REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

According to the book of Cagas, Torre & Manalastas (2013), The World Health
Organization (2014) defines physical activity (PA) as any bodily movement that results in
increased energy expenditure and is positively correlated with physical health. Physical activity
has four general categories: work-related PA (e.g., lifting office supplies), nonwork-related PA
(e.g., doing household chores), travel-related PA (e.g., walking to a bus terminal), and leisure-
related PA (e.g., going for a morning jog). As a form of leisure-related PA, exercise refers to
physical activity that is planned, structured, repetitive, and which maintains or improves physical
fitness (Caspersen, Powell, & Christenson, 1985, as cited in Biddle & Mutrie, 2008). It can
include activities such as running, swimming, gym-based fitness activities, and recreational
sport. In the said study, the top five reasons for participating in exercise were ill-health
avoidance, pursuing health, weight management, developing strength and endurance, and
improving physical appearance. Additional reasons for exercise participation such as fun and
valuing the benefits of regular exercise were also reported. As expected, respondents listed a
wide variety of motives for exercise participation. Filipino exercisers cited as few as one to as
many as 12 participation motives. After decomposing complex responses, we identified a total of
2,095 motives. One thousand seven hundred nine (82%) of these motives were subsequently
coded under the EMI-2 themes. Weight management (e.g., “para pumayat” [to lose weight])
was the most frequently cited motive for exercise participation (15%). Positive health (e.g.,
“para maging healthy” [to become healthy]), strength and endurance (e.g., “to develop
strength”), and appearance (e.g., “to have a sexy body”) were the next most frequently
mentioned motives for exercising. On the other hand, exercising for social recognition (e.g.,
“para magpakitang-gilas” [to show off ability]) and competition (e.g., “I have a competitive
nature”) were the least mentioned reasons for exercising.

As stated by the book of Gavin, Many people believe that older adults exercise
predominantly for health reasons. But in a study of 692 adults who for the most part (87%)
exercised regularly, “positive health” was the most important motive for exercise across all age
groups; moreover, it was equally important for men and women, and for all levels of
socioeconomic status (Rochholz 2004). A related study supported the universal appeal of health
as a motivator, and found the distinguishing factor between older and younger exercisers to be
the declining importance of physical appearance as a motivator with increasing age (Trujillo,
Brougham & Walsh 2004). Exercise is normally associated with positive mental health One
implication of this study is that as much as exercise can improve moods and relative anxiety, it
cannot counter the negative impact of other lifestyle behaviors. Research generally supports the
mood-boosting, anxiety-reducing, stress-buffering and esteem-generating benefits of physical
activity (Gavin 2005; Penedo & Dahn 2005). Physical activity can have profound psychological
benefits for people with spinal-cord injuries (Latimer, Martin & Hicks 2005), posttraumatic
stress disorder (Manger & Motta 2005), Alzheimer’s disease (Heyn 2003), fibromyalgia (Oliver
& Cronan 2005), HIV (Rojas, Schlicht & Hautzinger 2003) and breast cancer (Pinto et al. 2003),
as well as general medical conditions (Hardcastle & Taylor 2005). In one study, people who
exercised three to four times a week reported higher job performance than those who exercised
one to two times a week, and both groups outperformed nonexercisers (Cone 2002). Moreover,
exercisers had lower absenteeism and a greater awareness of health issues (Ur 2001).

Generally, participants engaging in regular physical activity display more desirable health
outcomes across a variety of physical conditions. Similarly, participants in randomized clinical
trials of physical-activity interventions show better health outcomes, including better general and
health-related quality of life, better functional capacity and better mood states.

According to the Canadian Psychological Association, Physical activity is a very

important part of maintaining both physical and psychological health. Research shows that
physical activity has important psychological benefits. For example, exercise can improve your
mood and help you feel more confident and competent. It can help prevent and manage
depression and anxiety, increase energy, reduce stress, and improve mental alertness and
stamina. Some kinds of physical activity like team sports provide a social support network which
can have lots of benefits including friendships, improved mood and a better quality of life. There
is not one specific formula of physical activity that works for everyone. Many studies have
shown that including aerobic activities (i.e. activities such as running or bicycling that condition
the heart and lungs to meet the body’s increased need for oxygen) and weight resistance in a
physical activity routine is important for fitness. However, the duration, frequency, and type of
physical activity depend on the individual’s current level of fitness and fitness goals. It is
generally suggested that individuals should do thirty minutes of moderate exercise such as brisk
walking, three to five times per week. Improvements in mental health however can come from
any form of physical activity whether it is aerobic or non-aerobic in nature and whether it is done
all at once or in small spurts. Examples include gardening, golf, walking the dog, playing sports,
etc. Many people say they "feel better" after regular exercise, regardless of the type of activity.
We are likely to keep doing things that we enjoy, that are easy to fit into our daily routines, and
that leave us feeling good.

Many people are familiar with the mood-boosting effects of exercising regularly, in
addition to the short-term positive effects of a workout such as runner’s high, exercise has
powerful long-term effects in terms of depression and general feelings of well-being. A large
population-based study of 19,288 people found that individuals who exercised at least 60
minutes per week were less anxious, depressed, and neurotic than more sedentary participants
(De Moor et al. 2006). Individuals who take part in regular exercise and then experience an
interruption in their routine due to injury or other factors could experience negative
psychological effects. One study of runners found that those who were deprived of running for
two weeks experienced greater levels of psychological distress, such as depression, anxiety, and
lowered self-esteem, than those who experienced no interruption in their training (Chan and
Grossman 1988). It is generally agreed upon that exercise deprivation among habitual exercisers
induces a negative psychological response, but it is difficult to recruit individuals for further
study who are willing to give up their habits long enough to participate (Szabo 1995).

In line with Dr. Edmund, Biggs, Goldie’s book (2013), physical activity has a huge
potential to enhance wellbeing in our population. It is known that even a short burst of 10
minutes brisk walking increases mental alertness, energy and positive mood states. Participation
in regular physical activity can increase self-esteem and reduce stress and anxiety. Physical
activity can help play a role in preventing mental health problems and improve the quality of life
of those experiencing it. For example, there is an approximately 20–30% lower risk for
depression and dementia, for adults participating in daily physical activity. The impact of
physical activity on day-to-day moods has been investigated in more detail; people rated their
mood immediately after periods of physical activity (e.g. going for a walk or doing housework)
and periods of inactivity (e.g. reading a book or watching television). Eight participants reported
feeling more content, more awake and calmer directly after being physically active compared to
periods of inactivity. Physical activity may enhance sleep quality which in turn improves well-
being. A further mechanism by which physical activity has a positive impact on wellbeing and
mental health is by providing opportunities for social contact and social interaction. Where
physical activity is done as part of a group, or brings one into contact with other people, there is
an opportunity for individuals to increase their social networks and make friends. The wellbeing
and mental health benefits of the social aspects of physical activity are applicable to all age
groups throughout the life course.

In the study of Edwards, D.J., Edwards, S.D., & Basson, C.J. 2004 about the value of
various forms of physical activity, exercise and sport for the promotion of mental health has been
emphasized in recent research and intervention programmes. This research investigated the
relationship between sports involving diverse types of regular exercise, namely hockey and
health club activities (team and individual sports involving relatively more aerobic and resistance
exercise respectively), and various components of psychological well-being and physical self-
perception. Comparisons between 60 university hockey players, 27 health club members and 111
non-exercising students revealed that both hockey players and health club members were
generally more psychologically well and had more positive physical self-perception than non-
exercising students. Hockey players had significantly higher means than health club members on
positive relations with others, sports competence and sport importance. While health club
members' means were clearly higher than hockey players on environmental mastery and
perceptions of body attractiveness, these relationships did not reach statistical significance.

Though most research focuses on potential benefits to physical health, there is mounting
evidence that exercise benefits affective experience and cognitive performance. (Hogan, Mata, &
Carsten, 2013) Researchers report reliable associations in younger adults between exercise and
increased positive affect (see Reed & Ones, 2006 for a meta-analysis) and reductions in negative
affect and other depressive symptoms (e.g., Mead et al., 2009 for a meta-analysis). Moderate
and vigorous exercise bouts ranging from 5 to 30 minutes are associated with improved
psychological wellbeing and positive affective responses relative to controls (Barton & Petty,
2010; Cox,Thomas, Hinton, & Donahue, 2006; Daley & Welch, 2004; Hansen, Stevens, &
Coast,
2001). In a review of 25 studies employing the Profile of Mood States in laboratory exercise
studies, results indicated that exercise is typically associated with reductions in tension, anger,
depression, and confusion (Berger & Motl, 2000). Mata, Hogan, Joorman, Waugh, and Gotlib
(2013) tested whether exercise mitigates consequences of exposure to emotional stressors in
individuals recovered from major depressive disorder and healthy control participants.
Participants were randomly assigned to an exercise or rest condition before exposure to two sad
mood inductions. Recovered depressed participants who had exercised and healthy controls
showed no increase in negative affect in response to repeated sad mood inductions, whereas
recovered depressed participants who had not exercised reported higher negative affect following
the second sad mood induction, suggesting that exercise may serve as a protective factor against
exposure to emotional stressors. In addition, studies have found that increased levels of exercise
in everyday life produce increased positive affect in healthy college students (Giacobbi,
Hausenblas, & Frye, 2005) and in young adults with major depressive disorder (Mata et al.,
2012). Exercise is also associated with improvements in cognitive performance in younger and
older adults. Over the last several decades, numerous studies have tested both the effects of
single, acute bouts of exercise and longer term (e.g., 3- or 6-month) interventions. In a review of
43 studies assessing performance on various cognitive tasks following single, acute bouts of
exercise, exercise has been linked to improvements in cognitive performance in young adults for
tasks ranging from simple reaction time (RT) to response inhibition to creative thinking
(Tomporowski, 2003). However, there has been some suggestion in the literature that the effects
of exercise may be weaker for older than for younger adults. In addition, Ruuskanen and
Ruoppila (1995) observed that the impact of exercise on well-being was weaker for participants
aged 76 and older than for participants aged 65 to 75 years of age. A recent meta-analysis of
studies on the effects of physical activity on well-being at advanced ages also concluded that the
benefits of exercise are weakened with age, with a gradual decrease in the degree of benefits at
older ages (Netz, Wu, Becker, & Tenenbaum, 2005).
Physical Activity and Psychological Well-Being in Advanced Age:
A Meta-Analysis of Intervention Studies (Yael Netz, Meng-Jia Wu, Betsy Jane

Becker and Gershon Tenenbaum)

A meta-analysis examined data from 36 studies linking physical activity to well-being in older adults
without clinical disorders. The weighted mean-change effect size for treatment groups (dC. _ 0.24) was
almost 3 times the mean for control groups (dC. _ 0.09). Aerobic training was most beneficial (dC. _
0.29), and moderate intensity activity was the most beneficial activity level (dC. _ 0.34). Longer exercise
duration was less beneficial for several types of well-being, though findings are inconclusive. Physical
activity had the strongest effects on self-efficacy (dC. _ 0.38), and improvements in cardiovascular
status, strength, and functional capacity were linked to well-being improvement overall. Social– cognitive
theory is used to explain the effect of physical activity on well-being.

Accumulating evidence supports the popular belief that physical

activity is associated with psychological health. The components
of psychological health, however, are not yet clearly determined.
Careful review of the literature presents a myriad of operational
definitions of the terms psychological health and psychological
well-being (Brown, 1992; Gauvin & Spence, 1996; McAuley &
Rudolph, 1995). It is generally agreed that psychological wellbeing
is a multifaceted phenomenon (Gauvin & Spence, 1996), particularly
in the aging population (McAuley&Rudolph, 1995; Rejesky
& Mihalko, 2001; Spirduso & Cronin, 2001; Stewart & King, 1991).

Our meta-analysis examined the effects of organized physical

activity on the well-being of older adults without clinical disorders.
On the basis of a conceptual framework proposed for evaluating
well-being in older age (McAuley & Rudolph, 1995; Spirduso &
Cronin, 2001; Stewart & King, 1991), we considered four general
components: (a) emotional well-being (i.e., state and trait anxiety,
stress, tension, state and trait depression, anger, confusion, energy,
vigor, fatigue, positive affect, negative affect, and optimism), (b)
self-perceptions (i.e., self-efficacy, self-worth, self-esteem, selfconcept,
body image, perceived physical fitness, sense of mastery,
and locus of control), (c) bodily well-being (i.e., pain and perception
of physical symptoms), and (d) global perceptions such as
life-satisfaction and overall well-being.

In the North et al. (1990) meta-analysis,

both aerobic and resistance training were associated with improvements
in depression. Dunn et al. (2001), in their narrative review,
reported that although most studies examined aerobic exercise, the
few examining resistance training showed significant effects in
reducing depressive symptoms. Moreover, Arent et al.’s (2000)
meta-analysis on older adults revealed a larger gain effect size on
mood for resistance training (d_C _ 0.80) than for cardiovascular
(d_C _ 0.26) or mixed (cardiovascular plus resistance; d_C _ 0.37)
training.