ALGEBRA 1 Man-hours (is always assumed constant)

LOGARITHM (Wor ker s1 )(time1 ) (Wor ker s 2 )(time2 )

=
quantity.of .work1 quantity.of .work 2
x = log b N → N = b x
Properties
ALGEBRA 2
log( xy ) = log x + log y
UNIFORM MOTION PROBLEMS
x
log  = log x − log y
 y
log x n = n log x
S = Vt
log x
log b x = Traveling with the wind or downstream:
log b
log a a = 1 Vtotal = V1 + V2
REMAINDER AND FACTOR THEOREMS Traveling against the wind or upstream:

Given:
Vtotal = V1 − V2
f ( x)
(x − r)
DIGIT AND NUMBER PROBLEMS
Remainder Theorem: Remainder = f(r)
Factor Theorem: Remainder = zero 100h + 10t + u → 2-digit number

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS where: h = hundred’s digit

t = ten’s digit
u = unit’s digit
Ax 2 + Bx + C = 0
− B ± B 2 − 4 AC CLOCK PROBLEMS
Root =
2A

Sum of the roots = - B/A

Products of roots = C/A

MIXTURE PROBLEMS

Quantity Analysis: A + B = C
Composition Analysis: Ax + By = Cz where: x = distance traveled by the
minute hand in minutes
WORK PROBLEMS x/12 = distance traveled by the hour
hand in minutes
Rate of doing work = 1/ time
Rate x time = 1 (for a complete job)
Combined rate = sum of individual rates

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 PROGRESSION PROBLEMS

a1 = first term HARMONIC PROGRESSION (HP)

- a sequence of number in which their reciprocals
an = nth term form an AP
am = any term before an - calcu function: LINEAR (LIN)
d = common difference
Mean – middle term or terms between two terms
S = sum of all “n” terms in the progression.

ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION (AP) COIN PROBLEMS

- difference of any 2 no.’s is constant Penny = 1 centavo coin
- calcu function: LINEAR (LIN) Nickel = 5 centavo coin
Dime = 10 centavo coin
a n = a m + ( n − m) d nth term Quarter = 25 centavo coin
Half-Dollar = 50 centavo coin

d = a2 − a1 = a3 − a2 ,...etc Common
difference
DIOPHANTINE EQUATIONS
If the number of equations is less than the
number of unknowns, then the equations are
called “Diophantine Equations”.
n
S= (a1 + an ) Sum of ALL
2 terms
ALGEBRA 3
n Fundamental Principle:
S= [2 a1 + (n − 1) d ] Sum of ALL “If one event can occur in m different ways, and
2 terms after it has occurred in any one of these ways, a
second event can occur in n different ways, and
then the number of ways the two events can
GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION (GP) occur in succession is mn different ways”
- RATIO of any 2 adj, terms is always constant
- Calcu function: EXPONENTIAL (EXP) PERMUTATION

an = a m r n−m nth term Permutation of n objects taken r at a time

n!
nPr =
a 2 a3 (n − r )!
r= = ratio
a1 a2 Permutation of n objects taken n at a time

nPn = n!
a ( r n − 1)
S= 1 → r >1 Sum of ALL
r −1 terms, r >1
Permutation of n objects with q,r,s, etc. objects
are alike
n!
a1 (1 − r n ) P=
S= → r <1 Sum of ALL
q!r!s!...
1− r terms, r < 1

Permutation of n objects arrange in a circle

a1 Sum of ALL
S= → r < 1& n = ∞ terms, P = ( n − 1)!
1− r r<1,n=∞

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 COMBINATION PROBABILITY

Combination of n objects taken r at a time Probability of an event to occur (P)

n!
nCr = number _ of _ successful _ outcomes
(n − r )!r! P=
total _ outcomes
Combination of n objects taken n at a time
Probability of an event not to occur (Q)
nCn = 1
Q=1–P
Combination of n objects taken 1, 2, 3…n at a
MULTIPLE EVENTS
time
C = 2n − 1 Mutually exclusive events without a common
outcome
BINOMIAL EXPANSION PA or B = PA + PB
Properties of a binomial expansion: (x + y)n Mutually exclusive events with a common
outcome
1. The number of terms in the resulting expansion is
equal to “n+1” PA or B = PA + PB – PA&B
2. The powers of x decreases by 1 in the
successive terms while the powers of y increases
Dependent/Independent Probability
by 1 in the successive terms.
3. The sum of the powers in each term is always PAandB =PA × PB
equal to “n”
4. The first term is xn while the last term in yn both
REPEATED TRIAL PROBABILITY
of the terms having a coefficient of 1.

th
r term in the expansion (x + y)
r th term = nCr-1 (x)n-r+1 (y)r-1
term involving yr in the expansion (x + y)n
r n-r
y term = nCr (x)
sum of coefficients of (x + y)n
Sum = (coeff. of x + coeff. of y) n
sum of coefficients of (x + k)n
n P = nCr pr qn-r
p = probability that the event happen
q = probability that the event failed
VENN DIAGRAMS
r
(y) Venn diagram in mathematics is a diagram
representing a set or sets and the logical,
relationships between them. The sets are drawn
as circles. The method is named after the British
mathematician and logician John Venn.

Sum = (coeff. of x + k)n – (k)n

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 TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
PLANE
sin 2 A + cos2 A = 1
TRIGONOMETRY 1 + cot 2 A = csc 2 A
ANGLE, MEASUREMENTS & 1 + tan 2 A = sec 2 A
CONVERSIONS sin( A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B
cos( A ± B) = cos A cos B m sin A sin B
1 revolution = 360 degrees
tan A ± tan B
1 revolution = 2π radians tan( A ± B) =
1 m tan A tan B
1 revolution = 400 grads cot A cot B m 1
cot( A ± B) =
1 revolution = 6400 mils cot A ± cot B
sin 2 A = 2 sin A cos B
1 revolution = 6400 gons
cos 2 A = cos 2 A − sin 2 A
2 tan A
Relations between two angles (A & B) tan 2 A =
1 − tan 2 A
Complementary angles → A + B = 90° cot 2 A − 1
cot 2 A =
2 cot A
Supplementary angles → A + B = 180°

Explementary angles → A + B = 360° SOLUTIONS TO OBLIQUE TRIANGLES

SINE LAW
Angle (θ) Measurement
a b c
NULL θ = 0° = =
ACUTE 0° < θ < 90° sin A sin B sin C
RIGHT θ = 90°
COSINE LAW
OBTUSE 90° < θ < 180°
STRAIGHT θ =180° a2 = b2 + c2 – 2 b c cos A
REFLEX 180° < θ < 360°
FULL OR PERIGON θ = 360°
b2 = a2 + c2 – 2 a c cos B
c2 = a2 + b2 – 2 a b cos C
Pentagram – golden triangle (isosceles)

AREAS OF TRIANGLES AND

36°
QUADRILATERALS
72° 72°

TRIANGLES

1. Given the base and height

1
Area = bh
2
2. Given two sides and included angle
1
Area = ab sin θ
2

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 3. Given three sides
4. Quadrilateral circumscribing in a circle
Area = s ( s − a )(s − b)( s − c)
Area = rs

a+b+c Area = abcd

s=
2
a+b+c+d
s=
4. Triangle inscribed in a circle 2
abc THEOREMS IN CIRCLES
Area =
4r
5. Triangle circumscribing a circle
Area = rs
6. Triangle escribed in a circle

Area = r ( s − a )
QUADRILATERALS

1. Given diagonals and included angle

1
Area = d1d 2 sin θ
2
2. Given four sides and sum of opposite angles

Area = ( s − a)( s − b)(s − c )(s − d ) − abcd cos 2 θ

A+C B + D
θ= =
2 2
a+b+c+d
s=
2

3. Cyclic quadrilateral – is a quadrilateral

inscribed in a circle

Area = ( s − a)( s − b)(s − c )(s − d )

a+b+c+d
s=
2
(ab + cd )(ac + bd )(ad + bc )
r=
4( Area )

d1 d 2= ac + bd → Ptolemy’s Theorem

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 SIMILAR TRIANGLES Number of diagonal lines (N):
n
2 2 2 2 N= ( n − 3)
A1  A   B   C   H  2
=  =  =  = 
A2  a   b   c   h 
Area of a regular polygon inscribed in a circle of
radius r
SOLID GEOMETRY Area =
1 2  360° 
nr sin  
2  n 
POLYGONS
Area of a regular polygon circumscribing a
3 sides – Triangle
circle of radius r
4 sides – Quadrilateral/Tetragon/Quadrangle
 180° 
5 sides – Pentagon Area = nr 2 tan  
6 sides – Hexagon  n 
7 sides – Heptagon/Septagon
8 sides – Octagon Area of a regular polygon having each side
9 sides – Nonagon/Enneagon measuring x unit length
10 sides – Decagon 1 2  180° 
11 sides – Undecagon Area = nx cot  
12 sides – Dodecagon 4  n 
15 sides – Quidecagon/ Pentadecagon
16 sides – Hexadecagon PLANE GEOMETRIC FIGURES
20 sides – Icosagon
1000 sides – Chillagon CIRCLES
πd 2
Let: n = number of sides A= = πr 2
θ = interior angle 4
α = exterior angle Circumference = πd = 2πr

Sum of interior angles: Sector of a Circle

1 1
A= rs = r 2θ
S = n θ = (n – 2) 180° 2 2
πr θ (deg)
2
Value of each interior angle A=
360°
( n − 2)(180°) πrθ (deg)
θ= s = rθ ( rad ) =
n 180°

Value of each exterior angle Segment of a Circle

360° A segment = A sector – A triangle

α = 180° − θ =
n ELLIPSE
Sum of exterior angles: A=πab
S = n α = 360° PARABOLIC SEGMENT
2
A= bh
3

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 PYRAMID
TRAPEZOID 1
1 V = Bh
A = ( a + b) h 3
2
A( lateral ) = ∑ Afaces
PARALLELOGRAM A( surface) = A( lateral ) + B
A = ab sin α
A = bh
1 Frustum of a Pyramid
A = d1d 2 sin θ h
2 V = ( A1 + A2 + A1 A2 )
3
RHOMBUS
A1 = area of the lower base
1
A = d1d 2 = ah A2 = area of the upper base
2
PRISMATOID
A = a 2 sin α
h
V = ( A1 + A2 + 4 Am )
SOLIDS WITH PLANE SURFACE 6
Lateral Area = (No. of Faces) (Area of 1 Face) Am = area of the middle section

Polyhedron – a solid bounded by planes. The bounding REGULAR POLYHEDRON

planes are referred to as the faces and the intersections a solid bounded by planes whose faces are congruent
of the faces are called the edges. The intersections of the regular polygons. There are five regular polyhedrons
edges are called vertices. namely:

PRISM A. Tetrahedron
B. Hexahedron (Cube)
C. Octahedron
V = Bh D. Dodecahedron
E. Icosahedron

A(lateral) = PL
A(surface) = A(lateral) + 2B
where: P = perimeter of the base
L = slant height
B = base area

Truncated Prism

 ∑ heights 
V = B 
 number of heights 

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 FRUSTUM OF A CONE

Pentagon Dodecahedron
Hexahedron

Icosahedron
Tetrahedron

Octahedron
h
V = ( A1 + A2 + A1 A2
Name 3
Triangle
A( lateral ) = π ( R + r ) L

Triangle

Triangle
Type of

Square
FACE

SPHERES AND ITS FAMILIES

SPHERE
FACES
No. of

12

20
6

4 3
4

V = πr
3
EDGES

A( surface ) = 4πr 2
No. of

30

30
12

12
6

SPHERICAL LUNE
VERTICES

is that portion of a spherical surface bounded by the

No. of

halves of two great circles

20

12
8
4

πr 2θ (deg)
A( surface ) =
Formulas for

90°
V = 7.66 x 3

V = 2.18 x 3
VOLUME
2 3

2 3
x

x
V = x3
12

3
V=

V=

SPHERICAL ZONE
is that portion of a spherical surface between two parallel
Where: x = length of one edge planes. A spherical zone of one base has one bounding
plane tangent to the sphere.
SOLIDS WITH CURVED SURFACES
A( zone ) = 2π r h
CYLINDER

V = Bh = KL SPHERICAL SEGMENT
is that portion of a sphere bounded by a zone and the
planes of the zone’s bases.
A(lateral) = PkL = 2 π r h
πh 2
V = (3r − h)
A(surface) = A(lateral) + 2B 3
πh
Pk = perimeter of right section V = (3a 2 + h 2 )
K = area of the right section 6
B = base area πh
L= slant height V = (3a 2 + 3b 2 + h 2 )
6
CONE
1 SPHERICAL WEDGE
V = Bh is that portion of a sphere bounded by a lune and the
3 planes of the half circles of the lune.
A(lateral ) = πrL πr 3θ (deg)
V =
270°

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 SPHERICAL CONE PARABOLOID
is a solid formed by the revolution of a circular sector a solid formed by rotating a parabolic segment about its
about its one side (radius of the circle). axis of symmetry.
1 1
V = A( zone) r V = πr 2 h
3 2
A( surface) = A( zone) + A( lateralofcone )
SIMILAR SOLIDS
SPHERICAL PYRAMID 3 3 3
is that portion of a sphere bounded by a spherical V1  H   R   L 
polygon and the planes of its sides. =  =  = 
V2  h   r   l 
πr E 3
2 2 2
V = A1  H   R   L 
=  =  = 
540° A2  h   r   l 
2 3
 V1  A 
E = [(n-2)180°]   =  1 
 V2   A2 
E = Sum of the angles
E = Spherical excess
n = Number of sides of the given spherical polygon ANALYTIC
GEOMETRY 1
SOLIDS BY REVOLUTIONS
RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEM
TORUS (DOUGHNUT)
a solid formed by rotating a circle about an axis not x = abscissa
passing the circle. y = ordinate

V = 2π2Rr2 Distance between two points

A(surface) = 4 π2Rr
ELLIPSOID d = ( x2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y2 − y1 ) 2
4
V = πabc Slope of a line
3 y2 − y1
m = tan θ =
OBLATE SPHEROID x2 − x1
a solid formed by rotating an ellipse about its minor axis.
It is a special ellipsoid with c = a
Division of a line segment
4 x1 r2 + x 2 r1
V = πa 2b y1r2 + y 2 r1
3 x= y=
r1 + r2 r1 + r2
PROLATE SPHEROID
a solid formed by rotating an ellipse about its major axis. Location of a midpoint
It is a special ellipsoid with c=b
x1 + x 2 y1 + y 2
4 x= y=
V = πab 2 2 2
3

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 STRAIGHT LINES Distance between two parallel lines
C1 − C2
General Equation d =
A2 + B 2
Ax + By + C = 0
Slope relations between parallel lines:
Point-slope form
m1 = m2

y – y1 = m(x – x1) Line 1 → Ax + By + C1 = 0

Two-point form
Line 2 → Ax + By + C2 = 0
y2 − y1
y − y1 = ( x − x1 ) Slope relations between perpendicular lines:
x2 − x1 m1m2 = –1

Line 1 → Ax + By + C1 = 0
Slope and y-intercept form
Line 2 → Bx – Ay + C2 = 0
y = mx + b
PLANE AREAS BY COORDINATES

Intercept form 1 x1 , x2 , x3 ,....xn , x1

x y A=
+ =1 2 y1 , y2 , y3 ,.... yn , y1
a b
Note: The points must be arranged in a counter clockwise
Slope of the line, Ax + By + C = 0 order.
A
m=− LOCUS OF A MOVING POINT
B The curve traced by a moving point as it moves in a
plane is called the locus of the point.

Angle between two lines SPACE COORDINATE SYSTEM

 m − m1  Length of radius vector r:

θ = tan −1  2 
+
 1 m1 2 
m
r = x2 + y2 + z2
Note: Angle θ is measured in a counterclockwise
direction. m2 is the slope of the terminal side while m1 is Distance between two points P1(x1,y1,z1) and
the slope of the initial side. P2(x2,y2,z2)

Distance of point (x1,y1) from the line

Ax + By + C = 0; d = ( x2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y2 − y1 ) 2 + ( z 2 − z1 ) 2

Ax1 + By1 + C
d=
± A2 + B 2
Note: The denominator is given the sign of B

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 Standard Equation:
ANALYTIC
(x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2
GEOMETRY 2
General Equation:
CONIC SECTIONS
a two-dimensional curve produced by slicing a plane
through a three-dimensional right circular conical surface x2 + y2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

Ways of determining a Conic Section Center at (h,k):

D E
1. By Cutting Plane h=− ; k =−
2. Eccentricity 2A 2A
3. By Discrimination
4. By Equation Radius of the circle:
F 1
General Equation of a Conic Section: r 2 = h2 + k 2 − or r = D2 + E 2 − 4F
A 2
Ax2 + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 **
PARABOLA
Cutting plane Eccentricity a locus of a moving point which moves so that it’s always
equidistant from a fixed point called focus and a fixed line
Circle Parallel to base e→0 called directrix.

Parabola Parallel to element e = 1.0

Ellipse none e < 1.0

Hyperbola Parallel to axis e > 1.0

Discriminant Equation**
where: a = distance from focus to vertex
Circle B2 - 4AC < 0, A = C A=C = distance from directrix to vertex
A≠C
Parabola B2 - 4AC = 0 AXIS HORIZONTAL:
same sign
Sign of A
Ellipse B2 - 4AC < 0, A ≠ C Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
opp. of B

Hyperbola B2 - 4AC > 0 A or C = 0 Coordinates of vertex (h,k):

E
CIRCLE k=−
A locus of a moving point which moves so that its 2C
distance from a fixed point called the center is constant. substitute k to solve for h

Length of Latus Rectum:

D
LR =
C

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 AXIS VERTICAL: ELLIPSE
a locus of a moving point which moves so that the sum of
Ax2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 its distances from two fixed points called the foci is
constant and is equal to the length of its major axis.
Coordinates of vertex (h,k):
d = distance of the center to the directrix
D
h=−
2A
substitute h to solve for k

Length of Latus Rectum:

E STANDARD EQUATIONS:
LR =
A Major axis is horizontal:
( x − h)2 ( y − k ) 2
STANDARD EQUATIONS: + =1
a2 b2
Opening to the right:
Major axis is vertical:
2
(y – k) = 4a(x – h) ( x − h) 2 ( y − k ) 2
2
+ 2
=1
Opening to the left: b a
(y – k)2 = –4a(x – h) General Equation of an Ellipse:

Opening upward: Ax2 + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

(x – h) 2 = 4a(y – k) Coordinates of the center:

D E
Opening downward: h=− ;k = −
2A 2C
(x – h) 2 = –4a(y – k)
If A > C, then: a2 = A; b2 = C
Latus Rectum (LR) If A < C, then: a2 = C; b2 = A
a chord drawn to the axis of symmetry of the curve.
KEY FORMULAS FOR ELLIPSE
LR= 4a for a parabola
Length of major axis: 2a
Eccentricity (e)
the ratio of the distance of the moving point from the
focus (fixed point) to its distance from the directrix (fixed Length of minor axis: 2b
line).
Distance of focus to center:
e=1 for a parabola

c = a 2 − b2

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 Length of latus rectum:
2 Equation of Asymptote:
2b
LR = (y – k) = m(x – h)
a Transverse axis is horizontal:
b
Eccentricity: m=±
c a a
e= = Transverse axis is vertical:
a d a
m=±
b
HYPERBOLA KEY FORMULAS FOR HYPERBOLA
a locus of a moving point which moves so that the
difference of its distances from two fixed points called the
foci is constant and is equal to length of its transverse Length of transverse axis: 2a
axis.

Length of conjugate axis: 2b

Distance of focus to center:

c = a 2 + b2
d = distance from center to directrix
a = distance from center to vertex Length of latus rectum:
c = distance from center to focus
2b 2
STANDARD EQUATIONS
LR =
a
Transverse axis is horizontal
Eccentricity:
( x − h) 2
(y − k) 2
c a
− =1 e= =
a2 b2
a d
Transverse axis is vertical:
( y − k ) 2 ( x − h) 2 POLAR COORDINATES SYSTEM
− =1
a2 b2
x = r cos θ
GENERAL EQUATION
y = r sin θ
Ax2 – Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
Coordinates of the center: r= x2 + y2
D E
h=− ; k =− y
2A 2C tan θ =
x
If C is negative, then: a2 = C, b2 = A
If A is negative, then: a2 = A, b2 = C

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SPHERICAL
TRIGONOMETRY
Important propositions
1. If two angles of a spherical triangle are equal,
the sides opposite are equal; and conversely.
2. If two angels of a spherical triangle are
unequal, the sides opposite are unequal, and
the greater side lies opposite the greater
angle; and conversely.
3. The sum of two sides of a spherical triangle is
greater than the third side.
a+b>c
4. The sum of the sides of a spherical triangle is
less than 360°.
0° < a + b + c < 360°
5. The sum of the angles of a spherical triangle is
greater that 180° and less than 540°.
180° < A + B + C < 540°
6. The sum of any two angles of a spherical
triangle is less than 180° plus the third angle.
A + B < 180° + C
SOLUTION TO RIGHT TRIANGLES
NAPIER CIRCLE
Sometimes called Neper’s circle or Neper’s pentagon, is
a mnemonic aid to easily find all relations between the
angles and sides in a right spherical triangle.
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Napier’s Rules
1. The sine of any middle part is equal to the
product of the cosines of the opposite parts.
Co-op
2. The sine of any middle part is equal to the
product of the tangent of the adjacent parts.
Tan-ad
Important Rules:
1. In a right spherical triangle and oblique angle
and the side opposite are of the same quadrant.
2. When the hypotenuse of a right spherical
triangle is less than 90°, the two legs are of the
same quadrant and conversely.
3. When the hypotenuse of a right spherical
triangle is greater than 90°, one leg is of the first
quadrant and the other of the second and
conversely.
QUADRANTAL TRIANGLE
is a spherical triangle having a side equal to 90°.
SOLUTION TO OBLIQUE TRIANGLES
Law of Sines:
sin a sin b sin c
= =
sin A sin B sin C
Law of Cosines for sides:
cos a = cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos A
cos b = cos a cos c + sin a sin c cos B
cos c = cos a cos b + sin a sin b cos C
Law of Cosines for angles:
cos A = − cos B cos C + sin B sin C cos a
cos B = − cos A cos C + sin A sin C cos b
cos C = − cos A cos B + sin A sin B cos c
 AREA OF SPHERICAL TRIANGLE Derivatives

π R2 E
A= dC
=0
180° dx
d du dv
(u + v ) = +
R = radius of the sphere dx dx dx
E = spherical excess in degrees, d dv du
(uv ) = u +v
dx dx dx
E = A + B + C – 180° du dv
v −u
d u
  = dx 2
dx
dx  v  v
TERRESTRIAL SPHERE d n du
(u ) = nu n −1
Radius of the Earth = 3959 statute miles dx dx
du
Prime meridian (Longitude = 0°) d
u = dx
dx 2 u
Equator (Latitude = 0°) du
−c
d c dx
Latitude = 0° to 90°  =
dx  u  u 2

Longitude = 0° to +180° (eastward) d u du

(a ) = a u ln a
= 0° to –180° (westward) dx dx
d u du
1 min. on great circle arc = 1 nautical mile (e ) = e u
dx dx
1 nautical mile = 6080 feet du
log a e
d dx
= 1852 meters (ln a u ) =
dx u
1 statute mile = 5280 feet du
= 1760 yards d
(ln u ) = dx
dx u
1 statute mile = 8 furlongs d du
= 80 chains (sin u ) = cos u
dx dx
d du
(cos u ) = − sin u
dx dx
d du
(tan u ) = sec 2 u
dx dx
d du
(cot u ) = − csc 2 u
dx dx
d du
(sec u ) = sec u tan u
dx dx
d du
(csc u ) = − csc u cot u
dx dx
d 1 du
(sin −1 u ) =
dx 1 − u dx
2

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 d − 1 du
dx
(cos −1 u ) =
1 − u 2 dx
DIFFERENTIAL
d
(tan −1 u ) =
1 du CALCULUS
dx 1 + u 2 dx
d − 1 du LIMITS
(cot −1 u ) =
dx 1 + u 2 dx Indeterminate Forms
d 1 du 0 ∞
(sec −1 u ) = , , (0)(∞), ∞ - ∞, 0 0 , ∞ 0 , 1∞
dx u u − 1 dx
2
0 ∞
d − 1 du
(csc −1 u ) = L’Hospital’s Rule
dx u u 2 − 1 dx
d du f ( x) f ' ( x) f "( x)
(sinh u ) = cosh u
dx dx Lim = Lim = Lim .....
x→a g ( x) x → a g ' ( x) x → a g" ( x)
d du
(cosh u ) = sinh u
dx dx Shortcuts
d du
(tanh u ) = sec h 2 u Input equation in the calculator
dx dx
d du TIP 1: if x → 1, substitute x = 0.999999
(coth u ) = − csc h 2 u
dx dx
TIP 2: if x → ∞ , substitute x = 999999
d du
(sec hu ) = − sec hu tanh u
dx dx TIP 3: if Trigonometric, convert to RADIANS then
d du do tips 1 & 2
(csc hu ) = − csc hu coth u
dx dx
MAXIMA AND MINIMA
d 1 du
(sinh −1 u ) = Slope (pt.) Y’ Y” Concavity
dx u 2 + 1 dx MAX 0 (-) dec down
d 1 du
(cosh −1 u ) = MIN 0 (+) inc up
dx u 2 − 1 dx INFLECTION - No change -
d 1 du
(tanh −1 u ) =
dx 1 − u 2 dx
d − 1 du
(sinh −1 u ) = 2
dx u − 1 dx
d − 1 du
(sec h −1u ) =
dx u 1 − u 2 dx HIGHER DERIVATIVES
d − 1 du nth derivative of xn
(csc h −1u ) =
dx u 1 + u 2 dx
dn
n
(x n ) = n !
dx
nth derivative of xe n

dn
( xe n
) = ( x + n ) e X

dx n

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 TIME RATE
the rate of change of the variable with respect to time ∫ tan udu = ln sec u + C
∫ cot udu = ln sin u + C
dx
+ = increasing rate ∫ sec udu = ln sec u + tan u + C
dt
∫ csc udu = ln csc u − cot u + C
dx du u
− = decreasing rate
∫ a2 − u2
= sin −1
a
+C
dt
du 1 −1 u

APPROXIMATION AND ERRORS

∫ a 2 + u 2 = a tan a + C
If “dx” is the error in the measurement of a quantity x, du 1 −1 u
then “dx/x” is called the RELATIVE ERROR. ∫ u u 2 − a 2 = a sec a + C
RADIUS OF CURVATURE du  u
3 ∫ 2au − u
= cos −1 1 −  + C
2
 a
[1 + ( y ' ) 2 ] 2
R=
y"
∫ sinh udu = cosh u + C
∫ cosh udu = sinh u + C
∫ sec h udu = tanh u + C
2

INTEGRAL
∫ csc h udu = − coth u + C
2

CALCULUS 1 ∫ sec hu tanh udu = − sec hu + C

∫ du = u + C ∫ csc hu coth udu = − csc hu + C
∫ adu = au + C ∫ tanh udu = ln cosh u + C
∫ [ f (u) + g (u )]du = ∫ f (u )du + ∫ g (u)du ∫ coth udu = ln sinh u + C
u n+1 du u
∫ u du = n + 1 + C..............(n ≠ 1)
n
∫ u +a
2 2
= sinh −1
a
+C

du du u
∫ u = ln u + C ∫ u −a
2 2
= cosh −1
a
+C

au
∫ = +C du 1 a
∫u
u
a du = − sinh −1 + C
ln a u +a2 a
2 u
∫ e du = e + C
u u
du 1 −1 u
∫ a 2 − u 2 = a tanh a + C.............. u < a
∫ sin udu = − cos u + C du 1 −1 u

∫ cos udu = sin u + C ∫ a 2 − u 2 = a coth a + C.............. u > a

∫ sec udu = tan u + C ∫ udv = uv − ∫ vdu
2

∫ csc udu = − cot u + C

2

∫ sec u tan udu = sec u + C

∫ csc u cot udu = − csc u + C

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 PLANE AREAS CENTROIDS

Plane Areas bounded by a curve and the coordinate Half a Parabola

axes:
x2
3
A= ∫y
x1
( curve) dx x= b
8
y2 2
A = ∫ x( curve ) dy y= h
5
y1

Whole Parabola
Plane Areas bounded by a curve and the coordinate
axes:
2
x2
y= h
A = ∫ ( y( up ) − y( down ) )dx 5
x1
y2
Triangle
A = ∫ ( x( right ) − x(left ) )dy
1 2
y1 x = b= b
3 3
Plane Areas bounded by polar curves: 1 2
θ y= h= h
1 2 2 3 3
A = ∫ r dθ
2 θ1
LENGTH OF ARC

CENTROID OF PLANE AREAS

(VARIGNON’S THEOREM)

Using a Vertical Strip:

x2 x2 2
A • x = ∫ dA • x  dy 
x1
S= ∫
x1
1 +   dx
 dx 
x2 2
 dx 
y2
y
A • y = ∫ dA • S= ∫ 1 +   dy
x1
2 y1  dy 

Using a Horizontal Strip: z2 2 2

 dx   dy 
y2
x
S= ∫   +   dz
 dz   dz 
A • x = ∫ dA • z1

y1
2
y2

A • y = ∫ dA • y
y1

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 CENTROIDS OF VOLUMES
INTEGRAL x2

V • x = ∫ dV • x
CALCULUS 2 x1
y2

V • y = ∫ dV • y
TIP 1: Problems will usually be of this nature:
• “Find the area bounded by”
• “Find the area revolved around..” y1

TIP 2: Integrate only when the shape is IRREGULAR,

WORK BY INTEGRATION
otherwise use the prescribed formulas
Work = force × distance
x2 y2
VOLUME OF SOLIDS BY REVOLUTION
W = ∫ Fdx = ∫ Fdy ; where F = k x
Circular Disk Method x1 y1
x2

V = π ∫ R 2 dx Work done on spring

1
W = k ( x2 − x1 )
2 2
x1
2
Cylindrical Shell Method k = spring constant
y2 x1 = initial value of elongation

V = 2π ∫ RL dy
x2 = final value of elongation

y1 Work done in pumping liquid out of the

container at its top
Circular Ring Method
x2 Work = (density)(volume)(distance)
V = π ∫ ( R − r )dx2 2

x1 Force = (density)(volume) = ρv

PROPOSITIONS OF PAPPUS Specific Weight:

First Proposition: If a plane arc is revolved about a Weight

coplanar axis not crossing the arc, the area of the surface γ =
generated is equal to the product of the length of the arc Volume
and the circumference of the circle described by the
centroid of the arc.
γwater = 9.81 kN/m2 SI
A = S • 2π r γwater = 45 lbf/ft2 cgs

A = ∫ dS • 2π r Density:

Second Proposition: If a plane area is revolved mass

about a coplanar axis not crossing the area, the volume ρ=
generated is equal to the product of the area and the Volume
circumference of the circle described by the centroid of
the area.
ρwater = 1000 kg/m3 SI
V = A • 2π r ρwater = 62.4 lb/ft3 cgs
ρsubs = (substance) (ρwater)
V = ∫ dA • 2π r 1 ton = 2000lb

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 MOMENT OF INERTIA Ellipse
Moment of Inertia about the x- axis:
πab3
x2 Ix =
Ix = ∫ y dA 4
2

x1 πa 3b
Iy =
Moment of Inertia about the y- axis:
4
y2

I y = ∫ x 2 dA FLUID PRESSURE
y1
F = wh A = γ h A
Parallel Axis Theorem
The moment of inertia of an area with respect to any
F = ∫ wh dA
coplanar line equals the moment of inertia of the area
with respect to the parallel centroidal line plus the area
F = force exerted by the fluid on one side of
times the square of the distance between the lines.
the area
h = distance of the c.g. to the surface of liquid
I x = Ixo = Ad 2 w = specific weight of the liquid (γ)
A = vertical plane area

Moment of Inertia for Common Geometric Specific Weight:

Figures
Weight
Square
γ =
bh3 Volume
Ix =
3
3 γwater = 9.81 kN/m2 SI
bh γwater = 45 lbf/ft2 cgs
I xo =
12

Triangle
bh 3
Ix =
12
bh3
I xo =
36

Circle
πr 4
I xo =
4
Half-Circle
πr 4
Ix =
8
Quarter-Circle
πr 4
Ix =
16

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 CABLES
MECHANICS 1
PARABOLIC CABLES
VECTORS the load of the cable of distributed horizontally along the
span of the cable.
Dot or Scalar product
Uneven elevation of supports
P • Q = P Q cosθ 2 2
wx wx
P • Q = Px Q x + Py Q y + Pz Q z H= 1 = 2
2d1 2d 2
Cross or Vector product

P × Q = P Q sin θ T1 = ( wx1 ) 2 + H 2
i j k
P × Q = Px Py Pz
Qx Qy Qz
T2 = ( wx2 ) 2 + H 2

Even elevation of supports

EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR FORCE
SYSTEM
L
> 10
Conditions to attain Equilibrium: d
wL2
∑F ( x − axis ) =0 H=
8d
∑F ( y − axis ) =0
∑M ( po int) =0 2
 wL 
T=   +H
2
Friction  2 
Ff = μN
8d 2 32d 4
S = L+ −
tanφ = μ 3L 5 L3
φ = angle of friction L = span of cable
d = sag of cable
if no forces are applied except for the weight, T = tension of cable at support
H = tension at lowest point of cable
φ=θ w = load per unit length of span
S = total length of cable

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 CATENARY
the load of the cable is distributed along the entire length
of the cable.
MECHANICS 2
RECTILINEAR MOTION
Uneven elevation of supports
Constant Velocity
T1 = wy1
T2 = wy 2 S = Vt
H = wc
Constant Acceleration: Horizontal Motion
y1 = S1 + c
2 2 2

y2 = S 2 + c 2
2 2

 S + y1 
x1 = c ln  1 
 c  1 2
 S + y2  S = V0 t ± at
x 2 = c ln  2  2
 c 
V = V0 ± at
Span = x1 + x 2
V 2 = V0 ± 2aS
2
Total length of cable = S1 + S2

Even elevation of supports + (sign) = body is speeding up

– (sign) = body is slowing down
T = wy Constant Acceleration: Vertical Motion
H = wc 1 2
y = S +c
2 2 2 ± H = V0t − gt
2
S + y V = V0 ± gt
x = c ln  
 c 
V 2 = V0 ± 2 gH
2
Span = 2 x

Total length of cable = 2S + (sign) = body is moving down

– (sign) = body is moving up

Values of g,

SI (m/s2) English (ft/s2)

general 9.81 32.2
estimate 9.8 32
exact 9.806 32.16

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 Variable Acceleration
dS ROTATION (PLANE MOTION)
V=
dt Relationships between linear & angular
dV parameters:
a=
dt
V = rω
PROJECTILE MOTION a = rα
V = linear velocity
ω = angular velocity (rad/s)
a = linear acceleration
α = angular acceleration (rad/s2)
r = radius of the flywheel

Linear Symbol Angular Symbol

Distance S θ
Velocity V ω
Acceleration A α
Time t t
Constant Velocity
x = (V0 cos θ )t
1 2 θ = ωt
± y = (V0 sin θ )t − gt
2 Constant Acceleration
gx 2 1
± y = x tan θ − θ = ω 0 t ± αt 2
2V0 cos 2 θ
2
2
ω = ω 0 ± αt
Maximum Height and Horizontal Range
ω 2 = ω 0 ± 2αθ
2
V0 sin θ
2 2
y= max ht
2g + (sign) = body is speeding up
– (sign) = body is slowing down
V sin 2θ
2
x= 0 D’ALEMBERT’S PRINCIPLE
g
“Static conditions maybe produced in a body possessing
Maximum Horizontal Range acceleration by the addition of an imaginary force called
reverse effective force (REF) whose magnitude is
(W/g)(a) acting through the center of gravity of the body,
Assume: Vo = fixed and parallel but opposite in direction to the acceleration.”
θ = variable

W 
REF = ma =  a
2
V
Rmax = 0 ⇔ θ = 45° g
g

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 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION BOUYANCY
motion of any body moving in a circle with a constant A body submerged in fluid is subjected by an
speed. unbalanced force called buoyant force equal to
the weight of the displaced fluid
mV 2 WV 2
Fc = =
r gr Fb = W
V2
ac = Fb = γVd
r
Fb = buoyant force
Fc = centrifugal force W = weight of body or fluid
V = velocity γ = specific weight of fluid
m = mass Vd = volume displaced of fluid or volume of
W = weight submerged body
r = radius of track
ac = centripetal acceleration Specific Weight:
g = standard gravitational acceleration

Weight
BANKING ON HI-WAY CURVES
γ =
Volume
γwater = 9.81 kN/m2 SI
γwater = 45 lbf/ft2 cgs
Ideal Banking: The road is frictionless
V2
tan θ =
gr ENGINEERING
Non-ideal Banking: With Friction on the road MECHANICS 3
V2
tan(θ + φ ) = ; tan φ = µ IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM
gr

V = velocity Impulse = Change in Momentum

r = radius of track
g = standard gravitational acceleration
θ = angle of banking of the road
F∆t = mV − mV0
φ = angle of friction F = force
μ = coefficient of friction t = time of contact between the body and the force
m = mass of the body
Conical Pendulum V0 = initial velocity
V = final velocity

T = W secθ Impulse, I

F V2 I = F∆t
tan θ = =
W gr Momentum, P

f =
1 g P = mV
frequency
2π h

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 Work, Energy and Power
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
“In every process where the velocity is changed, the Work
momentum lost by one body or set of bodies is equal to
the momentum gain by another body or set of bodies” W = F ⋅S
Force Distance Work
Newton (N) Meter Joule
Dyne Centimeter ft-lbf
Pound (lbf) Foot erg

Potential Energy

PE = mgh = Wh
Momentum lost = Momentum gained Kinetic Energy
1
m1V1 + m2V2 = m1V1' + m2V2' KE linear = mV 2
2
m1 = mass of the first body 1 2
m2 = mass of the second body KE rotational = Iω → V = rω
V1 = velocity of mass 1 before the impact 2
V2 = velocity of mass 2 before the impact
V1’ = velocity of mass 1 after the impact I = mass moment of inertia
V2’ = velocity of mass 2 after the impact ω = angular velocity

Coefficient of Restitution (e)

Mass moment of inertia of rotational
INERTIA for common geometric figures:
V −V
' '
e= 2 1

V1 − V2 =
2 2
Solid sphere: I mr
5
Type of collision e Kinetic Energy
2 2
ELASTIC
100% 0 < e >1 Thin-walled hollow sphere: I= mr
conserved 3
INELASTIC
Not 100% e=0 1 2
conserved
Solid disk: I= mr
PERFECTLY
INELASTIC
Max Kinetic
Energy Lost
e =1 2
1 2
Solid Cylinder: I=mr
Special Cases 2
1
Hollow Cylinder: I = m( router − rinner )
2 2

2
m = mass of the body
r = radius
hr
e= e = cot θ tan β
hd

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 POWER Latent Heat is the heat needed by the body to change
rate of using energy its phase without changing its temperature.

W
P= = F ⋅V Q = ±mL
t
1 watt = 1 Newton-m/s Q = heat needed to change phase
m = mass
1 joule/sec = 107 ergs/sec L = latent heat (fusion/vaporization)
(+) = heat is entering (substance melts)
1 hp = 550 lb-ft per second (–) = heat is leaving (substance freezes)
= 33000 lb-ft per min
= 746 watts Latent heat of Fusion – solid to liquid
Latent heat of Vaporization – liquid to gas
LAW ON CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
“Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, but it Values of Latent heat of Fusion and
can be change from one form to another” Vaporization,

Kinetic Energy = Potential Energy Lf = 144 BTU/lb

WORK-ENERGY RELATIONSHIP Lf = 334 kJ/kg
The net work done on an object always Lf ice = 80 cal/gm
produces a change in kinetic energy of the
Lv boil = 540 cal/gm
object.

Work Done = ΔKE Lf = 144 BTU/lb

= 334 kJ/kg
Positive Work – Negative Work = ΔKE Lv = 970 BTU/lb
= 2257 kJ/kg
Total Kinetic Energy = linear + rotation 1 calorie = 4.186 Joules
1 BTU = 252 calories
HEAT ENERGY AND CHANGE IN PHASE = 778 ft–lbf

Sensible Heat is the heat needed to change the LAW OF CONSERVATION OF HEAT
temperature of the body without changing its phase. ENERGY
When two masses of different temperatures are
combined together, the heat absorbed by the lower
Q = mcΔT temperature mass is equal to the heat given up by the
higher temperature mass.
Q = sensible heat
m = mass Heat gained = Heat lost
c = specific heat of the substance
ΔT = change in temperature

Specific heat values

Cwater = 1 BTU/lb–°F
Cwater = 1 cal/gm–°C
Cwater = 4.156 kJ/kg
Cice = 50% Cwater
Csteam = 48% Cwater

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 THERMAL EXPANSION THERMODYNAMICS
For most substances, the physical size increase with an
increase in temperature and decrease with a decrease in
temperature. In thermodynamics, there are four laws of very
general validity. They can be applied to systems
ΔL = LαΔT about which one knows nothing other than the
balance of energy and matter transfer.
ΔL = change in length
L = original length ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
stating that thermodynamic equilibrium is an
α = coefficient of linear expansion
equivalence relation.
ΔT = change in temperature
If two thermodynamic systems are in thermal
equilibrium with a third, they are also in thermal
ΔV = VβΔT equilibrium with each other.

ΔV = change in volume FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

V = original volume
β = coefficient of volume expansion
ΔT = change in temperature
Note: In case β is not given; β = 3α
about the conservation of energy
The increase in the energy of a closed system
is equal to the amount of energy added to the
system by heating, minus the amount lost in the
form of work done by the system on its
surroundings.

SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

about entropy

The total entropy of any isolated

thermodynamic system tends to increase over
time, approaching a maximum value.

THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS,

about absolute zero temperature

As a system asymptotically approaches

absolute zero of temperature all processes
virtually cease and the entropy of the system
asymptotically approaches a minimum value.
This law is more clearly stated as: "the entropy
of a perfectly crystalline body at absolute zero
temperature is zero."

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 Units of σ
STRENGTH OF
MATERIALS SI mks/cgs English

SIMPLE STRESS N/m2 = Pa Kg/cm2 lbf /m2 = psi

Force
Stress = kN/m2 = kPa 103 psi = ksi
Area
Axial Stress MN/m2 = MPa 103 lbf = kips
the stress developed under the action of the force acting
axially (or passing the centroid) of the resisting area. GN/m2 = Gpa

P N/mm2 = MPa
σ axial = axial
A
Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP)
Paxial ┴ Area
= 14.7 psi
σaxial = axial/tensile/compressive stress = 1.032 kgf/cm2
P = applied force/load at centroid of x’sectional area = 780 torr
A = resisting area (perpendicular area) 101.325 kPa = 1.013 bar
= 1 atm
Shearing stress
the stress developed when the force is applied parallel to = 780 mmHg
the resisting area. = 29.92 in

P Thin-walled Pressure Vessels

σs =
A A. Tangential stress

Pappliedl ║ Area ρ r ρD
σT = =
σs = shearing stress t 2t
P = applied force or load
A = resisting area (sheared area) B. Longitudinal stress (also for Spherical)
Bearing stress
ρ r ρD
σL = =
the stress developed in the area of contact (projected
area) between two bodies.
2t 4t
P P
σb = =
A dt
σT = tangential/circumferential/hoop stress
P ┴ Abaering σL = longitudinal/axial stress, used in spheres
r = outside radius
σb = bearing stress D = outside diameter
P = applied force or load ρ = pressure inside the tank
A = projected area (contact area) t = thickness of the wall
d,t = width and height of contact, respectively F = bursting force

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 SIMPLE STRAIN / ELONGATION Types of elastic deformation:

Strain – ratio of elongation to original length a. Due to axial load

HOOKE’S LAW ON AXIAL DEFORMATION

“Stress is proportional to strain”

σαε
σ = Yε Young ' s Modulus of Elasticity
σ = Eε Modulus of Elasticity
σ s =E sε s Modulus in Shear
σ V =EV εV Bulk Modulus of Elasticity
1
Ev compressibility

PL
δ =
AE
δ δ = elongation
ε= P = applied force or load
L A = area
ε = strain L = original length
δ = elongation E = modulus of elasticity
L = original length σ = stress
ε = strain
Elastic Limit – the range beyond which the material
WILL NOT RETURN TO ITS ORIGINAL SHAPE when
unloaded but will retain a permanent deformation
b. Due to its own mass

Yield Point – at his point there is an appreciable

ρgL2 mgL
elongation or yielding of the material without any
corresponding increase in load; ductile materials and
δ = =
continuous deformation 2E 2 AE
δ = elongation
Ultimate Strength – it is more commonly called ρ = density or unit mass of the body
ULTIMATE STRESS; it’s the hishes ordinate in the curve g = gravitational acceleration
L = original length
Rupture Strength/Fracture Point – the stress at failure E = modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus
m = mass of the body

c. Due to changes in temperature

δ = Lα (T f − Ti )
δ = elongation
α = coefficient of linear expansion of the body
L = original length
Tf = final temperature
Ti = initial temperature

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 d. Biaxial and Triaxial Deformation Power delivered by a rotating shaft:
εy εz
µ=− =− P = Tω
εx εx
Prpm = 2πTN rps
μ = Poisson’s ratio 2πTN
μ = 0.25 to 0.3 for steel Prpm = rpm
60
= 0.33 for most metals
2πTN ft − lb
= 0.20 for concrete Php =
μmin = 0 550 sec
μmax = 0.5
2πTN ft − lb
Php =
TORSIONAL SHEARING STRESS 3300 min

Torsion – refers to twisting of solid or hollow T = torque

rotating shaft. N = revolutions/time

Solid shaft HELICAL SPRINGS

16T
τ= 16 PR  d 
πd 3 τ =  1 + 
Hollow shaft
πd 3  4 R 
16TD
τ = τ =
16 PR  4m − 1 0.615 
+
π (D 4 − d 4 )  
πd 3  4m − 4 m 
τ = torsional shearing stress
T = torque exerted by the shaft where,
D = outer diameter Dmean Rmean
d = inner diameter m= =
d r
Maximum twisting angle of the shaft’s fiber: elongation,
64 PR 3 n
δ =
TL Gd 4
θ=
JG τ = shearing stress
δ = elongation
θ = angular deformation (radians) R = mean radius
T = torque d = diameter of the spring wire
L = length of the shaft n = number of turns
G = modulus of rigidity G = modulus of rigidity
J = polar moment of inertia of the cross
πd 4
J= → Solid shaft
32
π (D 4 − d 4 )
J= → Hollow shaft
32
Gsteel = 83 GPa;
Esteel = 200 GPa

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 Mode of Interest m
ENGINEERING Annually 1
Semi-Annually 2
ECONOMICS 1 Quarterly 4
Semi-quarterly 8
SIMPLE INTEREST Monthly 12
I = Pin Semi-monthly
Bimonthly
24
6
Daily 360
F = P (1 + in)
Shortcut on Effective Rate
P = principal amount
F = future amount
I = total interest earned
i = rate of interest
n = number of interest periods

Ordinary Simple Interest

days months
n= n=
360 12
Exact Simple Interest
days
n= → ordinary year
365
days
n= → leap year
366 ANNUITY
Note: interest must be effective rate
COMPOUND INTEREST

F = P(1 + i ) n
Ordinary Annuity

Nominal Rate of Interest A [(1 + i ) n − 1]

NR F=
i= ⇔ n = mN i
m
Effective Rate of Interest
A [(1 + i ) n − 1]
P=
ER = (1 + i ) − 1 (1 + i ) n i
m

m
 NR 
ER = 1 +  −1
A = uniform periodic amount or annuity
 m 
Perpetuity or Perpetual Annuity
ER ≥ NR ; equal if Annual
A
i = rate of interest per period P=
NR = nominal rate of interest i
m = number of interest periods per year
n = total number of interest periods
N = number pf years
ER = effective rate of interest

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 LINEAR / UNIFORM GRADIENT SERIES
ENGINEERING
ECONOMICS 2
DEPRECIATION

P = PA + PG Straight Line Method (SLM)

C0 − Cn
d=
G  (1 + i) n − 1 n  n
PG =  − 
i  i(1 + i) n (1 + i) n 
Dm = md
G  (1 + i ) n − 1  Cm = C0 – Dm
FG =  − n
i  i  d = annual depreciation
C0 = first cost
Cm = book value
1 n  Cn = salvage or scrap value
AG = G  − 
 i (1 + i) − 1 n = life of the property
n
Dm = total depreciation after m-years
m = mth year
Perpetual Gradient
G Sinking Fund Method (SFM)
PG =
i2
(C 0 − C n )i
UNIFORM GEOMETRIC GRADIENT d=
(1 + i ) n − 1

d [(1 + i ) m − 1]
Dm =
i

Cm = C0 – Dm
 (1 + q) n (1 + i ) − n − 1 i = standard rate of interest
P = C  if q ≠ i
 q−i 
Sum of the Years Digit (SYD) Method
 (1 + q) n − (1 + i ) n   2(n − m + 1) 
F = C  if q ≠ i
 q−i 
d m = (C 0 − C n )  
 n(n + 1) 
Cn Cn(1 + i) n  (2n − m + 1)m 
P= P= if q = i Dm = (C 0 − C n ) 
1+ q 1+ q 
 n( n + 1) 
n(n + 1)
sec ond SYD =
q= −1 2
first
C = initial cash flow of the geometric gradient series Cm = C0 – Dm
which occurs one period after the present
SYD = sum of the years digit
q = fixed percentage or rate of increase
dm = depreciation at year m

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 Declining Balance Method (DBM) BONDS
P = Panuity = Pcpd int erest
Cn
k =1− n Zr[(1 + i ) n − 1] C
Co P= +
Matheson Formula (1 + i ) i
n
(1 + i) n
C
k =1− m m P = present value of the bond
Co Z = par value or face value of the bond
r = rate of interest on the bond per period
Zr = periodic dividend
C m = C 0 (1 − k ) m i = standard interest rate
n = number of years before redemption
C = redemption price of bond
d m = kC 0 (1 − k ) m −1

Dm = C0 – Cm BREAK-EVEN ANALYSIS

k = constant rate of depreciation Total income = Total expenses

CAPITALIZED AND ANNUAL COSTS

CC = C 0 + P
CC = Capitalized Cost
C0 = first cost
P = cost of perpetual maintenance (A/i)

AC = d + C 0 (i ) + OMC
AC = Annual Cost
d = Annual depreciation cost
i = interest rate
OMC = Annual operating & maintenance cost

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