Chapter 2

Locomotion and Support

2.1 SUPPORT AND
LOCOMOTION IN
HUMANS AND ANIMALS
2.1 Support and Locomotion in
Humans and Animals
 Importance of support and locomotion
◦ Search for food
◦ Provide protection by escaping from enemies
or avoiding danger
◦ Search for more conducive living environment
◦ Find mates for reproduction
◦ Avoid overcrowding which enables the
offspring to move to another place
 2.1 Support and Locomotion in
Humans and Animals (cont’d)
 Human skeletal system
◦ Consist of two main part; axial skeleton and
appendicular skeleton
Human Parts
skeleton
Axial skeleton 1. Skull Cranium, bones of the face, jaw
2. Vertebral column Cervical vertebrae, thoracic vertebrae,
(the backbone) lumbar vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx
3. Ribcage Sternum and ribs
Appendicular 1. Pectoral girdle Scapula and clavicle
skeleton 2. Arm (forelimbs) Humerus, ulna, radius, carpals,
metacarpals, phalanges
3. Pelvic girdle Ischium, pubis, ischium
4. Leg (hind limbs) Femur, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals.
phalanges
2.1 Support and Locomotion in
Humans and Animals (cont’d)
 Skull
◦ Cranium – enclose and
protect the brain
◦ Facial bones and jaw
 Protect the eyes and ears
 Upper jaw is fixed
◦ Skull is joined to the
vertebral column at the base
of cranium
 2.1 Support and Locomotion in
Humans and Animals (cont’d)
 Rib
◦ Twelve pairs of ribs
 Articulate with thoracic cavity
dorsally, and sternum ventrally
◦ Sternum is the front part
2.1 Support and Locomotion in
Humans and Animals (cont’d)
 Vertebral column
◦ Consists of 33 vertebrae, joined but separated
by discs of cartilage
◦ Five types of vertebrae
1. Cervical vertebrae (7)
2. Thoracic vertebrae (12)
3. Lumbar vertebrae (5)
4. Sacral vertebrae (5)
5. Coccyx
 2.1 Support and Locomotion in
Humans and Animals (cont’d)

Neural arch
Forms neural
canal

Neural spine
Muscle
attachment

Centrum
Gives support

Neural canal
Protects spinal
cord
2.1 Support and Locomotion in
Humans and Animals (cont’d)
2.1 Support and Locomotion in
Humans and Animals (cont’d)
 Support head and
neck

 Sentrum is short
and thick

 Large and thick

sentrum
2.1 Support and Locomotion in
Humans and Animals (cont’d)
 Appendicular skeleton
◦ Consists of
1. Pectoral girdles and forelimbs (arms)
2. Pelvic girdle and hind limbs (legs)
2.1 Support and Locomotion in
Humans and Animals (cont’d)
 Arms
2.1 Support and Locomotion in
Humans and Animals (cont’d)
 Legs Pelvic
girdle
 2.1 Support and Locomotion in
Humans and Animals (cont’d)
 Joints
◦ Place where two bones
meet
◦ Bones are held together by
ligaments
◦ Sinovial joints – joints
that contains a cavity filled
with fluid
◦ End of bones are covered
with cartilage.
2.1 Support and Locomotion in
Humans and Animals (cont’d)
 Joints
◦ Various types of joints
1. Hinge joint
 Allow movement in one plane
2. Ball-and-socket joint
 Allow movement in all directions
 2.1 Support and Locomotion in
Humans and Animals (cont’d)
 Movement in a limb
◦ Skeletal muscles are attached to bones by tendons.
◦ Movements of cause by antagonistic movement
of muscles:
 One muscles is contracted, another is relaxed
 2.1 Support and Locomotion in
Humans and Animals (cont’d)
 Structure of a muscle
◦ Muscle fibre – single, long cylindrical cell that contains
many nuclei
◦ Myofibrils – smaller units that made up muscle fiber
◦ Interaction of actin and myosin will cause muscle
contraction
 2.1 Support and Locomotion in
Humans and Animals (cont’d)
 Locomotion of earthworm
◦ Earthworms have a hydrostatic skeleton (the
force of contraction is applied to a coelum(fluid
filled chamber).
◦ Coelom is surrounded by two antagonistic muscle
 circular muscles – surround the chamber
 longitudinal muscles – extend from one end to the other.
◦ Thinner and longer: When circular muscle contract
and the longitudinal muscle relax. (and vice verca)
◦ The muscles contract rhythmically to
produce peristaltic waves which begins at the front
and move towards the end of the body.
◦ Earthworm has chaetae (bristles) which
anchor parts of the body to the ground so that other
parts can be pulled towards it.
2.1 Support and Locomotion in
Humans and Animals (cont’d)
 2.1 Support and Locomotion in
Humans and Animals (cont’d)
 Locomotion of grasshopper
◦ The flexor and extensor (antagonistic) muscles are
attached to the internal surface of the exoskeleton.
◦ Flexor muscles bend a joint.
◦ Extensor muscles straighten it.
◦ The rear legs of a grasshopper are long and muscular
and is adapted for hopping.
◦ Sitting position: When the flexor muscle contracts,
the lower leg is pulled towards the body. The hind leg
is folded in a Z shape and ready for a jump.
◦ Jump: When the extensor muscle contracts, the leg
jerks backwards, propelling the grasshopper forward
and upward into the air.
 2.1 Support and Locomotion in
Humans and Animals (cont’d)
 Locomotion of grasshopper
 2.1 Support and Locomotion in
Humans and Animals (cont’d)
 Locomotion of grasshopper
◦ The flexor and extensor (antagonistic) muscles are
attached to the internal surface of the exoskeleton.
◦ Flexor muscles bend a joint.
◦ Extensor muscles straighten it.
◦ The rear legs of a grasshopper are long and muscular
and is adapted for hopping.
◦ Sitting position: When the flexor muscle contracts,
the lower leg is pulled towards the body. The hind leg
is folded in a Z shape and ready for a jump.
◦ Jump: When the extensor muscle contracts, the leg
jerks backwards, propelling the grasshopper forward
and upward into the air.
 2.1 Support and Locomotion in
Humans and Animals (cont’d)
 Locomotion of fish
◦ Fish has streamlined body shape
◦ Scales that overlap one another, with free ends
pointing backwards to reduce friction
◦ Fish have W-shaped muscles called myotome
 2.1 Support and Locomotion in
Humans and Animals (cont’d)
 Locomotion of fish
◦ Fish move forward
from the
contraction and
relaxation
(antagonistic) of
myotome on either
side of the body
 2.1 Support and Locomotion in
Humans and Animals (cont’d)
 Locomotion of fish
◦ Function of fins in fish – balance the body
◦ Pectoral fins – for steering
◦ Pelvic fins – for balance, to prevent diving and
rolling
 2.1 Support and Locomotion in
Humans and Animals (cont’d)
 Locomotion of bird
◦ Bird can fly either by flapping their wings or
gliding
 2.1 Support and Locomotion in
Humans and Animals (cont’d)
 Locomotion of bird
◦ When wings move down
 Pectoralis major contracts
 Wings are pulled down
◦ When wings move up
 Pectoralis minor contracts
 2.1 Support and Locomotion in
Humans and Animals (cont’d)
 Locomotion of bird
◦ During gliding, wings
are spread – act as
aerofoil
◦ Bernoulli principle –
provide upward
thrust
2.3 SUPPORT SYSTEM
IN PLANTS
2.3 Support Systems in Plants
 Support in plants is necessary to:
◦ Stay upright
◦ Obtain sufficient sunlight
◦ Bear the weight the plant
◦ Provide strength to withstand wind
ressistance
2.3 Support Systems in Plants
(cont’d)

Plants
Aquatic Terrestrial

Submerged Floating Herbaceous Woody

2.3 Support Systems in Plants
(cont’d)
 Submerged plants
◦ Hydrilla sp.
◦ Have thin, narrow and
flexible leaves – provide
little ressistance
◦ Air sacs inside the
leaves and stems - keep
the plant floating close
to the surface to obtain
maximum sunlight.
 2.3 Support Systems in Plants
(cont’d)
 Floating plants
◦ Lotus plant
◦ Have broad leaves that are firm but flexible
enough to resist tearing by wave action.
◦ Aerenchyma tissues (spongy tissues with large
air spaces between the cells) in the stems and
leaves provide buoyancy so that the plants can
float on the surface of the water
2.3 Support Systems in Plants
(cont’d)
 Herbaceous plant
◦ Support provided by the turgidity of the
parenchyma and collenchyma cells.
◦ Turgor pressure of the fluid content in
the central vacuole pushes the cell
membrane and the cell contents
against the cell wall, creating support for
the stem, root and leaves.
◦ The thickening of the cell walls with
cellulose and pectin in collenchyma cells
provide additional mechanical strength
2.3 Support Systems in Plants
(cont’d)
 Woody plants
◦ Support provided through tissue
modification
◦ Xylem tissues
 Strenghtened by lignin
 Lignin – tough, not elastic and nor permeable
to water
◦ Parenchyma tissues
 Store starch, sugars and water
 It become turgid – give support
2.3 Support Systems in Plants
(cont’d)
 Woody plants
◦ Collenchyma tissues
 Thickened with cellulose and pectin
◦ Sclerechyma tissues
 Thickened with lignin