Module 1:

Canine skeleton:
Caitlyn moss:
Student number-PSC-CAP-202101123:

Answers:

1.1. The Oxford dictionary defines the term anatomy as “a field in the biological sciences
concerned with identification and description of the bodily structures of living
animals”. Physiology is defined as “the study of the functioning of living animals and
the functioning of their constituent tissues or cells”. Gravity is described as “the
universal force of attraction, acting between all matter. All living things have a weight
or downward force of gravity proportional to their mass. Gravity is measured by the
acceleration that it gives to freely falling objects”.

1.2
The differences between Vertebrate and Invertebrate
Vertebrates Invertebrates
Vertebrates have a backbone and an internal Invertebrates have no backbone and no
skeleton internal skeleton.

Generally they are fast moving animals. Generally they are small and slow moving
They don’t have an exoskeleton. animals. they also have a exoskeleton.

Are much larger than invertebrates Their body sizes are smaller than vertebrates,
but can grow large in size for example the
giant squid.

Don’t have compound eyes. Have compound eyes.

Vertebrates have an closed circulatory
system.
Nutrition is usually heterotrophic which
means they depend on other organisms for
their food.
Have an open circularity system.
Invertebrates’ nutrition includes autotrophic
(can make their own food from simple
substances), parasitic (acquire food at the
expense of it’s hosts) and heterotrophic.

Vertebrates have bilateral body symtery. Have bilateral, radial or they can be
asymmetrical

Vertebrates are warm blooded animals. Invertebrates are cold blooded animals.

(Characteristics of Vertebrates, 2021)

1.3 A species can be a group of animals, plants or micro-organisms, it is the largest group
that can produce fertile offspring through breeding. Breeds are used to describe
groups of domestic animals which have unique appearances and behaviour and are
specifically bred in order to preserve such characteristics. For the Border Collie and
the Labrador are both two types of breeds that both belong to the same domestic dog
species which is Canis familiaris. (Lakna, 2017)

1.4 Rickets is a disorder that effects the skeleton of young growing animals and causes
soft and deformed bones. Rickets are caused by a poorly balanced diet that lacks vital
vitamins and minerals. Calcium deficiencies can also cause rickets. The symptoms are
bone pain, stiff gait, bowed limbs and swelling. Bones become so fragile that they can
fracture easily. Puppies diagnosed with rickets may not want to play around or not
even stand up because it causes so much pain (Gruinberg, 2018).

1.5 The following four internal organs which are protected by the skeleton are:
 lungs and heart are both protected by the rib cage.
 brain is protected by the skull and sense
 spinal cord is protected by the vertebrae (Canine Anatomy for Beginners, 2017).

1.6 The age that dogs are physically fully grown is dependent on the breed of dog.
Small breed dogs like Yorkshire Terriers will not grow significantly beyond 6 to 8
months months old, they will however continue to fill out over the next 3 to 6 months.
Medium breed dogs like Border Collies will keep growing after a year old until about
15 months old (Stregowski & Bryan, 2020)

1.7. A luxating patella is a kneecap that moves out of its normal location. It is a dislocated
knee-cap (and as a result can’t move or extend its leg properly (Henriques, 2021)

1.8 A breed of dog that has a Mesocephalic skull is a Labrador Retriever, Beagle and a
Chihuahua. A breed of dog that has a Dolichocephalic skull is a Dachshunds, Italian
greyhounds, Great Danes and Setters. A breed of dog that has a Brachycephalic skull
is a English Toy Spaniels, Bull Mastiffs and Chow Chows (Schoenebeck &
Ostrander, 2013).

1.9 The oxford dictionary defines the term flexion as the act of flexing or bending. The
flexing motion occurs as the bones on either side of a joint move closer together and
the joint becomes acute. The term extension is when a dog’s leg is stretched out.

1.10 Arthritis in dogs causes inflammation and swelling in the joints. It can make walking
or getting up from a nap or running around very painful. Osteoarthritis is a
degenerative joint disease. It worsens the inflammation of the joint caused by the
deterioration of cartilage and causes a lot of pain. It is characterized by the thinning of
the cartilage and fluid buildup in the joint. Bursitis is a small fluid sac that cushions
 and finds areas where tendons, ligaments or bones rub against each other. It causes
swelling when constantly repeating movements which puts pressure on the joints.
Gout is a result of too much uric acid in the blood. Uric acid builds up in the joints
causing pain which usually appears in the paws, toes and joints (Hepker, 2016).

1.11a A hereditary condition is caused by chromosomal abnormalities and gene defects

transmitted to the puppy from the parents.
1.11b Gait is the pattern of repetitive limb motions that a dog uses to walk and run (Giger,
2013)

1.12 Carnivores are animals who eat meat, and as dogs are classified as carnivores, their
skulls are designed to move vertically in an up and down motion which ideal for
cutting meat. Dog’s legs are designed in a way that can propel them forward, enabling
them to leap and jump to chase and catch prey. Their front legs are loose and flexible
and have disconnected shoulder bones which facilitates a larger stride for running and
leaping. The dog’s tail is an extension of the spinal column, it acts as a counterbalance
when walking on narrow structures. Dog’s tails can increase their agility and ability to
run faster, which enables them to be effective hunters (Ibara, 2020).

Module project answers:

The differences between a dog and a bird’s skeleton

Dog skeleton Bird Skeleton
Contains an average of 319 bones – Contains fewer bones – between 13 and 25
depending on the length of their tails
Dogs have the most variety in the size and
configuration of their skeletons in
comparison to any other animals
Bones are dense Bones are lightweight, in comparison to
individual bones of other vertebrates they
are not always lighter. Bones are dense and
extremely strong. The skeletal system as a
whole is light and strong.
Most flightless birds have solid bones
Certain bones like the femur, humerus, Bones are filled with air and are called
pelvis and ribs contain marrow pneumatized bones
The skeletal mass is made up of 80% of the Within a bird’s bones there are cross
hard outer layer of bone (cortical bone) and sections of bones called struts
20% of the inner spongy structure called
cancellous or trabecular bone
Dogs only have approximately 7 cervical Birds have more neck bones than dogs, they
vertebrae typically 12 -25 cervical vertebrae
Dogs don’t have a fully developed collar Birds have a fused collar bone shaped like
bone but rather a cartilaginous structure in the keel of a ship, the breastbone extends
its place down the breastbone and serves as an
anchor for wing muscles
 The skeleton takes 3 to 18 months to mature

(Home Counties Canine Massage, 2020) (Dumont, 2020)

Birds’ skeletons are made up of fewer bones in comparison to other mammals like the dog,
which is helpful for flight. The skeleton is extremely lightweight yet strong enough to
manage the stresses of take-off, flight and landing. The bones are hollow which not only
makes the body lighter for flight, but contain hollow cavities which are extensions from the
lungs. These air sacs provide the bird with the oxygen needed to support the demand for
energy during flight. However, some flightless birds like penguins have solid bones as
opposed to hollow ones. The thoracic region of the spine, tail, and pelvis are all fused to
create a strong platform, this reduces weight and adds the rigidity needed to maintain the
body posture during flight. The ribs brace together to form a cage that protects the heart and
lungs from the force of the flapping wings. The structure of the neck makes it flexible which
is crucial for preening feathers. The fused clavicle (commonly known as the wishbone) acts
as a flexible spring that helps with flight, contracting and expanding as the wings move in the
upward and downward pattern. The bones of the “hand” are fused, this provides support for
the flight feathers. The ulna has a series of bumps to which secondary flight feathers attach.
The keel or breastbone is well developed in most birds, and it is to this thin, bladelike bone
that the flight muscles are attached. The breastbone provides added protection to the heart
and the lungs. Flightless birds like penguins also have a prominent keel, as the muscles
attached to it aids swimming underwater. However, other flightless birds have no use for a
well-developed keel and is therefore absent. The skull bone also has air cavities that are
connected to the nasal cavities. A bird’s foot is used to help with navigation in its
environment. It also helps them hold on to branches when they. Although birds’ skeletons
make be influenced by flight, it is not designed solely for this purpose but rather a system that
has evolved which makes breathing, maintaining temperature and reducing weight possible
(Dumont, 2010).

The difference in a dog’s skeleton:

Some of the bones in a dog’s skeleton are fused together and some are connected via
ligaments which facilitates movement. Without this complex design of a dog’s skeleton, the
rest of the body would not be able to support its own weight. The skeleton can therefore be
likened to a scaffold on which the body is constructed, holding the body in the required
shape. The rigid structure of the skeleton protects the vital organs, the ribs protect the heart
and the lungs, the skull protects the brain, and the vertebrae protects the spinal cord. The ribs,
joined by the sternum provide a protective cage around the heart and lungs shielding them
from knocks and bumps. A dog has no collar bone which allows for enhanced speed and
agility The skeleton allows for the attachment of muscles; this facilitates movement and
posture. Bones are the storehouse for lipids (fats), minerals (e.g., calcium) and phosphate,
should a dog become deficient in these, they are released into the system by the required
amount. Blood cells are generated in the red marrow of the bone which the body requires for
energy and the functioning of the immune system (Home Counties Canine Massage, 2020).
Dogs walk on all four toes because it minimizes them from falling over. The tail. an
extension of the spinal column helps them to balance when walking or running around. Their
spinal column has a thick disc of cartilage between each bone which allows little movements
and gives the spinal cord flexibility. The dog’s bones, muscles, ligaments and tendons
function together, complimenting each one’s function (Hepker, 2016).

Module revision questions:

R1. The reason why changes could occur in a species anatomy is because characters of
species are changing over time due to evolution.

R2. An internal skeleton is called an endoskeleton.

R3. An internal skeleton is made up of hard mineralized structures located within the soft
tissue of an animal.

R4. The appendicular skeleton consists of upper limbs, lower limbs and mostly consists of
long or short cylindrical type bones.

R5. The membrane layer that surrounds the bones is called the periosteum.

R6. A growth plate is soft areas located at the ends of the long bones.

R7. The reasons why the skeleton is essential because it provides movement, locomotion and
supports the body it also protects vital organs.

R8. The two types of joints are ball sockets joints and hinge joins.

R9. The synovial membrane lines the joint capsule.

R10. Vertebrae is found from the bottom of the neck to the top of the pelvis. And is attached
to the ribs.

R11. The main sections so the spinal cord is called the cervical vertebrae, thoracic vertebrae,
lumber vertebrae, sacrum vertebrae and the coccygeal or caudal vertebrae.

R12. A breed standard is a description of the characteristic of a hypothetical or ideal example

of a breed.

R13. The two types of the skull are called the cranium and the face.

R14. The type of bones that make up the skull is made up of mostly flat bones.

R15. The bones of a very young animal are vulnerable to damages it is because the bones
have not fully developed yet and is very brittle and bones can be easily damaged.

R16. Sinuses of the skull are called the paranasal sinuses.

R17. The five points of a dog is the back, loin, muzzle and flews.
R18. The difference between the term’s anatomy is to describe how a particular dog is made
both in shape and individual body parts. And physiology is used to describe a particular body
part and how the part works.

R19. Plagiarism is taking or copying someone’s work and pretending it is your own.
R20. The one purpose of a ligament is to allow movement.

R21. Bone is quite light in weigh because it allows the animal to move faster.

R22. A sternum is a chest bone it is a long flat bone. Located in the center of the thorax.

R23. A scapula is a flat triangular bone at the top of the shoulder blade.

R24. The radius and ulna are the paired long bones of the antebrachium the lower part of the
foreleg from the elbow to the carpus.

R25. The carpus is a term for a complex joint in the lower front limb of a dog. It is the dog’s
elbow and wrist.

R26. Bone marrow is responsible for producing new red and white blood cells and platelets.
R27. A anther name for the metacarpus is a pastern.

R28. A femur is a thigh bone in the hind leg.

R29. A patella is a kneecap.

R30. The portion of the human body the calcaneus is equivalent to is the heel of a person.

R31. A fontanelle is the gaps in the skull bone.

R32. The names of the three basic shapes of the skull is the Mesocephalic, Dolichocephalic
and Brachycephalic.

R33. A articular cartilage is a layer of cartilage that covers the end of the bones.
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