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Section 9.
3 Polar Coordinates 2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka
Polar Coordinates
DEFINITION: The polar coordinate system is a two-dimensional coordinate system in which each
point P on a plane is determined by a distance r from a fixed point O that is called the pole (or origin)
and an angle θ from a fixed direction. The point P is represented by the ordered pair (r, θ) and r, θ are
called polar coordinates.
REMARK: We extend the meaning of polar coordinates (r, θ) to the case in which r is negative by agreeing
that the points (−r, θ) and (r, θ) lie in the same line through O and at the same distance |r| from O, but
on opposite sides of O. If r > 0, the point (r, θ) lies in the same quadrant as θ; if r < 0, it lies in the
quadrant on the opposite side of the pole.
EXAMPLE: Plot the points whose polar coordinates are given:

(a) (1, 5π/4) (b) (2, 3π) (c) (2, −2π/3) (d) (−3, 3π/4)
Solution:
REMARK: In the Cartesian coordinate system every point has only one representation, but in the polar
coordinate system each point has many representations. For instance, the point (1, 5π/4) in the Example
above could be written as (1, −3π/4) or (1, 13π/4) or (−1, π/4):
EXAMPLE: Find all the polar coordinates of the point P (2, π/6).
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Section 9.3 Polar Coordinates 2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka
EXAMPLE: Find all the polar coordinates of the point P (2, π/6).
Solution: We sketch the initial ray of the coordinate system, draw the ray from the origin that makes an
angle of π/6 radians with the initial ray, and mark the point (2, π/6). We then find the angles for the other
coordinate pairs of P in which r = 2 and r = −2.
For r = 2, the complete list of angles is

π π π π
, ± 2π, ± 4π, ± 6π, ...
6 6 6 6
For r = −2, the angles are
5π 5π 5π 5π
− , − ± 2π, − ± 4π, − ± 6π, ...
6 6 6 6
The corresponding coordinate pairs of P are
( π )
2, + 2nπ , n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
6
and ( )
5π
−2, − + 2nπ , n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
6
When n = 0, the formulas give (2, π/6) and (−2, −5π/6). When n = 1, they give (2, 13π/6) and (−2, 7π/6),
and so on.
The connection between polar and Cartesian coordinates can be seen from the figure below and described
by the following formulas:
x = r cos θ y = r sin θ
y
r 2 = x2 + y 2 tan θ =
x
EXAMPLE:
(a) Convert the point (2, π/3) from polar to Cartesian coordinates.
(b) Represent the point with Cartesian coordinates (1, −1) in terms of polar coordinates.
2
EXAMPLE:
(a) Convert the point (2, π/3) from polar to Cartesian coordinates.
(b) Represent the point with Cartesian coordinates (1, −1) in terms of polar coordinates.
Solution:
(a) We have:
√
π 1 π 3 √
x = r cos θ = 2 cos = 2 · = 1 y = r sin θ = 2 sin = 2 · = 3
3 2 3 2
√
Therefore, the point is (1, 3) in Cartesian coordinates.
(b) If we choose r to be positive, then
√ √ √ y
r= x2 + y 2 = 12 + (−1)2 = 2 tan θ = = −1
x
√ (1, −1) lies in the fourth

Since the point √ quadrant, we can choose θ = −π/4 or θ = 7π/4. Thus one possible
answer is ( 2, −π/4); another is ( 2, 7π/4).
EXAMPLE: Express the equation x = 1 in polar coordinates.

Solution: We use the formula x = r cos θ.
x=1
r cos θ = 1
r = sec θ
EXAMPLE: Express the equation x2 = 4y in polar coordinates.

Solution: We use the formulas x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ.
x2 = 4y
(r cos θ)2 = 4r sin θ
r2 cos2 θ = 4r sin θ
sin θ
r=4 = 4 sec θ tan θ
cos2 θ
3
Polar Curves
The graph of a polar equation r = f (θ), or more generally F (r, θ) = 0, consists of all points P that
have at least one polar representation (r, θ) whose coordinates satisfy the equation.
EXAMPLE: Sketch the polar curve θ = 1.

Solution: This curve consists of all points (r, θ) such that the polar angle θ is 1 radian. It is the straight
line that passes through O and makes an angle of 1 radian with the polar axis. Notice that the points
(r, 1) on the line with r > 0 are in the first quadrant, whereas those with r < 0 are in the third quadrant.
EXAMPLE: Sketch the following curves:

(a) r = 2, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
(b) r = 2 cos θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.
4
EXAMPLE: Sketch the curve r = 2, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
Solution: We have
r=2, theta=Pi6 r=2, theta=2 Pi6 r=2, theta=3 Pi6
2 2 2
1 1 1
-2 -1 1 2 -2 -1 1 2 -2 -1 1 2
-1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2
r=2, theta=4 Pi6 r=2, theta=5 Pi6 r=2, theta=6 Pi6

2 2 2
1 1 1
-2 -1 1 2 -2 -1 1 2 -2 -1 1 2
-1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2

2 2 2
1 1 1
-2 -1 1 2 -2 -1 1 2 -2 -1 1 2
-1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2

2 2 2
1 1 1
-2 -1 1 2 -2 -1 1 2 -2 -1 1 2
-1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2
5
EXAMPLE: Sketch the curve r = 2 cos θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.
Solution: We have
r=2cosHthetaL, theta=Pi12 r=2cosHthetaL, theta=2 Pi12 r=2cosHthetaL, theta=3 Pi12
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
r=2cosHthetaL, theta=4 Pi12 r=2cosHthetaL, theta=5 Pi12 r=2cosHthetaL, theta=6 Pi12

1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0

1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0

1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
6
EXAMPLE: Express the polar equation r = 2 cos θ in rectangular coordinates.
Solution: We use the formulas r2 = x2 + y 2 and x = r cos θ. We have
r = 2 cos θ
r2 = 2r cos θ
x2 + y 2 = 2x
x2 − 2x + y 2 = 0
x2 − 2x + 1 + y 2 = 1
(x − 1)2 + y 2 = 1
EXAMPLE: Express the polar equation in rectangular coordinates. If possible, determine the graph of
the equation from its rectangular form.
(a) r = 5 sec θ (b) r = 2 sin θ (c) r = 2 + 2 cos θ
7
EXAMPLE: Express the polar equation in rectangular coordinates. If possible, determine the graph of
the equation from its rectangular form.
(a) r = 5 sec θ (b) r = 2 sin θ (c) r = 2 + 2 cos θ
Solution: We use the formulas r2 = x2 + y 2 , x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ.
(a) We have
r = 5 sec θ
r cos θ = 5
x=5
(b) We have
r = 2 sin θ
r2 = 2r sin θ
x2 + y 2 = 2y
x2 + y 2 − 2y = 0
x2 + y 2 − 2y + 1 = 1
x2 + (y − 1)2 = 1
(c) We have
r = 2 + 2 cos θ
r2 = 2r + 2r cos θ
x2 + y 2 = 2r + 2x
x2 + y 2 − 2x = 2r
(x2 + y 2 − 2x)2 = 4r2
(x2 + y 2 − 2x)2 = 4(x2 + y 2 )
8
EXAMPLE: Sketch the curve r = 1 + sin θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π (cardioid).
Solution: We have
r=1+sinHthetaL, theta=Pi6 r=1+sinHthetaL, theta=2 Pi6 r=1+sinHthetaL, theta=3 Pi6
2.0 2.0 2.0
1.5 1.5 1.5
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
r=1+sinHthetaL, theta=4 Pi6 r=1+sinHthetaL, theta=5 Pi6 r=1+sinHthetaL, theta=6 Pi6

2.0 2.0 2.0
1.5 1.5 1.5
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5

2.0 2.0 2.0
1.5 1.5 1.5
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5

2.0 2.0 2.0
1.5 1.5 1.5
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
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EXAMPLE: Sketch the curve r = 1 − cos θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π (cardioid).
Solution: We have
r=1-cosHthetaL, theta=Pi6 r=1-cosHthetaL, theta=2 Pi6 r=1-cosHthetaL, theta=3 Pi6
1.5 1.5 1.5
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
-1.5 -1.5 -1.5
r=1-cosHthetaL, theta=4 Pi6 r=1-cosHthetaL, theta=5 Pi6 r=1-cosHthetaL, theta=6 Pi6

1.5 1.5 1.5
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
-1.5 -1.5 -1.5

1.5 1.5 1.5
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
-1.5 -1.5 -1.5

1.5 1.5 1.5
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
-1.5 -1.5 -1.5
10
EXAMPLE: Sketch the curve r = 2 + 4 cos θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
Solution: We have
r=2+4cosHthetaL, theta=Pi6 r=2+4cosHthetaL, theta=2 Pi6 r=2+4cosHthetaL, theta=3 Pi6
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
-1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2
-3 -3 -3
r=2+4cosHthetaL, theta=4 Pi6 r=2+4cosHthetaL, theta=5 Pi6 r=2+4cosHthetaL, theta=6 Pi6

3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
-1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2
-3 -3 -3

3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
-1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2
-3 -3 -3

3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
-1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2
-3 -3 -3
11
EXAMPLE: Sketch the curve r = cos(2θ), 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π (four-leaved rose).
Solution: We have
r=cosH2thetaL, theta=Pi6 r=cosH2thetaL, theta=2 Pi6 r=cosH2thetaL, theta=3 Pi6
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
r=cosH2thetaL, theta=4 Pi6 r=cosH2thetaL, theta=5 Pi6 r=cosH2thetaL, theta=6 Pi6
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
12
EXAMPLE: Sketch the curve r = sin(2θ), 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π (four-leaved rose).
Solution: We have
r=sinH2thetaL, theta=Pi6 r=sinH2thetaL, theta=2 Pi6 r=sinH2thetaL, theta=3 Pi6
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
r=sinH2thetaL, theta=4 Pi6 r=sinH2thetaL, theta=5 Pi6 r=sinH2thetaL, theta=6 Pi6
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
13
EXAMPLE: Sketch the curve r = sin(3θ), 0 ≤ θ ≤ π (three-leaved rose).
Solution: We have
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
14
EXAMPLE: Sketch the curve r = sin(4θ), 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π (eight-leaved rose).
Solution: We have
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
15
EXAMPLE: Sketch the curve r = sin(5θ), 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π (five-leaved rose).
Solution: We have
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
16
EXAMPLE: Sketch the curve r = sin(6θ), 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π (twelve-leaved rose).
Solution: We have
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
17
EXAMPLE: Sketch the curve r = sin(7θ), 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π (seven-leaved rose).
Solution: We have
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
18
1
EXAMPLE: Sketch the curve r = 1 + sin(10θ), 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
10
Solution: We have
r=1+sinH10thetaL10, theta=Pi6 r=1+sinH10thetaL10, theta=2 Pi6 r=1+sinH10thetaL10, theta=3 Pi6
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
r=1+sinH10thetaL10, theta=4 Pi6 r=1+sinH10thetaL10, theta=5 Pi6 r=1+sinH10thetaL10, theta=6 Pi6
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0
19
EXAMPLE: Match the polar equations with the graphs labeled I-VI:
(a) r = sin(θ/2) (b) r = sin(θ/4)
(c) r = sin θ + sin3 (5θ/2) (d) r = θ sin θ

√
(e) r = 1 + 4 cos(5θ) (f) r = 1/ θ
20
Tangents to Polar Curves
To find a tangent line to a polar curve r = f (θ) we regard θ as a parameter and write its parametric
equations as
x = r cos θ = f (θ) cos θ y = r sin θ = f (θ) sin θ
Then, using the method for finding slopes of parametric curves and the Product Rule, we have
dy dr
dy sin θ + r cos θ
= dθ = dθ (1)
dx dx dr
cos θ − r sin θ
dθ dθ
EXAMPLE:
(a) For the cardioid r = 1 + sin θ, find the slope of the tangent line when θ = π/3.
(b) Find the points on the cardioid where the tangent line is horizontal or vertical.
21
EXAMPLE:
(a) For the cardioid r = 1 + sin θ, find the slope of the tangent line when θ = π/3.
(b) Find the points on the cardioid where the tangent line is horizontal or vertical.
Solution: Using Equation 1 with r = 1 + sin θ, we have
dr
dy dθ
sin θ + r cos θ cos θ sin θ + (1 + sin θ) cos θ
= =
dx dr
dθ
cos θ − r sin θ cos θ cos θ − (1 + sin θ) sin θ
cos θ(1 + 2 sin θ) cos θ(1 + 2 sin θ)

= =
1 − 2 sin θ − sin θ
2
(1 + sin θ)(1 − 2 sin θ)
(a) The slope of the tangent at the point where θ = π/3 is
√
dy cos(π/3)(1 + 2 sin(π/3)) 1
(1 + 3)
= = √
2
√
dx θ=π/3 (1 + sin(π/3))(1 − 2 sin(π/3)) (1 + 3/2)(1 − 3)
√ √
1+ 3 1+ 3
= √ √ = √ = −1
(2 + 3)(1 − 3) −1 − 3
(b) Observe that
dy π 3π 7π 11π
= cos θ(1 + 2 sin θ) = 0 when θ = , , ,
dθ 2 2 6 6
dx 3π π 5π
= (1 + sin θ)(1 − 2 sin θ) = 0 when θ = , ,
dθ 2 6 6
Therefore there are horizontal tangents at the points (2, π/2), ( 12 , 7π/6), ( 12 , 11π/6) and vertical tangents
at ( 23 , π/6) and ( 32 , 5π/6). When θ = 3π/2, both dy/dθ and dx/dθ are 0, so we must be careful. Using
l’Hospital’s Rule, we ( have )( )
dy 1 + 2 sin θ cos θ
lim = lim lim
θ→(3π/2)− dx θ→(3π/2)− 1 − 2 sin θ θ→(3π/2)− 1 + sin θ
1 cos θ 1 − sin θ
=− lim − =− lim − =∞
3 θ→(3π/2) 1 + sin θ 3 θ→(3π/2) cos θ
By symmetry,
dy
lim = −∞
θ→(3π/2)+ dx
Thus there is a vertical tangent line at the pole.
REMARK: Instead of having to remember Equation 1, we could employ the method used to derive it. For
instance, in the above Example we could have written
1
x = r cos θ = (1 + sin θ) cos θ = cos θ + sin 2θ
2
y = r sin θ = (1 + sin θ) sin θ = sin θ + sin2 θ
Then we would have
dy dy/dθ cos θ + 2 sin θ cos θ cos θ + sin 2θ
= = =
dx dx/dθ − sin θ + cos 2θ − sin θ + cos 2θ
which is equivalent to our previous expression.
22

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Section 9.

3 Polar Coordinates 2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka

EXAMPLE: Plot the points whose polar coordinates are given:

For r = 2, the complete list of angles is

√ (1, −1) lies in the fourth

EXAMPLE: Express the equation x = 1 in polar coordinates.

EXAMPLE: Express the equation x2 = 4y in polar coordinates.

(r cos θ)2 = 4r sin θ

EXAMPLE: Sketch the polar curve θ = 1.

EXAMPLE: Sketch the following curves:

EXAMPLE: Sketch the curve r = 2, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.

r=2, theta=4 Pi6 r=2, theta=5 Pi6 r=2, theta=6 Pi6

r=2, theta=7 Pi6 r=2, theta=8 Pi6 r=2, theta=9 Pi6

r=2, theta=10 Pi6 r=2, theta=11 Pi6 r=2, theta=12 Pi6

EXAMPLE: Sketch the curve r = 2 cos θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.

0.5 0.5 0.5

-0.5 -0.5 -0.5

-1.0 -1.0 -1.0

r=2cosHthetaL, theta=4 Pi12 r=2cosHthetaL, theta=5 Pi12 r=2cosHthetaL, theta=6 Pi12

0.5 0.5 0.5

-0.5 -0.5 -0.5

-1.0 -1.0 -1.0

r=2cosHthetaL, theta=7 Pi12 r=2cosHthetaL, theta=8 Pi12 r=2cosHthetaL, theta=9 Pi12

0.5 0.5 0.5

-0.5 -0.5 -0.5

-1.0 -1.0 -1.0

r=2cosHthetaL, theta=10 Pi12 r=2cosHthetaL, theta=11 Pi12 r=2cosHthetaL, theta=12 Pi12

0.5 0.5 0.5

-0.5 -0.5 -0.5

-1.0 -1.0 -1.0

(x2 + y 2 − 2x)2 = 4r2

(x2 + y 2 − 2x)2 = 4(x2 + y 2 )

EXAMPLE: Sketch the curve r = 1 + sin θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π (cardioid).

1.5 1.5 1.5

1.0 1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5 0.5

-0.5 -0.5 -0.5

r=1+sinHthetaL, theta=4 Pi6 r=1+sinHthetaL, theta=5 Pi6 r=1+sinHthetaL, theta=6 Pi6

1.5 1.5 1.5

1.0 1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5 0.5

-0.5 -0.5 -0.5

r=1+sinHthetaL, theta=7 Pi6 r=1+sinHthetaL, theta=8 Pi6 r=1+sinHthetaL, theta=9 Pi6

1.5 1.5 1.5

1.0 1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5 0.5

-0.5 -0.5 -0.5

r=1+sinHthetaL, theta=10 Pi6 r=1+sinHthetaL, theta=11 Pi6 r=1+sinHthetaL, theta=12 Pi6

1.5 1.5 1.5

1.0 1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5 0.5

-0.5 -0.5 -0.5

EXAMPLE: Sketch the curve r = 1 − cos θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π (cardioid).

1.0 1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5 0.5

-0.5 -0.5 -0.5

-1.0 -1.0 -1.0

-1.5 -1.5 -1.5

r=1-cosHthetaL, theta=4 Pi6 r=1-cosHthetaL, theta=5 Pi6 r=1-cosHthetaL, theta=6 Pi6

1.0 1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5 0.5

-0.5 -0.5 -0.5

-1.0 -1.0 -1.0

r=2, theta=4 Pi6 r=2, theta=5 Pi6 r=2, theta=6 Pi6

r=2, theta=7 Pi6 r=2, theta=8 Pi6 r=2, theta=9 Pi6

r=2, theta=10 Pi6 r=2, theta=11 Pi6 r=2, theta=12 Pi6

r=2cosHthetaL, theta=4 Pi12 r=2cosHthetaL, theta=5 Pi12 r=2cosHthetaL, theta=6 Pi12

r=2cosHthetaL, theta=7 Pi12 r=2cosHthetaL, theta=8 Pi12 r=2cosHthetaL, theta=9 Pi12

r=2cosHthetaL, theta=10 Pi12 r=2cosHthetaL, theta=11 Pi12 r=2cosHthetaL, theta=12 Pi12

r=1+sinHthetaL, theta=4 Pi6 r=1+sinHthetaL, theta=5 Pi6 r=1+sinHthetaL, theta=6 Pi6

r=1+sinHthetaL, theta=7 Pi6 r=1+sinHthetaL, theta=8 Pi6 r=1+sinHthetaL, theta=9 Pi6

r=1+sinHthetaL, theta=10 Pi6 r=1+sinHthetaL, theta=11 Pi6 r=1+sinHthetaL, theta=12 Pi6

r=1-cosHthetaL, theta=4 Pi6 r=1-cosHthetaL, theta=5 Pi6 r=1-cosHthetaL, theta=6 Pi6

r=1-cosHthetaL, theta=7 Pi6 r=1-cosHthetaL, theta=8 Pi6 r=1-cosHthetaL, theta=9 Pi6

r=1-cosHthetaL, theta=10 Pi6 r=1-cosHthetaL, theta=11 Pi6 r=1-cosHthetaL, theta=12 Pi6

r=2+4cosHthetaL, theta=4 Pi6 r=2+4cosHthetaL, theta=5 Pi6 r=2+4cosHthetaL, theta=6 Pi6

r=2+4cosHthetaL, theta=7 Pi6 r=2+4cosHthetaL, theta=8 Pi6 r=2+4cosHthetaL, theta=9 Pi6

r=2+4cosHthetaL, theta=10 Pi6 r=2+4cosHthetaL, theta=11 Pi6 r=2+4cosHthetaL, theta=12 Pi6

r=cosH2thetaL, theta=4 Pi6 r=cosH2thetaL, theta=5 Pi6 r=cosH2thetaL, theta=6 Pi6

r=cosH2thetaL, theta=7 Pi6 r=cosH2thetaL, theta=8 Pi6 r=cosH2thetaL, theta=9 Pi6

r=cosH2thetaL, theta=10 Pi6 r=cosH2thetaL, theta=11 Pi6 r=cosH2thetaL, theta=12 Pi6

r=sinH2thetaL, theta=4 Pi6 r=sinH2thetaL, theta=5 Pi6 r=sinH2thetaL, theta=6 Pi6

r=sinH2thetaL, theta=7 Pi6 r=sinH2thetaL, theta=8 Pi6 r=sinH2thetaL, theta=9 Pi6

r=sinH2thetaL, theta=10 Pi6 r=sinH2thetaL, theta=11 Pi6 r=sinH2thetaL, theta=12 Pi6

r=sinH3thetaL, theta=4 Pi12 r=sinH3thetaL, theta=5 Pi12 r=sinH3thetaL, theta=6 Pi12

r=sinH3thetaL, theta=7 Pi12 r=sinH3thetaL, theta=8 Pi12 r=sinH3thetaL, theta=9 Pi12