Isip, Maria Kristina C.

BSMT-1B
I. What are the different components of the skeletal system?
a. Bones – are made of a composite tissue, with a high fraction of the
mineral calcium. Adult humans have 206 bones; young children may
have .ore because some bones fuse during early maturation. The bones
notably provide structural support, giving the body form and rigidity and
allowing for walking, running, and more complex movements. But bones
are also metabolically active as the marrow in the interior of bones is
where blood cells are made. Bones also feature epithelium, adipose tissue
and nervous tissue.
1. Flat bones in the skull (occipital, parietal, frontal, nasal, lacrimal,
and vomer), the thoracic cage (sternum and ribs), and the pelvis
(ilium, ischium, and pubis). The function of flat bones is to protect
internal organs such as the brain, heart, and pelvic organs. Flat
bones are somewhat flattened, and can provide protection, like a
shield; flat bones can also provide large areas of attachment for
muscles.
2. Long bones, longer than they are wide, include the femur (the
longest bone in ii. the body) as well as relatively small bones in
the fingers. Long bones function to support the weight of the body
and facilitate movement. Long bones are mostly located in the
appendicular skeleton and include bones in the lower limbs (the
tibia, fibula, femur, metatarsals, and phalanges) and bones in the
upper limbs (the humerus, radius, ulna, metacarpals, and
phalanges).
3. Short bones are about as long as they are wide. Located in the
wrist and ankle joints, short bones provide stability and some
movement. The carpals in the wrist (scaphoid, lunate, triquetral,
hamate, pisiform, capitate, trapezoid, and trapezium) and the
tarsals in the ankles (calcaneus, talus, navicular, cuboid, lateral
cuneiform, intermediate cuneiform, and medial cuneiform) are
examples of short bones.
4. Irregular bones vary in shape and structure and therefore do not
fit into any other category (flat, short, long, or sesamoid). They
often have a fairly complex shape, which helps protect internal
organs. For example, the vertebrae, irregular bones of the
vertebral column, protect the spinal cord. The irregular bones of
the pelvis (pubis, ilium, and ischium) protect organs in the pelvic
cavity.
5. Sesamoid bones are bones embedded in tendons. These small,
round bones are commonly found in the tendons of the hands,
 knees, and feet. Sesamoid bones function to protect tendons from
stress and wear. The patella, commonly referred to as the
kneecap, is an example of a sesamoid bone.
b. Tendons – connect muscle to bone. They consist of tightly packed
bundles of the protein collagen arranged in parallel. They are usually
encased in fluid-filled sheaths when they abut other tissues, to decrease
friction and increase padding. They act to focus a muscle’s effort on a
physically small portion of bone, better allowing muscles to serve levers.
1. Shoulders and arms – tendons of the shoulders and arms move
tour arm up and down and rotate your arm at the shoulder. Other
tendons help bend or straighten your elbow, rotate your forearm
or bend your wrist.
2. Hips and legs – the upper part of your thigh bone – the femur –
and part of your pelvis meet in the hip joint. Movement at the hip
joint occurs when you bend backwards and forwards, and when
you swing your leg while walking. Tendons that make this
possible include: Iliopsoas tendons obturator internes tendons
adductor longus, brevis and magnus tendons, gluteus maximus
and gluteus medius tendons
3. Hands and Feet - Many tendons in your hands and feet attach to
hand and foot bones, and help you move your fingers and toes.
Examples that help finger movement include: Flexor digitorum
longus tendons, Interosseus tendons, Flexor digitorum profundus
tendons, Abductor digiti minimi tendons
4. Head, Neck and Torso - Many other tendons help you move
other parts of your body, and some of these are in your head.
They help move your eyes, eyelids and jaw. They include: Ocular
tendons, Levator palpebrae tendons, Masseter tendons,
Temporalis tendons
c. Ligaments – connect bones to each other. They do so in a relaxed
manner, without any pulling between them since no muscles are involved.
They are similar in composition to tendons, although the fibers they are
assembled from are often more variable. They sometimes have a degree
of elasticity, but are not really considered “stretchy”
1. Knee Ligaments
There are four major ones connecting your thighbone (femur) and
shinbone (tibia):
 Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL)
 Posterior cruciate ligament (PCL)
 Medial cruciate ligament (MCL)
 Lateral collateral ligament (LCL)
2. Elbow Ligaments - The two main ligaments around
the elbow are the ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) and the
 radial collateral ligament. Both connect the bone in your upper
arm (called the humerus) to the bone on the pinky side of your
forearm (you may know it as the ulna). The radial collateral
ligament connects the humerus to the outer forearm bone called
the radius but also extends to the ulna providing additional
support.
3. Shoulder Ligaments - Ligaments in the shoulder connect your
humerus to your shoulder blade (also called the scapula). They
also connect the clavicle, or collarbone, to the top of your
shoulder blade.

4. Ankle - There are several ligaments around your ankle. The three
main ones on the outside part of your ankle are the anterior
talofibular ligament, the posterior talofibular ligament, and the
calcaneofibular ligament. All three begin on your fibula. That's the
thin bone outside your shinbone. It's also the bone you feel on the
outside of your ankle.
d. Cartilage – is found in joints between bones and is made of material
intermediate in firmness between bones at the hard end and tendons and
ligaments at the softer end. It contains both collagen and chondroitin
sulfate. Its appearance is like that of a sponge, with pores called lacunae
between the solid portions. It comes in a number of forms, the most
common of which are hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, fibrocartilage and
calcified cartilage.
1. Hyaline - most common, found in the ribs, nose, larynx, trachea.
Is a precursor of bone.
2. Fibro - is found in invertebral discs, joint capsules, ligaments.
3. Elastic - is found in the external ear, epiglottis and larynx.
II. What is skeleton and what are the different types of skeleton?
 The skeleton is the body part that forms the supporting structure of
an organism. It can also be seen as the bony frame work of the body
which provides support, shape and protection to the soft tissues and
delicate organs in animals.
1. Hydrostatic skeletons – Found in creatures such as worms and
jellies, hydrostatic skeletonsare basically chambers filled with
water. Animals with this skeleton type move and change their
shape by squeezing their water-filled chambers — just like what
happens when you squeeze a water balloon.
2. Exoskeletons - These are exactly what they sound like —
skeletons on the outside of the body. You’re probably quite
familiar with these hard exterior coverings because they’re found
on crabs, lobsters, and many insects. Exoskeletons are rigid and
 can’t expand as animals grow, so animals must molt, or shed,
their exoskeletons periodically. After an animal molts, its new
exoskeleton is soft — as in a soft-shelled crab.
3. Endoskeletons - The most familiar of all skeleton types is the
endoskeleton. After all, it’s the kind of skeleton you have.
An endoskeleton exists within an animal’s body. The human
endoskeleton is hard because it’s partially constructed of the
mineral calcium. The endoskeletons of other animals may be
more flexible — for example, the endoskeleton of a shark is made
of cartilage, the same material that makes up the soft parts of
your nose.
III. Give the different function of the skeletal system
a. Support - The skeleton provides the framework which supports the body
and maintains its shape. The pelvis, associated ligaments and muscles
provide a floor for the pelvic structures. Without the rib cages, costal
cartilages, and intercostal muscles, the lungs would collapse.
b. Movement - The joints between bones allow movement, some allowing a
wider range of movement than others, e.g. the ball and socket joint allows
a greater range of movement than the pivot joint at the neck. Movement is
powered by skeletal muscles, which are attached to the skeleton at
various sites on bones. Muscles, bones, and joints provide the principal
mechanics for movement, all coordinated by the nervous system. It is
believed that the reduction of human bone density in prehistoric times
reduced the agility and dexterity of human movement. Shifting from
hunting to agriculture has caused human bone density to reduce
significantly.
c. Protection - The skeleton helps to protect our many vital
internal organs from being damaged.
d. Blood cell production - The skeleton is the site of haematopoiesis, the
development of blood cells that takes place in the bone marrow. In
children, haematopoiesis occurs primarily in the marrow of the long bones
such as the femur and tibia. In adults, it occurs mainly in the pelvis,
cranium, vertebrae, and sternum
e. Storage - The bone matrix can store calcium and is involved in calcium
metabolism, and bone marrow can store iron in ferritin and is involved
in iron metabolism. However, bones are not entirely made of calcium, but
a mixture of chondroitin sulfate and hydroxyapatite, the latter making up
70% of a bone. Hydroxyapatite is in turn composed of 39.8% of calcium,
41.4% of oxygen, 18.5% of phosphorus, and 0.2% of hydrogen by mass.
Chondroitin sulfate is a sugar made up primarily of oxygen and carbon.
f. Endocrine regulation - Bone cells release a hormone called osteocalcin,
which contributes to the regulation of blood sugar(glucose) and fat
deposition. Osteocalcin increases both the insulin secretion and
 sensitivity, in addition to boosting the number of insulin-producing
cells and reducing stores of fat
IV. What is bone growth and process of remodeling?
 Bone remodeling (or bone metabolism) is a lifelong process where
mature bone tissue is removed from the skeleton (a process
called bone resorption) and new bone tissue is formed (a process
called ossification or new bone formation).
 Bone remodeling is the replacement of old bone tissue by
new bone tissue. It involves the processes of bone deposition
or bone production done by osteoblasts and bone resorption done by
osteoclasts, which break down old bone.
V. Give the definitions
a. Axial skeleton is the part of the skeleton that consists of the bones of the
head and trunk of a vertebrate. In the human skeleton, it consists of 80
bones and is composed of six parts; the skull (22 bones), the ossicles of
the middle ear, the hyoid bone, the rib cage, sternum and the vertebral
column.
b. Appendicular skeleton is the portion of the skeleton of vertebrates
consisting of the bones that support the appendages. The appendicular
skeleton includes the skeletal elements within the limbs, as well as
supporting shoulder girdle pectoral and pelvic girdle.
c. Compact bone, also known as cortical bone, is a denser material used to
create much of the hard structure of the skeleton. Compact bone forms
the cortex, or hard outer shell of most bones in the body. The remainder of
the bone is formed by cancellous or spongy bone.
d. Spongy bone, also known as cancellous bone or trabecular bone, is a
very porous type of bone found in animals. It is highly vascularized and
contains red bone marrow. Spongy bone is usually located at the ends of
the long bones (the epiphyses), with the harder compact bone surrounding
it.
e. Osteoprogenitor cells are the stem cells of bone and form
osteoblasts. Osteoprogenitor cells are derived from primitive
mesenchymal cells. They form a population of stem cells that can
differentiate into the more specialized bone-forming cells
f. Osteoclast is a type of bone cell that breaks down bone tissue. This
function is critical in the maintenance, repair, and remodelling of bones of
the vertebral skeleton.
g. Osteoblast is a cell that makes bone. It does so by producing a matrix
that then becomes mineralized. Bone mass is maintained by a balance
between the activity of osteoblasts that form bone and other cells called
osteoclasts that break it down.
h. Osteocyte, a cell that lies within the substance of fully formed bone. It
occupies a small chamber called a lacuna, which is contained in the
 calcified matrix of bone. Osteocyte is derive from osteoblasts, or bone-
forming cells, and are essentially osteoblasts surrounded by the products
they secreted.
i. Osteons are cylindrical structures that contain a mineral matrix and living
osteocytes connected by canaliculi, which transport blood. They are
aligned parallel to the long axis of the bone. Each osteon consists of
lamellae, which are layers of compact matrix that surround a central canal
called the Haversian canal.
j. Ossification (or osteogenesis) in bone remodeling is the process of laying
down new bone material by cells called osteoblasts. It is synonymous with
bone tissue formation.
k. Chondrification (also known as chondrogenesis) is the process by which
cartilage is formed from condensed mesenchyme tissue, which
differentiates into chondrocytes and begins secreting the molecules that
form the extracellular matrix. Early in fetal development, the greater part of
the skeleton is cartilaginous.
VI. What are the general feature and histology of the bone?
 Almost 70% of bone is made up of bone mineral called hydroxyapatite.
Before the extracellular matrix is calcified, the tissue is called osteoid
(bone-like) tissue. When the concentrations of calcium and phosphate
ions rise high enough, they are deposited into the extracellular matrix,
and the bone calcifies.