬A 56 ¬∃xA ⇔ ∀x¬A
"
)
"# " #
!# +#,
!
!
+
#, ! ¬∀xA ⇔ ∃x¬A

< ' " #(
#"
# $
*3 ¬∀xA ## ∃x¬A ;
#
* I =((S, I ), ı)
ı
J
Iı (¬∀xA) = 1
## I (∀xA) = 0(
ı !
!
## "
# j( j ı3 I (A)=1( x !
!
j
## # j ( j ı( " # I (A)=0

0 0 x j0
## # j ( j ı( " # I (¬A)=1(

!
0 0 x j0
## I (∃x¬A) = 1(
ı !
!
"## #.) ,-. +#,-. -# /&0,-#
)# #" ! ¬∀xA ∃x¬A #

(
! 56( ! ¬∀xA ⇔ ∃x¬A(
3
|= ¬∀xA ⇔ ∃x¬A
. #, ! 56
: #

! 56 ! A "
# # !
;% #" ! ¬∀xA ⇔ ∃x¬A
#"

' ! -#( & ! A ,
- - # ! 1# ¬A( 3
|= ¬∀x¬A ⇔ ∃x¬¬A
+& ¬¬p ⇔ p # # !$
A -
! ¬¬A ⇔ A 9
!(

56 (
! ∃x¬¬A ⇔ ∃xA
7 # ¬∀x¬A ⇔ ∃x¬¬A ∃x¬¬A ⇔ ∃xA

!( 56 ! ( -
,
!3
|= ∃xA ⇔ ¬∀x¬A (∗)
9
!(
56 (
!$
3
|= ¬∃xA ⇔ ¬¬∀x¬A
## ¬¬∀x¬A ⇔ ∀x¬A
!(

!(
56 ! ( 0 ! 56

!3
|= ¬∃xA ⇔ ∀x¬A
/ #
" #
0
,
!$
+0 ¬∀xA ⇔ ∃x¬A
!(

56 ( -
! ¬¬∀xA ⇔ ¬∃x¬A 9
$
!
! ∀xA ⇔ ¬¬∀xA(
56
! (
,
! ∀xA ⇔ ¬∃x¬A3
|= ∀xA ⇔ ¬∃x¬A (∗∗)
> ! (∗) (∗∗) " ' " #

,
#" ( ## #
!# ∃ ,
#
$
!# ∀( #
!# ∀ ∃ /( # "- $
" #
!# #
( " * #
!#
!0 %3
∃xA =def ¬∀x¬A.
1# #( " * #
!# "- #
( $
" #
!# !0
#3
∀xA =def ¬∃x¬A.
! " + ! ∀xA(x) ⇒ A(t)(

! A(t) - " ! A(x) # 0
$
-
&
x & "& t 9
! "# +#,-. -. /&0,-.
! % ((# "

# x A(x)(
! A(t) # - " A # 0
x "$
& tG + 3
,
# *(
! ∀xA(x) ⇒ A(t)
A .
3 =

+ !
(∀x∃yα(x, y)) ⇒ ∃yα(y, y)
# "# J = {α}( α * # - ,
9 ! ! ∀xA(x) ⇒ A(t)( A !
∃yα(x, y)( t y ( A(t) ! ∃yα(y, y) ) !$
(∀x∃yα(x, y)) ⇒ ∃yα(y, y)
A .
3 )#,
# 0
# I = (I, ı) " !$
( * # ! -
ı
/ ( " ((N, <), ı) 5" - # ı : V → N6 $

* !
(∀x∃y x < y) ⇒ (∃y y < y)
!( ! (∀x∃yα(x, y)) ⇒ ∃yα(y, y)(
* ((N, <), ı)
+ ,
0 "
x y !$
∃yα(x, y) .
"
y y
"

! # " "( ! ∃yα(y, y)(
y - "
x ! ∃yα(x, y)
+ 3 # t - "
x ! A(
! ∀xA(x) ⇒ A(t)
A .
3 7
#" 9- #" # A(t) ! A ( x
"
# * I = ((S, I ), ı)
,3
t
J
I (∀xA(x) ⇒ A ) = 1(
ı
x
ı t
* I " # I (∀xA(x)) = 1 I (A ) = 0 x
; ( "
* I =((S, I ), ı) #$
ı ı ı t
J
, # I (∀xA(x))=1( - I (A )=1 :

ı
x
* I t - #

d ( I (t) = d (
ı ı t
d # S )( ## I (∀xA(x)) = 1(

ı 0 ı 0
(
!*
! *( "
0 ı

# $ * j : V → S( j ı(
, I (A(x)) = 1 7
" $ * j( j ı " # I (x) = j(x) = d
x j
0
I (A(x))=1 ; * I I
# -

x j
y ! A # "% x

, I (y) = I (y) 5 !$
j ı j
* 6( 0 I (t) = I (x) )#

, I (A ) #
ı j
x
I (A(x))( I (A ) 1 ;% " "

* I
x ı j ı t
x
- 3 # I (∀xA(x))=1(

I (A ) -
j ı t ı
x
;#% I (∀xA(x) ⇒ A ) "% 0 "

# $
ı ı t
x
* I ( ∀xA(x)⇒A
!
ı t
x
/ % , #" !3

ı t
A ⇒ ∃xA(x)( x
t
"## #.) ,-. +#,-. -# /&0,-#

(
t - " x A 1 , %
/(
( " (p ⇒ q) ⇔ (¬q ⇒ ¬p)
# #' ! ∀x¬A(x) ¬A - x
t
|= (∀x¬A(x) ⇒ ¬Axt ) ⇔ (¬¬Axt ⇒ ¬∀x¬A(x))
-
! ∀x¬A(x) ⇒ ¬Axt #

! ¬¬At ⇒¬∀x¬A(x)
x
)#(
¬¬Axt ⇒¬∀x¬A(x)

! > " !
¬¬Axt ⇔Axt ∃xA(x)⇔¬∀x¬A(x)

(
56 ! ( "#%3
|= A ⇒ ∃xA(x) x
t
! . B
56 ∀x(A(x) ∧ B(x)) ⇔ (∀xA(x) ∧ ∀xB(x))
56 ∀x(A(x) ∧ B) ⇔ (∀xA(x) ∧ B)( x ∈/ SP (B)
56 ∀x(B ∧ A(x)) ⇔ (B ∧ ∀xA(x))( x ∈/ SP (B)
56 ∃x(A(x) ∧ B(x)) ⇒ (∃xA(x) ∧ ∃xB(x))
56 ∃x(A(x) ∧ B) ⇔ (∃xA(x) ∧ B)( x ∈/ SP (B)
56 ∃x(B ∧ A(x)) ⇔ (B ∧ ∃xA(x))( x ∈/ SP (B)

56 )
#" ∀x(A(x)∧B(x)) ∀xA(x) ∧ ∀xB(x) #$

! ;
# * I =((S, I ), ı) J
3
ı
ıI (∀x(A(x) ∧ B(x))) = 1
## "
j : V → S( j ı(
,3 I (A(x) ∧ B(x)) = 1
x j
## "
j : V → S( j ı(
,3 min(I (A(x)), I (B(x))) = 1
x j j
## "
j : V → S( j ı(
,3 I (A(x)) = 1 I (B(x)) = 1
x j j
## I (∀xA(x)) = 1 I (∀xB(x)) = 1

ı ı
## min(I (∀xA(x)), I (∀xB(x))) = 1

ı ı
## I (∀xA(x) ∧ ∀xB(x)) = 1.

ı
56 )
#" ∀x(A(x)∧B) ∀xA(x)∧B #

! ;
# * I = ((S, I ), ı) 3
ı
J
Iı (∀x(A(x) ∧ B)) = 1
## "
j : V → S( j ı(
,3 I (A(x) ∧ B) = 1
x j
## "
j : V → S( j ı(
,3 min(I (A(x)), I (B)) = 1
x j j
## "
j : V → S( j ı(
,3 I (A(x)) = 1 I (B) = 1
x j j
## I (∀xA(x)) = 1 I (B) = 1

ı ı
## min(Iı (∀xA(x)), Iı (B)) = 1

## Iı (∀xA(x) ∧ B) = 1.
! "# +#,-. -. /&0,-.
56 )#" #" " ! (2) : ,( #$

! (2)(
# #" !$

<
" ∧ 3 |= (B ∧ A(x))⇔(A(x) ∧ B)(
56 3 |= ∀x(B ∧ A(x)) ⇔ ∀x(A(x) ∧ B) ?0(
! 56
3 |= ∀x(A(x) ∧ B) ⇔ (∀xA(x) ∧ B)( #$

!( 56 ! ( "#%3
|= ∀x(B ∧ A(x)) ⇔ (∀xA(x) ∧ B) . #
"
"# ∧
|= (∀xA(x) ∧ B) ⇔ (B ∧ ∀xA(x))( #% " &

!( 56 ! ( 3
|= ∀x(B ∧ A(x)) ⇔ (B ∧ ∀xA(x))
56 )
#" , - I (∃x(A(x) ∧ B(x)))=1
I (∃xA(x)∧∃xB(x))=0 " * I ( # "
ı
# * I
I (∃x(A(x) ∧ B(x))) = 1(
ı ı
- I (∃xA(x)∧∃xB(x)) = 1 ;
# * I =((S, I ), ı)(
ı ı
J
ı ı
# I (∃x(A(x) ∧ B(x))) = 1(

ı
j : V → S( j ı # I (A(x) ∧ B(x)) = 1(

0 0 x j0
j : V → S( j ı min(I (A(x)), I (B(x))) = 1(

0 0 x j0 j0
j : V → S( j ı I (A(x)) = 1 I (B(x)) = 1(

0 0 x j0 j0
I (∃xA(x)) = 1 I (∃xB(x)) = 1(
ı ı
"% min(I (∃xA(x)), I (∃xB(x))) = 1(

ı ı
# I (∃xA(x) ∧ ∃xB(x)) = 1.

ı
56 )
#" ∃x(A(x) ∧ B) (∃xA(x)) ∧ B #
$

;
# * I = ((S, I ), ı) 3
ı
J
Iı (∃x(A(x) ∧ B)) = 0
## "
j : V → S( j ı(
,3 I (A(x) ∧ B) = 0
x j
## "
j : V → S( j ı(
,3 min(I (A(x)), I (B)) = 0
x j j
## "
j : V → S( j ı(
,3 I (B) = 04
x j
I (B) = 1 I (A(x)) = 0

j j
## I (B) = 04 I (B) = 1 I (∃xA(x)) = 0

ı ı ı
## min(I (∃xA(x)), I (B)) = 0

ı ı
## I ((∃xA(x)) ∧ B) = 0.
ı
56 )#" #" " ! (5) .

! !$
(5)
" "# #
"
"# ∧ # !$
(2) (3)
+ ! (1) (4) " ! . :" ! (1)

#
!# ∀( #
#,( ,
"# ∧( #$

! ∀x(A(x) ∧ B(x)) (∀xA(x) ∧ ∀xB(x)) / (
"## #.) ,-. +#,-. -# /&0,-#
" #
!# ∃
"# ∧
, #

"( #

$
! ∃x(A(x) ∧ B(x)) (∃xA(x) ∧ ∃xB(x)) . #

! (∃xA(x) ∧ ∃xB(x)) ⇒ (∃x(A(x) ∧ B(x)))
(
'
# " & / ( # ! A(x) B(x) $
! α(x) β(x) " # * # - α β , (
! ∃x(α(x) ∧ β(x)) (∃xα(x) ∧ ∃xβ(x)) # "# J #
* # - 9 * I =((S, I ), ı)( S #
J
' -
N( α β * (
ı
# " ! /( 3

I I

(
3 I (∃xα(x) ∧ ∃xβ(x)) = 1(
3
(
ı
I (∃x(α(x) ∧ β(x))) = 0
)#( I ((∃xα(x) ∧ ∃xβ(x)) ⇒ (∃x(α(x) ∧ β(x)))) #
ı
ı
! / B
56 ∃x(A(x) ∨ B(x)) ⇔ (∃xA(x) ∨ ∃xB(x))
56 ∃x(A(x) ∨ B) ⇔ (∃xA(x) ∨ B)( x ∈/ SP (B)
56 ∃x(B ∨ A(x)) ⇔ (B ∨ ∃xA(x))( x ∈/ SP (B)
56 (∀xA(x) ∨ ∀xB(x)) ⇒ ∀x(A(x) ∨ B(x))
56 ∀x(A(x) ∨ B) ⇔ (∀xA(x) ∨ B)( x ∈/ SP (B)
56 ∀x(B ∨ A(x)) ⇔ (B ∨ ∀xA(x))( x ∈/ SP (B)

56 +#" "
# * I
,3
I (∃x(A(x) ∨ B(x))) = 0 ## I (∃xA(x) ∨ ∃xB(x)) = 0,
ı
ı ı
# #" " ! (1) " ! .

56 +#" "
# * I
,3
I (∃x(A(x) ∨ B)) = 0 ## I ((∃xA(x)) ∨ B) = 0,
ı
ı ı
# #" " ! (2) " ! .

56 )#" #" " ! (2) .
! !$
(2)
" "# #
"
"# ∨ # 0
! . ! 56 56
" "# #

"
"# ∧
56 < #" " ! (4) " ! . #" ,
- 3 I (∀xA(x) ∨ ∀xB(x))=1 I (∀x(A(x) ∨ B(x)))=0 " I
ı ı ı
56 +#" "

# * I
,3
I (∀x(A(x) ∨ B)) = 1 ## I ((∀xA(x)) ∨ B) = 1,
ı
ı ı
# #" " ! (5) " ! .

! "# +#,-. -. /&0,-.
56 )#" #" " ! (5) .

! !$
(5)
" "# #
"
"# ∨ # !$
(2) (3)
B (1) (4) " ! /

" #
!# ∀ ∃

"# ∨ <
!# ∃ ,
"# ∨( #
$
! ∃x(A(x) ∨ B(x)) ∃xA(x) ∨ ∃xB(x)(

,
! ∀x(A(x) ∨ B(x)) ! ∀xA(x) ∨ ∀xB(x) #

( !$
(∀x(A(x) ∨ B(x)))⇒(∀xA(x) ∨ ∀xB(x))
1# ! A(x)
B(x) ! α(x) β(x) " # * # - α
β , ( ! (∀x(α(x) ∨ β(x)))⇒(∀xα(x) ∨ ∀xβ(x)) #$
# ! (∃xα(x) ∧ ∃xβ(x)) ⇒ (∃x(α(x) ∧ β(x)))3 *
I =((S, I ), ı)( S # ' -
N( α β *
J

ı I I
! - B
56 ∀x(A(x)⇒B(x)) ⇒ (∀xA(x)⇒∀xB(x))
56 ∀x(A(x)⇒B) ⇔ (∃xA(x)⇒B)( x ∈/ SP (B)
56 ∀x(B⇒A(x)) ⇔ (B⇒∀xA(x))( x ∈/ SP (B)
56 ∃x(A(x)⇒B(x)) ⇒ (∀xA(x)⇒∃xB(x))
56 ∃x(A(x)⇒B) ⇔ (∀xA(x)⇒B)( x ∈/ SP (B)
56 ∃x(B⇒A(x)) ⇔ (B⇒∃xA(x))( x ∈/ SP (B)
56 ∀x(A(x)⇒B(x)) ⇒ (∃xA(x)⇒∃xB(x))

56 )
#" , - I (∀x(A(x) ⇒ B(x))) = 1
I (∀xA(x) ⇒ ∀xB(x)) = 0 " * I /(
ı
"
# * I = ((S, I ), ı) 3
ı ı
J
ı
# I (∀x(A(x) ⇒ B(x))) = 1 I (∀xA(x) ⇒ ∀xB(x)) = 0(

ı ı
"
j : V → S( j ı(
,3 I (A(x) ⇒ B(x)) = 1(
x j
I (∀xA(x)) = 1 I (∀xB(x)) = 0(
ı ı
"
j : V → S( j ı(
,3 I (A(x) ⇒ B(x)) = 1 I (A(x)) = 1
x j j
j : V → S( j ı( " # I (B(x)) = 0(

0 0 x j0
"% j : V → S( j ı " #

,3 I (A(x) ⇒ B(x)) = 1
0 0 x j0
I (A(x) ⇒ B(x)) = 0( 0

j0
56 )
#" ∀x(A(x) ⇒ B) ∃xA(x) ⇒ B #

$
! ;
# * I =((S, I ), ı) 3 ı
J
Iı (∀x(A(x) ⇒ B)) = 0
## j : V → S( j ı " #
,3 I (A(x) ⇒ B) = 0
0 0 x j0
## j : V → S( j ı " #

,3 I (A(x)) = 1 I (B) = 0
0 0 x j0 j0
"## #.) ,-. +#,-. -# /&0,-#
## I (∃xA(x)) = 1 I (B) = 0
ı ı
## I (∃xA(x) ⇒ B) = 0.
ı
56 )#" % #" " ! (2)

56 )
#" , - I (∃x(A(x)⇒B(x)))=1
I (∀xA(x)⇒ ∃xB(x))= 0 9 , # #" !
ı
56( # 0 #" ( # " # *

ı
I =((S, I ), ı)
I (∃x(A(x) ⇒ B(x))) # (
J

I (∀xA(x) ⇒ ∃xB(x)) - # 1 /(
ı ı
ı
# I (∃x(A(x) ⇒ B(x))) = 1(

ı
j :V → S( j ı I (A(x) ⇒ B(x)) = 1(

0 0 x j0
j : V → S( j ı( max(1−I (A(x)), I (B(x)))=1(

0 0 x j0 j0
j : V → S( j ı( #

0 0 x
-
1 − I (A(x)) I (B(x)) # 1(
j0 j0
# j : V → S( j ı( #

0 0
I (A(x)) 0 I (B(x)) 1
x
7 0 #, # I (A(x)) = 0 #

j0 j0
I (B(x))=1
I (∀xA(x)⇒∃xB(x)) 1 /(
j0
# I (A(x)) = 0( (

!*( I (∀xA(x)) = 0(
j0 ı
I (∀xA(x) ⇒ ∃xB(x)) = max(1 − 0, I (∃xA(x))) = 14

j0 ı
# I (B(x)) = 1( (

!*( I (∃xB(x)) = 1(
ı ı
I (∀xA(x) ⇒ ∃xB(x)) = max(1 − I (∀xA(x)), 1) = 1

j0 ı
ı ı
56 )#" % #" " ! (2)

56 )#" % #" " ! (2)
56 )#" % #" " ! (4)

.
# -# # #' ! # "
#
! %
. + ! F 3
∃zα(z) ∧ ∀x∃yβ(x, y)(
α β # * # - , "#
# ! F /
! # #

! F ( #
#
!# & % #
/0 ! F #

! F 3 1
∀x(∃zα(z) ∧ ∃yβ(x, y))
! "# +#,-. -. /&0,-.
! F ⇔ F
( # #
!$
56 " ! .(
! ∀x(B ∧ A(x)) ⇔ (B ∧ ∀xA(x))(
1
x ∈SP
/ (B) / ##
"
! 56 "
! .(
! ∃x(A(x) ∧ B) ⇔ (∃xA(x) ∧ B)( x ∈SP
/ (B)3
! ! F ( ! ∃zα(z) ∧ ∃yβ(x, y) #

! ∃z(α(z) ∧ ∃yβ(x, y)) .(
56
1
( - F #

! F 3
1 2
∀x∃z(α(z) ∧ ∃yβ(x, y)).
/ #( #
! 56 " ! .(
!$
∃x(B ∧A(x)) ⇔ (B ∧∃xA(x))( x ∈/ SP (B)( - !$
α(z) ∧ ∃yβ(x, y) ! F #

∃y(α(z) ∧ β(x, y))
7(

56 56 ! F (
2
" ! F ( #

! F 3
2
3
∀x∃z∃y(α(z) ∧ β(x, y)).
B F -# ∀x∃z∃yC ( C ! α(z) ∧ β(x, y) #
#
!# ; ! F
# # !
3
#
-# #, # !
3
=
!* ! # !

<, ! # ! # " #
n > 0 -#
Q x ...Q x A(
1 1 n n

# Q 51 ≤ i ≤ n6 #
!# ∀ #
!#
∃ ! A , #
!# + -(
# !
i
# #
!# # !
.' #" # !

!

F
J

F pf

)
|= F ⇔ F pf

+ "
! F # "# J 1#
! F

"* # " -"
"# {∧, ∨, ¬}(
# "
" "Æ %#'
"#
!$
#

! F #

"*
" # 7
! F

#
-#( ! F

"* ∧( ∨
¬ 7 #" #* , !
F ( - n( # "- - %#'
"# -
#
!# ! F
"## #.) ,-. +#,-. -# /&0,-#
" #*( n = 0 B F %#'
"#
#
!# ( F # ! )#( $
, ! F ! F
pf
:#* #
#3
, "
# ! F #
& n %#'
"# #
!# (
! F # !( #
3
pf
|= F ⇔ F pf
)#"
, " ! n
"# #
!#
+ ! F # n %#'
"# #
!#$
B F , ' -#3
A ∧ B( A ∨ B( ¬A( ∀xA ∃xA
" -" #
' -# ! F ( & $
! A B -
"# #
!# &
&( " &'
, #* #
#3 ! A pf
B # ! #

3
pf
|= A ⇔ A |= B ⇔ B .
pf pf
+0 ! A B # !(

pf pf

# ! A B pf pf
5∗6 ! # , #

!# ( ! A pf
B ! C D # , #

!# 4
pf
5∗∗6 ! #

#
!# & % #(
! A B -# Q x ...Q x C P y ...P y D
pf pf
" # l, m > 0(
# Q 51≤i≤ l6 P 51≤j ≤ m6 ∀
1 1 l l 1 1 m m
∃ ! C D , #
!#
i j
1# - ! A B -# 5∗6( $

pf pf

& &'
' ,
! C D

1# - !
A B -# 5∗∗6 # -
!
pf pf
D(
y (
' x , ..., x (

x " # k( 1 ≤ k ≤ l( 0 ! A !$
1 l
pf
Q x ...Q x Q yQ x ...Q x C /

!$
k
!- #
&( ! Q yQ x ...Q x C
1 1 k−1 k−1 k k+1 k+1 l l
! A #

!3 Q z(Q x ...Q x C) (
k k+1 k+1 l l
pf y
z
#
! Q x ...Q x C
k k+1 k+1 l l z
0 , "%

' x , ..., x , y , ..., y
k+1 k+1 l l
/
( - A #

!
1 k 1 m
pf
Q x ...Q x Q z(Q x ...Q x C) # # $ y
! : #

& % # - # $
1 1 k−1 k−1 k k+1 k+1 l l z
-
! C -
' y , ..., y
; ,
-
! C
1 m

y , ..., y -
! D

x , ..., x 5+ #
{x , ..., x }
1 m
{y , ..., y } # 6 )#( "

-# ! A
1 l 1 l
pf
1 m
! "# +#,-. -. /&0,-.
B &'
! # , #
!#
pf
! C D ,
#
SP (C)
SP (D) # 7 # ! A B pf pf
, ! F pf
+
! F -# A ∧ B
:" #

! A A ! B B ( "
pf pf
|= A ⇔ A pf
|= B ⇔ B ( pf

(∧1) (∧2) 56 ! (
#

! A ∧ B A ∧ B (
,
pf pf
|= (A ∧ B) ⇔ (A ∧ B ) pf pf
1# - ! A B -# (∗)( ! A ∧B

pf pf pf pf
# ! )#( , ! F pf
! A ∧ B
pf pf
1# - ! A B -# (∗∗)( A ∧B 3

pf pf pf pf
(Q1 x1 ...Ql xl C) ∧ (P1 y1 ...Pm ym D)

l > 0 m > 0
:#* - #
!# ! A ∧ B ( - pf pf
l + m( #
!
∀x(A(x) ∧ B) ⇔ (∀xA(x) ∧ B) ∃x(A(x) ∧ B) ⇔ (∃xA(x) ∧ B)(
x -
! B 5
!
56 56 " ! .6
!
∀x(B ∧ A(x)) ⇔ (B ∧ ∀xA(x)) ∃x(B ∧ A(x)) ⇔ (B ∧ ∃xA(x))(
x -
! B 5
!
56 56 " ! .6(
#" ! A ∧ B #

!3
pf pf
Q1 x1 ...Ql xl P1 y1 ...Pm ym (C ∧ D),

# # !
1# l + m = 1( ! A B -# 5∗6(
pf pf
! A ∧ B -# (Q x C) ∧ D C ∧ (P y D)(

pf pf
C D #
!# 1# -# (Q x C) ∧ D(
1 1 1 1

'
' ! " ! . 5 56 56(
1 1
0 "
Q ∀ ∃6 ! A ∧ B pf pf
#

! Q x (C ∧ D) 1# A ∧ B # -#
1
pf pf
C ∧ (P y D)( #

! " ! . 5 56
1 1
566 - #

! P y (C ∧ D)
1 1
1 1
:#* #
#3 ! (Q x ...Q x C)∧(P y ...P y D)
l + m #
!# #

!3
1 1 l l 1 1 m m
Q1 x1 ...Ql xl P1 y1 ...Pm ym (C ∧ D).

+ ! " -# #
#
!#
0 . , -
"## #.) ,-. +#,-. -# /&0,-#
(Q1 x1 ...Ql+1 xl+1 C) ∧ (P1 y1 ...Pm ym D)

(Q x ...Q x C) ∧ (P y ...P
1 1 l l y D) 1 1 m+1 m+1
1# l > 0(

'
' ! " !
. 5 56 566(
! #

!
Q x ((Q x ...Q x C) ∧ (P y ...P y D))(
1 1 2 2 l+1 l+1 1 1 m m
!
Q x ((Q x ...Q x C) ∧ (P y ...P
1 1 2 2 l l y D)) 1 1 m+1 m+1
.
! -# Q x E Q x E !
E ! (Q x ...Q x C) ∧ (P y ...P y D)( ! E
1 1 1 1 1 2
! (Q x ...Q x C) ∧ (P y ...P y D) B E E

1 2 2 l+1 l+1 1 1 m m 2
l + m #
!# ( #* #
*
2 2 l l 1 1 m+1 m+1 1 2
#

! E 3 3
Q x ...Q x P y ...P y (C ∧ D)(
2 2 l+1 l+1 1 1 m m
! E 3
(C ∧ D)(
4
Q x ...Q x P y ...P
2 2 y
l l 1 1 m+1 m+1
# # ! /

56
56 ( ! Q x E Q x E #

! Q x E Q x E ( ! #
1 1 1 1 1 2
!
1 1 3 1 1 4
)#( 56 ! ( ! A ∧ B ( ! pf pf
(Q x ...Q x C) ∧ (P y ...P y D)( #

!
# # !( !3
1 1 l l 1 1 m m
Q1 x1 ...Ql xl P1 y1 ...Pm ym (C ∧ D)
, ! F pf
% l=0 #" - -

- #

! 5 56 566 " ! .
+
! F -# A ∨ B
:" #

! A A ! B B ( " pf pf
|= A ⇔ A |= B ⇔ B (pf pf

(∨1) (∨2) 56 ! (
#

! A ∨ B A ∨ B ( "%
, pf pf
|= (A ∨ B) ⇔ (A ∨ B ) pf pf
<
! 56( 56( 56 56 " ! / $
# % # ! F -# A ∧ B( pf
- ! # !( ! F ( pf
#

! A ∨ B
+
! F -# ¬A
:" #

! A A ( " pf
! "# +#,-. -. /&0,-.
(
|= A ⇔ Apf

(1) ( #

! ¬A
¬A (
,
pf
|= ¬A ⇔ ¬A pf
1# ! A -# (∗)( ! ¬A #

pf pf
! )#( , ! F ¬A pf pf
1# ! A -# (∗∗)( A -# Q x ...Q x C (

pf pf
l > 0( ! ¬A -#

1 1 l l
pf
¬(Q x ...Q x C) 1 1 l l
:#* - #
!# Q ( 1 ≤ i ≤ l( # )

"# " #
!# 3
i
¬∀zE ⇔ ∃z¬E ¬∃zE ⇔ ∀z¬E (

#" ! ¬(Q x ...Q x C) #

!
Q x ...Q x ¬C # # !( Q 5
1 1 l l
* #" - 6 #
!# "% Q ( 1 ≤ i ≤ l
1 1 l l i
i
1# l = 1( ! ¬A -# ¬Q x C /
)
pf

' "#( ! #

! Q x ¬C
1 1
:#* #
#3 ! -# ¬(Q x ...Q x C) #
1 1
l #
!# #

! # $
1 1 l l
!( ! Q x ...Q x ¬C + !

# #
!#
0( ! ¬(Q x ...Q x C)
1 1 l l
)
"# " #
!# !
1 1 l+1 l+1
#

! Q x ¬(Q x ...Q x C) )( !
¬(Q x ...Q x C) l #
!# ( #* # $
1 1 2 2 l+1 l+1

*( #

! Q x ...Q x ¬C #
2 2 l+1 l+1
2 2
!( ! C . ! Q x C
l+1 l+1
pf pf
# !

56 56
1 1 1 1

,3
|= Q1 x1 ¬(Q2 x2 ...Ql+1 xl+1 C) ⇔ Q1 x1 C1pf
)#( , ! F Q x Q x ...Q pf

l+1 xl+1 ¬C " &

,3
1 1 2 2
|= F ⇔ Q1 x1 Q2 x2 ...Ql+1 xl+1 ¬C
+
! F -# ∀xA
:" #

! A A ( " pf
|= A ⇔ A ( pf

(3) ( #

! ∀xA
∀xA (
,
pf
|= ∀xA ⇔ ∀xA pf
1# ! A -# (∗)( ! ∀xA #

pf pf
! )#( , ! F ∀xA pf pf

"#$# #,),1,'#
1# ! A -# (∗∗)( -# Q x ...Q x C ( l > 0(
pf
! ∀xA ( ∀xQ x ...Q x C ( #Æ # $

1 1 l l
pf
! )#( - " ! F ( # -# ∀xA(

1 1 l l
! ∀xQ x ...Q x C # !

,3
1 1 l l
|= F ⇔ ∀xQ1 x1 ...Ql xl C,
! ∀xQ x ...Q x C , ! F
1 1 l l
pf
+
! F -# ∃xA
:" #

! A A ( " pf
|= A ⇔ A ( pf

(4) ( #

! ∃xA
∃xA ( #
,
pf
|= ∃xA ⇔ ∃xA pf
1 # % # ! F -# ∀xA "#%$

! ∃xA , ! F
pf pf
!
/0
#
&
' 5## '6 !*

CD 5

6 7 #
! "#
# # # ", ##
!0
* #
* # -

#
/ % #
# # "# # # # #
* # - # ( =( # "
"* #0 >,

"# #0 * # -
# = -% #0 % '

+

0 #
#
!# # !0
#
!# ∃ ∀ "*
"* #0 , ! #
!# ∃ x 5
∃!x) # % 3
x 9 #
!# !0
1
%3
∃1 xA(x) =def ∃x(A(x) ∧ ∀y(A(y) ⇒ x = y))

, ! #
!# 5 6( "
∃n x
n x
- # - ( 1#
n n≥1 !* 5"
#
n=2
!
"# 6 3¬
∃2 xA(x) =def ∃x1 ∃x2 (A(x1 ) ∧ A(x2 ) ∧ ¬(x1 = x2 ) ∧ (∀y(A(y) ⇒ (y = x1 ∨ y = x2 )))) (
!0 #
!# "
∃n x n>2
)( "* # , # * # - , 5
ρ
( # 3
≤ < ∈ ( (

! "# +#,-. -. /&0,-.
6 , ! % #

!# ∀xρy ∃xρy

#3
∀xρy A =def ∀x(xρy ⇒ A)
∃xρy A =def ∃x(xρy ∧ A)
2

+ "# J # # # /
* # -
α, n( " # - n( n ≥ 1( !0
#3
α(x1 , ..., xn )
F (x1 , ..., xn )
F (x , ..., x ) # # ! "# J
0 n
-'
' 9
* # - α "$
1 n
# J (

!*( #
* # -(
"#
; # "# J #0 * #
- ∗ , (
* # - α ,
$
!*3
α(x, y)
∃z (x ∗ z = y)
1# " #
* I = ((S, I ), ı) S #
J
' -
N * # - ∗
ı
* ,&( * # - α $

" * ( |( # ' -
3
m|n
∃l (m · l = n)
1# "# J * # - α , (

* # - β ,

!*3
β(y, x, z)
(α(y, x) ∧ α(x, z)) ∨ (α(z, x) ∧ α(x, y))

; * I = ((S, I ), ı)( S # ' -$
J

R( * # - α * <(
ı
* # - β * Æ( B(

B(y, x, z) % x Æ y z
B(y, x, z)
(y < x ∧ x < z) ∨ (z < x ∧ x < y)

## !*
*$
# -
: "# J #0 * # $
- • , ( !0
* # - ρ
, %3
ρ(x, y)
y = x • z
H0#
* ρ , !
! y = x • z # -
1# "
"#$# #,),1,'#
% " # ' -
N •
* +( "
-( 4 7
, #, * ρ ( "

" z : ρ(4, 7)
7 = 4 + z( " z = 3
ρ(4, 7) %( "
# - "%
ρ(4, 7) %E
2

< ! &
* # - # ! &

* # - -
$
"# J /
* # - f , n
#
t "# J n
' x , ..., x ( n ≥ 1( !*$
3
1 n
f (x , ..., x ) =
1 n t(x , ..., x )
def 1 n
7
!*
#
-#( #
%( !* -#
# ( # * !* * # -
) #
!* * # -
: "# J # # 4 2( $
* # - ∗ / , /
* # - ◦
,
!*3
x◦y = def4 ∗ ((x/2) ∗ y)
" 0#

Æ&

* # -
" < % ! &
* # $
- #
( ,
0$
# # ,
* # - / ( #(
* #' - + · , ( ' !$
0 * # - ∗
#
x∗y = y · x + z(
def
!* - * # - ,
!0

8* * # - # , ! # $
* ( #
" #
&
' $

' / ( & -
- !0
#3
min(x, y) = z
(x ≤ y ∧ z = x) ∨ (y ≤ x ∧ z = y)
:( * !*
' * #' - #
-#
f (x1 , ..., xn ) = y
A(y, x1 , ..., xn )
! "# +#,-. -. /&0,-.
A(y, x , ..., x ) # # # !( n ≥ 1( %

#

!*
# #
,3
1 n
56 "
# n$ # x , ..., x y #
, A(y, x , ..., x )
1 n 1 n
56 y
( # A(y , x , ..., x ) A(y , x , ..., x )(
y =y
1 1 n 2 1 n
1 2
.

! )#(

* !* -#
f (x , ..., x ) = y
1 n
∀x ...∀x ∃ yA(y, x , ..., x )

1 n 1 1 n
. ; # "# J #0 * # $

- β , !0
* # - ,$
( - h3
h(x, y) = z
∀x∀y∃1 z((β(x, y) ∧ z = x) ∨ (β(y, x) ∧ z = y))

1# " * I = ((S, I ), ı) S # $
J
' -
N * # - β *
ı
≤( * min( # ( *

* # - h
/ #
( 0 !* * #
- ◦ " 5"
# "# J "
"# #0 6 + !*(
#
# * !*( , "
#
z =x◦y
∀x∀y∃ z(z = 4 ∗ ((x/2) ∗ y))

1
32

<
Æ&
* # -

#$
# "# J , ! #* *
=#* !*

# c -#
c =def t
t # "# J -"

'
:*
Æ&

# ! &
# # ! % -
( !
A(x)( %3
c = x
∃ xA(x) 1
/
(
#
!*
# #
, ∃ xA(x)(
#
x " #
, A(x)
1

# # # # !

! 3 ! $
#* N K '-
# ! K #
!'
# # # "

5# 0 "

# # 6( &'
!*

%
3 % # (
* Æ& #
' /#
,

#"
. (
! #
#"
# $

%
&( %
(
(
#"
"%

# # #( #
/( #" # # * "
# ! F
,3 F
! # # F

!
< 0 #" # ! 5

CD6 # # # !

! # # #(
#* N K '-
# K 9 N K K - #
% 0& !' #" # " CD(

! # #&+,'# +&0 +#.
N L .' *

" "Æ #" # $
# # # /( " #" ! F (p , ..., p )( "

# # ! A , ...( A 5 # "# J 6 # # !$
1 n
F (A , ..., A )( # # (

,3 # !
1 n
F (p , ..., p ) #" #( ! F (A , ..., A )

1 n
# # # 5)#"

- ( ! /6
1 n 1 n

#* " # # # # #
(

" %#
"# 5"
Æ& *6 +

5

#
Æ&
% ( RAA6 -# #
#* " #" # 5
CD6( &'

"#%* # # ! . '
( "
# #
!#$
5 ∀ ∃6

Æ&
* #
!#$
;( # #
(
"
"# " #
!#
+

5 RAA6( % #* " # # #

#( ! # ( " $
#* #
" #
!# .' * # 0
#* " #" # #" -" * ' ' "

(
, # # *3 # " # # $
# ! #* # #" -" * ' ' "(
# .%#( % #" # 5
#" 6(
# # # #

*(
! / % # %
#" #* " # # # # #

" %#
"#
RAA( "
)#" -" * ' ' " ! (A ⇒ ¬A) ⇒ ¬A3
2 1
A ⇒ ¬A A
⇒E
1 ¬A
A
¬E
⊥
1¬U
¬A
2 ⇒U
(A ⇒ ¬A) ⇒ ¬A
)#" -" * ' ' " ! (¬(¬A ⇒ ¬B)) ⇒ B3
1
¬B
⇒U
¬A ⇒ ¬B 2
¬(¬A ⇒ ¬B)
¬E
⊥
1RAA
B
2 ⇒U
(¬(¬A ⇒ ¬B)) ⇒ B

#"# +#,-. -. /&0,-. -.& &+./). #&+,'.
)#" -" * ' ' " ! (¬(¬A ⇒ ¬B)) ⇒ ¬A3
2 1
A ¬A
¬E
⊥
⊥E
¬B
1 ⇒U
¬A ⇒ ¬B 3
¬(¬A ⇒ ¬B)
¬E
⊥
2¬U
¬A
3 ⇒U
(¬(¬A ⇒ ¬B)) ⇒ ¬A
1
#" # * ' ' "( #" !
¬∀xA(x) ∧ ¬B " ' " ¬(∀xA(x) ∨ B)( "
#" D 3
1 2

∀xA(x) B
∨U1 ¬(∀xA(x) ∨ B) ∨U2 ¬(∀xA(x) ∨ B)
∀xA(x) ∨ B ∀xA(x) ∨ B
¬E ¬E
⊥ ⊥
1¬U 2¬U
¬∀xA(x) ¬B
∧U
¬∀xA(x) ∧ ¬B
2 Æ% ∀

!
& #* " # #
# 5 # " #" #6( # #" D ! A "$

%3 D
A.
: #" "
#& , #
# #* #

+ ## #"
# !$
F
( ## #"

Æ&3
(("
# * I
, I (F ) = 1Iı ı
+ "
* I
; ( # & *!% -
ı
# , "# ' *( #"$

, I (F ) = 1 /0 #& "#%# -3 0 "
"
* I
, I (F ) = 1( "
#
ı
* I
, I (F ) = 1
ı ı
ı ı
.
#
#" # " 0 ## # Æ$

& "#%
& #0 - * I
# , # * I ( 3 " #
ı
! A ! F
I (A) # 1( #
ı
*
, - 4 % I
ı
# - #( # ' -

*$
ı
!% - # % # *4 %

! # #&+,'# +&0 +#.
)#( "

* I ( " # #"
, - 5 -3 I (F ) = 16( $
ı

#
' ' * 0 "#%
& -3
ı
# #" -

, " "

#
'
*( * I ( -
, "
#
*
ı
9
Æ& " 0
Æ& (("
# -# x #
# X
, - OI( x * I ( - O
I (F ) = 1 )#"
Æ&
## +
##
ı
#" - I (F )=1 " "

* I #" $
ı
&

& # * -
ı ı
"
"-
# *( * I (

- # ## 0 * ) #$
ı
# "#%

&3 # " "
* I
, $
- I (F ) = 1( "
# * I
, - 9
ı
"#%
&
#* #

Æ&
ı ı
#
!# ∀

Æ
∀
1#
D
A
#" A
x -

* ' " #" D(
D
A
(∀U )
∀xA
#" ∀xA * ' " #" *
' " #" D
: #

x( #

∀U #
- "
-
-
(

#
" I #" - " "

# I
, I (F ) = 1 /(

x -
ı
* ' " #" D(

ı ı
0 ! A
, " # Æ x "#% A
, "
#
x )

∀U 3
1
α(x)
∀U
∀xα(x)
1 ⇒U
α(x)⇒∀xα(x)

* ' ' "( ( 0
# % # #( ! α(x) ⇒ ∀xα(x) - -
# # #(
! 1#
& $
! α(x) ⇒ ∀xα(x) %
# =

#"# +#,-. -. /&0,-. -.& &+./). #&+,'.
# " !3 * I =((S, I ), ı) S J
# ' -

N( α * $ *
ı
ı : V → N #
ı(x) = 2 : I (α(x)) = 1 I (∀xα(x)) = 0( -$
I
I (α(x) ⇒ ∀xα(x)) = 0 7 & ! (

ı ı
#* # #" H

$
ı
0#A

∀U ?( x -

* ' " α(x)( #
∀U

0#
7
& #
!# ∀ .
# Æ$
3 # #"
Æ& (("
# x
, - OI(
-
, " ## x 0 #
Æ
&

& #
!# ∀
0

∀
1#
D
∀xA
#" ∀xA t - "
x ! A(

D
∀xA
(∀E)
Ax
#" A ( &
* ' " * ' $
t
x
" #" D
t
=
#"
! ∀xA(x) ⇒ A (
t -
x
" x ! A( # #

∀E 3
t
1
∀xA(x)
∀E
Ax
t
1⇒U
∀xA(x) ⇒ Ax
t
.
#" * ' ' "( # 0
#(
"%
! # # #
1
#" # # -
∀U ∀E
2 1
∀x(A(x) ⇒ B(x)) ∀xA(x)
∀E ∀E
Ax
c ⇒ Bc
x
Ax
c
⇒E
Bcx
∀U
∀xB(x)
1 ⇒U
∀xA(x) ⇒ ∀xB(x)
2 ⇒U
(∀x(A(x) ⇒ B(x))) ⇒ (∀xA(x) ⇒ ∀xB(x))
2 Æ% ∃

+ 0

"
Æ& #
!# ∃ $

! # #&+,'# +&0 +#.
<# #"

Æ&3 (( * - #
0& % x + 2 = 0I 7 #"

Æ& # Æ ## * - # 0&
% x + 2 =0 80 % /
$
- -& *' -
# 3 x+2 = 0 ##
(x + 2) − 2 = 0 − 2 ## (x + 2) − 2 = −2 ## x + (2 − 2) = −2
## x + 0 = −2 ## x = −2
)#" " "#%
& #

$

Æ& #
!# ∃ /(
"
Æ& #
!#$
∃
%
"#%
&3 #
#" # -
, " ## x( #" "

3 x " #
, -

Æ
∃
1#
D
Ax
t
#" A t - "
x ! A(
x

t
D
Ax
t
(∃U )
∃xA
#" ∃xA( &
* ' " * '$
" #" D
)#" #

∀E ∃U 3
2 1
∀x(A(x) ⇒ B(x)) ∀xA(x)
∀E ∀E
Ax
c ⇒ Bc
x
Ax
c
⇒E
Bcx
∃U
∃xB(x)
1⇒U
∀xA(x) ⇒ ∃xB(x)
2 ⇒U
(∀x(A(x) ⇒ B(x))) ⇒ (∀xA(x) ⇒ ∃xB(x))
. 0

& #
!# ∃
, ,
#* H

' " Æ
& #
' " &
x # - O(
' " 3 (( x - OI
%# # ( # # #" ' " (( x
- OI ' "& 3 ((# 5# "
( "%
6 x x # - OI )
# #"(
# $

& x
#" # # ' "3
0
x - O < "#

#
"A +
(
0
' " #"

"

#"# +#,-. -. /&0,-. -.& &+./). #&+,'.
x0( - "% " "
(
#" #0 x ( # "
#" "(
#
# x$
- O )( $
0
x - "& # ( y ( 2
- "% x
y 5 #
!#*6 "
0
2
# Æ
y(
0 0
?(
0

& 5 0 6 # x 5"

( "% x 6 # - O =

&
#
!# ∃
0

∃
1#
D1 D2
∃xA C
#" ∃xA C
x - $

! C * ' " #" D
"% A(
2
A
D1 D2
∃xA C
(∃E)
C
#" C ( &
* ' " * ' "
#" D ( , A * ' " #" D
2 1
/ 0 x "

* ∃

x # #
∃E ( "# "( #
0

( "-
#
"

x
+ 0 #* # #"3
2
∀xA(x)
∀E
1 A(x)
A(x) ⇒ B(x)
⇒E
B(x)
∃U
3 ∃xB(x)
∃x(A(x) ⇒ B(x))
1∃E
∃xB(x)
2⇒U
∀xA(x) ⇒ ∃xB(x)
3⇒U
(∃x(A(x) ⇒ B(x))) ⇒ (∀xA(x) ⇒ ∃xB(x))
+

∃E : x -

* ' ' " # $
&( ! ∀xA(x)( "#%#
( !
∃xB(x)4 -
! A(x) ⇒ B(x)(
# ! A "
* #
!# ∃
)#( -
∃E
! # #&+,'# +&0 +#.
+

∀U ∃E
#"3
1
∀yF (x, y)
∀E
F (x, y)
∃U
∃xF (x, y)
∀U
2 ∀y∃xF (x, y)
∃x∀yF (x, y)
1∃E
∀y∃xF (x, y)
2⇒U
∃x∀yF (x, y) ⇒ ∀y∃xF (x, y)
0

∀U
y - $
-
* ' ' " #"( !$
∀yF (x, y) ;%( -
∀U ;

∃E x -
$
* ' ' " # &( #
'
#"
( "#%#
( ! ∀y∃xF (x, y)4
, - -
! ∀yF (x, y)( #
! A "
* #
!# ∃ )#(
-
∃E
/ #
"
&
" #
!#
#* 0 ## #* #' #" /(
#" "%
! #
#
5! % ! .%/6 #" -" * ' ' "(
( # 0
#( "% ! # $
# #
+#,
!
56 ∀x∀yA ⇔ ∀y∀xA
56 ∃x∃yA ⇔ ∃y∃xA
56 ∀xA ⇔ ∀yA ( y
#
A
x
56 ∃xA ⇔ ∃yA ( y

#
A
y
x
#" -" * ' ' "

y
56 )#" -" * ' ' " ! ∀x∀yA ⇔ ∀y∀xA3

1 2
∀x∀yA ∀y∀xA
∀E ∀E
∀yA ∀xA
∀E ∀E
A A
∀U ∀U
∀xA ∀yA
∀U ∀U
∀y∀xA ∀x∀yA
1⇒U 2⇒U
∀x∀yA ⇒ ∀y∀xA ∀y∀xA ⇒ ∀x∀yA
⇔U
∀x∀yA ⇔ ∀y∀xA
56 )#" -" * ' ' " ! ∃x∃yA ⇔ ∃y∃xA3

#"# +#,-. -. /&0,-. -.& &+./). #&+,'.
1 4
A A
∃U ∃U
∃xA ∃yA
∃U ∃U
2 ∃y∃xA 5 ∃x∃yA
∃yA ∃xA
1∃E 4∃E
3 ∃y∃xA 6 ∃x∃yA
∃x∃yA ∃y∃xA
2∃E 5∃E
∃y∃xA ∃x∃yA
3 ⇒U 6 ⇒U
∃x∃yA ⇒ ∃y∃xA ∃y∃xA ⇒ ∃x∃yA
⇔U
∃x∃yA ⇔ ∃y∃xA
56 )#" -" * ' ' " ! ∀xA ⇔ ∀yA ( # x
y
! A3
y
1 2
∀xA ∀yAx
y
∀E y
∀E ∗
Ax
y (Ax
y )x
∀U ∀U
∀yAx
y ∀xA
1⇒U 2⇒U
∀xA ⇒ ∀yAx
y ∀yAx
y ⇒ ∀xA
⇔U
∀xA ⇔ ∀yAx
"#%#
∀E ( ! (A ) (
y
∗ x y
! A +

∀U "#%# ∀yA
y x
x
- &( y -

*$
y
' " #

&( ! ∀xA(
y
A( # ' " ∀xA
56 )#" -" * ' ' " ! ∃xA ⇔ ∃yA ( # x
y
! A3
y
1 3
A Ax
y
∗
∃U ∃U
2 ∃yAx
y ∃yAx
4 ∃xA
∃xA y
1∃E 3∃E
∃yAx
y ∃xA
2⇒U 4⇒U
∃xA ⇒ ∃yAx
y ∃yAx
y ⇒ ∃xA
⇔U
∃xA ⇔ ∃yAx

∃U ( ! A(
!
y
∗
(A ) ?0(
∃E ∃yA "#%# ∃xA
x y x
- & y

A
y x y
"%/ # (

! % #" , -#
C⇔D ;

#" -" * ' ' "
! C ⇒ D D ⇒ C ( " #
#"

(⇔ U )( # #" " ( ,
#"
! C⇔D
" /
#" -" * ' ' " !$
¬∃xA⇔∀x¬A ¬∀xA⇔∃x¬A( # )
"#
" #
!# ( " (
!
; #" -" * ' ' " ! ¬∃xA⇔∀x¬A $

#
#" ! ∀x¬A ⇒ ¬∃xA
! # #&+,'# +&0 +#.
! ¬∃xA⇒∀x¬A =
#" -" * ' ' "
" ∀x¬A ⇒ ¬∃xA( "
#" D 3 1
3
∀x¬A
∀E
1 ¬A
A
¬E
2 ⊥
∃xA
1∃E
⊥
2¬U
¬∃xA
3⇒U
∀x¬A ⇒ ¬∃xA
: ! ¬∃xA ⇒ ∀x¬A #* # #" -"
* ' ' "( #" D 3 2
1
A
∃U
∃xA 2
¬∃xA
¬E
⊥
1¬U
¬A
∀U
∀x¬A
2⇒U
¬∃xA ⇒ ∀x¬A
)#" -" * ' ' " ! ¬∃xA ⇔ ∀x¬A D
D (⇔ U ) &'
& !
1
2
1 #, )
"# " #
!#$
¬∀xA ⇔ ∃x¬A #" -" * ' ' " =

#" -" * ' ' " ! ∃x¬A ⇒ ¬∀xA(
#" D 3
3 2
∀xA
∀E
A 1
¬A
¬E
3 ⊥
∃x¬A
1∃E
⊥
2¬U
¬∀xA
3⇒U
∃x¬A ⇒ ¬∀xA
)#" !( ! ¬∀xA ⇒ ∃x¬A( #" D 3 4
4
¬A
∃U
∃x¬A 5
¬∃x¬A
¬E
⊥
4RAA
A
∀U
∀xA 6
¬∀xA
¬E
⊥
5RAA
∃x¬A
6⇒U
¬∀xA ⇒ ∃x¬A
#"# +#,-. -. /&0,-. -.& &+./). #&+,'.
. #" D D #0 &
(⇔ U )
#"
-" * ' ' " ! ¬∀xA ⇔ ∃x¬A
3 4
/ #
#" -" * ' ' " 0
"
!( ! ∃xA ⇔ ¬∀x¬A +

#" -" * ' ' " " ∃xA⇒¬∀x¬A( $
"
D 3 5
∀x¬A
2
∀E
1 ¬A
A
¬E
3 ⊥
∃xA
1∃E
⊥
2¬U
¬∀x¬A
3⇒U
∃xA ⇒ ¬∀x¬A
1 " ¬∀x¬A⇒∃xA
#" -" * ' '$
"( #" D 3 1
6
A
∃U
∃xA 2
¬∃xA
¬E
⊥
1¬U
¬A
∀U
∀x¬A 3
¬∀x¬A
¬E
⊥
2RAA
∃xA
3⇒U
¬∀x¬A ⇒ ∃xA
:
( #" D D #0 &
(⇔ U )

#" -" * ' ' " ! ∃xA ⇔ ¬∀x¬A
5 6
. +#,
!
56 ∀x(A(x) ∧ B) ⇔ (∀xA(x) ∧ B)( x ∈/ SP (B)
56 ∀x(B ∧ A(x)) ⇔ (B ∧ ∀xA(x))( x ∈/ SP (B)
56 ∀x(A(x) ∧ B(x)) ⇔ (∀xA(x) ∧ ∀xB(x))
56 ∀x(A(x) ∨ B) ⇔ (∀xA(x) ∨ B)( x ∈/ SP (B)
56 ∀x(B ∨ A(x)) ⇔ (B ∨ ∀xA(x))( x ∈/ SP (B)
#" -" * ' ' "
56 )#" ! ∀x(A(x)∧B)⇒(∀xA(x)∧B)( # x ∈/ SP (B)(
-" * ' ' "3
1
∀x(A(x) ∧ B)
∀E 1
A(x) ∧ B ∀x(A(x) ∧ B)
∧E1 ∀E
A(x) A(x) ∧ B
∀U ∧E2
∀xA(x) B
∧U
∀xA(x) ∧ B
1⇒U
∀x(A(x) ∧ B) ⇒ (∀xA(x) ∧ B)
! # #&+,'# +&0 +#.
)#" ! (∀xA(x) ∧ B) ⇒ ∀x(A(x) ∧ B)( # x ∈/ SP (B)(

-" * ' ' "3
2
∀xA(x) ∧ B
∧E1 2
∀xA(x) ∀xA(x) ∧ B
∀E ∧E2
A(x) B
∧U
A(x) ∧ B
∀U
∀x(A(x) ∧ B)
2⇒U
(∀xA(x) ∧ B) ⇒ ∀x(A(x) ∧ B)
+ #

∀U *
' " - ! ∀xA(x) ∧ B( ##
, x ∈/ SP (B)

&
56 )#" #" ! 56
56 )#" #" ! 56
56 )#" ! (∀xA(x)∨B)⇒∀x(A(x)∨B)( # x ∈/ SP (B)(
-" * ' ' "3
1
∀xA(x)
∀E 1
A(x) B
∨U1 ∨U2
A(x) ∨ B A(x) ∨ B
∀U ∀U
2 ∀x(A(x) ∨ B) ∀x(A(x) ∨ B)
∀xA(x) ∨ B
1∨E
∀x(A(x) ∨ B)
2 ⇒U
(∀xA(x) ∨ B) ⇒ ∀x(A(x) ∨ B)

x ∈/ SP (B) #0 #
∀U
"#%# ∀x(A(x) ∨ B) # * ' " -
! B
;
& #" ! ∀x(A(x)∨B) ⇒ (∀xA(x)∨B) #$
#"3 #" ! ¬∀xA(x)∧¬B " ' $
" ¬(∀xA(x) ∨ B)( #
% #
#(
#" D ( #" D " "( #" -" * ' '$

" ! ¬∀xA(x) ⇒ ∃x¬A(x) /( ' #" $

4

#" D 3
¬(∀xA(x) ∨ B)
D
D4 ¬∀xA(x) ∧ ¬B
∧E1
¬∀xA(x) ⇒ ∃x¬A(x) ¬∀xA(x)
⇒E
∃x¬A(x)
* ' " ¬(∀xA(x) ∨ B) %

$
& #" D (
"-, )#" D D

#" ! ∀x(A(x) ∨ B) ⇒ (∀xA(x) ∨ B)3
#"# +#,-. -. /&0,-. -.& &+./). #&+,'.
5
¬(∀xA(x) ∨ B)
D
¬∀xA(x)∧ ¬B
∧E2
6 3 4 3 ¬B
5
¬(∀xA(x) ∨ B) ∀x(A(x)∨ B) A(x) ¬A(x) B
∀E ¬E ¬E
D A(x) ∨ B ⊥ ⊥
3 ∨E
∃x¬A(x) ⊥
4∃E
⊥
5RAA
∀xA(x)∨ B
6⇒U
∀x(A(x)∨ B) ⇒ (∀xA(x)∨ B)
# * ' ' "

56 )#" #" ! 56
/ +#,
!
56 ∃x(A(x) ∧ B) ⇔ (∃xA(x) ∧ B)( x ∈/ SP (B)
56 ∃x(B ∧ A(x)) ⇔ (B ∧ ∃xA(x))( x ∈/ SP (B)
56 ∃x(A(x) ∨ B) ⇔ (∃xA(x) ∨ B)( x ∈/ SP (B)
56 ∃x(B ∨ A(x)) ⇔ (B ∨ ∃xA(x))( x ∈/ SP (B)
56 ∃x(A(x) ∨ B(x)) ⇔ (∃xA(x) ∨ ∃xB(x))
#" -" * ' ' "
56 )#" ! ∃x(A(x) ∧ B) ⇒ (∃xA(x) ∧ B)( x ∈/ SP (B)( -"
* ' ' "3
1
A(x) ∧ B
∧E1 1
A(x) A(x) ∧ B
∃U ∧E2
∃xA(x) B
∧U
2 ∃xA(x) ∧ B
∃x(A(x) ∧ B)
1∃E
∃xA(x) ∧ B
2⇒U
∃x(A(x) ∧ B) ⇒ (∃xA(x) ∧ B)
)#" ! (∃xA(x) ∧ B) ⇒ ∃x(A(x) ∧ B)( x ∈/ SP (B)( -"

* ' ' "3 4
∃xA(x) ∧ B
∧E2
3 B
A(x)
4 ∧U
∃xA(x) ∧ B A(x) ∧ B
∧E1 ∃U
∃xA(x) ∃x(A(x) ∧ B)
3∃E
∃x(A(x) ∧ B)
4⇒U
(∃xA(x) ∧ B) ⇒ ∃x(A(x) ∧ B)
+ ! ∃xA(x) ∧ B "#%#
∃E

#" * ' " # $
! # #&+,'# +&0 +#.

∃E #"( ##
, x ∈/ SP (B) -

&
56 )#" #" ! 56
56 )#" ! ∃x(A(x) ∨ B) ⇒ (∃xA(x) ∨ B)( x ∈/ SP (B)( -"
* ' ' "3
1
A(x)
∃U 1
∃xA(x) B
∨U1 ∨U2
2 ∃xA(x) ∨ B ∃xA(x) ∨ B
A(x) ∨ B
1∨E
3 ∃xA(x) ∨ B
∃x(A(x) ∨ B)
2∃E
∃xA(x) ∨ B
3⇒U
∃x(A(x) ∨ B) ⇒ (∃xA(x) ∨ B)
)#" ! (∃xA(x) ∨ B) ⇒ ∃x(A(x) ∨ B)( x ∈/ SP (B)( -"

* ' ' "3
3
A(x)
∨U1
A(x) ∨ B 4
∃U B
4 ∃x(A(x) ∨ B) ∨U2
∃xA(x) A(x) ∨ B
3∃E ∃U
5 ∃x(A(x) ∨ B) ∃x(A(x) ∨ B)
∃xA(x) ∨ B
4 ∨E
∃x(A(x) ∨ B)
5⇒U
(∃xA(x) ∨ B) ⇒ ∃x(A(x) ∨ B)
56 )#" #" ! 56

56 )#" #" ! 56

N K

# ! ! #* " $
# # #( N K 9 ( # ! ( 3 #

' - S(N K)( # ! F(N K)( # # A(N K) #

"
Æ& R(N K)
0

N K$ S(N K)
7#
' - N K( # S(N K)( % %#
!- # # # J ( % # ' -
0 - ( # "# J
l
B N K # # ! ! #

0
N K$ F(N K)
7# ! N K( # F(N K)( %
!
N K
#"# +#,-. -. /&0,-. -.& &+./). #&+,'.
>, ! N K( # #* " #"
# N 5
# CD6( #
)0( #
$
N K
&
!( # # ! 58*
#% #
# #' ! "%
Γ( Δ( Λ(( Γ ( Δ ( Λ ((
Γ ( Δ ( Λ (6 )#( #
N K ! -# Γ A( Γ
1 1 1

#% # # #' ! # "# J 5# , -
"6 A # # ! "# ; # #%
# Γ( {B, C, D}( B, C, D A( # Γ " #(
A : N K # # #
(
# ' -# A A( A "
# # !
0
N K$ A(N K)
7# # N K( # A(N K)( % # # #
(
#
-#3 A A
A "
! N K
J
! N K #
"
Æ&
0
Æ N K$ R(N K)
+
"
Æ& N K( # N ( - *
#
7#
"
Æ& N K( # R(N K)(
# % 0& #
"
Æ& N (
# R(N ) /( # R(N K)
#
# R(N )( N K
- &
#
# # # ! 9
3

*

Æ& "
# -'
"# ∧( ⇒
∨4
* "
"# ⊥4 +

. '
# R(N K) - 0
*

Æ& "
# #
!# ∀ ∃ =

3

*

Æ&
Γ A∧B Γ A∧B Γ A Δ B
(∧ 1) (∧ 2) (∧U )
Γ A Γ B Γ∪Δ A∧B
Γ A⇒B Δ A Γ1 B
(⇒ ) (⇒U )
Γ∪Δ B Γ A⇒B
Γ A∨B Δ1 C Θ1 C Γ A Γ B
(∨ ) (∨U 1 ) (∨U 2 )
Γ∪Δ∪Θ C Γ A∨B Γ A∨B

(⇒U ) # Γ # Γ # Γ \ {A}4

(∨3 ) # Δ # Δ # Δ \ {A}( # Θ
1 1
# Θ # Θ \ {B}4

1 1
1 1
Γ ⊥
(⊥E)
Γ A
Γ ∀xA Γ A
(∀ ) (∀U )

!∗
Γ Ax
t Γ ∀xA
Γ ∃xA Δ1 C Γ Ax
t
(∃ )

!∗∗ (∃U )
Γ∪Δ C Γ ∃xA
! # #&+,'# +&0 +#.

(∃E ) # Δ # Δ # Δ \ {A}4

"
(∀U )3 x -
!$
1 1
∗
" # Γ( "

# ! C " # Γ
, x ∈/ SP (C)4

"
(∃E ) 3 x -

∗∗
! " # Δ \ {A} ! C ( "

# D "
Δ \ {A}
, x ∈ / SP (D) x ∈
/ SP (C)
1
1
+

Γ ∪ {A ⇒ B} A
(Pers)
Γ A.
)#" N K !0 % # N ?(
N K( # N ( #"
#
( #
#
"Æ # #' !

N K
N K #" #
Γ F #%
%
# -0 #
Γ F (
# # $
# #
(
# &
#
"
Æ&
N K 5+ #" # # #

%
5# # 6 # #
6
N K #
Γ F #"
# # #"
% # #
Γ F )#" D #
Γ F
"
Γ D F

N K
B F N K # #
F #"

N K
#" N K
- " " # #" -" *$
' ' "
! ∃xA ⇔ ¬∀x¬A( "
# # # 9(
!* ⇔ ¬( "%
(∃xA ⇒ ((∀x(A ⇒ ⊥)) ⇒ ⊥)) ∧ (((∀x(A ⇒ ⊥)) ⇒ ⊥) ⇒ ∃xA)
N K 7 #" N K(
#" #
∃xA ⇒ ((∀x(A ⇒ ⊥)) ⇒ ⊥) #" #

((∀x(A ⇒ ⊥)) ⇒ ⊥) ⇒ ∃xA( #" D D ( " $

∧U #
# ' #" - #"
1 2
0 ! )#" D 3 1

∀x(A ⇒ ⊥) ∀x(A ⇒ ⊥)
∀E
∀x(A ⇒ ⊥) A ⇒ ⊥ A A
⇒E
∃xA ∃xA ∀x(A ⇒ ⊥), A ⊥
∃E
∃xA, ∀x(A ⇒ ⊥) ⊥
⇒U
∃xA (∀x(A ⇒ ⊥)) ⇒ ⊥
⇒U
∃xA ⇒ ((∀x(A ⇒ ⊥)) ⇒ ⊥)
#"# +#,-. -. /&0,-. -.& &+./). #&+,'.
)#" D 3
2
A A
∃U
∃xA⇒⊥ ∃xA⇒⊥ A ∃xA
⇒E
∃xA⇒⊥, A ⊥
⇒U
∃xA⇒⊥ A⇒⊥
∀U
(∀x(A ⇒ ⊥)) ⇒ ⊥ (∀x(A ⇒ ⊥)) ⇒ ⊥ ∃xA⇒⊥ ∀x(A⇒⊥)
⇒E
(∀x(A ⇒ ⊥)) ⇒ ⊥, ∃xA⇒⊥ ⊥
⊥E
(∀x(A ⇒ ⊥)) ⇒ ⊥, ∃xA⇒⊥ ∃xA
P ers
(∀x(A ⇒ ⊥)) ⇒ ⊥ ∃xA
⇒U
((∀x(A ⇒ ⊥)) ⇒ ⊥) ⇒ ∃xA
< #" D D

#" N K3
1 2
D1 D2
∃xA ⇒ ((∀x(A ⇒ ⊥)) ⇒ ⊥) ((∀x(A ⇒ ⊥)) ⇒ ⊥) ⇒ ∃xA
∧U
(∃xA ⇒ ((∀x(A ⇒ ⊥)) ⇒ ⊥)) ∧ (((∀x(A ⇒ ⊥)) ⇒ ⊥) ⇒ ∃xA)
(
!*
"# ⇔ ¬( N K #"
#
∃xA⇔¬∀x¬A )# ! ∃xA ⇔ ¬∀x¬A $
N K
1
0 #' #" N K
! > ! ∀xA(x) ⇒ A ( t -
x
"
x ! A( N K 5)#"

t
#
&
5∀E 66
∀xA(x) ∀xA(x)
∀E
∀xA(x) Ax
t
⇒U
∀xA(x) ⇒ Ax
t
! > ! A ⇒ ∃xA(x)( t -

x
"
x ! A( N K
t
Ax x
t At
∃U
Ax
t ∃xA(x)
⇒U
Ax
t ⇒ ∃xA(x)
! > ! ∀x(B⇒A(x))⇒(B⇒∀xA(x))( x ∈SP

/ (B)(
N K
∀x(B ⇒ A(x)) ∀x(B ⇒ A(x))
∀E
∀x(B ⇒ A(x)) B ⇒ A(x) B B
⇒E
∀x(B ⇒ A(x)), B A(x)
∀U
∀x(B ⇒ A(x)), B ∀xA(x)
⇒U
∀x(B ⇒ A(x)) B ⇒ ∀xA(x)
⇒U
∀x(B ⇒ A(x)) ⇒ (B ⇒ ∀xA(x))
! # #&+,'# +&0 +#.
! > ! ∀x(A(x)⇒B)⇒(∃xA(x)⇒B)( x ∈SP

/ (B)(
N K
∀x(A(x) ⇒ B) ∀x(A(x) ⇒ B)
∀E
∀x(A(x) ⇒ B) A(x) ⇒ B A(x) A(x)
⇒E
∃xA(x) ∃xA(x) A(x), ∀x(A(x) ⇒ B) B
∃E
∀x(A(x) ⇒ B), ∃xA(x) B
⇒U
∀x(A(x) ⇒ B) ∃xA(x) ⇒ B
⇒U
∀x(A(x) ⇒ B) ⇒ (∃xA(x) ⇒ B)
! / % # # #" -" *$

' ' " ! (A⇒¬A)⇒¬A( "
# # # 9(
!*
"# ¬( "%
! (A⇒(A⇒⊥))⇒(A⇒⊥) =
#" N K3
A ⇒ (A ⇒ ⊥) A ⇒ (A ⇒ ⊥) A A
⇒E
A, A ⇒ (A ⇒ ⊥) A ⇒ ⊥ A A
⇒E
A, A ⇒ (A ⇒ ⊥) ⊥
⇒U
A ⇒ (A ⇒ ⊥) A ⇒ ⊥
⇒U
(A ⇒ (A ⇒ ⊥)) ⇒ (A ⇒ ⊥)
" # ( " "

x ( ( x !$
F ( #"
,3 F
! ## ∀x ...∀x F
$
1 n
! .
( " "

x ((x ! F
1 n
N K #"
-3 ! F ## !
1 n
∀x ...∀x F #" " # #

$

" "
x F 3 F
! ## ∀xF
!
1 n
5#" ( 6 7 #( #

3 F
## ∀xF ( % #" #

!

x
F

∀xF
&

1# F N K( N K #" #

D1
F ( # #" DF < #" D

#" ∀xF
1
1
F
∀U (
#" #
∀xF ( ! ∀xF N K
1# ( #( ∀xF N K( N K #"
D2
#
∀xF ( # #" ∀xF 7 #"
D2 ∀xF
Ftx
∀E (
#"# +#,-. -. /&0,-. -.& &+./). #&+,'.
"
# t - " x F ( " x ;%( #

F #"( ! F N K
♦
7( # #" " # ( #* -

' x (( x ( " #"
& -" #* # (
#" -(
1 n

!

x1 $&&&$ xn
F ()

F

∀x1 ...∀xn F
&
# ( # * ( -
,

"
"
! F & "
& 5! 63 F
!
## & "
&
! .
* -

-3 ! F ## & "
&
! " /# F "
# # !(
N K " ! F
,3
! F ## & "
&
< #" - " ! # (

% # ! F %* 9 & "
&
! F ( , -
, ; (
! F # %*
& "% - $

x (( x " n≥1 9( '(
( -3
1 n
F # # ! ∀x ...∀x F (
1 n
F # # & "

&
!

K

# ! '-
# " # # #( $
K
0

K$ S(K)
7#
' - K % %# !- # $
# # J # "# J
l
B K # # ! ! #

0
K$ F(K)
7
! K % # &
' !( # F(K)
! # #&+,'# +&0 +#.
0
K$ A(K)
(A1) A ⇒ (B ⇒ A)
(A2) (A ⇒ (B ⇒ C)) ⇒ ((A ⇒ B) ⇒ (A ⇒ C))
(A3) ((A ⇒ B) ⇒ A) ⇒ A
(A4) A ⇒ (B ⇒ (A ∧ B))
(A5) (A ∧ B) ⇒ A
(A6) (A ∧ B) ⇒ B
(A7) A ⇒ (A ∨ B)
(A8) B ⇒ (A ∨ B)
(A9) (A ⇒ C) ⇒ ((B ⇒ C) ⇒ ((A ∨ B) ⇒ C))
(A10) ⊥ ⇒ A
(A11) ∀xA(x) ⇒ Axt( t - " x ! A
(A12) ⇒ ∃xA(x)( t - " x ! A
Axt
(A13) ∀x(B ⇒ A(x)) ⇒ (B ⇒ ∀xA(x))( x ∈ / SP (B)
(A14) ∀x(A(x) ⇒ B) ⇒ (∃xA(x) ⇒ B)( x ∈ / SP (B)
A( B C "
! K
+
#

' #
0
Æ K$ R(K)
7 K

"
Æ&(
modus ponens3
A, A⇒B
MP
B

generalizacije3 A
Gen
∀xA
)#" K !0 -% % # "

! T 5

CD6

+
Æ$ , K
)#" 5"
Æ&( #*6 K #%
(
%
" # (
# &

#
"
Æ&( M P Gen( # 0
& %

& "
(
&
& %
"#%#
5+
#" #
%
5 # 6 #
# 6
. #
#" K , ! #
#% " ! 5n ≥ 16
#"# +#,-. -. /&0,-. -.& &+./). #&+,'.
F , ..., F ( 1
"
# ! F ( 1 ≤ i ≤ n(
,
n
F #
i
F "#%#

M P Gen( % #
i
! " " F , ..., F # & i

i
1 n
1# # #" F ((F K ,

#%
% # ! F (

!
1 n
#" 5 " F ((F 6 # # (

# &
3
n

"
Æ& M P ( # 0 & %
& "
1 n
"#%#

( # ! F ( & %

(
! " " F , ..., F # & i4
i

"
Æ& Gen # 0 & %
& "
1 n
"#%#

( # ! F ( & %

(
# ! " " F , ..., F # & i
i
1 n

K
B F K( "%
F
F 5 - " "# K6( #
K
- #" K # -0 ! F !

&
# 5# #" #
6 & !
5# #" # " !6 9 #, #"
#" F K
+#, - K( "% $
# # # + -
, " #" #
! . 1# ! C ⇒ D D ⇒ E K(
! C ⇒E K
+0 C ⇒ D D ⇒ E K( ( (
&'
#" "
( #" C (( C " k ≥1(
C ! C ⇒ D( #" E (( E " m ≥ 1( E
1 k
! D ⇒ E < #"

"3 C ( ( C ( E (
k 1 m m
( E !3

1 k 1
F 3 (D ⇒ E) ⇒ (C ⇒ (D ⇒ E)) 5# A16

m
1
F 3 C ⇒ (D ⇒ E)
2 5 MP E F 6 m 1
F 3 (C ⇒ (D ⇒ E)) ⇒ ((C ⇒ D) ⇒ (C ⇒ E))
3 5# A26
F 3 (C ⇒ D) ⇒ (C ⇒ E)
4 5 MP F F 6 2 3
F 3C⇒E
5 5 MP C F 6 k 4
.
" ! C ( ( C ( E ( ( E ( F ( ( F #"
K ?(
! " # "#%*
1 k 1 m 1 5

M P Gen 5! " C ((C E ((E #
! # % #" 6 7 (
!*
1 k 1 m
( & ! "( ! C ⇒ E (

K
! # #&+,'# +&0 +#.
! #" " # ' " Φ 5

$
CD6 /( #" ! F " # ' " Φ K ,
! 5 # %0 !06
#3 #" ! F
%
# K " ! # Φ

# &
#
"
Æ& K 51# #"
" !( ! - # ( ! " Φ "#%*

"
Æ& % !

"6 1 ,
! %(
&

3 ,

&

Gen % "#%# ! -#
∀xA( x -
# ! " # Φ 9 - 0
!* #" " # ' "
)#( #" ! F " # ' " Φ K #%$

( %
" # ! " # Φ(

# &

#
"
Æ& M P
Gen( # 0 & %

& "
(
&
& %
"#%#
( % " "#%#

#
Gen( # ! ∀xA(
,
x -

! " # Φ 1# #" " !
F , ..., F (
# ! F ( 1 ≤ i ≤ n( # ( ! "
# Φ "#%#
M P -# F ⇒ F " # ! F F (
1 n i
1 ≤ l, k ≤ i − 1( "#%#

Gen -# ∀xF " # ! F (
l k l k
1 ≤ l ≤ i − 1(
x # -
!
l l
" # Φ B # Φ "

' " #" ) #"
! F " # ' " Φ K "%
Φ F 5 Φ F 6
#, ! F * # ! Φ
K
" # #"

" "Æ #" # $
# # # #

! / + # #"
! F (p , ..., p )( p , ..., p
&( Æ - "%$
( #"
& "
( Æ - "% ( $
1 n 1 n
# # ! A , ..., A # "# J +

$
# # ! F (A , ..., A ) # 0 ! F (p , ..., p )
1 n

#
& #"
p " ! A ( 1 ≤ i ≤ n
1 n 1 n
+#, " ! F (p , ..., p ) F (A , ..., A )

, -3
i i
1 1
# ! F (p , ..., p ) #" # L(
n n
! F (A , ..., A ) # # # K

1 n
1
<# F (p , ..., p ) #" # L(
n
L #" ! F (p , ..., p )( # #" B , ..., B (

1 n
B ! F (p , ..., p ) <

# ! B #"
1 n 1 m
51 ≤ j ≤ m6

& #"
p " # #
m 1 n j
! A ( "
# i 51 ≤ i ≤ n6( - # # !
i
B ( 0 ! B ! F (A , ..., A ) +$

i
" # #' ! B , ..., B ;

# !
j m 1 n
B ( 1 ≤ j ≤ m( " "
, #" ! B
1 m
j j
#"# +#,-. -. /&0,-. -.& &+./). #&+,'.
"( ! B (
!* #"
L( , - 3
j
56 # L( ## # L

# (A1)−(A10) K( ! B # K4
56 "#%#
M P % # !
j
" B B ( k, l < j ( ( 0 M P

"
Æ& $
K( B "#%#
M P % !
k l
B B
j
)#(
!* #" K( " !
k l
B , ..., B #" ! B B B

F (A , ..., A )( F (A , ..., A ) K
1 m m m
1 n 1 n
=
0
" '-
# #" # '-
#
# # # + '-
# #"$
#( L(
, " #*3 " "
!
A B ( # #" ! A " # ' " Φ ∪ {B}(
#" ! B ⇒ A " # ' " Φ 5

# CD6 +#, '-
# # $
# #( K(
, #*

!

Φ$

A B ()

Φ ∪ {B} A$
Φ B ⇒ A&

)#"
-
% #"
"
#" # 5

#
CD6 )#" #* , #" !
A " # ' " Φ ∪ {B} 5# #" -# "6(
, #" !0 # - ! #"
" #*3 #" ! A " # ' " Φ ∪ {B}
, 9 "% #" " !
- ! A
1# A " # Φ # A # K( #
#" # % ! A( # A ⇒ (B ⇒ A)
$
#" ! B ⇒ A " # ' " Φ3
A 5 ' " " # Φ # 6
A ⇒ (B ⇒ A) 5# 5A66
B ⇒ A 5"#%# M P " 6
1# A ! B( - #" #"
! B ⇒B " # ' " Φ : #" !
p ⇒ p L #" # 5
#"
- # CD6( (
! /( # #
! B ⇒B # # #( K(
#" ! B ⇒B ? 5#" % #
56 " # CD6 #" #" "
# ' " Φ( K
, Φ B ⇒ B
! # #&+,'# +&0 +#.
:#* #
#3 " "
! A B #
! Φ
, ( # #" ! A " # ' "
Φ ∪ {B} , & n( #" ! B ⇒ A "
# ' " Φ
)#,
, " "
! A B( #
! Φ #" A " # ' " Φ ∪ {B} , n3 # $
#" ! A " # ' " Φ ∪ {B} , n(
#" ! B ⇒ A " # ' " Φ
/# C ((C #" ! A " # ' " Φ ∪ {B}
, n <# #" ! A( ! C

1 n
A( #" "3 C ((A ; ! A( # ! #

n

#"( ' 3
1
56 A # 4
56 A # ' " " # Φ ∪ {B} # B4
56 A ' " B " # Φ ∪ {B}4
56 A "#%#
M P ( ! C C
#" 5i, j < n6 #
C ! C ⇒ A4
i j
56 A "#%#

Gen( A ! ∀xC " # !$
j i
C #" 51 ≤ k < n6

x # -
k

! " # ' " Φ ∪ {B}
k
%
56( 56( 56 56 # #" *(
*" # %
56( 56( 56 56 " #"

#" #

# CD
% 56 C ((C #" C ((C 9 " !$
#" ! C " # ' " Φ∪{B}( #
1 k 1 n
, k( k & n +& #* # $

k

# ! C & #" " # ' " Φ ∪ {B}3
#" ! B⇒C " # ' " Φ( # #" D (
k
( D ( D -0 ! B ⇒ C .

#"
k 1
!3
m m k
Dm+1 3 ∀x(B⇒C ) k
# "#%#
Gen D ( Gen
&

#" " # ' " x - $
m

! " # Φ4
Dm+2 3 ∀x(B⇒C ) ⇒ (B⇒∀xC )(
k k
# # A13 x -
! B4
Dm+3 3 B⇒∀xC k
# "#%#
M P D D m+1 m+2
)#( " ! D (( D #" ! B⇒∀xC
" # ' " Φ <# ∀xC
! A( "
1 m+3 k
D (( D #" ! B ⇒A " # ' " Φ

k
1 m+3
♦
#"# +#,-. -. /&0,-. -.& &+./). #&+,'.
% 56 #"
# ##$
# #" " # ' "(
"
Gen )
#" " # ' " ! -"
5#( ( CD6(
- K - #" " # ' "( %
"

3

Φ$

A B $

A
Φ ∪ {B}

Gen

B $

B ⇒ A

Φ1

"( # ( # #" " # ' " ! -"

"
Gen( "

5
CD63

Φ$

B

A ()

A
Φ ∪ {B}$

B ⇒ A
Φ&
" #

N K
K
# " CD #" ! #" #(
#* # N '-
# L( #

#( # #" 5
"
# CD6 #" N K K #

( #"$

0 , #" N K , #" $
K( - =#

' #" N K
K
#

% "
& 5
&6 # # # #
! )#,
( # # % 0&
" # CD # # #

'
Γ A
N K$
K

A
Γ&

9 #" #* , #" D #

Γ A N K( , #" !0 # -
$
"
Æ& #" )
# #" " ' "
K( #" Λ C ( # #%
% #
! C (
# ' " " # Λ # (
#
&

"
Æ& modus ponensom, MP (

"
Æ& generelizacije, Gen 5" 0
&
"
-
! " # ' "6 9

Λ
!%#
Λ
C
|
C
! # #&+,'# +&0 +#.
" #*( #
Γ A # # #
A A
K
#" ! A " # ' " {A}
%
# ! A( # #

:#* #
#3
, "
# #"
#

N K % #" , & n
+#,
, " #
% #" , n
+ #" D #
Γ A # , n :
0
%
"
&
#"( # ,
-
" %#
"# #
!# ( +

%
# &
#" D $

" # %#
"# +

( $
#" K #
%

#" L 5 #" " # CD6(
0 #"
% # # ! . "
%
# #" N K "
0

Æ&

* " #
!#
+
&
"
Æ& #" #

Γ A

Æ& ∀(
∀U 3
Γ B
∀U
Γ ∀xB
x -
! " # Γ( 0
#
Γ A -# Γ ∀xB 9- #" K
#" ! ∀xB " # ' " Γ /
#$
* #
# K #" ! B " #
' " Γ < #" K

3
Γ
∀xB Γ
2

| # #
B
! " # Γ . %

%

5#
6
#" ! B " # ' " Γ(

| ( %
# ! ∀xB +
"

Γ
B
( -
! " Γ(
∀U x
! " # ' "( &
Gen % "#$
%# ! ∀xB( - & )#(

#" ! ∀xB " # ' " Γ K
+
&
"
Æ& #" #

Γ A
* ∀(
∀E 3
#"# +#,-. -. /&0,-. -.& &+./). #&+,'.
Γ ∀xB
∀E
Γ Btx
t - "
x ! B #
Γ A
-# Γ B 9- #" K #" !$
x
B " # ' " Γ /

#* #
#
t
x
t

K #" ! ∀xB " # ' " Γ3 | Γ
∀xB
< #" K

3
Γ
∀xB ∀xB ⇒ Btx
Btx Γ
2

| 5 # #
∀xB
! " # Γ6 # # ∀xB ⇒ B x
. %

%

5#
6

t

#" ! ∀xB " # ' " Γ(
| ( %
#
Γ
∀xB
"#%# M P ( ! B )#(

$
x
#" ! B " # ' " Γ K

t
x
t
+
&
"
Æ& #" #

Γ A

Æ& ∃(
∃U 3
Γ Btx
∃U
Γ ∃xB
t - "
x ! B #
Γ A
-# Γ ∃xB 9- #" K #"
! ∃xB " # ' " Γ /
#* # $

# K #" ! B " # ' "
x
Γ < #" K

3
t
Γ
Btx Btx ⇒ ∃xB
∃xB
Γ
2

| 5 # #
Btx
! " # Γ6 # # B ⇒∃xB . $x
%

%

5#
6

t
! # #&+,'# +&0 +#.
Γ
#" ! B " # ' " Γ(
| ( %
#
x
t
Btx
"#%# M P ( ! ∃xB )#(

#" ! ∃xB " # ' " Γ K
+
&
"
Æ& #" #

Γ A
* ∃(
∃E 3
Λ ∃xB(x) Δ1 A
∃E
Λ∪Δ A
x -
! " Δ \ {B(x)}
! A( # Δ Δ Δ \{B(x)}( 0 #

1
Γ A -# Λ ∪ Δ A 9- #" K

1 1
#" ! A " # ' " Λ ∪ Δ /

#* #

# K #" ! ∃xB(x) " #

' " Λ( #" | ( #" ! A " # ' " Δ
Λ
1
∃xB(x)
+ # ! B(x) # Δ (
,
Δ = Δ \{B(x)} Δ
Δ 4 # B(x) # Δ (
1
Δ = Δ \{B(x)} # Δ Δ Δ \{B(x)} )#

1 1 1 1

%3 Δ=Δ ( Δ=Δ ( Δ = Δ \{B(x)}
1 1 1 1
1 1 1
1# Δ=Δ ( #" ! A " # ' " Δ ( #
(
#" ! A " # ' " Δ <
1 1
& #" ! ∃xB(x) " # ' " Λ

3
Δ
Λ A A ⇒ (∃ xB(x) ⇒ A)
∃xB(x) ∃xB(x) ⇒ A
A
Λ Δ
2

|
| 5 #$
∃xB(x) A
# ! " # Λ ∪ Δ6 #
# (A1)( # A ⇒ (∃xB(x) ⇒ A) . %

$

%

5#
6
#" !
∃xB(x) " # ' " Λ #" ! A " # ' "

Δ(
|
| ( %

# "#%*

Λ Δ
∃xB(x) A
MP ( ! ∃xB(x)⇒A A ;%

#" ! A " # ' " Λ ∪ Δ K
1# Δ=Δ ( Δ = Δ \{B(x)}( #" ! A " #
' " Δ ( # K(
#" ! A "
1 1
1
#"# +#,-. -. /&0,-. -.& &+./). #&+,'.
# ' " Δ ∪ {B(x)} 7 (

(
- #" ! B(x)⇒A " # ' " Δ
< #" #" ! ∃xB(x) " # ' " Λ(

3 Δ
B(x) ⇒ A
Λ ∀ x (B(x) ⇒ A) A14
∃ x B(x) ∃ x B(x) ⇒ A
A
A14 ! ∀x(B(x)⇒A)⇒(∃xB(x)⇒A)
Δ
2

|
Λ
| 5 #$
∃xB(x) B(x) ⇒ A
# ! " # Λ ∪ Δ6 #
! ∀x(B(x)⇒A)⇒(∃xB(x)⇒A)( # # (A14)(

"
∃E
, x∈SP
/ (A) . %

%

5#
6
#" ! ∃xB(x) "
# ' " Λ #" ! B(x)⇒A " # ' " Δ(

%

|
| ( %

# "#%*
Λ Δ
∃xB(x) B(x) ⇒ A
MP ( ! ∃xB(x) ⇒ A A %
# "#%#
$
( ! ∀x(B(x) ⇒ A) .

Gen

Gen B(x)⇒A "#%# ∀x(B(x)⇒A) "$

!* #" " # ' "3 x -

! " # ' " Δ :"
#

, "
∃E x -

! " # Δ \{B(x)}( "% ! " #
Δ( Δ=Δ \{B(x)} 7
Gen

1
& )#(

#" ! A "
1
# ' " Λ ∪ Δ K

♦

*
F
N K

F
K&

3
'

F
K$
F
N K&

< #" #

N L 5

" # CD6 -
## "
# #
K #" N K )#" #
! # #&+,'# +&0 +#.
(A1) − (A10) N K #"

# L N 5! /% #
CD6 . - #, " % #
K 9
! % #
)#(
# K N K )(
##( # -( #, "

K N K /# ! F
K 9 K #" !
F 1# #"
#
( #%

% # ! F (
#

# K
# &
#

"
Æ& " K(
"
Æ& MP
"
Æ&
Gen /

"3
56
# " % # A "
#"
#
A " N K #
! %
" (
# ! /% # " CD
# # !4
56
# %
" % ! D " #
-#
D( #
! F " #
F
)-

+
#" $
N KA +
(

#"
N K # " ! /% # CD ! % " (
"% & # # #
. 0
$
%
&
1# &

# "
0
#
A( A # $
K(
#
"
Æ&
N K 1# &
#

#" K 5 -

MP

Gen 6( N K &

*
"# ⇒(
⇒ E (
$

Æ& #
!# ∀(
∀U 5/

∀U
& & #

!(
"

" (∀U )(

x -
!

6 )#
#" N K %
# #
F 7 ( "#% #
F #"
N K( "% ! F N K
3
'

F
N K$
F
K&

<# ! F N K( #
F
#"
N K /
( K
#" ! F " # ' " # " # 9 "%
! F K
♦
#"# +#,-. -. /&0,-. -.& &+./). #&+,'.
)
# # ! A B # #

# !$
A⇔B ! # # #( N K 5
K6 #" - # #

'
# #' !( # - %# #

'
# #' ! ' " #

# A B

J &
+, '
A ⇔ B $
¬A ⇔ ¬B
+, '
A ⇔ B $

C J ()
+∧, (C ∧ A) ⇔ (C ∧ B) +∧, (A ∧ C) ⇔ (B ∧ C)4
+∨, (C ∨ A) ⇔ (C ∨ B) +∨, (A ∨ C) ⇔ (B ∨ C)4
+⇒, (C ⇒ A) ⇔ (C ⇒ B) +⇒, (A ⇒ C) ⇔ (B ⇒ C)4
+⇔, (C ⇔ A) ⇔ (C ⇔ B) +⇔, (A ⇔ C) ⇔ (B ⇔ C)
+, '
A ⇔ B $
∀xA ⇔ ∀xB
+, '
A ⇔ B $
∃xA ⇔ ∃xB
+ , '
A ⇔ B B ⇔ C $
A ⇔ C

)#" ! "
56 56 # # #
#" #" ! -#
#" # 5
" # " CD6
56 .
- #" N K ; !
A ⇔ B !* ! (A ⇒ B) ∧ (B ⇒ A) ; ( ##
A⇔B N K( #"
!( ! (A⇒B)∧(B⇒A)( # #" D :" #"

(∧E ) (∧E ) - #" !
A ⇒ B B ⇒ A( #" D D < #"(

1 2
#"3
1 2
D1 ∀xA ∀xA D2 ∀xB ∀xB

∀E ∀E
A⇒B ∀xA A B⇒A ∀xB B
⇒E ⇒E
∀xA B ∀xB A
∀U ∀U
∀xA ∀xB ∀xB ∀xA
⇒U ⇒U
∀xA⇒∀xB ∀xB⇒∀xA
∧U
(∀xA⇒∀xB) ∧ (∀xB⇒∀xA)
)#( N K #" #

(∀xA ⇒ ∀xB)∧(∀xB ⇒ ∀xA)(
! ∀xA ⇔ ∀xB
56 )#"

% % # #" 56
56 )#"
#" 56
" # CD
♦
# #"

5 63 "
# ! F - ! #
! # #&+,'# +&0 +#.
! F # 5 %#6 #

! F (
pf
|= F ⇔F 7 #" - "

# ! F -
pf
! # ! F # ! F

pf
# #

9 " # "
%#
"

( #
#
#

! F F #
"

pf
)#" ( # ! " K( -

#" & %#
" " # ( # 0

3 -
! %# #

#

3 - # #

2 K
F

F pf

)
F ⇔ F pf

+ "
! F # "# J <
%#
" 5

5 " # 66
!$
F

"* ∧( ∨ ¬ )#" $
#* , ! F ( - n( # "-
- %#'
"# - #
!# ! F
" #*( n = 0 B F %#'
"#
#
!# ( F # ! )#( $
, ! F ! F
pf
:#* #
#3
, "
# ! F #
& n %#'
"# #
!# (
! F # !( #
3
pf
F ⇔F pf
)#"
, " ! n
"# #
!#
+ ! F # n %#'
"# #
!#$
B F , ' -#3
A ∧ B( A ∨ B( ¬A( ∀xA ∃xA
" -" #
' -# ! F ( & $
! A B -
"# #
!# &
! F ( " &'
, #* #
#3
! A B # ! #
3
pf pf
A⇔A
pf
B⇔B . pf
+0 ! A B # !(

pf pf

# ! A B pf pf
5∗6 ! # , #

!# ( ! A pf
B ! C D # , #

!# 4
pf
5∗∗6 ! #

#
!# & % #(
! A B -# Q x ...Q x C P y ...P y D
pf pf
1 1 l l 1 1 m m
#"# +#,-. -. /&0,-. -.& &+./). #&+,'.
" # l, m > 0(
# Q 51≤i≤ l6 P 51≤j ≤ m6 ∀
∃ ! C D , #
!#
i j
; - # -# A B #" ( # $

pf pf
%#
" ( ,
#

-'
' ! C -'
' !$
D #
#" # ( "

# ! A #
y( ! ∀xA ⇔ ∀yA x
∃xA ⇔ ∃yA 5#" " 6

y
x
" %#

" !
7 "
y
! F , ! F pf
+
! F -# A ∧ B
:" #

! A A ! B B ( "
pf pf
A⇔A B⇔B (
pf pf

(∧1)( (∧2) (5) ( # #
$

! A ∧ B A ∧ B (
,
pf pf
(A ∧ B) ⇔ (A ∧ B ) pf pf
1# - ! A B -# (∗)( ! A ∧B

pf pf pf pf
# ! )#( , ! F !$ pf
A ∧ B
pf pf
1# - ! A B -# (∗∗)( A ∧B 3

pf pf pf pf
(Q1 x1 ...Ql xl C) ∧ (P1 y1 ...Pm ym D)

l > 0 m > 0
:#* - #
!# ! A ∧ B ( - pf pf
l+m( # #" %#

" # !
F -# A ∧ B ( #" ! A ∧ B # #$
pf pf

!3
Q1 x1 ...Ql xl P1 y1 ...Pm ym (C ∧ D),
# # !
#" # # #

( %#
/( # - !
∀x(A(x) ∧ B) ⇔ (∀xA(x) ∧ B) ∃x(A(x) ∧ B) ⇔ (∃xA(x) ∧ B)
" x ∈/ SF (B)
∀x(B ∧ A(x)) ⇔ (B ∧ ∀xA(x)) ∃x(B ∧ A(x)) ⇔ (B ∧ ∃xA(x))(
" x ∈/ SF (B)
( 0 #" . / " # 5
- !
!( # #0
%#
"6
+
! F -# A ∨ B
:" #

! A A ! B B ( "
pf pf
! # #&+,'# +&0 +#.
A ⇔ Apf ( B ⇔ B pf

(∨1)( (∨2) (5) ( # #
$

! A ∨ B A ∨ B ( "%
,
pf pf
(A ∨ B) ⇔ (A ∨ B ) pf pf
< 56 56 " . 56 56 " / "
# ( # % # ! F pf
-# A ∧ B( - ! # !(

! F ( # #

! A ∨ B
pf
+
! F -# ¬A
:" #

! A A ( " pf
A⇔A ( pf

(1) ( # #

!$
¬A ¬A (
,
pf
¬A ⇔ ¬A pf
1# ! A -# (∗)( ! ¬A #

pf pf
! )#( , ! F ¬A pf pf
1# ! A -# (∗∗)( A -# Q x ...Q x C (

pf pf
l > 0( ! ¬A -#

1 1 l l
pf
¬(Q x ...Q x C)

1 1
:#* - #
!# ! ¬A ( - l ,
l l
pf
#" ! ¬A # #

!3
pf
Q x ...Q x ¬C (
1 1 l l
# # !( Q #
!# $
"% Q ( "
1 ≤ i ≤ l 9 #" #"
i
%#
" # ! F -# ¬A(
i
- )
"# " #
!#
¬∀zE ⇔ ∃z¬E ¬∃zE ⇔ ∀z¬E

!( # - 50 #"$
" " # 6
+
! F -# ∀xA
:" #

! A A ( " pf
A⇔A ( pf

(3) ( # #

!$
∀xA ∀xA (
,
pf
∀xA ⇔ ∀xA pf
! ∀xA # !( !

pf
∀xA , ! F

pf pf
+
! F -# ∃xA
:" #

! A A ( " pf
## #,),1,'. , +,#+, #&+,'. +&0 +#.
A ⇔ Apf (

(4) ( # #

!$
∃xA ∃xA ( #
,
pf
∃xA ⇔ ∃xA (pf
! ∃xA , ! F

pf pf
!

!

$

> #
! #
# !$
# # #( K N K( # !$
# Æ&
T "
%# !- # # # # "# J K !
# # ! "# 1#
"
Æ& $
T
#
"
Æ& 5*"( ' ' #

6 "- ! # # # , 0 #
* #
"
Æ& 1
!*

9
T ! #

& - - !- # # #( $
- &
%# J # "# J 5% # $

' # C # * #' - O -
l
"64
& ! # # ! "# J 4
& # # # ! # #
# "# J ( , 0 # * # #
% # A 4T

"
Æ&
"
Æ& !
# # #( , 0 #
"
Æ& # %
#% # R T
+ ' # # "# J (

# !
# # # J
( % # *$
' # ( # A ( "( #
' '

"
Æ& 5 # R "6 )#( 0 N K K #
T
"# J
? #
! # #
T
! # #&+,'# +&0 +#.
# # "# J "

# # %
1#
0 "# J #
' # C # * #' -
O "( # "
% # # %

< ' !0 !
T
# "# J (
- ! # # #
"# #
# - #
K !0
!
T "# J % # # ( #
A(T ) = A(K) ∪ A ( A # *' # ( #
"
$
Æ&( # R(T )( %
"
Æ& K3 M P Gen <
T T

"
#
N K( #
A # # #
# # A(N K) - A(T )4 #

"
Æ&( # R(T )( R(N K) ∪ R ( R #% #
'
T

"
Æ& +0
"
#
# $
T T
# # # 0 "

# #
<#
#
! ( !*
#" 5"
Æ&( #*6( #" ! " # ' " "

# "
# ! 5
CD6 9
!*

" - ( N K K .
'

"
T #
# # #
N K
T #" #
Γ F #%
%
# -0 #
Γ F (
# # # #

T (
# &
# &
"
Æ&
<" #
Γ F #"
T # # #"
% # #
Γ F B F
T # #
F #"
T ( * # ' " Γ #
#
Γ F #"
T ."# F T -
-%3 F 5 F 6
"* - " "#
T
T
*

%

%

>,
( % # ( # # #
#0 /( "# "# #0 J ( J
"# #
# # ! )#( !
=
"# # #' ! "# J 0

* # - = 9 - ( # 5
6(

# * # ( # ' * ;
% #
' %#'
+ - * # . * #

*(
# !#
( % "
;0 -
! "# J 3=
(R) ∀x(x = x)
## #,),1,'. , +,#+, #&+,'. +&0 +#.
(S) ∀x∀y(x = y ⇒ y = x)
(T ) ∀x∀y∀z((x = y ∧ y = z) ⇒ x = z)
.
' - " 0 %# # " # -
, * * /( " "

x , ..., x (
y , ..., y - # * f , n * ρ , n( n
1 n
"
-( #
(
,3
1 n
− # x = y x = y ( f (x , ..., x ) = f (y , ..., y )

1 1 n n 1 n 1 n
− # x = y x = y ( " ρ(x , ..., x ) ρ(y , ..., y )

1 1 n n 1 n 1 n
9 - ,
!( ! "# J ( "
- n( n ≥ 13
=
(Efn ) ∀x1 ...∀xn ∀y1 ...∀yn ((x1 = y1 ∧ ... ∧ xn = yn ) ⇒ (f (x1 , ..., xn ) = f (y1 , ..., yn )))

(Eρn ) ∀x1 ...∀xn ∀y1 ...∀yn ((x1 = y1 ∧ ... ∧ xn = yn ) ⇒ (ρ(x1 , ..., xn ) ⇒ ρ(y1 , ..., yn )))
f "
* # -( ρ "
* # -
"# J ( - , n ,

, - #$
9 - "
" # %# -
=
# #
#
Æ ( 0 *" #, # * # %
# % #
# # # $
# % # :"-( (
#* N K J # # "
#

$
# # # "%
N K 7# # #' #

N K % # # #
N K( " $
=
#
"
Æ& ( # R(N K )(

" #
=

"
Æ& N K( # R(N K)( 0

(

=

Æ&
* " # 3
Γ t1 = t2 Δ Ax
t1
(= U ) t = t (= E)
Γ ∪ Δ Ax
t2

! !
t1 t2 ! x
A
,
"

#
0
# "#

' - " ' - # ;
#, N K " #
, -3 !#
( $
% "

=
! )#,

! (R)( (S) (T )
N K =
)#" ! (R) ∀x(x = x)

x=x
∀U
∀x(x = x)
! # #&+,'# +&0 +#.
)#" ! (S) ∀x∀y(x = y ⇒ y = x)

x=y x=y (z = x)zx
=E
x = y (z = x)zy
⇒U
x=y⇒y=x
∀U
∀y(x = y ⇒ y = x)
∀U
∀x∀y(x = y ⇒ y = x)
(z =
(= U )3 x = x
x)zx
)#" ! (T ) ∀x∀y∀z((x = y ∧ y = z) ⇒ x = z)

+
" #" ! (S) "
&
# "
0

#
x = y ⇒ y = x3
x=y x=y (z = x)zx
=E
x = y (z = x)zy
⇒U
x=y⇒y=x
0 #" ! x = y ⇒ y = x N K ( #" D <$
#" D

#
#"3
=
D x=y ∧y=z x=y ∧y=z

∧E1
x=y ⇒ y=x x=y ∧y=z x=y x = y ∧y=z x=y ∧y=z
⇒E ∧E2
x=y ∧y=z y=x x=y ∧y=z y=z
=E
x=y ∧y=z x=z
⇒U
(x = y ∧ y = z) ⇒ x = z
∀U
∀z((x = y ∧ y = z) ⇒ x = z)
∀U
∀y∀z((x = y ∧ y = z) ⇒ x = z)
∀U
∀x∀y∀z((x = y ∧ y = z) ⇒ x = z)
!
+ ! (E ) (E ) "
# * # - f ,
n n

# * # - ρ , !3
f ρ
(Ef1 ) ∀x1 ∀y1 ((x1 = y1 ) ⇒ (f (x1 ) = f (y1 )))

(Eρ1 ) ∀x1 ∀y1 ((x1 = y1 ) ⇒ (ρ(x1 ) ⇒ ρ(y1 )))
)#, ! N K =
)#" " ! (E ) 1
f
x 1 = y 1 x 1 = y1 (f (x1 ) = f (z))zx1
=E
x1 = y1 f (x1 ) = f (y1 )
⇒U
x1 = y1 ⇒ (f (x1 ) = f (y1 ))
∀U
∀y1 ((x1 = y1 ) ⇒ (f (x1 ) = f (y1 )))
∀U
∀x1 ∀y1 ((x1 = y1 ) ⇒ (f (x1 ) = f (y1 )))
(f (x ) = f (z))
(= U )3 f (x ) = f (x )
1
z
x1 1 1
## #,),1,'. , +,#+, #&+,'. +&0 +#.
)#" " ! (E ) 1
ρ
x 1 = y1 x 1 = y1 ρ(x1 ) ρ(x1 )
=E
x1 = y1 , ρ(x1 ) ρ(y1 )
⇒U
x1 = y1 ρ(x1 ) ⇒ ρ(y1 )
⇒U
(x1 = y1 ) ⇒ (ρ(x1 ) ⇒ ρ(y1 ))
∀U
∀y1 ((x1 = y1 ) ⇒ (ρ(x1 ) ⇒ ρ(y1 )))
∀U
∀x1 ∀y1 ((x1 = y1 ) ⇒ (ρ(x1 ) ⇒ ρ(y1 )))
1 , #" ! (E ) (E )( "
# n n
- n
( N K
f ρ
=
+ ! ρ(x ) ρ(y ) " ! (E ) 1

! ρ(z) ρ(z) 1# (E )
1 1 ρ
z z 1
! ρ(z)

"
! A
x1 y1 ρ
- !3
(E) ∀x1 ∀y1 ((x1 = y1 ) ⇒ (Azx1 ⇒ Azy1 ))

x y # - " z A
1 1
+#, ! (E) N K =

x 1 = y 1 x 1 = y1 Azx1 Azx1
=E
x1 = y1 , Azx1 Azy1
⇒U
x1 = y1 Azx1 ⇒ Azy1
⇒U
(x1 = y1 ) ⇒ (Azx1 ⇒ Azy1 )
∀U
∀y1 ((x1 = y1 ) ⇒ (Azx1 ⇒ Azy1 ))
∀U
∀x1 ∀y1 ((x1 = y1 ) ⇒ (Azx1 ⇒ Azy1 ))
7
! & % #
9
Æ "# J K # # #(
K 1# K ( # # ( ! (R)
=
(E) @ %
'
"
Æ&( K '

= =
"
Æ&(
"
Æ& K(
M P Gen =
'
=
#" K =
! +#, " x y ( #

!
B ( t s( # - "
x B ( !
1 1
(∀x1 (∀y1 ((x1 =y1 )⇒(Bxx1 ⇒Byx1 ))))⇒((t = s)⇒(Btx ⇒Bsx ))

K =
: # (A11) K 3 ∀zA(z)⇒A ( t -$ z
"

z ! A
= t
1# A ! ∀y ((x =y )⇒(B ⇒B ))( t - " x x

x ! 5 "
x !
1 1 1 x1 y1
B ( 0 "% y
t6( #
1
K ( ! F 3
1

=
∀x (∀y ((x =y )⇒(B ⇒B ))) ⇒ (∀y ((x =y )⇒(B ⇒B ))) (

1 1 1 1
x
x1
x
y1 1 1 1
x
x1
x
y1
x1
t
! # #&+,'# +&0 +#.
∀x1 (∀y1 ((x1 =y1 )⇒(Bxx1 ⇒Byx1 ))) ⇒ (∀y1 ((t=y1 )⇒(Btx ⇒Byx1 )))
(B ) B (B ) B 5x
B6
x x1
x1 t
x
t
x x1
y1 t
x
y1 1
/
# K - " # (A11) # A !$
(t=y )⇒(B ⇒B ) s - "
y
=
x x
! 5 " x ! B6 9 ! F 3

1 t y1 1

∀y ((t=y )⇒(B ⇒B )) ⇒ ((t=y )⇒(B ⇒B )) (

1 1 t
x x
y1
x
t 1
x
y1
y1
s
∀y1 ((t=y1 )⇒(Btx ⇒Byx1 )) ⇒ ((t=s)⇒(Btx ⇒Bsx ))
(Btx )ys1 5
t B6 (B ) B
Btx y1 x y1
y1 s
x
s
+ # F -# C ⇒D(
C ! ∀x (∀y ((x =y )⇒(B ⇒B )))

1 1 1 1
x
x1
x
y1
D ! ∀y ((t=y )⇒(B ⇒B ))(1 1
x
t
x
y1
# F -# D⇒E ( E ! (t=s)⇒(B ⇒B )
x x
: # # F F ! -# # $

t s

! . " # ( C⇒D D⇒E

; F F "
! F ((F #

! . % " !( # !*( #" !

1 5
C ⇒ E K 7 ( - 0 ! C ⇒ E (

!
=
(∀x (∀y ((x =y )⇒(B ⇒B ))))⇒((t = s)⇒(B ⇒B ))(

1 1 1 1
x
x1
x
y1
x
t
x
s
x y
! B t s - "

x B( K
1 1
=
+ ! # % "

$
# " " # K +0 " -
,
" # ( - ; ( K
=
#" ! (S) (T )(

(
=
! (S) (T ) K ( - # * '

3 (S) (T ) N K 50 #" ! 64
=
N K K #

( 0 #" " #
=
= =
! +#,
,3
F N K # # F K
= =
+ # #"
& #

K N K #" -3
56
# K N K4
56 # #
Γ A #"
N K( K #" !$
A " # ' " Γ
) - #" 0
Æ&(
# F K ( F N K (
= =

#,
# K N K <#
- 56( #, (R) (E)
= =
## #,),1,'. , +,#+, #&+,'. +&0 +#.
N K 9
! ! ( "#$
%(
# K N K
=
= =
<

( % #

#" " # #" "

K N K
= =
)( - #"
# F N K ( F K
= =

#"
- N K K 3 = =
# #
Γ A #"
N K ( K #" !$
A " # ' " Γ
= =
)#" - # #" 5 -

56( #
6 " # /( #"
#
Γ A #* , #" 5 -

"
Æ& #"6 #" K #" ! A
" # ' " Γ " #*3 #" #
Γ A
=
#
( -0 #
9 "% 3 # #
#
AA( K #" %
#
! A4

Æ& =( t = t( # K
=
#"3
=
∀ x (x = x) (∀ x (x = x)) ⇒ (x = x)xt
t=t
:#* #
#3 -
, "
# #"
#

N K % #" , & n ;
#" D #
Γ A # , n :
0 %

=
"
&
#"( # , - 3

*
Æ& "
"# " #
!#$
( +

(
* #
7%
# &
#" D
$
* # 0
# #"
5" 6 . 0 % # &

#" #
Γ A
* =(
= E 3
Λ t=s Δ Btx
=E
Λ ∪ Δ Bsx
t s - "
x B( #
Γ A
-# Λ ∪ Δ B 9- #" K #" !$
x
B " # ' " Λ ∪ Δ H& #

= E (
s =
x
#
Λ t = s Δ B ( #"
N K 0
,
s
x
&'
#" & -
"
Æ& #"
t =
#
Λ ∪ Δ B 7 " &'
, #* #
#(
x
K #" ! t=s " # ' "
s
Λ #" B " # ' " Δ < #"

=
x
#" B " # ' " Λ ∪ Δ3

t
x
s
! # #&+,'# +&0 +#.
Λ E A11
Δ t=s (t = s) ⇒ (B(t) ⇒ B(s))
Btx Btx ⇒ Bsx
Bsx
E ∀x ∀y ((x = y ) ⇒ (B ⇒ B )) " x y # x x

! B( - " x B4
1 1 1 1 x1 y1 1 1
A11 (∀x (∀y ((x = y )⇒(B ⇒B )))) ⇒ ((t = s) ⇒ (B ⇒ B ))( x x x x
x y
! B t s - "
1 1 1 1 x1 y1 t s

x B
1 1
! # "#%# M P E A11 !

B(t) B(s) B B x x
B E # K ( A11 K "

t s
! K

# #" A11
= =
% # !( %

#$
=
)#( # 0

" A11
&
#" -

# #" ! B " # x
' " Λ ∪ Δ K

s
=
;%
, -3 # #
Γ A #"
N K ( =
K #" ! A " # ' " Γ
=
7( # ! F N K 5 #
F
#"
N K 6(
- ( #"
=
! F " # ' " # " #( 0 "%

=
! F K =
)#( " N K K
,3
F N K # # F K ,
= =
= =
N K K #

= =
&

Æ'
+
0
( * Æ& K
?"# J = {=, ≤}( = * # - # ≤
≤
* # - , . # K *

≤
Æ& K
* # 3
=
≤
(A≤ 1) ∀x(x ≤ x)
(A≤ 3) ∀x1 ∀x2 ((x1 ≤ x2 ∧ x2 ≤ x1 ) ⇒ (x1 = x2 ))
(A≤ 3) ∀x1 ∀x2 ∀x3 ((x1 ≤ x2 ∧ x2 ≤ x3 ) ⇒ (x1 ≤ x3 ))
9 K '
"
Æ&(
"
Æ& K(

M P Gen
≤
#$# &&4,)# , &#/, #&+,'. +&0 +#.
" &

?"# G "# J ={=, ∗, e}( = * # - $
# ( ∗ * # - ,
# e .
G
# K G

* # 3
=
(AG 1) ∀x1 ∀x2 ∀x3 ((x1 ∗ x2 ) ∗ x3 = x1 ∗ (x2 ∗ x3 ))
(AG 2) ∀x(x ∗ e = x)
(AG 3) ∀x∃y(x ∗ y = e).
9 ( # ( '
"
Æ&(
G K= K≤

"
Æ& (

K M P Gen
9 #
' ( "# & #

Gk JG
(
# 3
(AG 1) (AG 2) (AG 3)
(AG 4) ∀x1 ∀x2 (x1 ∗ x2 = x2 ∗ x1 )
"

!

(

"* #" # -
#
# #
! 7
# # # #(
# "# J (
#
T
"#
+ "

( T ( #

N K 1# F # # #(
N K( N K #" #
F ( # #"
D /
!* #" N K( #" D
#%
% # -0 #
F (
# $

# # #
N K(
#
&
&
#
"
Æ& N K
+

! #" D !
T )(
# # #
N K # #
#
T (
"
Æ& N K

"
Æ& T )#( D #" #
F
T 7 ! F T
# # G # (A 4) -$

#
' G 9 ##
G

T #
K( & # # #

k
# # % # Γ(

( # T ;
1
T T (
!*
#" (
,
#
2
1 2
! # #&+,'# +&0 +#.
T T 1# ! A T (

A( T #" ! A " # ' " Γ(
1 2 2
Γ A
T2 1
T1
! ;
#
T # "

# # # K
,3 T " "

# ! Φ( # %* B "
! A
,3
# Φ ∪ {B} A( Φ B ⇒ A
T T
.
- #" % #

# # # K 5 " # 6
! +#" "
#
#
"# J
,3
# # % #% "
$
- # J ∪ J 5 !- # # #6 -

<#
#
# ! # # #

l
#% " - & !- ( "%

$
-
, " #
' ( #
' !( #

' %* # "# J (
#
$
-
+ " # X #, -
#
-#* " # ' -
N #
X . ( ## #

( #

# X , Æ " ) - #"
#( # % #% "
- $
!- # # # J ∪ J ( Æ " !$
0
!#* g #
# - !- $
l
- 9 !#* g - $( !#*

g "% - !- - "% -

" #
-"
"# %# $
!- ( J ( # {¬, ⇒} #
!#
∀( #
!# ∃ !0 ∀ 5# # 6
l
=
!* !#* g3
-3 g(() = 3( g()) = 5( g(, ) = 74
%#
"*3 g(¬) = 9( g(⇒) = 114
#
!# 3 g(∀) = 134

-
# V ( "% x , ..., x , ...(
g(x ) = 5 + 8i( i ∈ {1, 2, 3, ...}4
1 i
i
-
' # -
# C ( "%
c , ..., c , ...( g(c ) = 7 + 8i( i ∈ {1, 2, 3, ...}4
1 i i
* # - -

# O( "% f , f , ..., f , 1 2 j
..., f , f , ..., f , ..., f , f , ..., f , ...( & #

,$
1 1 1
1 2 j 1 2 j
-( & "# "% - ,(

2 2 2 i i i
g(f ) = 9 + 8 · (2 · 3 )( j, i ∈ {1, 2, 3, ...}4

j
i
j i
#$# &&4,)# , &#/, #&+,'. +&0 +#.
* # - -
# P ( "% ρ , ρ , ..., ρ , 1 2 j
..., ρ , ρ , ..., ρ , ..., ρ , ρ , ..., ρ , ...( & #

,$
1 1 1
1 2 j 1 2 j
-( & "# "% - ,(

2 2 2 i i i
g(ρ ) = 11 + 8 · (2 · 3 )( j, i ∈ {1, 2, 3, ...}

j j i
)#( !#* g
# - !- # # #
i
- - 2#

"%
- "% -
5.
-

6 . - # #% " - !$
- - /# s , s , ..., s ( m > 1( 1 2
#
" -( & - 2 ·3 ·...·p (
m
g(s1 ) g(s2 ) g(sm )
2, 3, ..., p " " ' ' -

( p m$
m
- /
%( ! !#* g #
#
m m
#% " - !- J ∪ J - -

B#* g $ !#*( g $ !#*
,
l

# - n ,
%

# "
#' ' -
5 "
# $
- n( n > 0(
-
m, k , ..., k

(
( Æ - "% ( -

1 m
p , ..., p ( p < ... < p ( #

n = p · ...· p 6 ; ( !#*$ k1 km
g "% #( # % #% "

-
1 m 1 m 1 m
!- ( # "% -

( , '
Æ " +
% " - % #
!#* g & - ) Æ #( #

# % !#* g #
-
&( Æ # #( &'

# !#* g % " ' -

! +#, "
#
T
,3
56 A B ## A ∧ B4
T T T
56 # A B( A ∨ B4
T T T
56 # A A ⇒ B( B4
T T T
56 # A ⇔ B(
,3 A ## B4
T T T
56 # A ⇒ B B ⇒ C ( A ⇒ C 4
T T T
56 A ## ∀xA4
T T
56 # ∀x ...∀x A "
& A( 3 A ## ∀x ...∀x A
1 n T T 1 n
7

- #0 #" # T
#
N K ; ( !*( ! C
T ## T #" #
C
56 1# T #" D #
A∧B( # D( $
D D D1 D2

3 A ∧E B ∧E 7 ( A ∧ B ∧U
A∧B
1
A∧B
2
A B
# T #" D D #

A B 1 2
! # #&+,'# +&0 +#.
56 1# T #" D #

A( #
D
#"(
#"3 A ∨ B ∨E / %
A
1
" # #" D #

B - #" #
A ∨ B
56 1# T #" D D #
A
A ⇒ B ( # #"(
#"3
1 2
D2 D1
A⇒B A
⇒E
B.
56 <# A⇔B
(A⇒B) ∧ (B ⇒A)( A⇔B "%
T #" #
(A⇒B) ∧ (B ⇒A)( # #"
T
D 1# A( T #" #

A( #
#" D < D D
#"3
T
1 1
D
(A ⇒ B) ∧ (B ⇒ A) D1
∧E1
A⇒B A
⇒E
B.
1# B( % " #" D #
#" #
B - #" #
A
T
56 1# T #" D D #

A⇒B
B ⇒C ( # #"(
#"3
1 2
D1
D2 A⇒B A A
⇒E
B⇒C A B
⇒E
A C
⇒U
A ⇒ C.
+ # T "
#
K(

- , #" # - " ! . #
56 .
- #" # " #
56 .
- #" # ! " 5 6 " #

+
,'

# ! (

3 %
(
% 1#
!#
# 5*6 # "
# ! $
T ,
T (
"
T #, %
9
T

% # - ! #

(
T
% 9
T
# "
# %* F
,3 F ¬F $
(
, F ¬F / %

(
T T
#$# &&4,)# , &#/, #&+,'. +&0 +#.
! +#, "
# T
,3
T
% ## ! A ∧ ¬A T (
" # ! A T
/# T #
N K 1# T
%(

# & ! ( ! A ∧ ¬A " #
! A 7 ( # ( " # ! A( !
A ∧ ¬A T ( # #" D
#
A∧¬A( #
A∧(A ⇒ ⊥) < #"(
T
#"3
A∧(A⇒⊥) A ∧ (A⇒⊥) A∧(A⇒⊥) A∧(A⇒⊥)
∧E2 ∧E1
A∧(A⇒⊥) A⇒⊥ A∧(A⇒⊥) A
⇒E
A∧(A⇒⊥) ⊥ D
⇒U
(A∧(A⇒⊥)) ⇒⊥ A∧(A⇒⊥)
⇒E
⊥
⊥E
F,
#" #
F ( F "
! ;#%
#(
! T ( T
%

'
¬F

T
T

T

F $

T
&

/# T #
K +
(
T
% /
!*
%

(
# ! )#(
%* ¬F T (
, ¬F <#

T
0 # # T %$
T

* F ( - T %* ¬F #"

" #
' " {F }( {F } ¬F .
(
! (
,
F ⇒ ¬F ! " # #" !
T
(F ⇒ ¬F ) ⇒ ¬F N K( ( ! (
T
T )#( (F ⇒ ¬F ) ⇒ ¬F 7(

T ( " F ⇒ ¬F (F ⇒ ¬F ) ⇒ ¬F
56
T
! ( - ¬F ( ¬F T ( 0

T T
0 "

* ¬F
T
T )#( "#% T , -

%

)!0 0& # !

3
#

"# J ( T T ( #

# T T ( #, T

0& T

! # #&+,'# +&0 +#.

0

T

3&

+
% T # "# J
/
! #
' %* "

( T ( -
(
& %* ,
Æ " /# "
' %* T " F ((F (
< T & %* !0 "
1 n
F ((F ( %3

0 n
56 F T 4
0
56 # F ( F -0 F #
, ¬F (
% F - " F
& F #
#
n n+1 n Fn n+1
:#* n #,
F ( n ∈ N(
%
n+1 n n+1
" #*3 F T #

%
n
0
:#* #
#3 F
%
+ F 1#
, ¬F F
n
F ' F

% 1#
,
n+1 Fn n+1 n+1
( F - F

& #
n n+1
¬F
(
( F
%
Fn n+1 n+1 n
F
)#(
F (( F (
%
n+1 n+1
0
7 T "# J % #
n
∗
#
' F (( F ( ? T ∗
0& T 5# F (( F (6 +#,

0 n
T
% 1# - T -
%(
0 n
∗ ∗

! ( - & #" !
A ∧¬A( " # ! A 9 - F
5n ∈ N6( F ( " # n " N( #

#
n
T #
#" # F (
n0 0
∗
#" ! A∧¬A - - #" !

n0
F : - # A∧¬A F (

F
%( 0 )#( T
n0 n0
∗
-
% . #, T $
n0
∗
/# F "
%* "# J ;

# %* "# J
%* " "
'
%* J ( " F , ..., F , ... 7 #
- l #
F -0 %* F " " /

1 n
##
T , F , ..., F ...( " %* F 3
l
∗

, ¬F ( ## T 0& F (
0 n l
∗
¬F T 4
, ¬F ( F #
Fl−1 l l−1
∗
F ( # T ;#% "

#
l Fl−1 l l
∗
%* F
, ¬F F ( 0 "%
l
T )#( T ,

%
T∗ T∗
∗ ∗
0& " T

♦
#$# &&4,)# , &#/, #&+,'. +&0 +#.
1# " "# J J
, # P * #' -( # O $

* #' - # C

' # "# J #

J J
#
"# J ( ( # P * #' -( # O $
J

* #' - # C

' # ( "# J
J J

0& "# J + - "# J 0&

J

# "# J ( # J - 0& #
$
' # "# J ( # C (

& # c , ..., c , ...( #
C = C ∪ {c , ..., c , ...}( #
* #' #
* #' $
J 1 n
- "# J J #3 O = O P = P ; # T

J J 1 n

"# J (
# T % "# J 0& "# J
#$
J J J J

( "
T ;
#
T
&( #,( # #

+
T #
"# J #
K /# J 0&
#$
c , ..., c , ... "# J J
-
# $
0

' V "% x , ..., x , ... 7#
' ! $
1 n
-

"# J (

#3
1 n
0
F 1 (x1 ) F 2 (x1 ) F 3 (x1 ) . . . F i (x1 ) . . .
F 1 (x2 ) F 2 (x2 ) F 3 (x2 ) . . . F i (x2 ) . . .
F 1 (x3 ) F 2 (x3 ) F 3 (x3 ) . . . F i (x3 ) . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
1 2 3 i
F (xj ) F (xj ) F (xj ) . . . F (xj ) . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .

# ! 5 6 - $
F i (xj ) i, j ∈ {1, 2, ...}

9 # (
xj ( -
(
&

!
%
, Æ "
#
1
F (x )( F (x )( F (x )( F (x )( F (x )( F (x )(( F (x )( F (x )(
2 1 3 2 1 l l−1
F (x )(( F (x )( F (x )( F (x )(
1 1 2 1 2 3 1 2
l−2 3 2 1
3 l−2 l−1 l
" l ∈ {1, 2, , ...} n$ % " "%
F (x ) 7(
# " !(
' # c ( i ∈ {1, 2, ...}( $
n in

" c (( c (( %3
i
56 c # c ( i ∈ {1, 2, ...}( #

!
j1 jn
F (x ) & #

' #
' c 4
j1 i
56 c # c ( i ∈ {1, 2, ...}( #

!
1 i1 i
F (x )( F (x )( "# c & #

'
j2 i
#
' c 4
1 i1 2 i2 j1
i
5n6 c # c ( i ∈ {1, 2, ...}( #

!
F (x )(( F (x )( "#
' c ((c &
jn i
#
' #
' 4
1 i1 n in j1 jn−1
c i
! # #&+,'# +&0 +#.
<

0
( !0 T
T ( n ∈ N 9 T T "# J (
N
# # 3

n N 0
(A ) n ¬(∀x F (x )) ⇒ ¬F (c )(
in n in n jn
" n ∈ {1, 2, ...}( (

( "
# n ! F (c )
8* ( " ! -$
n jn
xin
F

F (x )( ! # & - "
ncjn

x t( ! F ( "
F (t)
n in
xin
9 T T "# J -" '

'
in nt n
# )#( T # (A1) − (A14) " # (

0 0
A( B C "
! "# J )( T ( "
0

# n( n ∈ {1, 2, ...}( T #
& #
0 n
! (A )(((A )( ! (A )( "

k > n
1 n k
1 #, -

'
#
K # # #

!

T
J $

c1 , ..., cn , ...
J

T J0 = J ∪ {c1 , ..., cn , ...}

$
Tn $ n ∈ N$
TN $ ()
+,
Tn $ n ∈ N
1
+,
TN
&

56 :#* n #,
T ( n ∈ N
%
" #*( n=0 1# - T -
%( - &(
n
" # ! A( #" ! A ∧ ¬A( # #"

0
B , ..., B 5m ≥ 16( B ! A∧¬A /

!*
#"( "
# ! B 51 ≤ i ≤ m6 " #" B , ..., B 3
1 m m
B # T 4 B "#%#

M P
i 1 m
% # ! B B " " j, l<i4 B

i 0 i
"#%#

Gen % # ! B
j l i
" " l<i /# x

#
!$
l
#" 1# &

! B 51 ≤ i ≤ m6
#$
" " c , ..., c , ... # &
"

i
x - ! B ( 0

, B ! A ∧ ¬A
1 n
A∧¬A +#, " ! B , ..., B #" !

i m
A ∧ ¬A T +
( ! B , ..., B (
1 m
"( ! "# J T )( "

# i(
1 m
1 ≤ i ≤ m( # B # T ( B #

T 4 # B "#%# M P % B B ( B "$
i 0 i
#%# M P % B B 4 # B "#%# Gen

i j l i
B ( B "#%# Gen B ; ( "

j l i
! B , ..., B #" ! A ∧ ¬A T

l i l
)#( - T

%( 0
1 m
#$# &&4,)# , &#/, #&+,'. +&0 +#.
0
* 7 "#% T -

%
0
:#* #
# 9 T
%
+ T #,
%
n−1
+
T
% 9 - "%
&
n
! ( ! ¬A ( A # 3

n
¬(∀x F (x )) ⇒ ¬F (c ) - - ¬A 9 T $

n n

T
# A ( " -
in n in n jn Tn n n
" ¬A -
,3 {A } ¬A ?0(
!
n−1 n
( " {A } ¬A 3
Tn n n Tn−1 n
n Tn−1 n
A ⇒ ¬A Tn−1 5L6n n
/ % # # ( #" (A ⇒ ¬A) ⇒ ¬A

# # #( ! ( !
T ( T ; # A ! A 3
n−1 n
(A ⇒ ¬A ) ⇒ ¬A Tn−1 5L6
n n n
/
56 ! ( 5L6 5L6 ¬A ( Tn−1 n
¬(¬(∀x F (x )) ⇒ ¬F (c ))
Tn−1 5L6 in n in n jn
# #" ! (¬(¬A⇒¬B))⇒¬A

(¬(¬A ⇒ ¬B)) ⇒ B # # #( # 5 !%
6 T ( T 1# A !
∀x F (x ) B ! F (c )( 3
n−1
in n in n jn
Tn−1 (¬(¬(∀x F (x )) ⇒ ¬F (c ))) ⇒ ¬(∀x F (x ))

in n in n jn in n in
Tn−1 (¬(¬(∀xin Fn (xin )) ⇒ ¬Fn (cjn ))) ⇒ Fn (cjn )
/
56 ! 5
M P 6 "
'
5L6 - 3
¬(∀x F (x )) Tn−1 5L6 in n in
Tn−1 Fn (cjn )
7 ( # F (c )( #" ∀x F (x ) $
T (
, ∀x F (x ) )#(
Tn−1 n jn in n in
F (c )( T #" ! F (c )( $

n−1 Tn−1 in n in

# #" C , ..., C ( m ≥ 1( C ! F (c ) /#
Tn−1 n jn n−1 n jn
x
#
#" 1# # $
1 m m n jn
c " x
! C ( 1 ≤ l ≤ m( -$
k

" ! # #" ! F (x )(
jn k l
F (x ) 9 F (x )(
56
n k
! 5 Gen6 ∀x F (x ) :

Tn−1 n k n k
x - "

x F (x )( !
Tn−1 k n k
∀x F (x ) ⇒ F (x ) # K # # #(

in k n k
T )#" ∀x F (x ) T #

k n k n in
n−1 k n k n−1
! # #&+,'# +&0 +#.
% #" ! F (x ) (

∀xk Fn (xk ) ⇒ Fn (xin )
- <%( " #"( 56 !
n in
Tn−1 Fn (xin )
( - <# 5L6( $
Tn−1 ∀xin Fn (xin )

56 ! - ¬(∀x F (x )) ∧ ∀x F (x )
;#% #(
! ( T $
Tn−1 in n in in n in

%( 0 #* #
* ; (
n−1
T -
% /
%( #" #* #
##( -
T ( n∈N(
%
n
56 1#
T
%( 5
n
% ## #"

T
% #"
N
∗
6 - -

% # T ( n ∈ N(
0 - 56

%
n
7 "#% T

% N

'

T
$

T $

Æ

()
A(x)

$

x$

¬∀xA(x)

T $

T

t$
¬Axt

&

;
% T "# J " #
"
' # c , ..., c , ... # J

"# J = J ∪ {c , ..., c , ...} ; ( %
1 n

T J ( # T
0 1 n
/
56 ( T
%
N 0
+#, T , - /(

# !$
N
A(x) # -

x
N
! " 0 " ! F (x )( n ∈ {1, 2, ...}(

( A(x) F (x ) " # l " {1, 2, ...} )#( # "
n in
T ¬(∀x F (x )) & ( T

,3
l il
N il l il N
¬(∀x F (x ))
TN il l il
¬(∀x F (x )) ⇒ ¬F (c ) # & # ( # (A )(
TN il l il l jl l
" ' ( 56 ! 5

M P 6( - ¬F (c ) )#( # c ,
t #
! ¬A T
TN l jl jl
x
t N

# ! " # Γ # #'
! # "# J 7 # - !$
"
/(
#

#$# &&4,)# , &#/, #&+,'. +&0 +#.
# "# J Æ
# ; " T
- * I = (I, ı) = ((S, I ), ı) # " # ! J
%& # T )#( " T

ı
# "# J
# * I = (I, ı) = ((S, I ), ı) #
J
# T I =(I, ı)=((S, I ), ı) " T

ı
J
-
# % "# J ( # S( -

ı
#" ## "

#
%
T "# J
( #,( - I = (S , I )
& "# J I = (S , I ) *!% 0
T T T
&
%( # S ( "
T (
T T T
T
# "
T
0
+ "

% T
# "# J +
!0 0& "# J $

# c , ..., c , ...( "# J 5+
"% "* J J #
* #'
1 n 0
* #' -6 )( # T T

0
T
# " 3 T
0 N
"# J % # # T 4 T

0
"# J # # T

# 3
0 N
0
(A ) n ¬(∀x F (x )) ⇒ ¬F (c )( in n ∈ {1, 2, ...}
n in n jn
(
( F (x ) ! " " ! -$

!
#$
n in
c ( n ∈ {1, 2, ...} "- " # {c , ..., c , ...} %

/
56 " # (
jn 1 n
T

% ; (
"
#( T
% 0&(
N
T
N
∗
< T ( T T

I = (S , I )
N
∗
"# J 5 J 6 / % ( # S ( #

'
0 N N T T T
"
' T ( #
' T #
0 T
,
)#( % 0 I
0 0

# "# J # * #'
T
- "# J 5 J 6 "

' T )
0
I ( !#* I ( # # ( * # * #

0 0
- "# J #( ( # S ( *

T T
* # 9 !#* I !0

0 T
%3
T
56 "
#
# c "# J I (c)
c " # S ( -0 # c4
0 T
T
56 "
# * # - f "# J , n( I (f )
* f ( f : S → S ( # !
#3 "
# $
0 T
n
(t , ..., t ) # S
I I T T
n
1 n T
f (t , ..., t ) = f (t , ..., t )(
I 1 n def 1 n
! # #&+,'# +&0 +#.
" "
t , ..., t % S 5
"
T 6 " * f (t , ..., t )
1 n T
f (t , ..., t ) " S ( #

"
T
0 I 1 n

-0 * # - f " "# J '
1 n T 0
"
' t , ..., t 4
0
1
56 "
# * # - ρ "# J , m( I (ρ)
n
* ρ , m # S ( ρ ⊆ S ( !

#3
0 T
m
"
# (t , ..., t ) # S
I T I T
m
1 m T
ρ (t , ..., t ) = 1 ## ! ρ(t , ..., t )
1 ∗
TN 1
/
% ( #
% T
I m m
"# J #

# c , ..., c , ...( !$
"# J = J ∪ {c , ..., c , ...} 5 "# J 6(
1 n
I = (S , I )
0 1 n
T T T
: # # - #

% T #
"# J ( ,
"# I = (S , I ) "
( ( #" " "

%
T T T
T
,3
# * I = (S , I )(
# $
* I = (I , ı)( T ( & -
+
T T T
#, # -

% T *
Tı T
I = (I , ı)
Tı T
! " /# T "

% #
"# J ?"# J J ∪{c , ..., c , ...}( c , ..., c , ...
$

# # J 9 T T
0 1 n 1 n
"# J

" T # 9
0 N
T
% 0& T ( #
0
∗

" + "
*
N N
I =(I , ı)=((S , I ), ı)( (S , I ) "# J

(
# T ( # +#, " "

Tı T T T T T 0
%* ∀xA T

,3 0
56 I (∀xA) = 1 ## "

t ∈ S
, I (A ) = 14
Tı T Tı
x
t
56 ∀xA ## "

t ∈ S
, A
∗
TN T ∗
TN
x
t
56 1# ! A %*( %

,
-
+ " % # ! A %* 9( ##
∀xA %*( ! A -

;%( ! A ! - $

" " #
# " # (
! F (x )( " # l " {1, 2, ...} ∀xA ! ∀x F (x )
/
!*
! * 3
l il il l il
I (∀xA) = 1 ## "

j : V → S ( j ı
, I (A) = 1
Tı T Tj
9 "% " - # $ * j( j ı( " - #
x

j(x) " % S I (A) = 1 I %
x
T Tj T
#$# &&4,)# , &#/, #&+,'. +&0 +#.
S # "
' "# J ( j(x)
# # " $

"# J ( "
j ı
,3 I (A) = I (A )
T 0
x
)#(
0 x Tj Tı j(x)
I (∀xA) = 1 ## "

j : V → S ( j ı
, I (A ) = 1(
Tı T x Tı
x
## $ * j( j ı(

j(x) , - -
j(x)
# " S ( 3

x
T
I (∀xA) = 1 ## "
t ∈ S
, I (A ) = 1
Tı T Tı
x
t
56 1# ∀xA( #"( # #" " (
∗
"
- " x ! A( "

TN
t " # S (
,3 A +#, 0 # "
t ∈ S
∗
x
A ( ∀xA :

% 1#
T TN t T
∗
x ∗
! A %*( A ! A

TN t TN
x

, ∀xA + % # ! A
t
∗
%* 9( # 56 ! A ! F (x )( "

TN
# l " {1, 2, ...}( %* ∀xA %* ∀x F (x ) + $

l il

∀xA( ∀x F (x ) 9( 0
il l il
∗ ∗
T (
, ¬(∀x F (x )) ?0
TN TN il l il
∗ ∗
¬(∀x F (x ))⇒¬F (c ) # T ( " 56 !%

N TN il l il
∗
" - ¬F (c ) 1 ## T

%(
il l il l jl N
∗
∗
F (c )( A 1

TN l jl N
∗ ∗
x
"
* # c "

TN l jl TN cj l
"# J ( " # S )#( - ∀xA

jl
0 T ∗
TN

0

T

&

+ "

%
T
"# J +
0& "# J ( "# J (
J = J ∪ {c , ..., c , ...}( c , ..., c , ...

#$
0
( # J + "

*$
0 1 n 1 n
I =(I , ı)=((S , I ), ı)( (S , I ) "# J

$
( # T
T ( T T ( #
Tı T T T T T 0
∗

0 N N
+#" * I = (I , ı) = ((S , I ), ı)

" T
( - # *
Tı T T T

3 "
# %* F T
, 0
* I " F ## F T 5L6
Tı
∗
## F
N
((S , I ), ı) |= F
T T ∗
TN
=
## "

5L6 - I "
T (
# # T I
Tı
;
# # A T
, (
Tı
# T 5# T 6 . ( $

56 ! " ( "
& # A
0
! # #&+,'# +&0 +#.
T <# T 0& T 5 T 6

∗
"
& # A T 7 #
0 N N 0
∗

5L6( # "
& # A
N
* I / #(

! " ( -$
# A * I ;%(
Tı
I = ((S , I ), ı) " 0 T : 0( ## #

Tı
S ( # # ( -

5
! " 6(
Tı T T
I = ((S , I ), ı) -

" T
T
Tı T T
. 0 #,

5L6 )#" -
#* , %* F ( - n( #
"- - %#'
"# - #
!# %* F
" #*( n = 0 8%* F %#'
"#
#
!# B F , - ⊥( F # $
! ρ(t , ..., t )( " # * # - ρ ,
m # -"
' t , ..., t /
!*
1 m
* I = (I , ı) 3

1 m
Tı T
I (F ) = I (ρ(t , ..., t )) = ρ (t , ..., t ) = 1 ## ρ(t , ..., t )(
Tı Tı 1 1 ∗
TN 1
* I " F ## F T
m I m m
∗
Tı N
:#* #
#3 - 5L6
, "
# %* F
# & n %#'
"# #
!#
)#" 5L6
, " %* F n
"# #
!#
+ %* F # n %#'
"# #
!#$
8%* F , ' -#3
A ∧ B( A ∨ B( A ⇒ B( ∀xA ∃xA
+ # F
-#( !$
A B %*4 # -# ∀xA ∃xA( !
A
0 -
(
x / -"
-" #
' -# ! F & !$
A B -
"# #
!# & F (
# %*( " &'
, #* #
#3
* I " A ## A T
Tı
∗
* I " B ## B T

N
∗
Tı N
+
! F -# A ∧ B
: 3
* I " A ∧ B Tı
## I (A ∧ B) = 1
Tı
## min(I (A), I (B)) = 1( !

!
Tı Tı
## I (A) = 1 I (B) = 1

Tı Tı
## I " A I " B

Tı Tı
## A B(
∗
TN ∗
TN #
## A ∧ B(
∗
TN 56 ! "
#$# &&4,)# , &#/, #&+,'. +&0 +#.
)#( * I " A ∧ B ## A ∧ B
Tı ∗
TN
+
! F -# A ∨ B
: 3
* I " A ∨ B
Tı
## I (A ∨ B) = 0
Tı
## max(I (A), I (B)) = 0( !

!
Tı Tı
## I (A) = 0 I (B) = 0

Tı Tı
## I " A I " B

Tı Tı
## A B( #

∗
TN ∗
TN
## ¬A ¬B(
∗
TN ∗
TN T ∗
N
## ¬A ∧ ¬B(
∗
TN 56 ! "
## ¬(A ∨ B)(
∗
TN 56 ! "
(¬A ∧ ¬B) ⇔ (¬(A ∨ B))
∗
TN
## A ∨ B(
∗
TN T
%
∗
N
)#( * I " A ∨ B ## A ∨ B
Tı ∗
TN
+
! F -# A ⇒ B
: 3
* I " A ⇒ B
Tı
## I (A ⇒ B) = 0
Tı
## I (A) = 1 I (B) = 0( !

!
Tı Tı
## I " A I " B

Tı Tı
## A B( #

∗
TN ∗
TN
## A ¬B(
∗
TN ∗
TN T ∗
N
## A ∧ ¬B(
∗
TN 56 ! "
## ¬(A ⇒ B)(
∗
TN 56 ! "
¬(A ⇒ B) ⇔ (A ∧ ¬B)
∗
TN
## A ⇒ B(
∗
TN T
%
∗
N
)#( * I " A ⇒ B ## A ⇒ B
Tı ∗
TN
+
! F -# ∀xA
: 3
* I " ∀xA
Tı
## I (∀xA) = 1
Tı
## "
# t ∈ S 3 I (A ) = 1( 56 ! "
T Tı
x
t
## "
# t ∈ S 3 A ( " % A
T ∗
TN
x
t
x
t
! # #&+,'# +&0 +#.
## ∀xA(
∗
TN 56 ! "
)#( * I " ∀xA ## ∀xA
Tı ∗
TN
+
! F -# ∃xA
+
" ! ∃xA ¬∀x¬A

! "
,3
∃xA ≡ ¬∀x¬A( I (∃xA) = 1 ## I (¬∀x¬A) = 1
Tı Tı 56

" " ( ! 56 !
"
,3
∃xA ⇔ ¬∀x¬A(
∗
TN ∃xA ## ¬∀x¬A
∗
TN ∗
TN 56
; 3
* I " ∃xA
Tı
## I (∃xA) = 0
Tı
## I (¬∀x¬A) = 0(
Tı 56
## I (∀x¬A) = 1(
Tı !
!
## ∀x¬A(∗
TN %3 F -# ∀xA
## ¬∀x¬A(
∗
TN T
%
∗
N
## ∃xA( ∗
TN 56
)#( * I " ∃xA ## ∃xA
Tı ∗
TN
)*

4

&

+ # T #
K # # #
1# T
%( (
" $
# ( ( I = (I , ı) = ((S , I ), ı)
+
T ( # $
Tı T T T
* I = (I, ı) * I

# T
( " # & # A I (A)=1 1# -
ı ı
T -
%( - "
!( $
ı
* # A( ! ¬A( - 9 -

"% #" ! ¬A T % #
! ¬A B
#" # ( #
* I 7
&
! -
%
' # ( # "#%*
"
Æ& M P
ı
#%# & 5)& , +50# &&4,)# +#,-. -# /&0,-#
Gen ( I (

%
5 $

M P Gen " 6
ı
)#( -
, I (¬A) = 1 ;%(
, - I (A) = 1
I (¬A) = 1( 0 (
!*
! $
ı ı
*( ; T -

%
ı

'

T
$

T

&

1# T ( (
( T

% )#(
" # (
T ( #
% ( -

♦
#

"

"

7 "
, ! # #" #( (
" #(
,3
#" ! F #" # ## F
* # # #

!(
& "
! # # #
,

"A .
3
# #" ( #" 3
! F # # # # # F
!
( "
# ! F # # #
,3
F # # |= F
< #" *( -3
# F ( |= F
# ! F # # #( F
!(
"

( -
# |= F ( F
# ! F
!( F # # #(
( ,
)#" -
" # # # #" $
- " #" # 5
" # CD6
! # #&+,'# +&0 +#.

'

F

$
F
&

#" # # #
K
56 +
- #"
# K( #
(A1) − (A14)(
! : # ! " #
CD # " #"' ! #" $
/(
# # (A1) − (A10) K -
' ! % 0 # (
" #"'
! # # # !$
<# #" ! (

" # - # (A1) − (A10)6
K
! )( # ( ! "
56
56 ! -( #" # (A11) − (A14)

! )#(
# K
!
56 # #" M P ( #
#"
MP %

(
,3 #
A A ⇒ B
!( B
!4
Gen( # #"
Gen %

(
,3 # A
!(
∀xA
!
:"
' " -
/( # !
F # # #( K(
#" -#
%
# $
K(
%

"#%* M P Gen
:" 56

!(
" 56
%

! )#(

%

#" ! F
!( !$
&
#( ! F ;#%
#
# # # -
!(
,3
# F ( |= F
♦
. 0 #,
, - +

- #" " %* ! " !
" " #" " # # !
, -3
56 ! F
## & "
&
!4
56 ! F ## & "
&

'

F $

F

&

#" - # # #

K /

' - 56 56 , $

! F # %* + - #$
" %* F # # # +

#%# & 5)& , +50# &&4,)# +#,-. -# /&0,-#
( %* F K 9( #

! ¬F # K( - K # (

" # (
% )#(
K (
" # ( ( # $

* I = (I , ı) = ((S , I ), ı) <# ¬F #

K * I ( $
K ı K K K

%* F ( #
!( *
K ı
;%( - ¬F F * I (

0 ( !*
! *( $
K ı
; "#%( %* F - K

♦
" +
,

: #" #
% . -
# #" #
# #"
% #" # 5

" # CD6
: # # #
%( #"
&

#%
-
#
! =#

N K
K # # #
-
% #,
" &'( K

0
K
&

1# - K -
%( - "
! F
& *( ! ¬F ( - ( (

(
!( 0 ( !*

! *( ;#%
K
%
♦
: #" # 0

, -( %
5

" # CD6 /( #" # $
& !#
' # Æ
& # !
5 ( %0 & 5
# CD 66 !#
$
# # "
# #" ! ,

# # * #( !#
# " Æ$
& # # # !

! .
*(
-" #"

( # # # %

CD #( 7 # ( / ( (
CD , ( ( > ( 7 4
(
/% #&( (
CD

( ( 7- !# $

" ( (
CD >0
( 7 4 ( M:)( +*(
CD Gentzen, G. Untersuchungen über das logische Schließen. Mathematische
Zeitschrift 39, 176-210, 405-431 (English translation in The Collected Papers
of Gerhard Gentzen, Szabo, M.E. (ed.), North-Holland, 1969)
CD )0( < Logic( 3 The Language of Science, Polimetrica, Monza( - -$

(http://www.mi.sanu.ac.rs/ kosta/Logic.pdf)
CD Zach, R. Completeness before Post: Bernays, Hilbert, and the development of
propositional logic, The Bulletin of Symbolic Logic, vol. 5, no. 3, (1999), pp.
331-366.
CD ?% ( + 4

( %# !#
5Skripta Internacional6( (
CD <( 1 5(
" 5;
" !%# '#
9'0#$ 0# !# 6( (
CD Mendelson, E. Introduction to Mathematical Logic, Van Nostrand Reinho Co.,
1964.
CD
( N( #
( ; )0( < 6
( ;
" O-#

( (
CD Prawitz, D. Natural Deduction, Almquist and Wiksell, Stockholm, 1965.

&'() ' )
CD +0 ( 7 3 ( /% #&( (

CD +0 ( 7 ( %# (
(
CD Frege, G. The Foundations of Arithmetic, translated by Austin, J. L., Harper
and Brothers, New York 1953.
CD Chiswell, I. and Hodges, W. Mathematical Logic, Oxford University Press, 2007.

!- # # #( "
(
" # # #' !(
!(
! "#( "#(
"
(
"
&
( %# !- # #
# # ! $ #(

*(
%
(

$ $
*( %

(
*(

#" ! " # ' " $ *(
K( * # !(
#" " # ' "(
(
#" #
N K( !(

(
"
Æ& N K(

!( # # %
(
-
"
(
# # !(
# # !(
# # (
"
!( # !(
"
(
%
(
"
& !( 0& "#(
0& "#
# (
*(
0&
(

& !(
* (
# " # # !( %*(
x
%# #

!(
%# !- # #
#( # #

!(
K(
" # # !( N K(

&*+(, -./0.!
# # K(
# !(
#
"
Æ& K(

# -'
' !$
(
-
(
-
&
(
K(
N K(

(
(
#
' (
* Æ&(

(
(
- "
(

- "
!$
(
! - " $

(
! *(

! *(

% # # %
(

% # (

Document PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Document PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

$  -   %&./  0 

.2  %&./  0 

O = {f , f , ..., f , ..., f , f , ..., f , ..., f , f , ..., f , ...}

 &  # * #'  * #' - 

"  "  #  Æ  "# J 

56 9     #%    

7  !0    # # !   # "# J 

56 1#  A B  # # ! (   (A ∧ B)( (A ∨ B)

! % #  ! ! 

56  ! F  # P (F )4f

# ∀xA ∈ P (F )(  A ∈ P (F )4

# ∃xA ∈ P (F )(  A ∈ P (F )

+   ! ∀y((α(c ∗ x, y) ∧ α(c, c)) ⇒ ∃xα(x, y)) "  

α(x, y) α(c, c) α(x, y) ∨ α(c, c)

α(x, y) ∨ α(c, c) ∃ x(α(x, y) ∨ α(c, c))

(α(x, y) ∨ α(c, c)) ⇒ ∃ x(α(x, y) ∨ α(c, c))

∀ y((α(x, y) ∨ α(c, c)) ⇒ ∃ x(α(x, y) ∨ α(c, c)))

" - (  &'   !    

"6 "   #   

∀x(0 < (x + y) ∧ ∃z(z < 0))

"  -(   x z 

/ ( "  # ! F "%

 -  

& ' -'  

+  ##   # ! F

5656 # F -# A ∧ B(  F ! A ∧ B 4

#   "# J %     " S 5     

 ( -     " # S

#   c  #  - 1 8 * #$ * # #$

9   "# J "%

5  6   I = (S, I ) J

+ -( # "# J  # {ρ , ..., ρ , f , ..., f , c , ..., c }(

(     #  

 "  %       #  

ı : V → S(     * I = (I, ı) = ((S, I ), ı)(   * I 

;  Æ    * I = (I, ı) = ((S, I ), ı) ,  

 & 3 ##  Æ

"# J 6     *A +%    *  ? 

      * I "   #'  *   $

#  (  !*

#  t  # #   c(  I (t) = c 4 ı I

#  t -# f (t , ..., t )(   t , ..., t  f  $

+    

# ı(x) = 3 ı(y) = 5 >  '    #   

I ((c ∗ x) ∗ y) = I (c ∗ x) + I (y) = (I (c) + I (x)) + I (y) = (1 + 3) + 5 = 9(

Iı (((c ∗ x) ∗ c) ∗ y) = Iı ((c ∗ x) ∗ c) + Iı (y) = ((Iı (c) + Iı (x)) + Iı (c)) + Iı (y)

>    "

$  * ı : V → S( "%

# F     ! ⊥(  I (⊥) = 04 ı

# F     ! -# ρ(t , ..., t )( 1 n

 I (ρ(t , ..., t )) = ρ (I (t ), ..., I (t ))4

# F ! -# A ∧ B (

# F ! -# A ∨ B (

# F ! -# A ⇒ B (

# F ! -# ∀xA( 

# F ! -# ∃xA( 

1# "   * I =(I, ı) ! F

   5,6     * 5  I  "

# F ! -# ¬A(  I (¬A) = 1 − I (A)4

      

# F ! -# A ⇔ B (  I (A ⇔ B) = 1( # I (A) = I (B)4

: #  #  

"    * I =(I, ı)

$ - %&./ 0

.2 %&./ 0

& # * #' * #' -

" " # Æ "# J

56 9 #%

7 !0 # # ! # "# J

56 1# A B # # !( (A ∧ B)( (A ∨ B)

! % # ! !

56 ! F # P (F )4f

# ∀xA ∈ P (F )( A ∈ P (F )4

# ∃xA ∈ P (F )( A ∈ P (F )

+ ! ∀y((α(c ∗ x, y) ∧ α(c, c)) ⇒ ∃xα(x, y)) "

" -( &' !

"6 " #

" -( x z

/( " # ! F "%

-

&' -'

+ ## # ! F

5656 # F -# A ∧ B( F ! A ∧ B 4

# "# J % " S 5

( - " # S

# c # - 1 8* #$* # #$

9 "# J "%

5 6 I = (S, I ) J

+ -( # "# J # {ρ , ..., ρ , f , ..., f , c , ..., c }(

( #

" % #

ı : V → S( I = (I, ı) = ((S, I ), ı)( I

; Æ * I = (I, ı) = ((S, I ), ı) ,

&3 ## Æ

"# J 6 A +% ?

* I " #' * $

# ( !*

# t # # c( I (t) = c 4 ı I

# t -# f (t , ..., t )( t , ..., t f $

+

# ı(x) = 3 ı(y) = 5 > ' #

> "

$ * ı : V → S( "%

# F ! ⊥( I (⊥) = 04 ı

# F ! -# ρ(t , ..., t )( 1 n

I (ρ(t , ..., t )) = ρ (I (t ), ..., I (t ))4

# F ! -# A ∧ B (

# F ! -# A ∨ B (

# F ! -# A ⇒ B (

# F ! -# ∀xA(

# F ! -# ∃xA(

1# " * I =(I, ı) ! F

5,6 * 5 I "

# F ! -# ¬A( I (¬A) = 1 − I (A)4

# F ! -# A ⇔ B ( I (A ⇔ B) = 1( # I (A) = I (B)4

: # #

" * I =(I, ı)

"# J ( # -

I (F )( , - "%

* I = (I, ı)

"# J ( $ * ı

* I = (I, ı) ! F

*( 3 # ' I (∀xα(c, x)) = 1(

' $ j( j ı( I ! α(c, x)

0 ≤ j(x)( j(x) # " % {0, 1, 2} ; (

# # 0 ≤ 0 0 ≤ 1 0 ≤ 2

! ∀xA #

* (({0, 1, 2}, ≤, +, 0), ı) "

* I = (I, ı) # 56

! * I = (({0, 1, 2}, ≤, +, 0), ı)

! -# ∃xA # *(

- $ * j( j ı( " #

* I ! α(x, c) j(x) ≤ 0( j(x) # "

{0, 1, 2} )#( - - I (∃xα(x, c)) = 1( " - $

d " {0, 1, 2} d ≤ 0( 3

0 ≤ 0 1 ≤ 0 2 ≤ 0 > ( ## #

" # I (α(x, c)) = 1(

∃xα(x, c) * I =(({0, 1, 2}, ≤, +, 0), ı)

* I -

I (∀xα(x, x ∗ c)) = 1 ! ∀xα(x, x ∗ c)

56 .

; ! ∀xα(c, x) * I (

% N( - 3 2 < 0 2 < 1 2 < 2 2 < 3