Lesson Proper for Week 9

THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

The integumentary system, or skin, is the largest organ in the body. Besides the skin, it
comprises the hair and nails as well, which are appendages of the skin. In humans, this system accounts
for about 15 percent of total body weight.

Organs of the Integumentary System

1. SKIN- Skin is the largest and fastest-growing organ in the body. The outermost layer, the
epidermis is composed of stratified squamous epithelial tissue. Below this layer is the
dermis, which contains the cutaneous glands, hair follicles, and most of the skin’s nerve
endings. The hypodermis (subcutaneous layer) consists of loose connective and adipose
tissue.
2. Cutaneous Glands- Cutaneous glands within the dermis include sebaceous and sweat
glands. Sebaceous glands secrete sebum, an oily substance that waterproofs and lubricates
the skin. Sweat glands help cool the body through evaporation of sweat.
3. Fingernails- Fingernails and toenails are made of densely packed cells covered in keratin.
The cuticle, found at the base of the nail, provides a barrier between the skin and the nail.
The body of the nail appears pink due to numerous blood vessels in the nail bed
underneath. Nails protect the fingers and toes and can be used for scratching.
4. Hair- Hair is a pigmented filament formed by mostly keratinized cells. human hair follicles
can be divided into 3 main segments: the bulb, root, and shaft. The shaft (the visible part of
hair) consists of 3 layers: the cuticle, cortex, and medulla. The cortex defines texture and
contains the pigment that gives hair color.

Functions of The Integumentary System

The integumentary system has many functions, most of which are involved in protecting you
and regulating your body’s internal functions in a variety of ways:

 Protects the body's internal living tissues and organs

 Protects against invasion by infectious organisms
 Protects the body from dehydration
 Protects the body against abrupt changes in temperature
 Helps dispose of waste materials
 Acts as a receptor for touch, pressure, pain, heat, and cold
 Stores water and fat
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

- The muscular system is composed of specialized cells called muscle fibers. Their
predominant function is contractibility. Muscles, attached to bones or internal organs
and blood vessels, are responsible for movement. Nearly all movement in the body is
the result of muscle contraction.
- In addition to movement, muscle contraction also fulfills some other important
functions in the body, such as posture, joint stability, and heat production. Posture, such
as sitting and standing, is maintained as a result of muscle contraction.

Muscle Types

o Skeletal/Striated
 Skeletal muscle, attached to bones, is responsible for skeletal movements. The
peripheral portion of the central nervous system (CNS) controls the skeletal
muscles. Thus, these muscles are under conscious, or voluntary, control. The
basic unit is the muscle fiber with many nuclei. These muscle fibers are striated
(having transverse streaks) and each act independently of neighboring muscle
fibers.
o Smooth Muscle
 Smooth muscle, found in the walls of the hollow internal organs such as blood
vessels, the gastrointestinal tract, bladder, and uterus, is under control of the
autonomic nervous system. Smooth muscle cannot be controlled consciously
and thus acts involuntarily. The non-striated (smooth) muscle cell is spindle-
shaped and has one central nucleus. Smooth muscle contracts slowly and
rhythmically.
o Cardiac Muscle
 Cardiac muscle, found in the walls of the heart, is also under control of the
autonomic nervous system. The cardiac muscle cell has one central nucleus, like
smooth muscle, but it also is striated, like skeletal muscle. The cardiac muscle
cell is rectangular in shape. The contraction of cardiac muscle is involuntary,
strong, and rhythmical.

- The gluteus maximus is the largest muscle in the human body. It is large and powerful
because it has the job of keeping the trunk of the body in an erect posture. It is the chief
antigravity muscle that aids in walking up stairs.
- Your middle ear is home to the smallest muscle. Less than 1-millimeter-long, the
stapedius controls the vibration of the smallest bone in the body, the stapes, also
known as the stirrup bone.

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

In humans, the skeletal system consists of bones, joints and associated cartilages. An adult has
206 bones, but a newborn baby has nearly 300 bones in her body. This is because babies have more
flexible cartilage (a firm tissue softer than bone) in the body. As the child grows, some of the cartilage
hardens and turns to bone, and some bones fuse together.
 Parts of the Skeletal System

1. Bone
- Bones serve a variety of functions, but the most important is supporting movement of
the limbs and body. Two bones or cartilages are held together at a joint through tough
connective tissues called ligaments. Muscles are securely attached to bones through
flexible but inelastic connective tissue called tendons. Muscles, joints, tendons, and
ligaments are part of the intricate machinery that allows the movement of different
bones.
2. Joints
- Functionally, joints can be divided into three classes based on the range of movement
they allow in the associated bones. Immovable joints are formed when two bones are
held together by fibrous connective tissue with no synovial fluid. These kinds of joints
hold the bones of the cranium together.
- Partially movable joints are also called cartilaginous joints and are present in the spine
and ribs. The third type of joints are called synovial joints and have a fluid-filled synovial
cavity that allows the interfacing bones the largest range of movement. Based on the
structure of the synovial joints, they can be classified into 6 types, including the hinge
joints of the fingers and the ball and socket joints of the hips and shoulders.
3. Cartilage
- Cartilage is a resilient and smooth elastic tissue, a rubber-like padding that covers and
protects the ends of long bones at the joints and nerves, and is a structural component
of the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the bronchial tubes, the intervertebral discs, and many
other body components.
4. Ligaments
- Ligaments are bands of fibrous connective tissue that hold bones together. They keep
the bones of the skeleton in place.
5. Tendon
- A tendon or sinew is a tough band of fibrous connective tissue that connects muscle to
bone.

Types of Bones

1. Flat Bones

There are flat bones in the skull (occipital, parietal, frontal, nasal, lacrimal, and vomer), the
thoracic cage (sternum and ribs), and the pelvis (ilium, ischium, and pubis). The function of flat bones is
to protect internal organs such as the brain, heart, and pelvic organs.

2. Long Bones

The long bones, longer than they are wide, include the femur (the longest bone in the body) as
well as relatively small bones in the fingers. Long bones function to support the weight of the body and
facilitate movement. Long bones are mostly located in the appendicular skeleton and include bones in
the lower limbs (the tibia, fibula, femur, metatarsals, and phalanges) and bones in the upper limbs (the
humerus, radius, ulna, metacarpals, and phalanges).

3. Short Bones
 Short bones are cube shaped. Located in the wrist and ankle joints, short bones provide stability
and some movement. The carpals in the wrist (scaphoid, lunate, triquetral, hamate, pisiform, capitate,
trapezoid, and trapezium) and the tarsals in the ankles (calcaneus, talus, navicular, cuboid, lateral
cuneiform, intermediate cuneiform, and medial cuneiform) are examples of short bones.

4. Irregular Bones

Irregular bones vary in shape and structure and therefore do not fit into any other category (flat,
short, long, or sesamoid). They often have a complex shape, which helps protect internal organs. For
example, the vertebrae, irregular bones of the vertebral column, protect the spinal cord. The irregular
bones of the pelvis (pubis, ilium, and ischium) protect organs in the pelvic cavity.

5. Sesamoid

Sesamoid bones are bones embedded in tendons. These small, round bones are commonly
found in the tendons of the hands, knees, and feet. Sesamoid bones function to protect tendons from
stress and wear. The patella, commonly referred to as the kneecap, is an example of a sesamoid bone.

Function of the Skeletal System

1. Support, Shape, and Protection

2. Movement
3. Hematopoiesis (process of blood cell production)
4. Mineral Storage and Homeostasis

THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

The lymphatic system is a network of tissues and organs that help rid the body of toxins, waste
and other unwanted materials. The primary function of the lymphatic system is to transport lymph, a
fluid containing infection-fighting white blood cells, throughout the body.

Functions of the Lymphatic System

 Maintains fluid levels in your body: As just described, the lymphatic system collects
excess fluid that drains from cells and tissue throughout the body and returns it to the
bloodstream, which is then recirculated through the body.
 Absorbs fats from the digestive tract: Lymph includes fluids from the intestines that
contain fats and proteins and transports it back to the bloodstream.
 Protects your body against foreign invaders: The lymphatic system is part of the immune
system. It produces and releases lymphocytes (white blood cells) and other immune
cells that monitor and then destroy the foreign invaders — such as bacteria, viruses,
parasites and fungi — that enter the body.
 Transports and removes waste products and abnormal cells from the lymph.

Parts of the Lymphatic System

1. Lymph: Lymph, also called lymphatic fluid, is a collection of the extra fluid that drains from
cells and tissues (that is not reabsorbed into the capillaries) plus other substances. The other
substances include proteins, minerals, fats, nutrients, damaged cells, cancer cells and
 foreign invaders (bacteria, viruses, etc.). Lymph also transports infection-fighting white
blood cells (lymphocytes).
2. Lymph nodes: Lymph nodes are bean-shaped glands that monitor and cleanse the lymph as
it filters through them. The nodes filter out the damaged cells and cancer cells. These lymph
nodes also produce and store lymphocytes and other immune system cells that attack and
destroy bacteria and other harmful substances in the fluid. You have about 600 lymph nodes
scattered throughout your body. Some exist as a single node; others are closely connected
groups called chains. A few of the more familiar locations of lymph nodes are in your armpit,
groin and neck. Lymph nodes are connected to others by the lymphatic vessels.
3. Lymphatic vessels: Lymphatic vessels are the network of capillaries (micro vessels) and large
network of tubes located throughout the body that transport lymph away from tissues.
Lymphatic vessels collect and filter lymph (at the nodes) as it continues to move toward
larger vessels called collecting ducts. These vessels operate very much like your veins do:
they work under very low pressure, have a series of valves in them to keep the fluid moving
in one direction.
4. Collecting ducts: Lymphatic vessels empty the lymph into the right lymphatic duct and left
lymphatic duct (also called the thoracic duct). These ducts connect to the subclavian vein,
which returns lymph to your bloodstream. The subclavian vein runs below your collarbone.
Returning lymph to the bloodstream helps to maintain normal blood volume and pressure.
It also prevents the excess buildup of fluid around the tissues (called edema).
5. Spleen: This largest lymphatic organ is located on your left side under your ribs and above
your stomach. The spleen filters and stores blood and produces white blood cells that fight
infection or disease.
6. Thymus: This organ is located in the upper chest beneath the breast bone. It matures a
specific type of white blood cell that fights off foreign organisms.
7. Tonsils and adenoid: These lymphoid organs trap pathogens from the food you eat and air
you breathe. They are your body’s first line of defense against foreign invaders.
8. Bone marrow: This is the soft, spongy tissue in the center of certain bones, such as the hip
bone and breastbone. White blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets are made in the bone
marrow.
9. Peyer’s patches: These are small masses of lymphatic tissue in the mucous membrane that
lines your small intestine. These lymphoid cells monitor and destroy bacteria in the
intestines.
10. Appendix: Your appendix contains lymphoid tissue that can destroy bacteria before it
breaches the intestine wall during absorption. Scientists also believe the appendix plays a
role in housing “good bacteria” and repopulating our gut with good bacteria after an
infection has cleared.