Final Journal of The Indian Roads Congress

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Regd. No. 17549/57 with the Registrar of Newspapers Volume 74-3 October - December 2013 ` 20.00
JOURNAL OF THE INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS

Volume 74-3
JOURNAL
OF THE
INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS
October - December 2013
ISSN 0258-0500
Journal Of The
Indian Roads Congress
Volume 74-3
Page
CONTENTS
Highlights of the 1 Regional Workshop on “Promoting Usage of New Materials/Techniques/Technologies/
st
243
Equipment in Road Construction” held at Bengaluru (Karnataka) on 23-24 October, 2013
Paper No. 600 “Distresses in Cement Concrete Pavements – A Case Study” 251
A.K. Mishra, Renu Mathur, Rakesh Kumar, J.B. Sengupta and Dinesh Ganvir
Paper No. 601 “Rehabilitation and Upgradation of an Existing Airfield Runway Pavement for Operation of Next 269
Generation Aircrafts”
Rahul Oberoi and A. Veeraragavan
Paper No. 602 “Case Study on New Initiatives Taken on Caisson Foundations and Cutting Edge Construction at 289
Bogibeel Bridge”
Anupam Das
Paper No. 603 “Landslide Hazard Database and Inventory- Focus on a Suitable Methodology for India” 304
Shanal Pradhan, Kishor Kumar and S. Gangopadhyay
Paper No. 604 “Evaluation of Design of Geocell Reinforced Unpaved Roads” 315
Jyothi P. Menon and G.L. Sivakumar Babu
Paper No. 605 “Analytical Design of Short Panelled Concrete Pavements” 322
M.V. Arun Chand and B.B. Pandey
Paper No. 606 “Detailing Provisions of Irc:112-2011 Compared with Previous Codes (i.e. Irc:21 & Irc:18)” 329
Part 1 : General Detailing Requirements (Section 15 of IRC:112)
Alok Bhowmick
New Development 328
List of Advertisers
Inside Front Cover - Zydex Industries
Inside Back Cover - L&T Infrastructure Development Projects Ltd.
Outside Back Cover - Nehemiah Reinforced Soils (India)
Second Vivekananda Bridge Tollway Company Pvt. Ltd. 250
Khodiyar Developers & Infrastructure Pvt. Ltd. 335
Consulting Engineering Services (India) Pvt. Ltd. 336
Techfab India 337
Gloster Limited 338
Strata Geosystems (India) Pvt. Ltd. 339
Akshay Innovations Pvt. Ltd. 340
The Indian Roads Congress Founded: December 1934

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No part of this publication may be reproduced by any means without prior written permission from the Secretary General, IRC.
Published by the Indian Roads Congress
Copies can be had by sending advance payment to the Indian Roads Congress, Jamnagar House, Shahjahan Road,
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New Delhi October-December 2013
© The Rights of Publication and Translation are reserved.
The Indian Roads Congress as a body does not hold

itself responsible for statements made, or for opinions
expressed in the Papers published in this Volume.
Edited and Published by Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad, Secretary General, Indian Roads Congress, Jamnagar House,
Shahjahan Road, New Delhi on behalf of the Indian Roads Congress. Printed by Shri Madan Lal Goel on behalf of the
Indian Roads Congress at Aravali Printers & Publishers (P) Ltd., W-30, Okhla Industrial Area, Phase-II, New Delhi.
14,000 copies, October-December, 2013
HIGHLIGHTS OF THE 1st REGIONAL WORKSHOP
on
Highlights of 1 Regional Workshop 243
st
"promoting usage of new materials/ techniques/ technologies/

equipment in road construction" held at bengaluru (karnataka)
on 23-24 October, 2013
Receiving and Welcoming Dignitaries
Shri Oscar Fernandes ji, Hon’ble Minister of Road Transport & Hon'ble Minister of Road Transport and Highways
Highways being welcomed at Venue by Dr. H.C. Mahadevappa ji, Shri Oscar Fernandes ji, Mrs. Fernandes and other dignitaries
Hon'ble Minister of Public Works, Govt. of Karnataka on the way to Conference Hall
Hon'ble Minister of Raod Transport and Highways Shri Oscar Fernandes ji, Mrs. Fernandes and Dr. H.C. Mahadevappa ji,
Hon'ble Minister of Public Works, Govt. of Karnataka alongwith other Dignitaries on the way to Dais in the Conference Hall
Shri Qamarul Islam ji, Hon’ble Minister for Municipalities and Shri Vinay Kumar Sorake ji, Hon’ble Minister for Urban
Local Bodies of Public Enterprises & Minorities Welfare, Haj and Development, Govt. of Karnataka being welcomed at Venue
Wakf, Govt. of Karnataka being welcomed at Venue
Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, October-December 2013

244 Highlights of 1st Regional Workshop
The Indian Roads Congress (IRC) in association with Public Works, Ports and Inland Water Deaprtment, Govt. of
Karnataka organized two days' Regional Workshop on "Promoting Usage of New Materials/Techniques/Technologies/
Equipment in Road Construction" on the 23rd & 24th October, 2013 at Gayathri Vihar, Palace Ground, Bengaluru. The
Regional workshop was attended by more than 500 Highway Sector Engineers/professionals from all Stakeholders
namely the State and Central Government Departments/Organisations, Municipal Corporations, other local bodies, the
Consultants/Contractors, Concessionaires, etc from states of Karnataka, Kerala, Goa and Maharashtra.
Glimpses of Inaugural Function
Dr. H.C. Mahadevappa ji, Hon'ble Minister for Public Works, Govt. of Karnataka and Shri Qamarul Islam ji, Hon'ble Minister for
Municipalities and Local Bodies, Department of Public Enterprises and Minorities Welfare, Haj and Wakf Lighting the Traditional Lamp
Dr. E. Venkataiah, Principal Secretary to Govt. of Karnataka, PWP & IWTD and Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad, Secretary General, IRC
Lighting Traditional Lamp during Regional Workshop

Highlights of 1st Regional Workshop 245
Shri Oscar Fernandes ji, Hon’ble Minister of Road Transport & Shri Oscar Fernandes ji, Hon’ble Minister of Road Transport &
Highways being welcomed in Traditional Manner by Highways being presented mementos by Dr. H.C. Mahadevappa ji,
Dr. H.C. Mahadevappa ji, Hon'ble Minister for Hon'ble Minister for Public Works, Govt. of Karnataka
Public Works, Govt. of Karnataka
Mrs. Blossom Mathias Fernandes ji W/o Shri Oscar Fernandes ji, Shri Qamarul Islam ji, Hon’ble Minister for Municipalities and
Hon'ble Minister of Road Transport and Highways being welcomed Local Bodies, Department of Public Enterprises & Minorities
in Traditional Manner Welfare, Haj and Wakf being presented Mementos
Dr. H.C. Mahadevappa ji, Hon’ble Minister for Public Works, Shri Sagar Dnyaneshwar Naik, Mayor, Navi Mumbai Municipal
Govt. of Karnataka being presented Mementos Corporation being presented Mementos

Release of Souvenir
Shri Oscar Fernandes, Hon’ble Union Minister of Road Transport & Highways, Govt. of India released
Souvenir published on the occasion of the first regional workshop on “Promoting Usage of New Materials/
Techniques/Technologies/Equipment in Road Construction” containing messages from the dignitaries and
technical presentations delivered during the workshop.
Shri Oscar Fernandes ji, Hon’ble Minister of Road Transport & Highways, releasing Souvenir

List of Technical Presentations made during the Regional Workshop

During 2 days' workshop, a total of 17 number of technical presentations were made by the experts on the New
Technology/ Techniques/ Equipment/New Materials, etc. The same were well received by the participants who have
suggested to make this a regular feature:
1. “Retro-reflective Material for Road Safety Signage” by Shri John Crotty, Senior Applications Engineer &
Shri Daniel Berger, Director, Quality, Research & Development, M/s. Orafol Europe GmbH, Ireland.
2. “Towards Forgiving Highways – New Technologies for Highway Safety” by Shri Param Preet Singh, Director,
M/s. Avantech Engineering Consortium Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
3. “Processed Steel Slag as Alternate Aggregate for Flexible Pavements” by Shri Rajanikanth Reddy, Senior
Manager, Slag Co-Products, Harsco India Pvt. Ltd., Hyderabad.
4. “Typical Cases of Load Tests on Bridges” by Shri Sudarshan Iyengar, Senior Director, CIVIL AID, Bangalore.
5. “Wire Rope Safety Fence”by Shri V. Eshwaran, General Manager - Business Development, Hill & Smith
Infrastructure Products India Pvt. Ltd., Gurgaon.
6. “Innovative Geotechnical Solutions” by Shri Sharokh P. Bagli, Chief Technology Officer, Strata Geosystems
(India) Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai.
7. “Rehabilitation of Bridges” by Shri Mohan Koti, GM (Tech.), Binyas Contech Pvt. Ltd.
8. “Application of Geo Textiles in Road Constructions and Some Case Studies” by Prof. B.R. Srinivas Murthy,
Retd. Professor, IISC, Bangalore.
9. “Use of Nano Technology in Road Construction” by Shri Ganesh Hegde, DGM (Projects), Zydex Industries,
Bangalore.
10. Solutions for Better Long Lasting Roads” by Shri Satish Nadkarni, Senior Marketing Manager (Technical),
M/s. Tiki Tar Danosa India Pvt. Ltd.
11. “Stone Matrix Asphalt” by Shri Sant Kumar Sehgal, Technical Advisor, Strategic Marketing and Research
Team, Bangalore.
12. “Application of Nonwovens in Geotextiles” by Shri Viswanathan, Head, Business Development, Asia Fibertex
Nonwovens A/s Denmark.
13. “Geogrids and Glassgrids” by Shri Pawan Tripathy, Director – Sales & Engineering, Synteen & Lueckenhaus
India Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore.
14. “Usage of Slag Sand in Civil Construction” by Shri S.M.R. Prasad, Jindal Steel Works Ltd.
15. “Innovative Technologies for Construction and Maintenance of Flexible Pavements” by
Shri K. Sitaramanjaneyulu, Head, Pavement Evaluation Division, Central Road Research Institute (CRRI),
New Delhi.
16. “New Technology - UTWT, TWT & Conventional White Topping” by Shri R.K. Jain, Former Chief
Engineer, Haryan PWD.
17. “Whitetoping - a Case Study from Bangalore” by Dr. V. Ramachandra, Zonal Head (Tech. Services-South),
Ultra tech Cement Ltd., Bangalore and Shri Nagesh Puttaswamy, Regional Head (Tech. Services Karnataka
South) Ultra tech Cement Ltd., Bangalore.
Technical Exhibition
During this occasion, a technical exhibition showcasing the capabilities and the strength of New Technology/
Techniques/ Equipment/New Materials was organized on the sidelines of the 2 days' workshop. The same was
inaugurated by Dr. H. C. Mahadevappa ji, Hon'ble Minister for Public Works, Government of Karnataka.

Dr. H.C. Mahadevappa ji, Hon’ble Minister for Public Works, Dignitaries interacting with Exhibiters at the
Govt. of Karnataka inaugurating the Technical Exhibition Technical Exhibition
View of the Audiences during the Regional Workshop

DG (RD) & SS and President, IRC having a Discussion Dr. H.C. Mahadevappa ji, Hon'ble Minister for Public Works, Govt.
with the Experts of Karnataka having Discussion with Dr. E. Venkataiah, Principal
Secretary to Govt. of Karnataka, PWP & IWTD and
Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad, Secretary General, IRC
Glimpses of Some Lighter Moments

Culture Programme
In the evening of 1st day, a cultural Programme depicting the rich culture of Karnataka was held. Some of
the glimpses are:-
The 2 days' regional workshop proved to be of immense interest to all highways professionals and organizations
concerned and provided excellent opportunity and forum to share their experience and disseminate the recent
advancements and innovative technological developments in road sector.

Paper No. 600
Distresses In Cement Concrete Pavements –

A Case Study
A.K. Mishra*, Renu Mathur*, Rakesh Kumar*, J.B. Sengupta* and Dinesh Ganvir*
Synopsis
Since last one decade construction of rigid pavements is gaining popularity. However, some failures are also observed in the recent past. One such case is
of Fatehpur –Kokhraj section of NH-2. The 58 km long road stretch was constructed in 2004 by NHAI. The paper presents the results of field investigations
carried out to ascertain the causes of distresses and the remedial measures suggested.
1 Introduction • Selection of panels to be rehabilitated or replaced

and to suggest the remedial measures to prevent
The Rigid pavement on Allahabad Bypass from km further deterioration of the cracked panels.
100 to 158 (Fatehpur –Kokhraj section) of NH-2 was
constructed in 2004 (km100 to 115- package IIC and • To provide suitable techniques for rehabilitation
km 115 to 158- package IIIA). The total length of the of severely distressed panels.
section is 58 km with chainage km 570.753 to 628.753.
With passage of time NHAI observed the development 3 Field Investigation
of cracks on the pavement. Central Road Research
Institute was entrusted in 2008 with the work of 3.1 Assessment of the Pavement Condition
detailed investigations of distresses developed in the
The general information about the project, such as
concrete slabs and to suggest remedial measures for
structural design of the pavement, concrete mix
their rectification.
design, material properties, laboratory test results of
2 Objective and Scope of the compressive and flexural strength of concrete etc. was
work collected from the records maintained by NHAI. To
assess the road condition, type of various distresses
• Condition assessment and crack mapping of and crack mapping, the total road stretch was surveyed
the entire road length from the km 100 to 158 on a slow moving vehicle and by walking over the
to investigate the severity, causes and quantum pavement. The type, location, length, width and severity
of damaged concrete panels. of the distresses were recorded. During the preliminary
investigation the inspection team made the following
• Extraction of cores from the sound and observations:
cracked portion of the slabs to determine
the compressive strength and for the crack • Most of the concrete slabs in outer lane of
assessment respectively. left carriageway (Kanpur to Allahabad) had
developed longitudinal cracks in middle one-
• Condition assessment of longitudinal joints, third of the outer lane (Photo 1-2).
transverse joints and tied shoulders.
*Scientist : Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi-110025, E-mail : akmishra.crri@nic.in

Written comments on this Paper are invited and will be received upto 10th January, 2014.

252 Mishra, Mathur, Kumar, Sengupta and Ganvir on
km 585.753 to 628.753, short length to full length

longitudinal cracks (>1 m) were observed.
• At chainage 586 to 588, 622-623, 623-624

full length longitudinal cracks were observed
extending to several slabs. (Photo 4-5).
Photo 1-2 Cracks in middle one third portion of outer lane
• The rigid pavement in the right carriageway

was in good condition with no visible sign of
cracking (Photo 3).
Photo 4-5 longitudinal cracks extending to many slabs
• No faulting or other types of deformations were

observed in the pavement. Traffic was moving
over this cracked section of pavement without
slowing down or any other inconvenience.
Photo 3 Right Carriage way in good condition
• Cross-Stitching of the longitudinal cracks was
• The inner panels from 585.753 to 628.753 observed at km 585.800. It is further noticed
(43 km) have only short length cracks (<1m) that due to the cross-stitching the widening of
at a few places, where as in the outer lane from the cracks has stopped but the longitudinal crack

Distresses In Cement Concrete Pavements –A Case Study 253
has further propagated to several slabs ahead. • Badly deteriorated patches of partial depth repair
(Photo 6). were also observed at chainage 607.250 which
requires immediate attention for repair.
• Lane to median separation, approximately of
18 m length was observed at chainage 585.387
to 585.405.
• Rain cuts gullies were also observed at many
places along the earthen shoulder.
3.2 Criteria for the Selection of Core Extraction
After completion of crack mapping of the entire stretch,

Photo 6 Cross Stitching at chainage-585.800 cores were extracted at the longitudinal and transverse
cracks to determine the depth of the cracks. Cores were
• A transverse crack with spalled edges was also extracted from the transverse, longitudinal and tied
observed at chainage 603.805 (Photo 7). shoulder joint locations to assess the propagation of the
joint cuts in the pavement. Cores were also taken from
the sound (Photo 8) and cracked panels to determine
the strength of the PQC. Total 54 cores were extracted
from the entire stretch. The core bit of 100 mm and
150 mm diameter were used for extracting the cores.
The details of core chainage & location, crack width,
crack depth, joint width and depth of joint are given in
Table 1. The equivalent cube strength of the cores was also
determined and the results are reported in Table 2. The
number of cracked panels of different width are given in
Photo 7 Spalling of Transverse Crack Table 3.
Table 1 Details of Cores

Sr. Core Core Chainage Crack Width Crack Depth Depth of Width Depth of
No No & Location mm mm Core (mm) of Joint joint
(mm) (mm)
1 1 570.860, crack, outer lane < 0.50 52 230* - -
2 3 571.430, crack, outer lane < 0.50 47 311 - -
3 4 571.460, transverse crack, outer lane 1.00 to 1.50 150 334 - -
4 5 572.060, crack, outer lane < 0.50 60 333 - -
5 6 573.240, crack, outer lane 0.50 to 1.00 130 330 - -

11 13 580.910, longitudinal joint - Full depth 155* 5 100
14 16 583.050, crack, outer lane 1.00 to 1.50 110 210* - -
15 17 584.370, crack ,outer lane 0.50 to 1.00 85 345 - -
16 18 584.505, transverse crack, inner lane 1.50 145 330 - -
17 19 584.505, transverse joint, inner lane - Full depth 330 6 100
20 23 586.150 , crack, outer lane 2.50 Full depth 324 - -
22 46 587.750, crack, outer lane 2.50 Full depth 345 - -
23 47 587.750, tied shoulder - Crack induced 327 5 85

under saw cut
24 49 587.750, longitudinal joint - Full depth 340 5 60
25 51 595.030, crack outer lane 3.00 Full depth 337
28 52 598.290, tied shoulder - Crack induced 340 4 85

under saw cut
29 55 598.290, longitudinal joint - Full depth 325 - -

(multiple parallel crack)
31 44 603.500,crack , outer lane 2.00 160 330 - -
32 45 603.525, tied shoulder, outer lane - Crack induced 345 5 90

under saw cut.
33 42 617.170, crack, outer lane 2.50 Full depth 340 - -
34 41 617.175, tied shoulder - Crack induce 325 5 110

under saw cut
35 26 620.375, crack, outer lane 2.00 160 330 - -
36 25 620.370, longitudinal joint, outer - Full depth 230* 5 70

lane
37 27 622.015,crack, outer lane 2.00 to 3.50 215 330 - -

38 28 622.170, tied shoulder - Crack not 330 6 90

induced under
saw cut
39 30 622.190, transverse joint - Crack not 325 5 110

induced under
saw cut
40 32 622.175, crack, outer lane 5.00 to 8.00 Full depth 340 - -
42 33 623.450, tied shoulder and - Full depth 330 5 90

transverse joint
43 34 623.450, crack, outer lane 4.00 to 5.00 Full depth 345 - -
44 35 623.470, tied shoulder - Crack not 340 4 95

induced under
saw cut
46 38 624.560,crack, outer lane 0.50 to 1.00 120 325 - -
47 39 624.560 , tied shoulder - Crack not 330 5 105

induced under
saw cut
*Core broken during extraction
Table 2 Compressive Strength of Sound

Concrete Cores
Sr. Chainage Core Core Equivalent Cube

No No. Compressive Compressive
Strength, Strength, kg/cm2
kg/cm2
1 574-415 8 433.86 541.97
2 585-750 21 414.86 518.57
3 587-730 48 358.71 448.39
Photo 8 Cores taken from Sound Panels

4 598-290 54 286.97 358.71
Table 3 Number of Panels Cracked based on
5 622-180 29 411.74 514.68 crack width
Longitudinal <0.5 mm 0.5-2.0 2-3 mm >3 mm
6 623-480 37 386.79 483.48 Crack Width mm
No. of panel 2865 3415 323 97
7 624-560 40 246.42 308.03
cracked

3.3 Investigation of the Distresses Observed

Details of the various distresses observed in PQC have
been discussed below:
3.3.1 Longitudinal Cracks
The longitudinal cracks were the major distresses
observed in total road stretch under investigation.
3.3.1.1 Chainage 586-588 (full depth cracks)
Longitudinal cracks extending to many slabs were
observed at this section (Photo 9 & 10). In these stretch,
continuous longitudinal cracks along with short length
multiple parallel cracks were observed. Cracks were Photo 10 Continuous Longitudinal Crack (Chainage 587.750)
located in the middle one-third portion of outer lane of
the concrete slabs. The width of the cracks was 2.5 mm. 3.3.1.2 Chainage 622-623 (full depth cracks)
Cores No.23 and 46, when taken over the crack were Longitudinal cracks extending to many slabs were
recovered in four pieces showing full depth crack. observed in outer lane at this section (Photo11). Cores
were taken from the tied shoulder joints as well as from
adjacent cracks to check the depth and possible causes
of crack. Core No. 28 taken from tied shoulder joint
shows that the joint had not induced under the saw cut.
ing full depth crack. The depth of saw cut was 90 mm which was adequate
to induce a crack under the joint if sawing was not
delayed. Core No 32 taken at the crack showed that
it was full depth crack and indicate that delayed joint
cutting might have caused it. The width of the crack
was 5 to 8 mm. The spalling of 10-20 mm has been
observed over the cracks and is expected to increase
further with traffic movement over the time.
Photo 9 Continuous Longitudinal Cracks (Chainage 586.150) Longitudinal Crack

Full Depth Crack not induced under saw

Full depth Crack Crack not induced under
Crack cut tied shoulder joint
saw cut tied shoulder joint
Photo 11 Continuous longitudinal Cracks (Chainage 622.175)
Photo 12 Continuous Longitudinal Crack (Chainage 623.450)
3.3.1.3 Chainage 623-624 ( full depth cracks)
In this stretch of concrete pavement discrete continuous 3.3.1.4 Chainage 617.100 to 617.400 (full depth
longitudinal cracks were observed. These cracks cracks)
extended to the full length of the panel crossing over
to several slabs (Photo 12). Core No. 34 was taken In this section of road, a continuous crack has been
from the outer lane panel having the width of crack observed (Photo 13). The width of crack is about 2.5
4-5mm and it was found to be full depth crack. Another mm. The crack is located on the outer lane of the road.
core, No. 35, was cut on the tied shoulder joint. It was The inner lane of the road was found to be sound with
observed that the joint had not propagated below the no cracks. The spalling along the crack had just started
saw cut. Depth of saw cut was 95 mm. The crack has at a few places.
spalled upto 30-40 mm.
Longitudinal Crack
Longitudinal Crack

of crack. The core taken over the crack propagated to

135 mm from the top of the slab. It was also observed
that the tied shoulder joint had not gone to the full depth
of PQC which is an indication of delayed sawing of
joint. Width of crack is 0.5 -1.0 mm. A little bit spalling
of crack’s edges was also observed at this location
Full Depth Crack Crack induced under saw cut

tied shoulder joint
Photo 13 Continuous Longitudinal Crack (Chainage 617.170)
The core no. 42 was taken over the crack. Examination Discrete Continuous Longitudinal Crack
of the core indicated that the crack had penetrated up to
full depth of the slab. Another core (No. 41) was taken
on tied shoulder to see the joint propagation below the
depth of saw cut. The propagation was found to be
100 mm below the saw cut.
3.3.1.5 Chainage 570.755 to 586 (partial depth

cracks)
In this stretch of pavement, longitudinal cracks with

short length multiple parallel cracks were observed in
the outer lane as well as at some places in inner lane
also. Total 18 cores were taken at different locations
from this section. The selection of the core location Partial Depth Crack Crack not induced under saw
was based on the type and width of the crack. The crack cut tied shoulder
width varies from 0.1 mm to 2 mm. The depth of crack Photo 14 Continuous longitudinal cracks (Chainage 624.540)
varies from 27 to 152 mm. These cracks are partial
depth cracks. 3.3.1.7 Chainage 582.560 (multiple parallel
longitudinal cracks)
3.3.1.6 Chainage 624-625 (Partial Depth Cracks)
At this location multiple parallel longitudinal cracks
In this section of pavement, continuous longitudinal were observed. The panel has cracked almost in all the
cracks in outer lane have been observed. Inner lane is in directions. The widths of the cracks were 0.5 to 1.0
good condition. Core Nos. 38 & 39 (Chainage 624.540) mm. The top surface has a Y shaped crack. Full length
were taken from the crack and the tied shoulder joint longitudinal crack was observed in the panel. The panel
respectively to check the depth and possible causes

has multiple parallel Y-shaped cracks (Photo 15).
Photo 15 Multiple parallel longitudinal cracks

(Chainage 582.560) Photo 16 Multiple parallel longitudinal cracks
(Chainage 603.500)
The core No. 14 was taken on the crack and it was The examination of the core No. 44 indicates that the
observed that the crack propagated up to a depth of longitudinal cracks have propagated to a depth of 160
90 mm. Honeycombing was also observed in the core. mm and the core No. 45 taken at multiple cracks has
penetrated up to a depth of 100 mm. The core taken on
3.3.1.8 Chainage 603.500 : (multiple parallel tied shoulder, No. 43, showed propagation of crack up
longitudinal cracks) to 60 mm below the depth of saw cut (Photo 16).
This portion of road has a longitudinal crack with 3.3.2 Transverse Cracks
multiple parallel longitudinal cracks. These cracks
3.3.2.1 Chainage 584.505 ( Partial Depth )
were observed almost in all the slabs in this section.
The cores were taken on the longitudinal crack as Transverse crack (width 1.5 mm) at 1.6 m from the
well as multiple parallel cracks to check the depth of transverse joint was observed at this location (Photo 17).
crack propagation. The width of longitudinal crack Crack extended to the full width of the inner lane. Cores
and multiple parallel cracks were about 1 mm to were taken both over the cracks and the transverse
2 mm. joint. Core No.18 taken over the crack showed a partial

depth crack that might have appeared before cutting of

the joints. Core No. 19 shows a saw cut transverse joint
that had propagated full depth of the slab. Shrinkage
cracks were also observed in outer lane. Some of these
transverse cracks were already been repaired by cross-
stitching.
Photo 18 Full width transverse crack in outer lane

(Chainage 571.460)
3.3.3 Other Distresses
In addition to the longitudinal and transverse cracks,

some other distresses were also observed and are
discussed in the following sub sections.
3.3.3.1 Corner breaks
Corner breaks of medium severity have been observed

at only a few locations (Photo 19). These should be
repaired so as to prevent further deterioration of the
corners.
Photo 17 Full width transverse crack in inner lane

(Chainage 584.505)
3.3.2.2 Chainage 571.460 (partial depth, over box

culvert)
Transverse crack in middle portion of panel was

observed in the outer lane at this location. The width
of crack was 1.0 mm to 1.5 mm. The crack depth was
150 mm (Photo 18). Core extracted showed a partial
depth crack.

attention as it is causing hindrance to vehicle movement

(Photo 21).
Photo 19 Corner Breaks
3.3.3.2 Pop out

Pop outs have also been observed at some locations.
The diameter of pop out varies from 50 to 100 mm
(Photo 20).
Photo 21 Spalling at Transverse crack (Chainage 603.805)
3.3.3.4 Scaling (chainage 595.755 to 595.769)
In this section, scaling of the surface was observed both

in outer and inner lane of the road which was of medium
severity and requires repairs. Repairing of spalled joints
at this location has been found satisfactory (Photo 22).
Photo 20 Popout
3.3.3.3 Spalling of transverse crack (chainage

603. 805)
At this location spalling over transverse crack has been
observed in the outer lane which requires immediate

separation has been observed. The length is 18 m and

width varies from 10 to 95 mm (Photo 24).
Photo 22 Scaling and repaired spalled joints
3.3.3.5 Partial depth repair failure (chainage

607.250)
Badly deteriorated partial depth repair has been

observed at this location which covers around four
panels as shown in Photo 23. The size of the partial
depth repair is 1.7 m x 1.7 m.
Photo 24 Lane to median separation

(chainage 585.387 - 585.405)
3.3.3.7 Joint sealant damage
The routine maintenance of the road has not been carried

for the last 5 years. The joints sealant in longitudinal
and transverse joints has either hardened or has oozed
out from the joints and at some places it is totally lost
(Photo 25).
Photo 23 Partial depth Repair Failure (Chainage 607.250)
3.3.3.6 Lane to median separation
At chainage 585.387 to 585.405, lane to median

4 Discussion on the Field

Investigation
The road stretch (340 mm thick) consists of two lanes

with tied shoulders (1.5 M). The longitudinal cracks (full
depth, partial depth) and multiple parallel longitudinal
cracks were observed in the mid one-third of outer lane
of concrete slab. The cores taken out from the cracked
PQC slabs showed partial depth cracks as well as full
depth cracks (cores recovered in pieces).
Further, the cores taken from the adjacent tied shoulders

showed that joint cuts had not induced under the saw
cut inspite of adequate saw cut depth indicating delayed
Photo 25 Joint Sealant Damage sawing operation for the joints.
3.3.3.8 Rain-cuts gullies in earthen shoulder As per the records, routine maintenance of this road
stretch has not been carried out since its construction
At various places, rain-cuts gullies in earthen shoulder in 2004. The joint sealant in the longitudinal and
have been observed. These might have occurred due to transverse joints has either hardened or oozed out from
improper compaction of earthen shoulder that resulted the joints and at some places it is totally lost resulting in
in washing out of the soil, due to rains (Photo 26). infiltration of incompressible foreign material making
the joints non-functional.
In the present investigation the major distresses

observed are longitudinal cracks.
Total No. of slabs in 58 km two lane road : 25800

No. of slabs in outer lane : 12900
Affected no. of slabs in outer lane : 6700
The size of the crack width and corresponding no. of
panels are as below:
<0.5 mm 2865 Nos. (50.97%)
>0.5 to <2.0 mm 3415 Nos. (42.76%)
2.0 to 3.0 mm 323 Nos. (4.82%)
> 3.0 mm 97 Nos. (1.44%)
Out of 12900 slabs in the outer lane, the affected

no. of panels is 6700. Further the number of panels
with crack width below 0.5 mm is 2865 and of width
0.5 mm - 2.0 mm is 3415. Thus, the no. of panels with
crack width upto 2 mm (degree of severity minor-
medium as per IRC:SP:83-2008 ) is 93.7% as against
Photo 26 Rain-cuts gullies in earthen shoulder

4.82% having crack width 2-3 mm & only 1.44% using cross stitching and sealing with epoxy resin. The
have cracks more than 3 mm. The main causes for same technique can be applied for the repair of other
the observed cracking and other distresses appeared transverse cracks locations.
in the slabs are as below:
Corner breaks occurred only at certain locations due to
the non-uniform support under PQC slab.
Since the details of construction sequence and sawing
of joints etc. at site were not available, location of the Small pieces of concrete worn out from the surface of
crack in the slabs revealed that the 8.5 m wide road pavement due to contamination of non durable material
(7 m plus 1.5 m, shoulder) was constructed in one go like clay lumps etc. were observed. These can be
without sawing a longitudinal joint. Therefore, the repaired with Epoxy mortar.
stresses developed in the concrete slab (highest axle load
Lane to medium separation caused at one location due
stress plus temperature stress) might have exceeded the
to the movement of the backfill soil of the median is
designed flexural strength of concrete. The Y shaped
to be restored to avoid ingress of water and foreign
shallow crack is due to plastic shrinkage that might
material in the gap.
have aggravated further by hot wind and poor curing
conditions. The corner breaks at a few locations is due Damage of the joint seal at longitudinal and transverse
to locked joints i.e. poor load transfer and non-uniform joints needs resealing and timely maintenance.
support of` the slab at the corner. It is suggested that the repairing of cracked slabs, with
the techniques described in the following sections may
The reason for the pop outs from concrete surface is
be taken up in completely dry weather for best results.
the presence of the lump of clay or any soft /foreign
Procedure for carrying out various suggested repairing
material in the concrete mix during mix preparation
techniques are given below:
or laying of concrete which rises to the top and
breaks loose under traffic ( normally 25-100 mm dia; 5.1 Full Depth Crack Repair (Fdr)
10-50 mm deep). The principal reason for spalling at Partial full depth repair involve removing and replacing
the transverse joints is the ingress of incompressible a portion of a slab to the bottom of the concrete in
foreign materials in the joints which might have order to restore areas of deterioration. It will improve
obstructed the proper movement at the joints. pavement riding quality and structural integrity. The
following steps are involved in partial slab full depth
5 Procedure for various
repairs:
restoration techniques
• Marking of the area to be repaired
Based on the field observations and investigations, the
following remedial measures for the various distresses • Full depth saw cut around the repair area
are suggested. • Removing the deteriorated concrete
Panels with partial depth longitudinal cracks up to • If needed, repairing the damaged sub-base
2 mm width to be kept under observation for another • Installing load transfer devices and tie bars
two years (Total slabs 6280).
• Refilling the excavated area with new concrete
Panels with longitudinal crack of width greater • Texturing of the repaired area
than 2 mm to be repaired adopting full depth repair
technique, (Total slabs 420). 5.1.1 Selection of Patch Size
At chainage 608.450 in the outer lane, one transverse In the present case, full depth repair is to be carried
crack was observed to have already been repaired out at 19 locations. At these locations the longitudinal
cracks are covering minimum two slabs and as many

as four slabs. These cracks are located in the middle The lifting should be done as vertically as possible
1/3 portion of the outer lane slabs. For repair purpose with minimum sway, since any deviation from this can
1.0 to 1.5 m (as the case may be) portion of the slab has damage the surrounding concrete.
to be saw cut in such a way so that the total length of When using mechanized breaking equipment like drop
longitudinal crack is covered as shown in Fig. 1. hammers or hydraulic rams, operators must exercise
control on the equipment’s break energy. Operators
should begin breaking the concrete in the centre of
the removal area and move outward towards buffer
cuts. Buffer cuts are made about 0.3 m away from the
perimeter of saw cuts within the patch. The operator
should reduce the break energy (drop height) before
starting on the area outside the buffer cuts, then there
will be less chance of damaging concrete beyond the
patch perimeter.
Fig. 1 Full Depth Repair for contionous Longitudinal Cracks with
short length multiple parallel cracks (Spacing of Dowel & If sub-base has been damaged during removal operation
Tie Bars as per Design) of old concrete then it would be necessary to repair it
by adding and compacting new sub-base material.
5.1.2 Removal of Distressed Concrete
Once the repair limits are saw-cut, the concrete
is removed in two ways. One is the lift out of the
concrete and the other is the breaking of concrete.
Lift-out method is faster and less labor intensive than
the breakup method. While the breakup method could
cause damage to the surrounding concrete, a properly
conducted lift-out method will not damage the sub-base
and surrounding concrete.
To lift the slab, it is necessary to drill holes and
insert pins as shown in photo No. 27. Once the lift
pin arrangements are complete, cranes lift the slab
vertically. Photo 28 Spring Arm Drop Hammer
5.1.3 Providing Dowel Bar and Tie Bars
Holes are drilled in the vertical faces of the slab,

parallel to the surface and sides of the slab. The
diameter of the holes should be the minimum that is
necessary to accommodate the sizes of dowel /tie bar
and anchoring material to be used. Epoxy anchoring
materials require a hole diameter about 2 mm larger
than the nominal dowel diameter. After drilling, the
holes are cleaned with compressed air to force out
Photo 27 Slab ready for lift
all the dust and debris. Holes are then plugged with
some suitable epoxy resin with the help of a long

nozzle that feeds the epoxy to the back of the hole.

Insert new dowel bars accurately aligned parallel to
the surface and sides of the slab. Make sure that the
epoxy anchoring material flow forward along the
entire dowel embedment length during insertion.
De-bond the dowel bars with thin, tight fitting plastic
sheaths. A bond breaking 5-6 mm thick fibre board
should be placed along any longitudinal face with
an existing concrete to move independently. Tie
bars should be placed at the location of longitudinal
joints when the patch area involves all the lanes. The
length, diameter, and spacing of dowel and tie bars
may be the same as used during the construction of
the pavement.
5.1.4 Placing and Finishing the New Concrete Preparation for laying of concrete in distressed portion
Place and evenly spread pavement quality concrete of

M40 Grade to the appropriate surcharge. Thoroughly
compact the concrete using internal vibrators and then
finish the surface with the help of a screed vibrator.
Particular care should be taken to ensure full compaction
around the dowel bars and edges of the repair. The level
of the patch surface should match with the level of
surrounding surface.
5.1.5 Texturing and Curing
Patch surface may be textured so that it is similar to

the surface of the surrounding pavement. The first Finished Surface after Full Depth Repair of longitudinal crack
few hours after placing the concrete are the most Photo 29 Full depth repair of Longitudinal Cracks
critical for curing. Therefore, liquid-membrane- 5.2 Partial Depth Repairs (Pdr)
forming curing compound is immediately applied
after texturing over the surface of newly placed The following procedures need to be followed for
concrete. To prevent moisture loss and to protect the PDR.
surface against the occurrence of plastic shrinkage
cracks, polythene sheet may be placed over the patch 5.2.1 Identify the Repair Limit
surface.
It is important to properly evaluate the extent of the
5.1.6 Sawing and Sealing Joint spalling and determine the limits of the repair. When
spalling occurs, the damage is extended beyond the
The final step is to saw transverse and longitudinal visible area. Since most of the spalls that require PDR
joint sealant reservoirs at the patch boundaries. Sealed appear to be caused by shallow de-laminations, the
extant of de-laminations should be identified. One of
joints will lower the potential for spalling at the patch
the most efficient ways of evaluation is the use of sound
joints. The joints may be filled with any suitable joint
test. A hammer can be used for the sound test. In this
sealant. method a hammer is dropped near the spall. If there is

no de-lamination, the sound will be solid. On the other Cross-stitching uses deformed tie bars drilled across a
hand a dull or hollow sound indicates the probability of crack at angles of 30-45 degrees (Photo 30). Deformed
de-lamination. steel bars of 16 mm diameter are sufficient to hold the
crack tightly closed and enhance aggregate interlock.
5.2.2 Remove Deteriorated Concrete Full depth holes of 18-20 mm dia. are drilled at a pitch
distance of 300 mm with the offset of 150 mm from the
After the repair limits are determined, the delaminated crack. The holes are drilled alternately from each side
concrete should be removed. A typical method for of the crack so that one hole passes through the crack
removing spalled concrete is chipping. A shallow from left to right while the next from right to left. After
vertical saw-cut, approximately to the depth of spall, drilling, the holes are flushed with high pressure air to
made around the perimeter of the spalled area can be clean out any residual dust. Then a high strength epoxy
used to prevent the tapering of the repair around the resin adhesive is injected into the holes. Immediately
perimeter. Chipping is done with light pneumatic
after injecting epoxy, deformed steel rods are inserted
tools.
into each hole.
5.2.3 Clean the Repair Surfaces
For Partial Depth Repair to succeed, good bonding

between the exposed concrete surface and repair
material is essential. It is important to expose a fresh
concrete surface. This should have rough texture and
be cleaned with water to remove any dust.
5.2.4 Place the Repair Material

Photo 30 A Typical Cross-sectional View of Cross Stiching
Repair materials like Epoxy Mortar Formulation should
have following characteristics: 5.4 Repair with Epoxy Mortar
• Good bond strength, Distresses to be repaired shall be chased into a square

• Less volume change due to temperature and or rectangular shape to its full depth with vertical faces
moisture variations, and slightly slanting outwardly to have dove-tail effect (5).
• Strength and modulus of elasticity comparable The groove shall be filled with either epoxy mortar or
to the existing concrete. elastomeric concrete as the case may be. The surface of
the chased distress shall be primed for better bondage.
5.2.5 Finish the Surface
5.5 Maintenance of Rain Cut Gullies
If cementitious materials are used for PDR, good curing
is essential. The Rain cut gullies should be filled and compacted in
5.3 Cross Stitching layers and covered with a gravel/ moorum mixture.
Cross-stitching normally is a repair technique for 5.6 Lane to Median Separation

longitudinal cracks which are in reasonably good
condition. The purpose of cross-stitching is to maintain The space between the median and concrete slab should
aggregate interlock and provide added reinforcement be properly cleaned and filled with M 35 concrete.
and strength. The tie bars used in cross-stitching prevent
the crack from vertical and horizontal movement or 5.7 Retexturing of Surface
widening. This technique knits the cracked portions of
the slab together and reduces the chances of crack to Retexturing of the surface can be done by cutting
grow further. grooves on the pavement surface using concrete

Mishra, Mathur, Kumar, Sengupta and Ganvir on
268 Distresses In Cement Concrete Pavements –A Case Study
saw. Concrete saw can be used to make shallow tine intrusion of incompressible materials in the joints are
grooves. A single blade can be used for this purpose adding to the problem. Remedial measures have been
but alternatively a couple of blades can be assembled suggested in the paper for various distresses and should
with spacers so that in one pass a couple of grooves can be executed at the earliest to strengthen the distressed
be formed. The joint cutting machine may have to be pavement and to prevent further deterioration. The
modified to have this arrangement. remedial measures suggested are based on the practical
viability and economy.
5.8 Joint Resealing
Acknowledgements
It is generally considered a maintenance activity, but
may also be done in conjunction with other restoration Authors thank NHAI for sponsoring the Project.
techniques for rehabilitation purposes. The process Authors also thank Shri Pankaj Goel, Shri Manoj
involves removing the old sealant, if present, sawing Kumar Singh and Shri Ashok Pant for assistance
a new joint reservoir of appropriate dimensions for provided during field investigations. The authors are
the sealant to be used, thorough cleaning of the new grateful to Director, Central Road Research Institute
reservoir and installing the sealant. Material used for
for the permission to publish the paper.
joint resealing includes rubberized asphalt, silicone,
and preformed neoprene inserts. When done as part of REFERENCES
a restoration effort, joint resealing should be done after
all other treatments, e.g., full-depth repair, partial-depth 1. Jointed Plain Cement Concrete (JPCP),
repair, under sealing, load transfer restoration and/or Preservation & Rehabilitation, Design Guide,
diamond grinding. California, Department of Transportation,
June 2008.
6 Conclusion and Recommendation 2. Distress Identification Manual for the Long

Term Pavement Performance Programme,
At Fatehpur–Kokhraj section, the pavement even in Publication No. FHWA-RD-03-031, June 2003 .
the cracked/distressed portions is not hindering the
movement of traffic. The main distresses observed
are the longitudinal cracks developed in the outer lane 3. NCHRP Web Document 35 (Project
of the road. The appearance of longitudinal cracks, C1-38): Contractor Final Report, Rehabilitation
their location in the slab and width (below 2 mm Strategies for Highway Pavements.
in 94% of slabs), with no further widening, points
towards the construction related causes of premature 4. Guidelines for Maintenance, Repair and
longitudinal cracking. As has been investigated, the Rehabilitation of Cement Concrete Pavements,
cracks have not induced below the joint cut inspite IRC:SP:83-2008, Indian Roads Congress,
of 1/3-1/4 initial cut due to delayed joint cutting. 2008.
The causes for the cracks are the late sawing of the 5. Tentative Guidelines for Repair of concrete
longitudinal joint, inadequate joint width and drying pavements using synthetic resin, IRC:77-1979,
shrinkage. Hardening and loss of joint sealant and Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, 1979.
The views expressed in the paper are personal views of the Authors. For any query, the author may be contacted at: E-mail: akmishra.crri@nic.in

Paper No. 601
REHABILITATION AND UPGRADATION OF AN EXISTING

AIRFIELD RUNWAY PAVEMENT FOR OPERATION OF NEXT
GENERATION AIRCRAFTS
Rahul Oberoi*and A. Veeraragavan**
ABSTRACT
With the introduction of heavier aircrafts in the Indian air force and the rapid expansion of airfields, there is a need to bring out more cost effective
designs of airfield pavements and to apply the concept of the overall lowest life cycle cost as opposed to initial lowest cost. The current design
methodology for airfields in the armed forces in India is restricted to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) method of airfield design as
outlined in International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) Aerodrome Design Manual Part 3, Pavements. However, these methods can no longer
be considered to result in optimal thickness of pavement layers and there is therefore a need to design the runway pavements using mechanistic-
empirical pavement design methods as per International best practices.
In the present investigation, the rehabilitation and upgradation of an in-service air force runwayis considered. The existing runway pavement has
developed extensive distresses due to inadequate surface and sub-surface drainage and operations. The rehabilitation of the runway to cater to
the needs of the present as well as the future new generation aircrafts has been carried out. The present work addresses the pavement and overlay
design of the airfield runway pavement. The runway was designed as per the FAA and ICAO methods. APSDS (Airport Pavement Structural Design
System) software with its parametric analysis feature for layer optimisation was found to be the most suitable software for obtaining economical
designs for runway pavements.
Life cycle cost analysis was carried out to determine the most economical binder for the wearing course for the runway pavements and it was found
that the use of modified binders in Dense Asphalt Concrete (DAC) surface course resulted in significant savings in the life cyclecost of overlays
for a design life of 20 years. The runway length for the operation of new generation aircrafts and drainage design were also carried out but are not
reported in the present paper.
1 INTRODUCTION of supporting the enhanced imposed loads, but are

also resistant to the severe climatic factors that impose
Airfield pavements form an integral part of the heavy maintenance cost during the life cycle of these
transportation system today. A sizeable network of upgraded facilities. Thus, there is a requirement to apply
defence airports are to be continually maintained and the concept of the overall lowest life cycle cost (LCC)
upgraded in addition to the design and construction of as opposed to initial lowest cost in airfield pavement
new facilities. Airfield pavements are amongst the most design. Further, there is also an increasing requirement
important facilities of an airport. They must be of such of reducing the overall thickness of airfield pavements
quality and thickness so as to be able to withstand the due to difficulty in transporting huge quantities of
imposed loads as well as its abrasive action, adverse aggregates to remote areas where these airfields may
weather conditions and other deteriorating influences. be located.
Airfield pavements represent a substantial financial
investment and depending on the size and type of the 2 NEED FOR THE STUDY
airport, may constitute 40 – 50 % of the total project
cost. With the introduction of heavier aircrafts in the The current design methodology for airfields is restricted
Indian Air Force and the rapid expansion of airfields, to the FAA method of airfield design as outlined in
there is a need for development of more cost effective ICAO Aerodrome Design Manual Part 3, Pavements.
designs of airfield pavements that are not only capable However, with heavier and newer generation aircraft
* SO1(Pavement), CCE(NEP), Engineer –in-Chief’s Branch, New Delhi 110011

** Professor of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai – 600 036, E-mail : av@iitm.ac.in

270 Oberoi and Veeraragavan on
being inducted in the air force, this old methods can designs and selection of the cost-effective
no longer be considered optimal and there is therefore design for the desired performance during the
a requirement to design runways as per new elastic design life.
layered theory design software like FAARFIELD,
APSDS, Asphalt Institute’s SW-1 software, etc. and 4 SCOPE
draw comparisons with the ICAO method. There
is also a requirement to realistically evaluate the The airfield selected for rehabilitation and upgradation
existing runways and assign moduli values to the shows signs of functional distresses like network of
constituent layers for economical designs using these shallow, fine hair line cracks which extend through the
software rather than continuing to assign equivalence upper surface of the black top. Due to an increase in
factors to the constituent layers which may lead to the anticipated traffic including introduction of heavier
erroneous results. The present study attempts to draw aircraft and rapid deterioration of the airfield, there is
comparisons between the various design methods both a need felt for strengthening and upgradation of the
for rehabilitation and upgradation of an existing air airfield pavements and construction of a new surface for
force runway pavement considering the life cycle cost improved performance. The present work will address
analysis so as to achieve the most economical design the design needs of the runway for the operation of next
over the design life of the runway pavement. generation air force aircrafts.
The study has practical applications, especially for 5 LITERATURE REVIEW

the armed forces who are involved in construction
of airfields in high altitude and far flung areas where 5.1 Evaluation of Airfield Pavements
adequate construction material is not easily available
and transportation of huge quantity of material poses Airfield pavement evaluation is necessary to assess
a major logistic problem besides being exorbitantly the ability of an existing pavement to support different
expensive. The use of software and modified binders types of aircraft. Greene et al. (2004) presented the
for runway design will lead to better and improved current airfield pavement condition assessment and
designs which will not only considerably lower the life rating methodology used by the US air force. Factors
cycle cost but also contribute to conservation of scarce included in the ratings are Pavement Condition Index
natural resources and savings in time. PCI, structural index like Aircraft Classifiction Number/
Pavement Classification Number(ACN/PCN), Friction
3 OBJECTIVES Characteristics and foreign object damage (FOD)
potential.
The main objectives of the present study are:-
For structural evaluation, the data required have
a) Investigate the current structural and functional traditionally been from construction records and both
condition of an existing air force runway on-site and laboratory destructive testing (i.e. coring,
pavement and evaluate the structural and trenches), while now non-destructive testing (NDT)
functional adequacy of the runway pavement methods are also becoming popular (Gendreau and
to cater to new generation aircrafts. Soriano, 1997 and FAA AC 150/5370-11A, 2004).
Dhaliwal and Tipnis (2004) carried out evaluation
b) Evaluate the strengthening requirements of
of a disused military runway with limited technical
the runway pavement and design the structural
details, equipment and time and Shell nomographs
overlay for the existing pavement and new
were used to calculate the stiffness of the bituminous
pavement for the extended runway portion.
course. The results were used to carry out overlay
c) Carryout life cycle cost analysis of alternate design. McQueen et al. (2001) analysed NDT test data

Rehabilitation And Upgradation Of An Existing Airfield Runway Pavement For Operation
Of Next Generation Aircrafts 271
on National Airport Pavement Test Facility (NAPTF) of pavement reconstruction. WHPACIFIC, INC (2010)
at New Jersey. They concluded that the pavement used FAARFIELD and made use of cores and test pit
stiffness and back-calculated subgrade moduli values data to design an overlay for Grants Pass Airport 12-30
are independent of FWD/HWD force amplitudes. They Runway. Both overlay option for in-situ CBR of 2 and
also concluded that the relationship, E (psi) = 1500 x full depth reconstruction option with an improved CBR
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) used in design software of 5 were considered. In the absence of an alternate
is reasonable when applied to the subgrade modulus airfield and considerable time required for the full
(E) back-calculated from FWD/HWD data in the range depth reconstruction option, the overlay option was
3<CBR<20. Kasthurirangan Gopalakrishnan (2008) recommended.
used post-traffic trenching to investigate the failure
mechanisms of different flexible test pavement sections White (2006) studied the equivalence factors of
at the NAPTF. It was concluded that the performance different pavement layer materials as recommended
of sections with asphalt stabilised bases was superior by FAA and proposed that for drawing comparisons
to other non stabilised sections and that CBR values with thicknesses derived by APSDS Software, the
increased as a result of trafficking. equivalence factors should lie at the lower end of the
FAA range. White and McCullagh (2006) demonstrated
5.2 Trends in Flexible Pavement Design the use of APSDS and FAARFIELD softwares for
upgradation of an Australian defence airfield which
The conventional empirical methods for structural resulted in considerable savings in time and cost.
design of flexible aircraft pavements are now recognised
to be inadequate to assess the effect of proposed new 5.3 Use of Modified Asphalt Mixes
large aircraft (NLA). The layered elastic method was
introduced into design practice in the mid-1990’s, with Kai Su et al. (2009) demonstrated the applicability of
the release of the computer program LEDFAA (Layered warm mix asphalt (WMA) for rehabilitating airport
Elastic Design Federal Aviation Administration) by pavements to realize quick turnover to traffic after
the FAA and also the Australian-developed program construction. Yildirim (2005) showed that polymer
APSDS (Airport Pavement Structural Design System). modified binders showed greater resistance to fatigue,
Wardle and Rodway (1998) showed that, for pavements thermal cracking, rutting, stripping, and temperature
over subgrades of 3% CBR, the thicknesses derived susceptibility than neat binders and exhibited increased
using APSDS and LEDFAA are similar. FAA has viscosity and elastic recovery. Punith and Veeraragavan
now upgraded the M-E software for airfield design to (2010) showed that polyethylene modified HMA
FAARFIELD (Federal Aviation Administration Rigid (PEHMA) mixes had lower moisture susceptibility,
and Flexible Iterative Elastic Layered Design). Wardle higher tensile strength, and resilient modulus and were
and Rodway (2010) showed that APSD 5.0 yields more resistant to rutting for heavy traffic.
significantly lower thickness requirements as compared
to FAARFIELD and presents more benefits compared 5.4 Pavement Deterioration Models
to other design methods.
Deterministic and probabilistic models are available
Chen and Zummo (2004) analysed the existing and as in highway pavement management systems (PMS).
proposed pavement’s capacity at John F Kennedy PAVER is amongst one of the most popular Airport PMS
International Airport to accommodate the A380 and makes use of both deterministic and probabilistic
aircraft by using the Port Authority’s pavement design models. Dynatest has developed a unique airport
software. Modifying the regular pavement maintenance pavement management system called A.I.R.P.O.R.T.S.,
program and a modification of standards permitting an acronym for Airport Information Retrieval for
the use of a 23 m wide taxiway, with some geometry Pavement Optimisation Rehabilitation Treatment
improvements resulted in significant savings in the cost System, which utilises advanced mechanistic pavement

performance models with the traditional distress base. e) Life cycle cost analysis and selection of
Besides the above, airfield pavement design software optimal layer design including incorporation of
have inherent performance parameters which can modified bitumen binders.
predict pavement performance with age.
7 DESCRIPTION OF THE AIRFIELD
From the above literature review, it is observed that a
number of methods exist for design, rehabilitation and The airfield under consideration is an air force airfield
upgradation of airfields. However, a comprehensive located in coastal South India and has two intersecting
runways with different configurations. The orientation
study which compares various airfield pavement design
of the main runway is 12-30 while that of the secondary
methods to include aspects of life cycle cost analysis is
runway is 05-23. A brief description of these runways
needed which this study attempts to achieve.
is given below :
6 METHODOLOGY
7.1 Main Runway 12-30
The following methodology was adopted for the
The main runway is a flexible pavement, 1784 m long,
study: 45.72 m wide and consists of the following sections:
a) Review of literature regarding airfield a) Section 1 – 50 DAC (constructed in 2003),
pavements, evaluation techniques, design of 200 BM, 150 Soling (constructed in 1944) and
flexible runway pavements and overlays and CBR 3%.
life cycle cost analysis.
b) Section 2 – 50 DAC (constructed in 2003),
b) Data acquisition of the following:- 170 BM, 100 PCC, 150 Soiling (constructed in
1944) and CBR 3% .
i) Climate, rainfall, temperature.
c) Section 3 – 50 DAC (constructed in 2003), 190
ii) Estimated air traffic over the next 10 years BM (1944), 150 Soling (constructed in 1944)
and characteristics of those aircrafts. and CBR 3%.
iii) Soil data. d) Section 4 and Parallel Taxi Track – 50 DAC
(constructed in 2003), 105 BM (1984), 150
iv) Pavement layers data. Soling (constructed in 1944) and CBR 3%. The
parallel taxi track is 12 m wide and present on
v) Ground water table and surface runoff
both sides of the runway.
data.
7.2 Secondary Runway (05-23) and Parallel
c) Design of overlay and pavement design for the Taxi Track
extension portions based on moduli values of
The secondary runway is also a flexible pavement,
various layers by obtaining core samples and
1451 m long and 45.72 m wide and has a uniform
projected traffic using FAARFIELD, APSDS
section through the entire length of the runway. The
and Asphalt Institute’s SW-1 software and
runway has the following composition :
ICAO manual FAA method and comparison of
the designs. 50 DAC (constructed in 2003), 115 BM, 150 Soling
(constructed in 1984) and CBR 3%.
d) Design of overlay and extension portions for
C17 aircraft using the above software and The parallel taxi track is 12 m wide and present on both
manual method. sides of the runway.

The same information is pictorially represented in Figs. Table 1 Predicted Air Traffic Data
1(a) and 1(b):
No. Name* Gross Gear Annual Total
Wt. Configuration Departures Departures
(tonnes)
1 AN 32 27.000 Dual 3,000 60000
(Dual
Whl-60)
2 (Single 1.322 Single 10,000 200000
Wheel-
Fig. 1(a) Composition of Main Runway 1500 kg)
3 (Single 4.600 Single 3,500 70000

Wheel-
4500 kg)
4 (Single 4.536 Single 5,000 100000

Wheel-
4500 kg)
*Some aircraft names withheld due to being classified

Fig. 1(b) Composition of Secondary Runway
information
7.3 Pavement Condition
7.5 Introduction of New Large Aircraft
The Soil Engineering and Material Testing (SEMT)
Wing of the Corps of Engineers carried out evaluation For the purpose of this study, a hypothetical case of
of the airfield in Aug 2008 and concluded that the the introduction of C 17 aircraft has been considered
overall riding quality of the flexible pavements was for 500 annual operations for the next 20 years along
good. However, functional distresses like network of with 3000 AN 32 annual repetitions of AN 32 aircraft.
shallow, fine hair line cracks existed which extended The C 17 aircraft has a 2T gear configuration and a
through the upper surface of the black top existed in maximum take off weight of 265,350 kg.
both runways. Though the ground water table in the
airfield is at about 6 to 7 m, a pit excavated just at the The data of the airfield for the last 10 years was obtained
edge of the runway upto pavement depth got filled with from the air force authorities. The salient features of
water from beneath the pavement indicating presence the climatic data are as given:
of trapped water between the subgrade and the
pavement. Due to an increase in the anticipated traffic a) Seasons
including introduction of heavier aircraft and rapid i) Summer : March to June.
deterioration of the airfield pavement, the air force ii) Monsoon : July to November.
authorities carried out a re-evaluation of the airfield in iii) Winter : December to February.
October 2010 and found an increase in the number and b) Temperatures
length of cracks on both runways, ponding of water on i) Maximum : 46.0 Degree C (May 003).
the runway and apron pavements at some places and ii) Minimum : 17.6 Degree C
disuse of existing drainage system due to deterioration. (January 2003).
A need was thus felt for strengthening and upgradation c) Rainfall
of the airfield pavements and construction of a new Maximum rainfall : 655.8 mm (November 2005).
surface and subsurface drainage system.
in a month
7.4 Predicted Air Traffic
7.6 Assessment of Latest Condition of Airfield
Table 1 shows the predicted air traffic for the next 20 A reconnaisance of the airfield was carried out in Feb.
years: 2011 including collection of pavement layer and soil

samples. Fig. 2 depicts the present condition of the thickness and moduli value of the various pavement
airfield: layers in conjunction with other input parameters
like temperature and air traffic to compute the layer
or overlay thickness, repetitions to failure, residual
life and so on for the safe operation of the new large
aircraft. The following methods have been used for the
purpose of this study:
a) The United States of America Federal Aviation

Administration method as given in ICAO
Aerodrome Design Manual Part 3 Pavements
(1983) hereafter referred to as the FAA manual
method of design.
b) The automated method of FAA using

FAARFIELD software.
c) APSDS software for airfield pavement design.
d) Asphalt Institute’s SW-1 software.
The pavement design was done in two stages for all

methods except the FAA manual method. In the first
stage, the moduli values of various constituent layers
were considered as per the values of similar layers
Fig. 2 Water oozing through cracks in Dispersal Area recommended by the software and subsequently, a
comparison of overlay/layer thicknesses was made. In
7.7 Collection of Pavement Core and Soil the second stage, the moduli values of the constituent
Samples pavement layers obtained from laboratory testing of
Core samples of existing pavement layers and soil field samples were used to arrive at the final thickness
samples were collected from both the runways all along design. The salient aspects of structural design of
the airfiled so as to obtain samples that best represent pavement layers and values obtained by each method
the present condition of the layers. The soil samples are given in the succeeding paragraphs.
were collected adjacent to the runway at a distance of
8.1 FAA Manual Method as given in ICAO
1 m from the edge at a depth of 50 cm while the core
Aerodrome Design Manual Part 3
samples were obtained at a distance of 60 cm from the
pavement edge till the full depth of the bituminous Pavements
layers using a core cutter. The cores varied from
As per FAA Advisory Circular 150-5320-6E, 2009,
5 cm thickness to 20 cm and most of the cores had BC/
this method of design has been cancelled and replaced
BM layer intact to enable detailed laboratory analysis.
by automated design using FAARFIELD software.
The BC layer appeared undamaged except for minor
However, since the ICAO continues to use this method
degaradation while the BM layer appeared old in most
of design, it has been considered in this project.
of the cases.
8 STRUCTURAL DESIGN 8.2 Layer Equivalencies
The structural design involves determining the The equivalence values assigned to the various existing

and proposed layers is shown in Table 2: bases P-401/P-403 (Equivalent of DAC/DBM)

as 2758 MPa. Modulus value of BM has
Table 2 Layer Equivalencies been taken as 0.7 x Modulus of DBM as per
IRC 37-2001 = 0.7 x 2758 = 1930 MPa.
Type of Layer Base Course Sub-base Course
Equivalence Equivalence
c) Base/Subbase layers : The WMM and GSB
Existing DAC 1.5 2.3
courses have been considered as Barker
Proposed DAC/DBM 1.6 2.3 Brabston base/sub-base respectively and their
Existing BM 1.2 2.0 modulus value is calculated automatically by
PCC/WBM/WMM/ NA 1.4 the software.
Soling
8.6 Aircraft Wander
8.3 Determination of Design Aircraft
A normally distributed airplane wander pattern with
For the predicted traffic mix, AN 32 was determined to a wander width of 1800 mm and a standard deviation
be the critical aircraft and the total annual repetitions of of 773 mm has been used (equivalent to an airplane
the design aircraft for the predicted traffic amounted to operation on a taxiway). The values are based on
3243. For the hypothetical traffic, C 17 was determined studies carried out by Ho Sang, (1975). Field survey and
to be the critical aircraft and the total annual repetitions analysis of aircraft distribution on airport pavements,
of the design aircraft for the predicted hypothetical Report No. FAA-RD-74-36. U.S. Federal Aviation
traffic amounted to 613. Calculations are shown in Administration.
Appendix 1. 8.7 Performance Criteria for Subgrade Failure
and Bituminous Layer Failure
8.4 FAA Automated Method of Design using
FAARFIELD Software The subgrade vertical strain and horizontal strain
at the bottom of the bituminous layer are the design
This is the new design procedure recommended by criteria for the pavement. The failure models used to
FAA as per FAA Advisory Circular 150-5320-6E, 2009 compute the number of coverages to failure for a given
and supersedes the manual FAA method of design. vertical strain at the top of the subgrade or for a given
horizontal strain at the bottom of the surface asphalt
8.5 Layer Moduli Values
layer are fixed and cannot be changed. Details of the
a) Overlay/Existing surface layer : One of main failure models are attached as Appendix 2.
limitations of FAARFIELD is that the modulus 8.8 Airfield Pavement Design using APSDS
value of an HMA overlay (P401/403) and the Software
existing HMA surface can only be input as
1379 MPa which is conservative. Therefore APSDS (Airport Pavement Structural Design System)
the existing HMA layer has been modelled as is an Australian software for the mechanistic analysis
an undefined layer to be assigned a modulus and design of flexible pavements subjected to the
value of 2758 MPa to overcome this problem. extremely heavy wheel loads associated with large
Simultaneously, the existing surface layer has aircraft. APSDS 5.0 has incorporated subgrade failure
also been assigned a modulus value of 1379 criteria which is dependent upon aircraft wheels based
MPa as stipulated by FAARFIELD to draw on studies carried out by Wardle and Rodway (2010)
design comparisons. leading to more economical designs.
b) Existing Bituminous layers : FAARFIELD 8.9 Layer Moduli Values

assigns modulus value of bitumen stabilised a) Overlay/Existing surface layer : APSDS allows

the users to either define their own layers with value of both 1379 MPa and 2758 MPa for comparison
their performance parameters or choose from purposes.
the inbuilt database. However, for the purpose
of comparison with FAA methods, the existing 8.10 Aircraft Wander
HMA layer has been assigned moduli values of
2758 MPa and 1379 MPa. APSDS offers flexibility to the user to define aircraft
wander for any traffic spectrum. The standard deviation
b) Existing Bituminous layers : Modulus value of
for aircraft wander for this study is 773 mm and a
bitumen stabilised bases DAC/DBM has been
wander width of 1800 mm.
assigned as 2758 MPa similar to FAARFIELD.
Similarly, modulus value of BM has been taken
8.11 Performance Criteria for Subgrade Failure
1930 MPa.
and Bituminous Layer Failure
c) Base/Subbase layers : The WMM and GSB
courses have been considered as Barker Vertical strain at the top of the subgrade and horizontal
Brabston base/sub-base respectively. strain at the bottom of the top layer are the design
The PCC layer in Section 3 of the main runway has criteria for the pavement. Users can define their own
been considered to be equivalent of a crushed aggregate performance parameters and there is more flexibility
layer (WMM) in carrying out designs with both than FAARFIELD. In drawing comparisons in
FAARFIELD and APSDS. Table 3 shows the moduli thickness design, FAARFIELD subgrade damage
values assigned to the various existing and proposed parameters have also been fed in APSDS for design
layers in both the software: calculations. However, the asphalt layer damage
Table 3 Layer Moduli Values parameters of FAARFIELD cannot be used due to
vastly different forms of the equations in both the
Type of Layer Modulus Value in MPa software. Details of the Failure Models are attached
Existing DAC 1379 (2758*) as Appendix 2.
Proposed DAC/ 1379 (2758*)
DBM 8.12 Comparison of Designs from Various
Existing BM 1930 Methods
PCC/WBM/Soling Barker Brabston Base/Sub-base A comparison of designs obtained by various methods
is given in Table 4.
* DAC/DBM layers have been assigned modulus
Table 4 Comparison of Layer Thicknesses by Various Methods
Runway Section Overlay / Overlay /New Layer APSDS 5.0 Overlay / New APSDS 5.0 Overlay/ New
New Layer Thickness with Layer Thickness with APSDS Layer Thickness with
Thickness FAARFIELD (mm) 5.0 Subgrade FAARFIELD Subgrade
with FAA
Manual
Method Existing Existing Existing DAC Existing DAC Existing DAC Existing DAC
(mm) DAC DAC Modulus Modulus Modulus Modulus
Modulus Modulus 1379 MPa 2759 MPa 1379 MPa 2759 MPa
1379 MPa 2759 MPa
Main Runway 130 82.2 72 69.52 58.35 69.02 57.48
Section 1
Main Runway 100 89.3 80.5 80.7 71.45 75.27 65.67
Section 2

Main Runway 140 93 83.9 80.21 70.59 79.76 69.79

Section 3
Main Runway 210 183.9 177.2 170.35 164.20 169.96 164.44
Section 4 and
PTT 12-30
Main Runway 535 618.5 600.2 444.85 430.81 563.46 546.52
Section 4 with
C 17 Aircraft
Secondary 205 173.1 166.7 159.85 153.77 159.44 153.86
Runway and PTT
05-23
Extension DAC-50 DAC-50 DAC-50 DAC-50
Portion with DBM-100 DBM-100 DBM-100 DBM-100
existing fleet WMM-255 WMM-299 WMM-290.93 WMM-274.52
GSB-250 GSB-250 GSB-250 GSB-250
Extension DAC-50 DAC-127 DAC-125 DAC-50
Portion with DBM-225 DBM-150 DBM-150 DBM-225
C-17 and AN 32 WMM-590 WMM-763.2 WMM-581.17 WMM-704.57
GSB-250 GSB-250 GSB-250 GSB-250
8.13 Analysis of Results seven were used for calculation of various parameters
From the results above, it is observed that significant and moduli values as shown in Tables 5 and 6.
variation in thickness occurs depending on the failure Table 5 Summary of Test Results of Bituminous
criteria used (Refer Appendix 2) and the modulus
Samples
values adopted for bituminous mixes. Significant
variation also occurs due to the equivalency factors S. Test Type Samples Average Value Remarks
assigned to the existing materials in the manual No. Tested of Parameter
Tested
method. Hence, the moduli values and equivalency
values need to be assigned carefully after laboratory 1. Bulk Specific BM 2.38 The values of
testing. It is observed that the FAA manual method of Gravity Gmb the parameters
design is uneconomical for overlays for light aircraft obtained from the
BC 2.48
cores were used to
while it is economical for overlays with heavy aircraft fabricate similar
and new designs. FAARFIELD, on the other hand samples in the lab
results in thicker overlays as compared to APSDS. for further analysis
When FAARFIELD subgrade failure criteria is used in like obtaining
APSDS, it leads to more economical designs than those Dynamic Modulus
obtained with using APSDS subgrade failure criteria Values
for lighter aircraft; whereas APSDS subgrade failure 2. BM 2.554
Maximum
criteria yields more economical designs for heavy Theoretical BC 2.555
aircraft. This is because of the fact that the APSDS 5.0 Specific
now uses subgrade failure criteria that depends on the Gravity Gmm
number of wheels on each gear based on studies carried
3. Bitumen BM 4.55%
out by Wardle and Rodway (2010).
Content BC 5.50%
8.14 Validation of Moduli Values Used Through
Laboratory Testing 4. BM Closest to BC Both BM and
I Gradation of BC core samples
The properties of the bituminous cores and exact moduli MORTH showed similar
Sieve gradation
values of samples cast with similar properties was Analysis BC Confirms
determined through laboratory tests and used to compute to BC 1
the layer thicknesses for a realistic analysis. A total of Gradation of
MORTH
five BM and five BC samples were cast out of which

Table 6 Laboratory Obtained Dynamic Modulus Values of Bituminous Samples in MPa at 350C
Frequency (Hz)-> 25 20 10 5 2 1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.01
Sample Type
BM 1 4580 4337 3577 2917 2170 1705 1326 935 718 301
BM 2 4443 4245 3495 2818 2061 1594 1225 862 664 293
BM 3 4001 3762 3062 2462 1795 1394 1067 740 562 237
BM 4 3830 3633 2961 2373 1720 1318 1001 687 510 202
BC 1 4577 4290 3356 2569 1738 1271 936 642 494 254
BC 2 4334 4046 3140 2375 1586 1147 840 576 438 224
BC 3 3261 3046 2324 1716 1112 790 580 400 317 178
BC 2 VG 30# 4525 4118 3344 2673 1918 1454 1101 761 582 271
BMB* 6128 5883 5143 4468 3661 3137 2680 2160 1837 1042
CRMB* 5358 5144 4461 3859 3151 2683 2298 1868 1604 933
* Tests carried out at IIT Madras

# Previous Tests carried out at IIT Madras
Average Modulus Value of BM and BC Samples at modulus value of BM has been considered to be
5 Hz = 2487 MPa 0.5 x 2500 = 1250 MPa.
8.15 Selection of Moduli Values
8.16 Tests on Soil
The final modulus value was selected at 350C as this
Various tests were also carried on the soil samples and
was the average hottest temperature throughout the
the CBR was found to be 3%.
year. Frequency of 5 Hz was selected for ascertaining
the modulus values of various layers corresponding to 8.17 Design of Runway Sections with Derived
an average aircraft taxiing speed of 30 km/hr for the AN Modulus Value
32 aircraft. From Table 5 it is noticed that the dynamic
modulus values of both BM and BC samples are found The modulus values of various constituent materials
to be similar. Hence the average modulus value of all derived above from laboratory tests were then fed to
samples including the values obtained at IIT Madras FAARFIELD and APSDS software for the final design.
at 350C at a frequency of 5 Hz has been considered to Only the inbuilt APSDS subgrade failure criteria
be the dynamic modulus of the BC. This value is 2487 was used in APSDS design software. The summary
MPa and thus BC obtained from the airfield has been showing the final comparison between the manual and
assigned a modulus value of 2500 MPa for the purpose automated methods rounded off to practical values is
of ease of calculations. While the dynamic modulus given in Table 7.
values for BM and BC samples are found to be similar
in the laboratory, owing to the fact that the BM is very 8.18 Analysis of Results
old and has been exposed to the deteriorating effect
of water in the pavement layers, which could not be From the results above, it is observed that APSDS
realistically modelled in the laboratory, the dynamic yields the most economical layer thicknesses in most

Table 7 Comparison of Final Layer Thicknesses by Table 8 Subgrade Compaction Requirements

Various Methods
Runway Overlay / Overlay / Overlay / For Existing Traffic
Section New Layer New Layer New Layer
Thickness Thickness Thickness Compaction 100% 95% 90% 85% 80%
with FAA with with APSDS density, in
Manual FAARFIELD (mm) percentage
Method (mm) (mm)
Depth, mm - 0-150 150- 300- 480-635
Main Runway 130 110 100 300 480
Section 1
For Traffic with C17 Aircraft
Main Runway 100 110 100
Section 2
Depth, mm - 0-23 23-46 46-69 69-92
Main Runway 140 120 110
Section 3
Main Runway 210 200 190 8.20 Parametric Analysis with APSDS Software
Section 4 and
PTT 12-30 In APSDS Software, Parametric Analysis feature can
Main Runway 535 640 580 loop through a range of thicknesses for one or two
Section 4 with layers, while simultaneously designing the thickness
C 17 Aircraft
of another layer. Combining this with a Cost Analysis
Secondary 205 190 180 feature, allows for fie-tuning of layer thicknesses
Runway and to minimize construction and maintenance costs.
PTT 05-23
Parametric analysis has been used to optimise the
Extension DAC-50 DAC-50 DAC-50 design derived for the extension portions of the runway
Portion with DBM-100 DBM-100 DBM-100
existing fleet WMM-255 WMM-300 WMM-290 with C17 and AN 32 aircrafts shown in Table 9.
GSB-250 GSB-250 GSB-250
Table 9 Pavement Structure for Parametric
Extension DAC-50 DAC-50 DAC-50
Portion with DBM-225 DBM-225 DBM-225 Analysis
C-17 and AN WMM-590 WMM-775 WMM-580
32 GSB-250 GSB-250 GSB-250 S. No. Layer Type Modulus Thickness Remarks
(MPa) (mm)
cases, especially with heavier aircraft. Given the fact 1. DAC (Asphalt 1379 50 As part of
1379 MPa) 127 mm
that the software incorporates the latest mechanistic
HMA
empirical design procedures and has inherent flexibility,
2. DBM (Asphalt 1379 77 As part of
the design thicknesses derived from APSDS is taken as 1379 MPa-DBM) 127 mm
the final design. HMA
3. DBM (Asphalt 2500 150 Stabilised
8.19 Subgrade Compaction Requirements 2500 MPa) Base
Table 3-4 of FAA AC 150-5320-6E has been used to 4. WMM (BB) NA 582.20 Unstabilised
calculate depths below the subgrade surface to which (P-209) Base
compaction controls need to be applied. Table 8 denotes 5. GSB (BB) NA 250 Subbase
the depths in mm below the finished subgrade above (P-154)
which densities should equal or exceed the indicated 6. Subgrade CBR 31 0

03
percentage of the maximum dry density.

8.21 Parametric Analysis 4. WMM NA 610 Unstabilised

(BB) (P-209) Base
As per FAA AC 150-5320-6E, the minimum
5. GSB (BB) NA 250 Subbase
stabilised base thickness is 127 mm. The remaining (P-154)
base can be unstabilised base. Hence the independent
6. Subgrade CBR 31 0
layer for parametric analysis is the WMM layer with 03
a minimum thickness of 400 mm and a maximum
thickness of 700 mm. The DBM layer has to be
designed. The minimum thickness of the DBM layer
has been set as 127 mm and maximum as 200 mm.
The cost of the constituent layers has been taken from
the schedule of rates, Govt. of Karnataka, 2010.
8.22 Discussion of Parametric Analysis
From Fig. 3, it is seen that the minimum total cost

is when the thickness of the WMM layer is 620 Fig. 3 Variation of Total Cost with WMM Layer Thickness
mm. At this juncture, it is seen from Fig. 5 that the
thickness of the DBM layer is 127 mm (5 inches), the
minimum thickness allowable for this layer. It is also
seen from Figs. 3 and 4 that increasing the thickness
of the WMM layer beyond 620 mm decreases the
subgrade Cumulative Damage Factor CDF below 1 at
additional cost. (CDF is the amount of the structural
fatigue life of a pavement that has been used up. It
is expressed as the ratio of applied load repetitions
to allowable load repetitions to failure). Hence the
Fig. 4 Variation of Subgrade CDF with WMM Layer Thickness
thickness of the DBM layer is fixed as 125 mm.
Again from APSDS, the optimum thickness of the
WMM layer works out to be 608.52 mm (rounded
off to 610 mm). The final design for the extension
portion of the airfield with C 17 and AN 32 aircrafts
is given in Table 10.
Table 10 Pavement Structure for Extension

Portions After Parametric Analysis
S. No. Layer Type Modulus Thickness Remarks
(MPa) (mm)
Fig. 5 Variation of DBM Layer Thickness with WMM
1. DAC (Asphalt 1379 50 As part of 127
Layer Thickness
1379 MPa) mm HMA
2. DBM (Asphalt 1379 77 As part of 127 8.23 Airfield Pavement Design of Trial Section
1379 MPa- mm HMA
DBM)
with Asphalt Institute’s SW-1 Software and
Comparison with Other Methods
3. DBM (Asphalt 2500 125 Stabilised Base
2500 MPa)
SW-1 is the pavement thickness design software of

Asphalt Institute and is based on mechanistic-empirical 8.26 Analysis of Results

principles of Asphalt Institute. Full depth asphalt
pavements and overlays can be designed by SW-1. From the results above, it is observed that APSDS
Moduli values of various layers are assigned based on software presents the most economical amongst all
AI criteria and are temperature dependent. design methods discussed. It is also seen that FAA
manual method is not economical owing to full depth
8.24 Air Traffic asphalt pavements.
Unlike APSDS, SW-1 does not have the flexibility of 9 LIFE CYCLE COST ANALYSIS
enabling the user to define any aircraft. It is for this
reason that a trial air traffic has been considered for Life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA) applies the discount
rate to the life-cycle costs of two or more alternatives
design. Only those airplanes that are available in SW-1
to accomplish a given project or objective, enabling the
as well as FAARFIELD and APSDS are considered,
least cost alternative to be identified. LCCA enables
so that comparisons can be drawn. In this section, a
the analyst to make sure that the selection of a design
new full depth asphalt pavement is designed for the
alternative is not based solely on the lowest initial costs,
predicted air traffic shown in Table 11 for a period of
but also considers all the future costs (appropriately
20 years.
discounted) over the project’s usable life. Present worth
Table 11 Predicted Air Traffic for Design or present value economic analyses are considered to
be the best methods for evaluating airport pavement
Comparison with SW-1 Software
design or rehabilitation alternatives. A discount rate of
Aircraft Weight in Annual Total Gear 4 percent is suggested together with an analysis period
Kg Repetitions Repetitions Configuration of 20 years
A300B2 142900 2000 40000 2D 9.1 Predicted Air Traffic considered for
B737-300 63500 3000 60000 D Analysis
DC10-10 207745 1000 20000 2D The following predicted air traffic has been considered
for analysis:
8.25 Comparison of Design Thickness Using
Various Methods a) 3000 annual repetitions of AN 32 aircraft.
b) 500 annual repetitions of C17 aircraft.
The summary of full depth asphalt layer thicknesses
obtained (after rounding off to practical values) with 9.2 Runway Sections considered for Analysis
various design methods is presented in Table 12.
The following runway sections obtained by APSDS
Table 12 Comparison of Full Depth Thicknesses by were considered for analysis:
Various Methods
a) Extension Portions for C17 aircraft.
Runway FAA FAARFIELD APSDS SW-1
Section Manual (mm) (mm) (mm) b) Main runway section 4 for C17 aircraft.
Method c) Extension Portions for AN 32 aircraft.
(mm)
d) Main runway section 4 for AN 32 aircraft.
Full Depth 875 675 590 720
Section 9.3 Modified Binders Used for Analysis
In all of the above sections, the top 50 mm layer

of DAC with VG 30 has been replaced by layers Table 14 Time for Reaching CDF 0.2 with
of modified binders to study the effect of increase Different Binders
in structural life with the use of modified binders. Top Layer Modulus Time to Total Remarks
The modulus value of the top DAC layer has been DAC (MPa) Reach CDF Aircraft
Binder 0.2 (Years) Repetitions
fixed at 1379 MPa as per FAA AC 150-5320-6E,
Extension Portions for C 17
2009. The experimental value of the DAC obtained
in the laboratory at 350C and 5 Hz frequency VG 30 1379 3.94 1970 Rounded up
was found to be 2500 MPa. The moduli value of to 4 years
1379 MPa works out to be 55% of the experimental CRMB-55 2123 7.56 3780 Rounded up
to 7 years
value. Hence the moduli value of the DAC layers
PMB (SBS) 2165 7.96 3980 Rounded up
with modified binders has also been fixed at 55% to 8 years
of the experimental value obtained. The modified Main Runway Section 4 for C 17
binders used and the corresponding dynamic modulus VG 30 1379 3.96 1980 Rounded up
values of DAC using these binders at 350C and 5 Hz to 4 years
frequency are shown in Table 13 below. CRMB-55 2123 9.04 4520 Rounded up
to 9 years
Table 13 Modified Binders Considered with PMB (SBS) 2165 9.74 4870 Rounded up
Corresponding Modulus Values to 10 years
Binder Modulus Value Modulus Value Remarks Extension Portions for AN 32
Used of layer at of Top Layer VG 30 1379 3.93 11800 Rounded up
350C and 5 Hz using Modified to 4 years
(MPa) Binder CRMB-55 2123 7.5 22500 Rounded up
(55% of to 7 years
Experimental
Value) (MPa)
to 8 years
VG 30 2500 1379 Experimentally Main Runway Section 4 for AN 32
obtained value
VG 30 1379 3.9 11700 Rounded up
PMB 4000 2200 Interpolated value to 4 years
(SBS) based on tests
CRMB-55 2123 9.27 27800 Rounded up
carried out at IIT
to 9 years
Madras
CRMB- 3859 2123 Tests carried at IIT to 10 years
55 Madras
9.5 Life Cycle Cost Calculations
9.4 Criteria for Failure/Overlay
The cost of the constituent layers has been taken from
the schedule of rates, Govt. of Karnataka, 2010 given
A cumulative damage factor (CDF) of 1.0 is considered below:
to result in complete structural failure. However, it would
Table 15 Cost of Various Pavement Layers
be necessary to construct an overlay much earlier than
complete structural failure so as to avoid a functional S No Layer Type Cost in Rs per m3
failure. Hence for the purpose of this analysis, it is 1. DAC with VG 30 7712
considered that an overlay would be required when the 2. DAC with CRMB 7779
CDF reaches a value of 0.2, which can be considered as 3. DAC with PMB 10393
20% damage to the entire runway area. The time when 4. DBM (Asphalt 1379 MPa-DBM) 6724
this condition is reached for the runway sections with 5. DBM (Asphalt 2500 MPa) 6724
different binders was calculated using APSDS software 6. WMM (BB) (P-209) 1413
and is given in Table 14. 7. GSB (BB) (P-154) 1240

The initial construction costs have been calculated 9.6 Analysis of Life Cycle Cost
for extension portions for C17 aircraft and also
for AN 32 aircraft. The overlay costs have been From Table 15, it is seen that although the lowest initial
calculated for both the extension portions as well cost of construction is obtained by using VG 30, the
as for Section 4 of the main runway which is the lowest life cycle cost is obtained by using CRMB-55 in
most critical. For calculation purposes, the overlay the top 50 mm of DAC. Further, even though the cost
thickness has been restricted to 50 mm, the minimum of DAC with PMB (SBS) is almost 30% higher than
thickness stipulated by FAA AC 150-5320-6E as DAC with VG 30, the life cycle cost for overlays using
the binder is being varied in only the top 50 mm PMB works out to be almost 40% lesser than overlays
portion of the overlay. The timing for the overlays using VG 30. The use of CRMB-55 for overlays results
has been calculated based on the CDF of 0.2. All in a saving of 50%. Another important factor which
costs have been converted to the net present value should be considered here is that owing to the lower
considering a discount rate of 4 percent. Routine frequency of overlays using modified binders, there
maintenance costs have not been considered as they will be reduced closure of the airfield for maintenance
have been assumed to be the same for all type of which will result in further savings.
binders. Also, for the purpose of this analysis, no
major rehabilitation has been considered. The 20th 9.7 Performance of Different Binders at Higher
year marks the end of the analysis period. Only the Temperatures
salvage value of the overlay has been considered,
all other factors being the same. Though LCCA was carried out at a temperature of
350C, the actual pavement temperature often exceeds
Summary of Alternatives Table 16 shows the summary
this value. The moduli values of different types of
of the alternatives.
binders decreases with increase in temperature. At a
Table 16 Life Cycle Cost Comparison of temperature of 450C, the modulus value of the binders
Alternatives at 5 Hz is shown in Table 17.
Top Layer Initial Cost Present Worth Life Cycle Cost Table 17 Modified Binders Considered with
Binder (Rs/m2) (Rs/m2)
Corresponding Modulus Values
Extension Portions for C 17
Binder Used Modulus Value of Remarks
VG 30 2927 3985 layer at 450C and 5
CRMB-55 2930 3426 Hz (MPa)
PMB (SBS) 3061 3599 VG 30 675 Interpolated values

based on tests carried
Extension Portions for AN 32 PMB (SBS) 1492 out IIT Madras
VG 30 1829 2887
CRMB -55 1060
CRMB-55 1832 2328
Life cycle cost analysis was carried out for the design
PMB (SBS) 1963 2501 obtained for extension portion of the airfield with C 17
Overlays aircraft using the moduli values obtained for different
binders in the top 50 mm of the DAC layer at 450C.
VG 30 386 1445 The time required for the CDF to reach a value of 0.2
CRMB-55 389 716 was calculated using APSDS Software and is given in
Table 18. The summary of LCCA of various alternatives
PMB (SBS) 520 871
is shown in Table 19.

Table 18 Time for Reaching CDF 0.2 with b) The variation in thickness depends on the
Different Binders failure criteria used and the modulus values
adopted for bituminous mixes. Significant
Top Layer Modulus Time to Total Remarks
DAC (MPa) Reach Aircraft variation also occurs due to the equivalency
Binder CDF 0.2 Repetitions factors assigned to the existing materials in the
(Years) manual method. Hence, the modulus values
Extension Portions for C 17 and equivalency values need to be assigned
VG 30 675 2.12 1060 Rounded up carefully after laboratory testing.
to 2 years
CRMB-55 1060 3.02 1510 Rounded up
c) From laboratory experiments, the moduli values
to 3 years of the constituent DAC and BM layers were
PMB 1492 4.34 2170 Rounded up found to be 2500 MPa. These were however
(SBS) to 4 years restricted to 1379 MPa for the top layer of DAC
as per latest FAA guidelines and 1250 MPa for
Table 19 Life Cycle Cost Comparison of BM to account for the considerable ageing and
Alternatives at 450 Celsius deterioration due to water infiltration.
Top Layer Initial Cost Present Worth Life Cycle
d) It was observed that the FAA manual method
Binder (Rs/m2) Cost (Rs/m2)
of design is uneconomical for overlays for light
Extension Portions for C 17 aircraft while it is economical for overlays with
VG 30 2927 5320 heavy aircraft and new designs. FAARFIELD,
CRMB-55 2930 4781
on the other hand results in thicker overlays as
compared to APSDS. This is because of the fact
PMB 3061 4487
that the APSDS 5.0 now uses subgrade failure
(SBS)
criteria that depend on the number of wheels on
each gear.
9.8 Selection of Binder for Lowest LCC
e) It was also observed that Asphalt Institute’s
It can be seen from Table 18 that at a temperature of
SW-1 software which is used for full depth
450C, the lowest LCC is obtained by using PMB in
asphalt designs yielded higher thicknesses as
the top 50 mm of the DAC layer. Though CRMB-55
compared to FAARFIELD and APSDS for the
yielded the lowest LCC at a temperature of 350C, owing
trial section considered. APSDS software can
to the fact that the difference in cost between PMB
also be used for parametric analysis to arrive
(SBS) and CRMB-55 is minimal, the performance of
at the optimum cost and hence is considered as
PMB (SBS) is superior and it is also more economical
the most suitable for economical designs.
at higher pavement temperatures. It is recommended
that the top 50 mm of DAC be used with PMB(SBS) f) Life cycle cost analysis reveals that although the
for all temperatures for improved performance of the lowest initial cost of construction is obtained
runway pavements. by using VG 30, the lowest life cycle cost is
obtained by using CRMB-55 in the top 50 mm
CONCLUSIONS
of DAC for extension portion of the runway
The conclusions of the study are at 350C. However, at higher temperatures,
PMB(SBS) outperforms CRMB-55 and is
a) Significant variation in overlay design thickness found to yield the lowest LCC and is hence
values were obtained from manual and automated recommended for use in the top 50 mm of DAC
mechanistic empirical design methods. for all temperatures.

REFERENCES 11. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA),

Advisory Circular 150/5335-5A, (2006),
1. Asphalt Institute, MS 11, (1987). “Thickness “Standardized Method Of Reporting Airport
Design - Asphalt Pavements for Air Carrier Pavement Strength – PCN.”
Airports.”
12. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA),
2. Asphalt Institute, SW-1 Software. “Asphalt Advisory Circular 150/5320-6E, (2009).
Pavement Thickness Design Software for “Airport Pavement Design and Evaluation.”
Highways, Airports, Heavy Wheel Loads and
Other Applications, (2010).” 13. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA),
FAARFIELD Software, Version 1.302 (2009).
3. Bentley Systems, MX ROAD Software, Version
v8i (2010). 14. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA),
COMFAA Software, Version 3 (2010)
4. Chen, Ye Sun and Zummo, Guy. (2003).
15. Gendreau and Soriano. (1997). “Airport
“Pavement Design to Accommodate the
Pavement Management Systems: An Appraisal
Airbus A380 at John F. Kennedy International
of Existing Methodologies.” Pergamon, Transpn
Airport.” 83rd Transportation Research Board
Res.-A, Vol. 32, No. 3, pp.197-214, 1998.
Annual MeetingWashington, D.C.
16. Greene, J., Shahin, M. and Alexander, D.
5. Dhaliwal, B.S. and Tipnis M.M. (2004). (2004). “Airfield Condition Assessment.”
“Planning for Rehabilitation of a Disused Transportation Research Board Annual
Airfield.” Paper No. 499, Journal of the Meeting, 2004.
Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2004,
pp. 203-218. 17. Horonjeff, R., (1975). ''Planning and design of
airports'' , McGraw-Hill.
6. Dynatest International. http : //www.dynatest.
com /last accessed Nov 2010. 18. HoSang, V.A. (1975), “Field survey and
analysis of aircraft distribution on airport
7. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), pavements.” Report No. FAA-RD-74-36. U.S.
Advisory Circular 150/5380-6, (2003). Federal Aviation Administration.
“Guidelines and Procedures for Maintenance
of Airport Pavements.” 19. ICAO Aerodrome Design Manual Part 3,
Pavements (1983).
8. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA),
Advisory Circular AC 150/5370-11A, (2004). 20. IRC: 37 (2001). “Guidelines for the Design of
“Use of Non-Destructive Testing in The Flexible Pavements”, Second Revision, Indian
Evaluation of Airport Pavements.” Roads Congress.
9. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), 21. IRC: SP 42 (1998) . “Guidelines on Road

Drainage”, Indian Roads Congress.
Advisory Circular 150-5325-4B, (2005).
“Runway Length Requirement for Airport 22. Kai Su, Ryota Maekawa and Yoshitaka
Design.” Hachiya, (2009). “Laboratory Evaluation of
WMA Mixture for Use in Airport Pavement
10. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), Rehabilitation.” Elsevier, Construction
Advisory Circular 150/5320-5C, (2006). and Building Materials Journal 23 (2009),
“Surface Drainage Design.” pp. 2709–2714.

23. Kasthurirangan Gopalakrishnan, (2008). 31. Veeraragavan and Shailendra Grover. (2008).
“Forensic Investigation of Failed Airfield “Forensic Investigations of Pavement Pre-
Test Pavements.” KSCE Journal of Civil Mature Failure of a National Highway Pavement
Engineering (2010) 14(3) :395-402. due to Poor Sub-Surface Drainage.”
24. McQueen ,R.D., Wayne Marsey and Jose M. 32. Wardle, L. and Rodway, B. (1998). “Recent
Arze, (2001). “Analysis of Non Destructive
Developments In Flexible Aircraft Pavement
Test Data on Flexible Pavements Acquired at
Design Using The Layered Elastic Method.”
the National Airport Pavement Test Facility.”
Federal Aviation Administration Airport Third International Conference on Road and
Technology Research and Development Airfield Pavement Technology, Beijing, April
Branch. 1998.
25. Mincad Systems, Airport Pavement Structural 33. Wardle, L. and Rodway, B. (2010). “Advanced
Design System (APSDS) Software, Version4 Design of Flexible Aircraft Pavements.” 24th
(2006). ARRB Conference, Melbourne, Australia.
26. Norlela Ismail, Amiruddin Ismail and Riza Atiq 34. White G.W. and McCullagh P.J. (2006),
O.K. Rahmat. (2009). “Development of Expert “Upgrade of an Australian Defense Airfield
System for Airport Pavement Maintenance and for the Introduction of Code E Aircraft.”
Rehabilitation.” European Journal of Scientific
Proccedings of the 2006 Airfield and Highway
Research ISSN 1450-216X Vol.35 No.1 (2009),
Pavement Speciality Conference.
pp. 121-129.
27. Punith and Veeraragavan. (2010). “Evaluation 35. White G.W. (2006), “Material Equivalence for
of Reclaimed Polyethylene-Modified Asphalt Flexible Aircraft Pavement Thickness Design.”
Pavements.” Journal of Testing and Evaluation, Proccedings of the 2006 Airfield and Highway
Vol. 38, No. 5. Pavement Speciality Conference.
28. Report on PCN Evaluation of The Project 36. WHPACIFIC, INC (2010). “Grants Pass
Airfield : Airfield Report No: 566 of Soil Airport Runway12-30 Rehabilitation.” AIP #
Engineering and Material Testing Wing, 3-41-0023-00X, Prepared for Josephine County
College of Military Engineering, Pune, (2006). Airport, Oregon.
29. The Boeing Company. http : //www.boeing. 37. Yildirim, Yetkin (2005), “Polymer Modified
com /last accessed June 2011.
Asphalt Binders.” Elsevier, Construction
30. Unified Facilities Criteria (UFC), UFC 3-260- and Building Materials Journal 21 (2007),
03, (2001), “Airfield Pavement Evaluation” pp. 66–72.

APPENDIX 1
DETERMINATION OF DESIGN AIRCRAFT
Table 1 of Appendix 1–Equivalent Annual Repetitions of Design Aircraft AN 32
Aircraft Wt in Kg Repetitions Wheel Design Aircraft Equivalent Gear

Load Repetitions* Annual
Repetitions#
AN 32 27000 3000 6412.5 3000 3000 D
(Single Wheel- 4600 3500 2185 2800 103 S
4500 kg)
(Single Wheel- 4536 5000 2154.6 4000 123 S
4500 kg)
(Single Wheel- 1322 10000 627.95 8000 17 S
1500 kg)
Total 3243
*For conversion of Single wheel (S) repetitions to Dual Wheel (D) repetitions, depatures of S to be multiplied by
0.8 (Single wheel to dual wheel factor)
#For conversion to equivalent annual departures of design aircraft, use Eq. 5.1,
log R1= log R2 x (W2/W1)1/2 ...5.1
where:
R1 = equivalent annual departures by the design aircraft
R2 = annual departures expressed in design aircraft landing gear
W1 = wheel load of the design aircraft
W2 = wheel load of the aircraft in question
Table 2 of Appendix 1- Equivalent Annual repetitions of Design Aircraft C 17

Aircraft Wt in Kgs Repetitions Wheel Load Design Equivalent Gear
Aircraft Annual Configuration
Repetitions Repetitions
C17 265352 500 16161.88 500 500 2T
AN 32 27000 3000 6412.5 1800 113 D
Total 613

Oberoi and Veeraragavan on
Rehabilitation And Upgradation Of An Existing Airfield Runway Pavement For Operation Of
288 Next Generation Aircrafts
APPENDIX 2
Performance Criteria for Subgrade Failure and Performance Criteria for Subgrade Failure and
Bituminous Layer Failure: FAARFIED Bituminous Layer Failure : APSDS
The design process for flexible pavements Vertical strain at the top of the subgrade and
considers two modes of failure: vertical strain in horizontal strain at the bottom of the top layer
the subgrade and horizontal strain in the asphalt are the design criteria for the pavement. Most
layer. Limiting vertical strain in the subgrade is of the models in APSDS are represented in the
intended to preclude failure by subgrade rutting. form of Eq. 3.
Limiting horizontal strain at the bottom of the C=k/Є]b ...3
asphalt surfacing layer guards against pavement
failure initiated by cracking of the asphalt surface Where,
layer. Subgrade vertical strain and horizontal strain C is the predicted life (repetitions)
at the bottom of the top layer are the design criteria
k is a material constant
for the pavement. The failure model used to find
the number of coverages to failure for a given b is the damage exponent of the material
vertical strain at the top of the subgrade is given Є is the induced strain (dimensionless strain)
in Eq. 1.
Log-log relationships can be readily converted to
C= (0.004/Єv)8.1, when C<= 12,100 and the above form. APSDS 5.0 can use performance
C= (0.002428/Єv)14.21, when C> 12,100 ...1 parameters that depend on the number of wheels
where:- on each gear. This approach gives more reliable
predictions for designs involving new generation
C is number of coverages to failure
large aircraft including the Boeing 777 and Airbus
Єv is vertical strain at the top of the subgrade A380-800.
The failure model used to find the number of APSDS can also handle models of the form given
coverages to failure for a given horizontal strain in Eq. 4:
at the bottom of the surface asphalt layer is given
Log10= k-b[Є] ...4
in Eq. 2.
This log-linear relationship is used by European
Log10(C) = 2.68-5 x log10(ЄH) – 2.665 x log10
designers for cement-treated materials.
(EA) ...2
APSDS is supplied with a comprehensive range of
where:-
published performance models. Users can also use
C is number of coverages to failure their own performance equations by specifying
EA is asphalt modulus values for ‘k’ and ‘b’ and the particular component
to be used, for example vertical strain, vertical
ЄH is horizontal strain at the bottom of the surface deflection, maximum tensile strain, etc.
asphalt layer
The views expressed in the paper are personal views of the Authors. For any query, the authors may be contacted at: E-mail: av@iitm.ac.in

Paper No. 602
CASE STUDY ON NEW INITIATIVES TAKEN ON CAISSON

FOUNDATIONS AND CUTTING EDGE CONSTRUCTION AT
BOGIBEEL BRIDGE
Anupam Das*
Abstract
Time is the essence of construction. Bridging the mighty & ferocious river Brahmaputra is a great challenge in itself. In this paper, the engineering
solutions are presented which are derived by adopting revised & innovative methodology, for the construction of two difficult Caisson foundations namely
P2 & P3 in River Brahmaputra at a Water depth of 14m to 18m, under water velocity ranging from 3 to 5m/sec, within very short period of 4 months (from
November to February) only. After adopting the revised methodology, both the Caissons were successfully grounded only in 74 days and a time of 53 days
was saved in comparison to earlier season. The fabrication/ erection of each cutting edge at location was achieved in 10 days and a time of 15 days was
saved in comparison to earlier season. This paper would immensely be beneficial for Highway Engineers, as it involves substantial reduction of time of
execution by 42% for caisson foundation & by 60% for fabrication & erection of cutting edge at location.
1 INTRODUCTION rail-cum-road bridge in India having total length of

4.94 km.
The Bogibeel Bridge is the fourth bridge across 2 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT
river Brahmaputra, approximately 17 km
downstream of Dibrugarh located in eastern part Gammon India Ltd were entrusted with the Construction
of Assam. It is being constructed for Double of Well Foundation and Sub-structure of Bogibeel Rail
Line BG Track and three lanes road. This bridge cum Road Bridge across the River Brahmaputra. Line
will be the lifeline of North eastern part of the sketch of the bridge as well as cross-section details of
country. It will facilitate connectivity between North well foundation is given in Figs. 1 & 2 respectively.
and South of river Brahmaputra in the eastern region Since the bridge is made in a seismically active zone
of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh, as it will be the (Zone-V), special care has been taken in the design of
fourth bridge over river Brahmaputra to cross, after the bridge to mitigate disasters. For this, the depth of
Saraighat Bridge @ Guwahati, Naranarayan Setu the wells has been increased by 25 per cent and the
@ Jogighopa and Kaliabhomora Bridge @ Tezpur. thickness of the steining of wells has been extended to
National Security of the eastern region of India three metres which is generally confined to 1.5 – 2.0
will get further strengthening after commissioning metres. It was required to build two caissons (P2 & P3)
of the Bridge. The Construction of the Bridge is out of three caissons, in the main river channel (Water
considered to be of strategic importance. Though depth 14 m to 18 m), having water velocity, ranging
the rail-cum-road bridge was inaugurated on 22nd from 3 m/sec. to 5 m/sec. Also the Caissons were to be
April 2002 by the then Prime Minister Shri Atal constructed in a very short period i.e. only in 4 months
Behari Vajpai ji, but the work of main bridge (sub- (from November to February) including Fabrication,
structure) was started in April 2008. The bridge is Erection, launching, grounding and sinking of Caissons
planned for commissioning for Rail and Road traffic up to safe depth (atleast 20 m below bed level), since
by December 2016.This bridge will be the longest the water level and velocity recedes in the month of
* Deputy General Manager (Projects), Gammon India Limited, E-mail:Anupam.Das@gammonindia.com


290 Das on
October and again the water level and velocity starts rains in the upper reaches of the river. The fact is,
increasing from March onwards. working on a river Brahmaputra, one cannot follow
a strict methodology. The river takes a new form/
Scope of work includes, 42 nos. of double ‘D’ (16.2 m
changes its course every year – the depth, bed level
X 10.5 m) well foundations of 58.6 m depth for P2 to
P39, 68.75 m depth for P1 and P40 and 42.00 m depth situation etc. changes leading to forced change in the
for A1 and A2, including 3nos. of Caisson foundations planned methodology. The Working season is hardly,
along with Pier and Pier Caps. The total Concrete four months i.e. Nov. to Feb., as workable water level
involved is 3,43,424 cum. Caisson foundations are, recedes by end of Oct. and Starts rising from 1st week
one of the most difficult deep foundations to construct of March itself.
in bridges and that, building them in mighty and
ferocious River Brahmaputra is itself a great challenge. In the following paras methodology adopted for the
More challenge was added on, by the sudden flash construction of well caisson during working season
floods due to untimely and unprecedented heavy (2009-10) is presented:
Fig. 1 Line Sketch of the Bridge

Case Study On New Initiatives Taken On Caisson Foundations And Cutting Edge Construction
At Bogibeel Bridge 291
Fig. 3 Dredging of River for Shifting of Caisson
The caissons (i.e. P2 / P3) were taken to the actual

location on 17/01/2010 and 21/01/2010 respectively,
after dredging and making the channel (Refer Fig. 4).
Fig. 2 Cross Section Elevation of Well
3 CASE STUDY & LESSONS LEARNT ON

CAISSON FOUNDATIONS Fig. 4 P2/ P3 Caissons Shifted to Actual Location
Coffer dams for P2 and P3 caisson launching bed There was a delay of around 22 days in shifting of
was constructed at 1000 mtr upstream side of bridge caisson because of heavy siltation.
centre line in Oct’09. This was made after detail
survey. During the selection of the location, the water Further works of both the caissons were done at location.
depth was around 5 m. Both caissons were erected up There was a sudden unexpected increase of water level
to 5.1 m ht. at Launching Bed. There were two flash from RL 96.990 m to 97.870 m on 04/03/2010, due
floods on 10/10/2009 & 19/11/2009, which resulted to heavy rainfall in Arunachal Pradesh and at upper
heavy siltation near the launching bed. Thereafter Assam region (Ref. Fig.5). Due to the increase in water
dredging of river for shifting of Caisson were done. velocity, the total force applied by water on caisson
(Refer Fig. 3). drastically increased.

292 Das on
and slowly the P2 caisson submerged into water (Refer

Fig. 7).
Fig. 5 Unprecedented flood in river Brahmaputra
Two of the three anchors of P2 caisson gave way due to

heavy wind and water current. The caisson P2 gradually
drifted and stabilized at about 130 m downstream side
from the original location (Refer Fig. 6).
Fig. 7 P2 Caisson submerged in river
Also at location P3, due to unexpected rise of water level

coupled with heavy water current/ force, tremendous
scouring took place. The caisson started tilting. The
scouring was uncontrollable due to heavy water current
at that location and it was not possible for any boat or
person to approach the caisson.
Ultimately all the wire ropes anchored with the caisson

were snapped one by one and P3 caisson drifted away
very fast at about 1.2 km d/s to the centreline and finally
got submerged into water (Refer Fig. 8).
Fig. 6 P2 Caisson drifted 130 m downstream
Since the draft of Caisson was 9.7 m, it was not

possible to shift to a safer place at that time. Therefore,
it was secured in that position with four nos. of 32 mm
dia wire ropes tied with well P1 and two nos. from
downstream side anchors. But in that location due to
heavy scouring the caisson started tilting. The scouring
was uncontrollable due to heavy water current at that
location and it was not possible for any boat or person
to approach the caisson. Ultimately all the wire ropes Fig. 8 P3 Caisson submerged in river
anchored with the caisson were snapped one by one

Before snapping of the tethering arrangements ISA 90x90x8 at 1374 mm c/c at well curb portion of
the status of both the caissons were as follows steel caisson was an important aspect to be checked.
(Refer Table 1).
3.1.1.1 Check for vertical frame during floating
Table 1 Status of Caisson P2 & P3 Before condition
Snapping of Tethering Arrangements
Maximum water head/ Static Water pressure on the curb
S. No. Description Unit Caisson Caisson portion was considered to be around 7.50 m along with
P2 P3 Water current of 3 to 5 m/sec. The pressure due to water
1 Height of the M 18.7 13.9 current was then evaluated. Concrete pressure during
Caisson concreting of well curb was also evaluated. Therefore,
2 Weight of structural MT 138 117 considering maximum of the two, the Design pressure
3 Weight of MT 77 77 was considered.
reinforcement
4 Weight of concrete MT 960 315 i) External Plate
5 Total weight of MT 1175 509
caisson Thickness of the plate was considered to be 8mm.
6 Draft M 9.7 5.6
Considering the maximum size of the panel, Bending
stress, Deflection, was evaluated and checked with
7 Free board M 9.0 8.3
permissible values.
To conclude, both the caissons were lost due to:
ii) Vertical Angle
(i) Late grounding of Caissons, due to the delay of
around 22 days in shifting of caissons, due to Maximum Pressure on vertical Angle was considered
heavy siltation enroute. to be 0.75 kg/cm2, keeping in view the Spacing of
Vertical angle, Length of Vertical Angle & B.M.
(ii) Early onset of floods with heavy water velocity Effective Width cannot be more than spacing between
in 1st week of March. angles. Properties of Angles, Properties of combined
(iii) Due to sudden flood and change in direction & section, Permissible Bending Stress & Maximum
velocity of water, caused angular force/ impact Bending Stress was analysed & checked.
on caissons, which snapped the tethering
3.1.1.2 Check for vertical frame during sinking
arrangements.
condition
3.1 Revised methodology adopted in 3rd Working
During sinking of well, the caisson was subjected to
Season (2010-11) for construction of Caissons earth pressure from outside and concrete pressure from
inside. Thus, the pressures would be balanced and
A comprehensive strategy was decided for 3rd
the vertical frame was not subjected to any additional
Season, especially to reassess the design of Caissons,
pressure.
tethering arrangements & anchor blocks, to revise the
Construction Methodology and to make an unassailable
plan with additional precautions, to ground the caisson
by 15th Jan 2011, so that by end of Feb’11 both the
Caissons could be taken to safe depth below bed level
to prevent such unprecedented loss.
3.1.1 Review of Caisson Design
The structural adequacy check for vertical angle frame Fig. a

294 Das on
velocity =5 m/s (assumed during lwl condition) &

pressure due to water current. Based on this, the no. of
tethering arrangement, force in each wire rope & force
in inclined wire rope were evaluated.
3.1.2.2 Wind Force
It was Calculated, considering the basic wind speed =50

m/sec, designed wind velocity & pressure due to water
velocity. Based on this, no. of tethering arrangement,
Fig. b force on each wire rope, force on inclined wire rope
was evaluated.
Fig. 9 (a & b) Structural details of Caisson
Subsequently the total force on each Wire rope and its
From the above, it was concluded that, the vertical design force were evaluated.
frame angle ISA 90x90x8 @ 1374 mm c/c was safe
in floating condition / sinking as land based well, due 3.1.2.3 Design of Wire Rope
to proper bracing with other vertical frames as well as
planned bracing at appropriate spacing (Refer Fig. 9 a (a) Main wire rope force was checked, with steel
& b). core wire rope as per IS:2266:2002, considering
the breaking load and factor of safety.
(b) Force from three sheave pulley to double sheave
3.1.2 Review of Design of Tethering Arrangement pulley, was checked considering the force, no.
for Floating Caisson of wire rope, load on each wire rope with steel
core wire rope as per IS:2266:2002, breaking
Wells constructed by Caisson method of this bridge was load and factor of safety.
located in relatively deep water channel of the river. It
(c) Force from single sheave pulley to E – bolts
was proposed to use floating caisson for construction of
were checked, considering the force, no. of
these wells. Caisson of certain height (‘K’ lift) was to
wire rope, load on each wire rope with steel
be fabricated and assembled in the fabrication yard on
core wire rope as per IS:2266:2002, breaking
bank of the river. This caisson will then be floated into load and factor of safety.
the river. The caisson will then be towed to the location
of foundation and will be aligned at the exact location. The design of tethering arrangement had been
The caisson will be held in position by suitable tethering revised, considering all the parameters including
arrangement. Concrete will be placed inside caisson in the unprecedented water flow in an angular
lifts as given in construction sequence drawing. The direction also. The tethering arrangement was
caisson will get submerged in the water upto certain modified (Refer Fig. 10), amongst which the
height. Next lift of the steel caisson will then be built and most significant changes were:
concrete will be poured in the caisson. In this manner • In place of 32 mm dia sling 52 mm dia sling
the caisson will be built till the cutting edge reaches the were used.
bed level. During the stage when cutting edge reaches • N
umber of winch brackets had been
the bed level, caisson will be secured in position by increased. Additional three winches had
using wire rope connected to floating buoy. The Design been placed on the boulder crate of launching
for tethering arrangement of floating caisson were done apron of guide bund for P2, this helped in
by evaluating the following:- handling of caissons during unprecedented
rise in water flow of the current.
3.1.2.1 Water Current Force
• I n U/S side, nos. of anchor was also
It was Calculated, considering the max. design stream increased from 3 nos. to 6 nos.

Revised tethering arrangement by using 52 mm dia wire

rope in place of 32 mm dia wire rope and 40 mm dia
wire rope in place of 25 mm dia wire rope are shown
in Fig.11. Fixing of winches from ground anchors are
shown in Fig. 12.
Fig. a
Fig.11 Revised tethering arrangement of Caisson
Fig. b
Fig. c
Fig.12 Revised winch arrangement from ground anchor
3.1.3 Review of Design of Anchor Block
The Design was based on total force, volume of block,

total density, weight of one anchor block, buoyant weight,
nos. of anchor block in one buoy & force in one anchor
block. After computing the Vertical Component of
Tensile force & Resultant Forces in Each Anchor Block,
the Total Forces in Each Anchor Block were calculated.
The anchor was of concrete anchor of drag embedment
type. The anchor holding power was generated due
Fig. d to penetration of anchor in the river bed creating
a heave of mass of soil resulting in the passive
Fig. 10 (a,b,c & d) Modified details of tethering resistance of soil. The anchor efficiency as given
arrangement of caisson in BS-6349 Part-6-1989 was Anchor efficiency=

296 Das on
Anchor Holding power/ anchor mass in air. As per Placement of the bent angle and straight angle as per
BS-6349 Part-6-1989, the Anchor efficiency for drawing over the already made pedestals at yard as per
stock anchor in poor to Good soil is 5 (Average of 5 drawing were done (Refer Fig. 14).
& 10). Based on this the anchor holding power with
factor of safety was calculated and checked.
3.1.4 Revised Methodology Adopted for Caisson
Foundations
The methodology for fabrication and erection of caisson

had been revised to minimize the time of execution.
Accordingly the Caissons in Modules were prefabricated.
Fabrication of K-lift (5.1 m + 1.6 m = 6.7 m) and
required Modules of 2.4 m height in the fabrication yard
were executed during the monsoon period. Prefabricated
Modules of Caisson were shifted at Launching Bed after
cutting in segments as per pre approved cutting plan.
Reassembling of Caisson Modules at Launching Bed
up to 6.7 m was done. Floating and placing the Caisson
at location with the help of wire ropes & pulley as per
tethering arrangement drawing were executed. Target Fig.14 Placement of the bent angle
had been kept for Caisson Floating in November’10. Fixing and welding of 8 mm thk. outer skin plate upto
Addition of required pre fabricated modules and placing 0.8 m height throughout the outer portion, Fixing the
of stage wise concrete as per sequential drawing of
20 mm thk. & 450 mm wide outer plate as per drawing &
Grounding were done. Grounding the Caisson were
done as per drawing. Target had been kept for grounding fixing the inner skin plate up to 0.575 m throughout were
the caissons by 15th Jan’ 2011. done. Fixing all stiffeners at the bottom and all overhead
welding at the bottom were completed (Refer Fig. 15).
3.1.4.1 Revised methodology for fabrication of
caisson
Fabrication & erection of caisson were done at

Fabrication Yard. Bending of the ISA 200X200X20 by
Hydraulic Jack in required radius into 8 pieces (5565 mm
long 6 nos. for curve portion & 5700 mm long 2nos. for
straight portion) were done (Refer Fig. 13).
Fig.15 Fixing and welding of 8 mm thk. outer skin plate
Fixing the diaphragm angle (10634 mm long 1 no.) in

its position were done (Refer Fig. 16).
Fig.13 Bending of the ISA 200X200X20

For extension of 1.6 m (Module-1) Frames were

fabricated in fabrication yard followed by erection and
alignment of the frames over the curb of 5.1 m height.
Welding of the frames temporarily with curb frames
was done. Placing the hoop angles, cross bracings as
per drawing and welding the same with frames were
done. Placement and alignment of the inner and outer
skin plates in position and welding temporarily with
bottom plate of well curb were done. Other welding like
skin plates with vertical frames & hoop angles are then
Fig. 16 Fixing the diaphragm angle completed. Complete welding of caisson up to K-Lift
Placing of the vertical frames (Both A type & B type) (5.1+1.6 m), except the joints where caisson will be cut
as per drawing and aligning the same were done (Refer for making pieces for shifting were done. Fabrication
Fig. 17). and erection of further required Modules at fabrication
yard were then executed (Refer Fig. 19).
Fig. 17 Placing of vertical frames
Fixing of inner & outer skin plates in layer up to

5.1 m. height throughout along with diaphragm portion, Fig.19 Fabrication and erection Modules
including fixing of Hoop angles and cross bracings with
Cutting of the Modules as per cutting plan were taken
the skin plates were done (Refer Fig. 18).
up after appropriate numbering (Refer Fig. 20).
Fig. a Fig. b
Fig.18 Fixing of inner & outer skin plates & Hoop angles Fig. 20 (a & b) Cutting Plan of Prefabricated Caisson Caisson

298 Das on
Cutting of Caisson being done (Refer Fig. 21). The top module i.e. Module-3, were cut after
appropriate numbering and the same were stacked with
the help of Crane. In the same way the Module-2 and
Module-1 was cut and stacked. Subsequently, required
nos. of Modules were fabricated, cut as per cutting
plan, dismantled & stacked in the same manner before
shifting to the location.
Suitable cross bracings, stiffeners for strengthening,

lifting hooks were also provided in all components
before dismantling. Shifting of Prefabricated Caisson
Module by Trailer were done thereafter (Refer Fig. 24).
Fig. 21 Cutting of Caisson in Modules
Lifting of Cut Piece (1.6 m Height) & Lowering and

stacking the pieces appropriately at yard were done
(Refer Fig. 22).
Fig. 24 Shifting of Prefabricated Caisson Module

Coffer Dam for Launching of Caisson were made.
Location was selected after conducting thorough
survey and considering the depth of water along the
Fig. 22 Lifting of Cut Piece of Modules towing route (Refer Fig. 25).
Cutting of the Curb (5.1 m) portion as per cutting plan
after suitable numbering were executed. Lifting of Cut
Piece (Well Curb) were then done (Refer Fig. 23).
Fig. 23 Lifting of the Curb (5.1 m) portion Fig. 25 Coffer Dam for Launching of Caisson

Erection of Caisson at Launching Bed were done. The Grabbing from inside the dredge hole and as well as
pieces of Module-1 were placed as per pre marking from outside the caisson were executed. Sinking the
at erection platform, followed by alignment and caisson as per reqd. draft for Floating/ Launching of
leveling the pieces perfectly. Welding of the vertical Caisson were done. Dismantling of coffer dam to allow
& other joints temporarily were done. Placement of water to enter in the assembly area of Caisson were
the prefabricated frames of Module-2 (3.2 m) over then executed. Grabbing continued till the caisson
the Module-1 were then done. Welding of the frames floated into water (Refer Fig. 28).
temporarily with Module-1 frames were executed.
Placing the hoop angles, cross bracings as per drawing
and welding the same with frames was done. Placement
and alignment of the inner and outer skin plates in
position and welding temporarily with bottom plate
of Module-1 were then done. Other welding like skin
plates with vertical frames & hoop angles were then
completed. In the same manner Module-3 (3.2 m) were
erected above Module-2 (Refer Fig. 26).
Fig 28 Grabbing inside the Caisson for Floating into

the water of Caisson
Caisson was towed to location with three nos. of high

power Tugs (Refer Fig. 29).
Fig. 26 Erection of Module
Two Cranes were placed at suitable position for

Floating/ Launching of Caisson (Refer Fig. 27).
Fig. 29 Caisson being towed to location
3.1.4.2 Grounding Sequence of Caisson
150 T concrete were uniformly placed in curb portion.

Additional lifts were built up, Reinforcement was
extended, winches were lifted and concreting was done
after checking the bed levels. This process continued
till the caisson reached nearer to bed level. During the
last stage, the free board was kept minimum 5 m and
Fig. 27 Cranes being used for Floating/ Launching of Caisson
C.E at least 0.5 m above bed level (Refer Fig. 30).

300 Das on
Fig. e
Fig. a
Fig. b
Fig. f
Fig. c
Fig. g
Fig. 30 (a, b, c, d, e, f & g) Grounding Sequence of Caisson
As the cutting edge reached near to Bed, the preparation

of grounding were started. Bed level was checked and
necessary grabbing done for leveling the bed. Sand
bags were dropped around the caisson to prevent
scouring. 7 nos. of Tremie with hopper were placed
in position for concreting. The alignment of Caisson
was checked by total station placed in pre established
control points. Caisson was ready for grounding.
Concrete was poured continuously and faster. Caisson
Fig. d started to sink down and the C.E reached below the bed

level. Caisson Modules were added further, concrete Initially concrete was poured at caisson by Crane &
was placed and sinking done until the Caisson reached Bucket method to prevent tilting in floated condition.
up to safe gripping length. In the above operation, 7 nos. of Tremie pipes were attached with the Hopper
the alignment of Caisson was checked in every half from the top of Caisson. During concreting necessary
an hour by total station and control points. The final care were taken to prevent Tilting of Caisson.
adjustment of alignment was done with the help of
winch arrangements. Total fabrication and erection involved in P2 Caisson
was 390 MT (40.3 m ht.) & for P3 Caisson was
In all stages the free board was kept not less than 2.0 m. 225 MT (21.9 m ht). 7 days time cycle was achieved for
After Caisson reached the safe grip length (Minimum a 2.4 m lift module including erection, fit up, welding,
1/3 of total depth of water), concreting was done up to reinforcement fixing, winch lifting and concreting,
the top of Caisson and all tethering arrangements were whereas in earlier season it took 12 days per 2.4 m lift.
removed.
After adopting this revised methodology, both the
Erection of Further Modules at Location were done Caissons were successfully grounded by 30th Dec’10.
(Refer Fig. 31). Both the Caissons (P2 Caisson ht. = 19.5 m and P3 =
14.7 m at the time of Grounding), were erected, floated
and grounded only in 74 days and saved a time of 53
days in comparison to earlier season (refer Table 2).
Detailed break up of Time saved due to Revision in

Methodology:-
Table 2 Detailed break up of Time saved due to

Revision in Methodology
Sl. Description of Time taken Time taken Time
No. Work in 2nd Season in 3rd Season Saved
(in days) as (in days) as (in
Fig. 31 Erection of Further Modules at Location per Original per Revised days)
Methodology Methodology
Concreting by using Crane & Bucket were executed 1 Erection of 51 30 21
(Refer Fig. 32). Caisson up
to Well Curb
Reinf. fixing
and Fixing
of Winches
@ Built up
Launching bed.
2 Launching 22 8 14
arrangement
and floating
3 Erection of 54 36 18
Modules,
Reinf. fixing,
Concreting at
location till
Grounding
TOTAL 127 74 53
Fig. 32 Concreting by using Crane & Bucket

302 Das on
4 INITIATIVES TAKEN IN CUTTING

EDGE CONSTRUCTION
4.1 Cutting Edge Fabrication & Erection

Methodology Adopted in 2010-2011
Cutting edge used to be fabricated at fabrication yard

up to 1.0 mtr height (Refer Fig. 33).
Fig. 35 Erection of Fabricated Modules of Cutting Edge
The Cutting edge modules were then shifted to location

by Tusker (Refer Fig. 36).
Fig. 33 Cutting Edge Fabricated up to 1.0 mtr. height
4.2 Cutting Edge Fabrication & Erection

Methodology Adopted in 2011-2012
Cutting edge were fabricated at fabrication yard up to

the required height (i.e. 2.0 m) (Refer Fig. 34).
Fig. 36 Cutting Edge Modules being shifted to location
Erection of Cutting edge modules at location were then

done (Refer Fig. 37).
Fig. 34 Fabricated Cutting Edge height up to 2.0 mtr.
Fabricated Cutting edge were then cut in 7 pieces as

per cutting plan and then shifted to location and erected
with the help of crane (Refer Fig. 35). Fig. 37 Erection of Cutting edge modules at location

Cutting edge Modules were erected up to 2.0 m height 5 CONCLUSION

at location (Refer Fig. 38).
As time being the essence in construction of Bridges
in river Brahmaputra, so the primary objective was to
minimize the time of execution to fullest extent.
In this paper, the engineering solutions derived, after

adopting the revised & innovative methodology in
executing the Caisson foundation & fabrication/
erection of cutting edge at location in mighty and
ferocious River Brahmaputra would immensely be
beneficial for Engineering Profession, as it involves
substantial reduction of time of execution by 42% for
caisson foundation & by 60% for fabrication & erection
Fig. 38 Cutting edge modules erected
of cutting edge at location.
Erection of Cutting Edge was then completed (Ref. The successful completion of this highly technical
Fig. 39). & ambitious project of North East Frontier Railway
will not be, just a routine completion of bridge, but
the execution of this bridge, especially the revised
& innovative methodology adopted in executing
the Caisson foundation & fabrication/ erection of
cutting edge at location in mighty and ferocious River
Brahmaputra, certainly exhibits the story of meticulous
designing, planning & execution at all levels.
This Bridge on completion will develop a better

communication between people at south bank and
Fig. 39 Cutting edge erection completed
north bank of river, as it is a long cherished dream of
4.3 Detailed Break up of Time Saved Due to the people on both sides of the river, especially the
Revision in Methodology districts of Dhemaji, Lakhimpur & Dibrugarh of Assam
and also the neighbouring State of Arunachal Pradesh.
After adopting this revised methodology, successful
fabrication & erection of each cutting edge in only 10 It will enhanced the beauty in Upper Assam’s
days was achieved and a time of 15 days was saved in landscape, where nature and technology meets & will
comparison to earlier season (Ref. Table 3). be an example of the best Civil Engineering structure of
the day. Important Lesson Learnt - “All Construction
Table 3 Detailed Break Up of Time Saved Due to Bottlenecks can be won by Engineering Solutions”
Revision in Methodology
REFERENCES
Sr. Description/ Time taken in Time taken Time
No. Item 2nd Season in 3rd Season Saved
(in days) as (in days) as (in 1. Gammon India Limited, Design Department
per Original per Revised days) Mumbai.
Methodology Methodology
2. Datas from Site of Gammon India Limited,
1 Fabrication 25 days 10 days 15 days
& Erection
Bogibeel Well Foundation & Substructure.
of Cutting 3. N F Railway’s GAD & Cross Section Elevation
edge at
location. Drawing of Bogibeel Well Foundation &
Substructure.
The views expressed in the paper are personal views of the Authors. For any query, the author may be contacted at: E-mail: Anupam.Das@gammonindia.com

Paper No. 603
LANDSLIDE HAZARD DATABASE AND INVENTORY- FOCUS ON

A SUITABLE METHODOLOGY FOR INDIA
Shanal Pradhan*, Kishor Kumar** and S. Gangopadhyay***
ABSTRACT
The databases and inventory of the landslides are the backbone of effective landslide hazard and risk management in any part of the world. A systematic
database and inventory of landslide events is valuable for many reasons, mainly locating the landslides spatially, connecting through historical background
with the current ground realities, x-raying the conditions and causes of their recurrences and correlating with ground conditions, estimating human and
economic losses for evaluating landslide predictions and their effective risk management. At the same time it is a challenging task to prepare a national
landslide database for a country as huge and diverse like India. Many countries which are vulnerable to such disasters have developed their own databases.
In this study a review of available databases of different countries have been carried out. A methodology for the development of landslide database for
India is suggested.
1 INTRODUCTION exposed (180,254) i.e.; the number of people present

in hazard zones that are subject to potential losses and
Worldwide there are numerous landslide databases 9th out of 162 on GDP exposed 1.07 (billion US$) i.e.
all of them with a common objective to study the
evolution of landscapes, and are mandatory to ascertain
landslide susceptibility, hazard and risk (Komac, M., et
al.2007).These databases vary in scales and detail, and
although some similarities and a number of common
themes are apparent between databases, the method in
which information is organized and described varies
considerably (Osuchowski. M et al, 2007). Landslide
databases differ greatly from one country to another
and often also within the same country. Landslide
inventories and databases are fundamental to the
development of hazard and risk assessments. Today
most landslide inventories have the form of digital
databases including landslide distribution maps and
associated alphanumeric information for each landslide
(Hervas, J et al., 2012).
In India landslides are among the major hydro-

geological hazards that affect mainly parts of Himalayas,
the Northeastern hill ranges, the Western Ghats, the
Nilgiris, the Eastern Ghats and the Vindhyas, in that
order. According to the Global Assessment Report.,
2009, India ranks 2nd out of 162 countries on population Fig. 1 Distribution of landslides zone wise (NDMA)
* Project Assistant
** Senior Principal Scientist Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi, E-mail : kishornhrm@gmail.com
*** Director

Landslide Hazard Database and Inventory-Focus on a Suitable Methodology for India 305
amount of GDP (Gross Domestic Product) present their business/trade, inability to provide medical aids
in hazard zones that are subject to potential losses to the critical patients and also creates social unrest
(preventionweb.net in Kumar et al., 2011; 2009 Global amongst the communities living at both the sides
Assessment Report). Of all the world’s landslides, of the blockade location because of their inability to
30 per cent occur in the Himalaya, according to a attend the social obligations, hardship in reaching the
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation destinations through the tougher and longer alternate
(SAARC) study on the causes and consequences of routes. Every time the tragedy strikes, huge amount of
natural disasters in the region. The natural ecosystem budgetary funds are pumped into the rehabilitation and
of the mountainous terrains of Himalaya is often restoration works without giving least thought to pre-
characterized by unfavorable geological, topographical disaster planning. By the time these affected areas are
and seismic conditions making it highly susceptible rehabilitated, monsoon reappears again and this vicious
for geo-environmental hazards. States of Jammu and process repeats again and again. The restoration and
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Arunachal rehabilitation process never gets completed. Direct
Pradesh, Nagaland and Manipur comes under high losses such as the costs of repair and maintenance,
to very high hazard zones. Northeastern regions like restoration, rehabilitation or the replacement of the
Darjeeling district of West Bengal, Sikkim, Tripura, damaged properties is met out of maintenance budget
Meghalaya, Assam, Mizoram, are badly affected by allocated for the whole year; as a result, overall
landslide causing chronic problems and all kinds of maintenance of the roads is also affected (Kumar et al.,
losses. Hilly regions of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, 2001). Fig. 2 depicts some of the landslides that have
Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Goa and Kerala constitute occurred in different states.
low to moderate hazard zones. Fig. 1 shows zone wise
distribution of landslides. In view of the above, landslides have been identified
as one of the significant natural hazards in India. It
Every year, landslides in these regions cause loss is therefore required to have an effective landslide
of life and widespread damage. Road networks are hazard management system of which database forms
blocked for long periods causing immense hardship/ an integral part for overall development in the hilly
risk to the inhabitants who get their basic supplies and areas of our country. This study presents a brief review
provisions from the neighbouring areas. Long duration of the landslide databases of a few countries. In many
of blockades on national highways leads to a steep cases, information is available only in local language
hike in the prices of the commodities, inability to run
making it more difficult to be accessed by outsiders.
The purpose of reviewing the databases is to create a
structure format for India, outlining the requirements
for such a structure and to conclude on a favourable
database methodology which can be adopted in India.
2 NEED FOR A LANDSLIDE DATABASE
Landslide databases are required to provide the

scientific community and national authorities with
a tool for landslide hazard assessment, land-use
planning, emergency management, and development
of early warning systems and for implementation of
public and private policies (Devoli, G et al., 2007).
Some databases can provide the information relating to
Fig. 2 Some number of landslides of different states the temporal and spatial distribution of damage and the

306 Pradhan, Kumar & Gangopadhyay on
most probable causative factors for their occurrences 1996; Castellanos Abella et al., 1988; Carrara et al.,
(Hilker, N., et al.2009). According to Kumar and 2003). In Europe, USA and Mexico, different groups
Jangpangi., 2009, landslide database and inventory map and organizations have developed landslide databases.
of existing landslides is an important and, in fact, first The records include information of geotechnical,
step towards landslide hazard assessment, management lithological and geomorphological data from individual
and mitigation studies. It not only provides information landslide sites. International activities for establishing
about current situation of landslide areas but also a Worldwide Landslide Database are in progress
under the auspices of ‘The International Geotechnical
provides opportunity to validate and correct the landslide
Societies ‘UNESCO Working Party on World Landslide
susceptibility potential maps, if already prepared.
Inventory’ in cooperation with the International
This can also be used for knowing recurrent and old
Association of Engineering Geology (WP/WLI 1990;
but quiescent landslides (Gangopadhyay and Kumar,
1991; 1993). In France the national landslide (BDMvt)
2009). With the presence of database we can compare has been in operation since 1994 and is maintained
with other foreign databases on a regional or national by the French Geological Survey (BRGM) with the
level, which is valuable in order to improve our own financial support of governmental institutions (BRGM,
methods and techniques. Evaluation of vulnerability 2007). The Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL has
and risk requires a sound base of documents and been collecting information on flood and landslide
records including past and present disasters. It gives an damage in Switzerland since 1972 (Hegg&Fraefel,
estimation of the degree to which landslide occurrence 2005). There are several national databases comparable
is increasing with time. Landslide database facilitates to the Swiss one (Australia: Blong, 2004; Ireland:
old data and the introduction of new data and manages Creighton, 2006; Italy: Guzzetti and Tonelli, 2004;
volumes of data collection in a more efficient way. The Nicaragua: Devoli et al., 2007; Slovenia: Komac et al.,
digital database allows an easier management of large 2007) as well as regional databases (Azores/Portugal:
amount of multi-scale data collected from multi-agency Gaspar et al., 2004; Catalonia/Spain: Barnolas and
sources, and its development enables the scientific Llasat, 2007; Hong Kong/China: Chau et al., 2003,
community to collect and verify landslide data using 2004). The European EPOCH (European Programme
on Climate and Natural Hazards) project, which ran
standardized methodologies that satisfy the national
between 1991 and 1993, established the availability
conditions and requirements of the Indian society
of data on landslide occurrence and how these data
(Devoli, G et al., 2007).
were stored (Flageollet 1993; Dikau et al. 1996). At
3 CURRENT SCENARIO OF EXISTENCE this time, countries like France, Germany, Italy, Spain,
OF GLOBAL DATABASES the UK, Netherlands and Switzerland had databases.
Since then, further developments in Europe have
In the last two decades, several efforts have been seen Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Cyprus, Romania,
made by local, regional, national and international Slovakia and Slovenia join the European Community,
organizations to design, implement, and maintain each with its own landslide inventory (Jelı´nek et al.
digital landslide inventories and thematic databases 2007). Out of the numerous landslides databases,
at the national scale in different countries (Guzzetti 60% of them are updated at least once a year or after
et al.1994; Dikau et al.1996; Guzzetti and Tonelli a major event. Currently only half of the national
2004; Gaspar et al.2004; Fajfar et al 2005; Colombo landslide databases have a direct link between spatial
et al.2005; GSI 2005; Glade and Crozier 1996; Dellow and alphanumeric information, and public access is
et al.2003 Grignon et al. 2004). Besides, regional generally restricted or limited. (Eeckaut. D, Hervas,
landslide inventory databases have been compiled in J., 2011). A few of the database protocols have been
order to evaluate the landslide hazard and risk (Carrara reviewed and they provide guide for the development
and Merenda 1976; Wieczorek, 1984; Dikau et al., of an Indian standard format for recording information

concerning landslide problems in this country. Devoli understanding and mapping of these hazards will be
et al., (2006) has used all other sources (e.g. newspaper, built to better cope with future landslide hazards in a
old chronicles, and historical monographs at public form of mitigation and managing.
archives, technical reports and natural disaster database,
international journals) other than field evidences to 4 CURRENT LANDSLIDE RESEARCH IN
prepare national landslide database of Nicaragua INDIA
analyzing both temporal and spatial distribution,
Within our country a few studies have been attempted
types of landslides, triggering mechanisms, and type
to provide information to meet identified management
of damage of the recorded historical landslides. The
objectives, there has been less effort spent on the
AVI inventory (Italian acronym for Italian Affected
provision of a systematic information base. In India
Sites [by mass movement and floods]) constitutes the
there is no centrally organised landslide database,
most extensive records available at national scale,
although some initiatives have been taken at the local
which only few other countries have accomplished.
level that cover localized areas.
Hong Kong landslide inventory has used statistical
correlations of landslide frequency and terrain variables However, lack of standardization and varying scales
to allow the production of landslide susceptibility maps of information within the existing databases make it
(Dai and Lee 2002). The Australian landslide database, difficult to perform empirically-based statistical hazard
managed by Geoscience Australia, brings together three analysis and to identify controls on magnitude and
separate inventories and has concentrated on improved frequency as well as to establish regional comparisons
interoperability (Osuchowski and Atkinson., 2008). of landslide activity (Glade. T, Crozier. M. J., 1996). The
The on-line database and map represents the spatial inconsistent record also makes it difficult to interpret
distribution of over 1,000 landslides based on published the significant gaps in the data which otherwise be
and unpublished information plus field observations helpful in projecting the areas based on their future
(Foster. C et al., 2011).Their main emphasis is on vulnerability. Also the problem is some State authorities
integrating the data from various databases on a virtual do not consider that landslides constitute a major issue
platform giving the users up to-date information in their regions, because of lack of information and
on landslides. Of all the countries discussed here, awareness.
Australia have used the most comprehensive concept of
collecting data, maintaining it, sharing this information National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)
across all levels and between various users and has recently initiated a programme for the generation
applications. Osuchowski (2009) has stated that nearly of landslide inventory maps and databases covering
70% of landslide events reported on a nationwide basis, the landslide prone regions of our country. National
since the implementation of interoperability system. A Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) in 2003 published
pilot project funded by the Slovenian Ministry started an atlas on landslides with a scale of 1:25,000 which
with data gathering and in the 1990’s the data was focused on tourist and pilgrim routes of Uttarakhand.
transformed from a digital to a GIS format (Ribicic et Guidelines, Bureau of Indian Standards IS 14496
al., 1994). Information on significant landslides taken (Part 2), 1998 have published codes of practice for
place in New Zealand since 1996 is currently being preparation of Landslide Hazard Zonation maps in
compiled into a catalogue. By interpretation of aerial mountainous terrains. Central Road Research Institute
photos they have made landslide maps of 1:50,000 (CRRI) has done recommendable work in studying
scale topographic maps and digitized them. The Irish around 300 landslides all over India mostly along
Landslides Working Group has undertaken the task to highways of Uttarakhand, Jammu and Kashmir,
frame the National Database of Past Landslide Events. Himachal, Darjeeling, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Manipur,
According to Geological Survey of Ireland, 2007, this Assam, Arunachal and Western and Eastern Ghats
database will serve as a foundation upon which a better (Gangopadhyay and Kumar, 2009). Field observations

and laboratory analysis were undertaken by them there are compelling social, economic and legislative
in the pre-eighties and are now focused on scientific reasons for obtaining and assessing information on
investigation, instrumentation, monitoring and landslide activity. As a way of improving our currently
controlling of landslides through large scale mapping, weak information base, recommendations are given for
hazard zonation, remote sensing and GIS and other new establishing a database information system appropriate
technologies for effective management of landslides. A for Indian conditions.
database of around 250 landslides has been prepared
by CRRI (Gangopadhyay and Kumar, 2009). CRRI 5. PROPOSED METHODOLOGY OF THE
has attempted to create an engineering database on DATABASE
landslides based on Relational Database Management
The proposed methodology suggested is based on
technique. It includes information on a variety of
the processing of large amount of literature from
data related to geography, geology, geotechnical
international as well as national experience on databases
characteristics of different landslides. Central Building
and inventory. It is structured in the following way:
Research Institute (CBRI) has also made an inventory
of landslides on Rishikesh-Badrinath and Rishikesh- 1. Data collection methodology
Kedarnath routes in the Garhwal Himalaya.
2. Database structure
In recent years, landslide inventories have been
prepared and updated by utilizing data from aerial 3. Web-based user interface
photographs and high spatial resolution remote sensing
images obtained from satellites such as IKONOS 4. Dissemination of data: Web-GIS
and Quick Bird launched by USA, and CARTOSAT
- 1 and 2 launched India (Anbalagan). Few countries Each of the components is briefly described under:
like Australia, Italy and New Zealand have taken
5.1 Data Collection Methodology
a lead in preparing landslide inventory databases
in this direction. Approaches, ranging from visual Strategy for data collection: Systematic collection of
interpretation of landslides from high spatial resolution landslide events is crucial to establish a solid base
remote sensing data and their fused products to digital for statistical and spatial analysis of these events on
image interpretation or automatic classification of a variety of scales from local to national (Jaedicke. C
remote sensing images have been adopted. Due to the et al., 2009). The data collection strategy adopted should
availability of India’s own system of Earth Observation be based on data availability, its accuracy, resolution,
satellites, high resolution remote sensing data (e.g. cost and efficiency. The approach taken by Norway,
Recourcesat-1 LISS-IV, Cartosat) has become the Nicaragua, Britain, Italy and many other nations where
standard input data for landslide database and inventory each landslide event is registered as an independent
mapping and for generation of Digital Elevation Models occurrence identified by a certain ID number can be
used in landslide studies (Westen et al., 2011). followed.
There are major discrepancies between the real and According to Osuchowski, 2009, there are two ways
recorded landslide occurrences, resulting mainly for collection of data:
from different recording procedures and perception of
importance. Because of less data available on record, • When responsibility falls directly on a single
there is a need to develop a standard national approach organization, or
towards a landslide information base. Landslides are
an important factor in land development decisions • Responsibility is shared by everyone collecting
and the depletion of India’s soil resource. Therefore, data to an agreed standard.

The usual methodology followed by most countries is the government body which is the main
authority for this purpose. But many problems and challenges arise with a huge and diverse country
like India. Extraction and maintenance of information by a sole agency is impractical and impossible.
Landslide
Problems Hazard Database
of non-uniformity ariseand Inventory
when a large-Focus on a Suitable Methodology for India
number of individuals are involved. The central 309
government takes
The usual methodology the main
followed responsibility
by most countriesin iscountries like Australia,
wherein the main Nicaragua, Norway,
central agency willSlovenia,
co-ordinate and
the government bodySwitzerland.
Italy, and which is the main authority
Therefore, keeping infor direct the activities of a number of regional
view the conditions suitable for Indian scenario, a bodies can
simple
this purpose. But many problems and challenges arise
yet ingenious method used by Italy for their AVI Project, wherein the main central agency will co- consist
be adopted in India. The regional bodies can
with a huge and diverse country like India. Extraction of states or areas demarcated accordingly to their
ordinate and direct the activities of a number of regional bodies can be adopted in India. The regional
and maintenance of information by a sole agency is likelihood of susceptibility. Based on these views, a
impracticalbodies can consistProblems
and impossible. of states or
ofareas demarcated accordingly
non-uniformity to their likelihood
data collection strategy isofsuggested
susceptibility.
below.Based
arise whenon a large
these number of individuals
views, a data are involved.
collection strategy is suggested below.
The central government takes the main responsibility in The working plan for collection of data consist of
The working plan for collection of
countries like Australia, Nicaragua, Norway, Slovenia, data consist ofaa Central
CentralCoordination
Coordination UnitUnit
(CCU) or a national
(CCU) or a national
Italy, andinstitution,
Switzerland. Therefore,
whose keeping
task will be in view
to organize, the andinstitution,
oversee whose task
direct the activities will be to
of different organize,
Regional oversee and
Teams
conditions suitable direct the activities of different Regional Teams (RT)
(RT) (Fig 3).for Indian scenario, a simple yet
ingenious method used by Italy for their AVI Project, (Fig 3).
SOURCE OF DATA
R&D Earth, User NGOs Public Interview of Internet

Institutions Science Agencies Libraries Locals, Scientists,
Department,
Experts
Ministries
COLLECTION OF DATA By RT
Aerial Satellite GPS Historic International Newspapers Inventory Field Digital

Photo Imagery Literature Journals Maps Surveys tapes,
s CD-ROMs
DATA ORGANIZATION & SUMMARIZATION By RT
REPORT TO CCU
DATA ASSEMBLING By CCU
PROCESS DATA IN COMPUTABLE FORMAT

Fig. 3 Method of data
Fig. 3 Method of data 8
Regionalcollection
Teams will be divided or allotted on the c. Based on district/town boundary (Sub regional
criteria given below. team)
a. States and Union Territories, or Depending upon the criteria chosen above, each
Research Team (RT) can consist of a certain number of
b. Based on identified landslide affected areas of the members. It will be the task of RT to collect, organize
country and summarize the information on mass movement,

Depending upon the criteria chosen above, each Research Team (RT) can consist of a certain
number of members. It will be the task of RT to collect, organize and summarize the information on mass
movement, within their jurisdiction, with the help of survey forms given below (Fig 4). Data forms are
utilized for the entry and retrieval of attribute data. The form presented here is a simple one, with limited
within
number their jurisdiction,
of possible with
entries the help
to better of to
adapt survey of India
our conditions has provided
though a brief
an extensive information
Porforma sheet for
has been
forms given below (Fig 4). Data forms are utilized landslide incidences (www.portal.gsi.gov.in). Along
forprovided
the entryinand
Special Report-15;
retrieval IRC;data.
of attribute 1995;
TheTowards
form a with
national
the landslide
form, theinformation
Research base
Teamsforwill
Newcollect
presented
Zealand here is a simple
Database (Gladeone, with limited
T., Crozier M. J;number the available
1996). Geological Surveyinformation
of India hasin provided
the form aofbrief
literature,
of possible entries to better adapt to our conditions aerial photos, and maps of the concerned landslides
information sheet for landslide incidences (www.portal.gsi.gov.in). Along with the form, the Research
though an extensive Porforma has been provided in as shown in Fig. 3 from various sources (Fig. 3).
Teams Report-15;
Special will collectIRC;
the available information
1995; Towards in the form
a national of literature,
This form along aerial
withphotos, and maps
the gathered of the
information is
landslide information base for New Zealand Database
concerned landslides as shown in figure 3 from variousthen digitized
sources and
(figure 3).used
Thisfor counting
form the number
along with the of
(Glade T., Crozier M. J; 1996). Geological Survey landslides taken place. British Geological Survey has
gathered information is then digitized and used for counting the number of landslides taken place. British
LANDSLIDE INFORMATION FORM

Landslide ID Survey No Name of Surveyor
GENERAL INFORMATION
Name of Slide Type of Slide
Location : Toposheet No
On /Off Highway Coordinates Lat Long
Village / Town Causative Factor
Tehsil / Taluka Site Description
District Activity Active Dormant
State
Date of Occurrence Year: Month: Day/Date: Time :
Casualties Human Livestock Infrastructure
Probability of future risk Degree of Risk: Organized Remedial measures

Economic losses: Socio-economic Activity
Direct Indirect
Fig. 4 Information Sheet for landslide registration

Fig. 4: Information Sheet for landslide registration
developed new digital field mapping equipments like during the research activity. These reports will
9
BGS SIGMA mobile and MIDAS (Mobile Integrated constitute one of the most important products while
Data Acquisition System), for input of these survey preparing a National Landslide Database. These reports
forms directly into PCs or laptops (Foster. C et al., will provide a comprehensive summary of the activities
2012). carried out by each RT and they will allow for objective
comparisons between different administrative regions
At the end of database process/survey, the RT will prepare as well as different morphological, geological and
their respective reports, with all relevant information socio-economic environments.
and submit it to CCU. The RT will produce regional
reports summarizing all their findings, methodological The CCU shall be responsible for the following
and technical limitations and the problems encountered activities:

• Review the list of data to be collected.
• Synthesize and verify the information collected

by the RT and assembling it in an electronic
format.
• Facilitate the making of decisions with regard

to appropriate map scale, datum, ellipsoid and
projection.
• Should be the national counterpart to facilitate

transfer of knowledge, (disseminating
information), public awareness, emergency
response, maintenance and updating of the
information.
5.2 Database Structure
The general structure of database as shown in Fig. 5

includes:
1. The digitization of landslide spatial locations using Fig. 5 Structure of Database

Geographical Information System (GIS) software;
Even the value of geomorphological data increases the
2. The integration of the landslide attributes with more it is linked to other available information. This
spatial temporal database using GIS; operation of combining datasets is done by GIS. GIS
3. Store the data in an Oracle database; is preferred because data management is one of the
central elements of a GIS which facilitates internal
4. The analysis of the stored data as per requirement.
data manipulation and management of input data.
The data structure involves the digitization of the data Secondly, it facilitates the production and visualization
submitted by the RT to CCU, which includes spatial, of landslide maps. It also provides capabilities for
attribute and temporal data. Digitization of the collected data storage and visualization and functional tools
raw data is the first step towards creation of database to analyze spatially organized data including map,
structure. overlay procedures (Dikau et al., 1996). Based on the
integration of the above mentioned database, a digital
The next step involves the use of GIS applications landslide inventory map is prepared and location of
which serves the important purpose of developing a each landslide is represented in a digital format by
spatiotemporal database and later integrates it with a geo-referenced point which is linked to a specific
attribute information. This linkage between different ID number with the help of which each landslide is
datasets is essential because only then will combined identified as shown in Fig. 5. A landslide is represented
analysis be possible otherwise each dataset would by a unique code or ID No by which it is recognized
be analyzed or mapped separately. By bringing these and is described by various attributes like its name,
datasets together adds more value to the database. For type of slide, causes, remedial measures, etc. These
instance the link among spatial and temporal data plays ID values permits a link with its associated attributes
an important role in the description of spatiotemporal in the database. Then information stored against the
phenomena. ID No. of each landslide can be effectively displayed

and managed via a GIS. The link between spatial data 5.3 Web Based User Interface
themes and attribute data is done on a one-to-many
basis, where the whole dataset is linked by a similar ID Database collection is a continuous process, therefore
allotted to them (Fig. 6). updating facility must be provided not only to
administrators but also to users, allowing different
users to use the internet application for registering and
reporting new landslide events, and making additional
changes or correcting the data already stored. In order
to secure the database, all users have to register and
access the database via a user name and password.
In this way the administrator can identify the person
reporting the slide. This updating facility page will be
provided in the WebGIS platform under the updating
option. The update given will not be directly input
into the databank (RDBMS), but first verified by the
Fig. 6 Entity relationship diagram of datasets
database administrators. This allows the administrator
After the linkage is attained, data is stored in RDBMS- to identify the person who reports a slide. New
Oracle and linked to a GIS. Integration of GIS and entries will be continuously evaluated by the database
RDBMS into web-based client service environment administrator.
will allow efficient management of wide variety of
landslide data (Fig. 7). RDBMS is a program module
that creates, updates and administers a relational
database. Users can store, retrieve and manipulate
in a manner consistent with a defined model called
Relational model. In addition to being relatively
easy to create and access, a relational database has
the important advantage of being easy to extend.
After the original database creation, a new category
can be added without requiring that all existing
modifications be modified. Data pertaining to spatial,
attribute and temporal information will be efficiently Fig.7 Functioning of RDBMS and Dissemination of Information
managed using RDBMS-Oracle in the form of tables,
5.4 Data Dissemination: An Example of
reports, texts and map. Oracle software as the back- WebGIS
end supports higher capacity database (Kumar et
al., 2009) and is used in several countries like Great Making landslide database available online via World
Britain, Slovenia, Australia; it allows the use of Wide Web promotes the spreading and reaching out
powerful tools for the maintenance and control of of the landslide information to all the stakeholders
data (Foster. C et al., 2012); it provides security and (Das et al., 2012). It is a valuable platform for storage,
contains Oracle Spatial where the data can be output exchange and dissemination of data. A WebGIS is a
in any be coordinate system (Foster. C et al., 2012). common way of presenting data and maps online by
linking the internet with GIS technology. In a WebGIS
The stored data are analyzed through interactive queries environment, operations such as access to geographical
using GIS to obtain the information they need. Users databases, map production, theme overlay, and
will view and query the database with GIS. visualization of map attributes are possible using a

standard Internet browser (e.g., Mozilla Firefox©, government authorities, disaster and road management
Microsoft Internet Explorer©, Opera©) and without committees, National/State Highway authorities,
specific or proprietary software on the computer client land use, housing and urban planning departments,
(e.g. Applets Java, Active X) (Salvati et al., 2009). This international agencies and NGOs along with the general
system combines the potential of both Internet and public working on prevention and mitigation of risks
GIS technologies; the GIS provides the capability for posed by landslides.
storing and managing large amounts of spatial data,
while Internet technology allows easy access to the Acknowledgement
geospatial information (Nasaruddin et al., 2011). This
Authors are thankful to Shri Anil Kathait, Mrs. Lalita
dynamic virtual visualization process through a web
Jangpangi and Sh. Indervir Singh Negi, CRRI for their
platform brings an insight into the understanding of
suggestion and help during the preparation of this
the landslides and the resulting damage closer to the
paper.
affected people and user community (Das et al., 2012).
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The views expressed in the paper are personal views of the Authors. For any query, the author may be contacted at: E-mail: kishornhrm@gmail.com

Paper No. 604
EVALUATION of Design OF GEOCELL REINFORCED UNPAVED ROADS
Jyothi P. Menon*and G.L. Sivakumar Babu**
SYNOPSIS
In India more than 40% of the roads are unpaved which are mostly made without any surfacing of asphalt concrete layers and classified as rural roads. As
these roads play very important role in overall economic development of a country, design of these roads require priority. In order to prevent the failure of
unpaved roads due to poor subgrade CBR, geocell reinforcement can be used in an effective manner. In the present work the design method developed by
Pokharel (2010) for geocell-reinforced unpaved roads is examined for evaluating the effectiveness of geocells as reinforcement for granular base courses
over weak subgrade. The effectiveness is evaluated in terms of required base course thickness for poor subgrade CBR values. The effect of various factors
like subgrade CBR, base CBR, allowable rut depth and number of passes of axles on the required base course thickness are analyzed in a detail manner.
1 INTRODUCTION behavior of geocell reinforced soil during the last three

decades. These works were based on experiments and
Rural roads and access roads to various resource numerical simulations; for example Rea and Mitchell
industries lead to economic development in all (1978), Mitchell et al. (1979), Bathurst and Jarrett
countries. Construction of unpaved road section with (1989), Bush et al. (1990), Bathurst and Karpurapu
poor subgrade CBR values is very difficult and leads (1993), Cowland and Wong (1993), Rajagopal et al.
to insufficient structural stability. According to the (1999), Madhavi Latha et al.(2006), Madhavi Latha
AASTHO (American Association of State Highway and Murthy (2007), Han et.al (2008), Pokharel et al.
and Transportation Officials) report, approximately (2010), Yang et al.(2011). These studies on geocell are
20% of pavements fail due to insufficient structural based on results from triaxial compression tests, direct
strength. The structural strength can be improved by shear test, plate load tests, laboratory model tests, and
geosynthetic and geocell reinforcements. Geosynthetic field tests. Most of the published research focused on
reinforcement is an established technique of subgrade planar reinforcement and resulted in several design
improvement and base reinforcement for over 40 methods for geotextile or geogrid-reinforced unpaved
years and has gained acceptance after the guidelines roads (Giroud and Han, 2004a, b; Steward et al. 1977
were proposed by Steward et al (1977). Geocells are etc.). Only limited research has been done to develop
three-dimensional honeycombed cellular structures design methods for the geocell reinforcement, for
and provide confinement to compacted infill soil. example, Yang (2010), Pokharel (2010), Yang et al.
Their confinement reduces the lateral movement of the (2011) Sivakumar Babu and Pawan Kumar (2012). Yang
soil particles and forms a stiffened mattress or slab to (2010) proposed a mechanistic-empirical design model
distribute applied loads over a wider area. for geocell-reinforced unpaved roads if subgrade and
bases are stable. Pokharel (2010) obtained a simplified
Development of geocell began with the U.S. Army design method for geocell-reinforced unpaved roads.
Corps of Engineers in 1970s to confine the cohesionless Sivakumar Babu and Pawan Kumar (2012) proposed
soil for the construction of tactical bridge approach geocell reinforced flexible pavement design considering
roads over soft ground (Webster & Watkins, 1977). the equivalent elastic modulus concept for geocell
Considerable work was carried out to understand the composite layers.
* Research Associate
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, E-mail : gls@civil.iisc.ernet.in
** Professor

316 Menon & Babu on
2 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY geocell-reinforced unpaved roads. The studies done

by Pokharel (2010) show that geocell reinforcement
The major objective of this study is to evaluate the significantly slowed down the rate of deterioration in
effectiveness of geocells in inducing confinement the base quality. This phenomenon is attributed to the
effect for granular base courses over weak subgrade. geocell confinement of the base course to increase and
The effectiveness is evaluated in terms of required maintain the modulus of the base course. A modulus
base course thickness for poor subgrade CBR values. improvement factor was proposed by Han et al. (2007)
The design method developed by Pokharel (2010) for to account for this benefit [Eq.2]
geocell-reinforced unpaved roads is used for the study.
3 DESIGN PROCEDURE ...2

A brief description of the development of design method
by Pokharel (2010) method is as follows. The basic where Ebc (reinforced)= the modulus of the reinforced base
design Eq.(1) developed by Giroud and Han (2004a and Ebc (unreinforced)= the modulus of the unreinforced
and b) can be used to estimate the required base course base.
thickness (h) of unreinforced and planar geosynthetic
(geotextile and geogrid) reinforced roads: For unreinforced and planar geosynthetic-reinforced
roads, Giroud and Han (2004b) recommended the
maximum limit of the modulus ratio (RE) as 5 considering
that base courses cannot be well compacted over soft
subgrade. However, the three-dimensional confinement
by geocells can overcome this problem and help the base
course reach and maintain its higher modulus. Han et
...1
al. (2007) reported the geocell-reinforced bases had the
modulus ratios ranging from 4.8 to 10. The calculated
modulus ratios from cyclic plate loading tests and
where η = the conversion factor between field and accelerated moving wheel tests by Pokharel (2010) is
laboratory performance (0.689 for a laboratory ranged from 3.4 to 7.6. Therefore, it is reasonable to
condition under cyclic plate loading and 1.0 for a set the maximum limit of the modulus ratio to 7.6 for
field condition under moving wheel loading); J = the the geocell-reinforced unpaved roads until more test
aperture stability modulus, which is only suitable for data are available to justify a higher limit to be used.
geogrid and assumed to be 0 for unreinforced and Considering the modulus improvement factor, the
geotextile-reinforced roads); r = radius of tire contact modulus ratio can be expressed as follows:
area (m); N = number passes; P = wheel load (kN);
RE = the modulus ratio of base to subgrade (limited to
5.0 for unreinforced and planar geosynthetic-reinforced ...3
roads); cu = undrained cohesion of the subgrade soil
(kPa); ω,ξ and n = parameters determined as 0.9, 1.0,
and 2.0, respectively; s = allowable rut depth (mm);
where Ebc = resilient modulus of base course (MPa);
fs=75 mm; and Nc is the bearing capacity factor (3.14
Esg= resilient modulus of subgrade soil (MPa); CBRbc
for unreinforced roads, 5.71 for geogrid-reinforced
= California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of base course; and
roads, and 5.14 for geotextile-reinforced roads).
CBRsg = CBR of subgrade.
As Eq. (1) was developed for planar reinforcement, it The bearing capacity mobilization coefficient (m) is
needs to be modified for the design of three-dimensional given by Giroud and Han (2004b) as follows:

Evaluation of Design of Geocell Reinforced Unpaved Roads 317
1. onduct static plate loading tests for multiple

C
...4 geocell reinforced base material and for
unreinforced conditions.
Since a nonwoven geotextile sheet is commonly used 2. he modulus improvement factor ‘If ’ can be
T
below geosynthetic-reinforced bases, the bearing obtained as the ratio of the slope of the linear
capacity factor (Nc) for geocell-reinforced unpaved portion on the pressure-displacement curve of
roads can be reasonably assumed to be equal to 5.14 the reinforced section to that of the unreinforced
(Giroud and Han, 2004a). Giroud and Han (2004b) section.
proposed a factor (‘k’) that controls the rate of
3. Determine CBRbc and CBRsg
reduction in the stress distribution angle which depends
on the (r/h) ratio and the aperture stability modulus of 4. nowing ‘If ’, CBRbc and CBRsg, calculate ‘RE’
K
geogrid. Obviously, the aperture stability modulus is using Eq.3.
not suitable for geocells, a factor (‘k’) is proposed by
Pokharel (2010) to replace the term (0.661-1.006J2) 5. arry out static plate loading tests and moving
C
(r/h)1.5 in Eq.1. The resulting equation for the design wheel tests for different base and geocell
of geocell-reinforced bases over weak subgrade is as thicknesses.
follows:
6. he number of loading cycles (or passes in
T
case of moving wheel tests) ‘N’ can be directly
obtained from the tests. The applied pressure
...5 ‘P’ and the radius of tire contact area (r) should
be fixed.
The value of undrained shear strength (cu) is 7. alculate the bearing capacity mobilization
C
approximately deduced from the CBR value of the coefficient (m) using Eq.4.
subgrade soil (for CBRsg less than 5) using the Eq.6
8. he allowable permanent deformation (s) has
T
(Giroud and Noiray 1981). The (cu) is the property of
to be fixed. (According to AASTHO 75 mm
subgrade soil and can be estimated by the following
can be considered). But in cases where the tests
correlation:
were stopped before reaching this limit the rut
value at the final number of loading cycles (N)
cu = fc CBRsg ...6
can be taken as the final value of ‘s’.
where ƒc= factor equal to 20.5 kPa for the subgrade 9. Calculate ‘cu’ using Eq.6.
used in the cyclic plate loading tests and 19.7kPa in
the moving wheel tests. The ƒc factor can be obtained 10. sing the test results, a general relationship
U
from the CBR tests and unconfined compression tests between the calibrated value of ‘k’ and
carried out on the subgrade materials and correlating
(r/h) 1.5 using Eq.5.
the CBR and UCC values.
3.1 Steps to Calibrate the Value of ‘k’ for a Pokharel, 2010 developed the relationship between
Geocell ‘k’ and (r/h) for geocell reinforced granular bases over
weak subgrade as Eq.7.
Based on the method used by Pokharel (2010), a
detailed stepwise procedure is developed to calibrate
...7
‘k’ for any type of geocell.

318 Menon & Babu on
For the present analysis Eq. (7) has been considered 5%. The required base thickness is determined for three
for determination of k’ and the following formula is subgrade CBR values 1, 3 and 4%. The subgrade soil
used to estimate the thickness of the geocell-reinforced was assumed to be saturated with low permeability like
base: silt and clay. Consequently, its shear strength is same as
its undrained cohesion, cu. The value of undrained shear
strength (cu) was approximately deduced from the CBR
...8 value of the subgrade soil (for CBRsg less than 5) using
the Eq. 6. A uniform thick base course with 10 and 20%
CBR values was assumed in the present analysis.
4. DESIGN PARAMETERS
The modulus improvement factor (If) was assumed
4.1 Geometry of Pavement to be 1.7 in the present study. The modulus of the
A uniform thick layer of subgrade reinforced with one unreinforced material was multiplied by ‘If ’ for the
layer of NPA geocell at the interface between base thickness equal to the height of geocell plus 2 cm
course and subgrade soil is assumed in the analysis. cover. The remaining thickness of the base course
The base thickness of the reinforced sections included was considered as unreinforced and no modulus
2 cm top fill cover with the same material as the infill improvement factor was applied. The final modulus
one. The Fig.1 gives typical section considered for the was then calculated by taking the weighted average of
analysis. A minimum thickness of 0.1 m is adopted for the two values.
base course to reduce the disturbance of subgrade soil
during trafficking and to provide sufficient anchorage 4.3 Traffic and Standard Axle Loads
for the geocell. The sugrade is assumed to be uniform
A channelized traffic is considered for the study which
with a thickness of 1.5 m (Giroud and Han 2004a). The
is characterized by the number of passes, N, of a given
properties assumed for the geocell are given in Table.1
axle during the design life of the structure. In the present
Table 1 Geocell Properties work analysis has been carried out using four different
Property Value values of N i.e. for N=100, 1000, 10000, 100000. A
design wheel load (P) of 40kN and the tire pressure
Wall thickness 1.1 mm
(p) of 552 kPa were assumed. The radius of equivalent
Height 100 mm tire contact area was obtained from the following
relationship. The obtained radius of equivalent tire
Elastic modulus at 2% strain 355 (MPa)
contact area is 0.15 m from above equation.
...10
4.4 Rut Depth
Where traffic is channelized, the rut depth is the vertical

Fig.1 Typical section of geocell reinforced distance between the lowest point in the rut and a line
unpaved road extending between the high points of the base course
surfaces on either side of the rut (Giroud and Han
4.2 Properties of Subgrade and Base Course
2004a). A ‘‘failure’’ criterion defined by an ‘‘allowable’’
Materials
rut depth of 75 mm was adopted by the US Army Corps
The CBR of the subgrade is assumed to be less than of Engineers. AASHTO design guidelines (AASHTO

1993) recommend allowable rut depths from 13 to

75 mm for low volume road design. Considering the
AASTHO guidelines two allowable rut depths of 60,
75 mm were considered in the analysis.
5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The base course thickness of the unpaved section for

unreinforced and geocell reinforced sections were
determined for subgrade CBR values of 1, 3 and 4%.
Separate curves were obtained for different N values
Fig. 3 Required base course thickness for allowable rut depth of
(N= 100, 1000, 10000, 100000). The results include 75 mm (CBRbase=20%)
plots for allowable rut depths of 60 and 75 mm as
well as for CBR base = 10 and 20 per cent. The effect
of CBRsg, CBRbase, allowable rut depth and number of
passes of axles on required base course thickness are
described in the following sections.
5.1 Effect of Subgrade CBR values
The required base course thicknesses for unreinforced

and geocell reinforced roads were determined
for subgrade CBR values of 1, 3 and 4 %. From
Figs. 2, 3, 4 and 5, it is observed that with increase
in the CBRsg, the base course thicknesses get reduced. 60 mm (CBRbase=10%)
From Fig 2, for N=100000, CBR base = 10%, allowable
rut depth of 75 mm and subgrade CBR of 1%, the base
thickness reduces from 58 cm to 29 cm for unreinforced
to reinforced case. This reduction is 47 cm to
18 cm for 4% of CBRsg. From Fig. 4, for N=100000,
CBRbase= 10, allowable rut depth of 60 mm and
subgrade CBR 1%, the base thickness reduces from
65 cm to 33 cm for unreinforced to reinforced case.
This reduction is 55 cm to 26 cm for 4% of CBRsg.

60 mm (CBRbase=20%)
5.2 Effect of Base CBR Values
Comparing Figs. 2 and 3 as well as Figs. 4 and 5, it

is evident that the base course thicknesses get reduced
with increase in base CBR values for both reinforced
and unreinforced cases. From Fig 2, for N=100000,
CBR sg = 1%, allowable rut depth of 75 mm and CBRbase
75 mm (CBRbase=10%)

320 Menon & Babu on
10% the base thickness is 58 cm for unreinforced and Table 3 Base Course Thickness Reduction
28 cm for reinforced case. The same is 51 cm and Percentage For Cbrbase= 20%
24 cm for CBRbase 20% (Fig. 3). From Fig 4, for
N=100000, CBRsg= 1%, allowable rut depth of Allowable rut depth Allowable rut depth
60 mm and CBRbase 10% the base thickness is 65 cm 75 mm 60 mm
for unreinforced and 33 cm for reinforced case. The
CBRsg N CBRsg N
same is 57 cm and 28 cm for CBRbase 20% (Fig. 5).
The Tables 2 and 3 show the percentage reduction in
100 103 104 10 5 100 103 10 4 10 5
the base course thickness between unreinforced and
reinforced section for 10 and 20% of CBRbase values
1 57.57 55.64 53.23 51.39 1 58.39 55.21 52.54 50.61
respectively.
5.3 Effect of Allowable Rut Depth on Thickness 3 66.86 64.67 60.01 55.88 3 64.51 59.21 54.57 51.19
of Base Course
4 73.16 74.12 71.92 65.82 4 70.10 65.11 59.01 54.30
Referring Table 2 and 3, percentage reduction in the
base course thicknesses is more for 75 mm allowable
6 CONCLUSIONS
rut depth case. Same trend is identified for both CBRbase
10 and 20% cases. This paper presents the utility of geocell reinforcement
in unpaved roads. All the results points to one main
5.4 Effect of Number of Passes of Axles (N) conclusion that there are considerable savings in the
base course material with geocell reinforcement mainly
The effect of N on the base course thickness is
for very less CBRsg and higher N values. The savings
determined by considering six values for N i.e. for N
decrease with decrease in allowable rut depth. The
= 100, 1000, 10000, 100000. From Figs. 2 -5, it is percentage reduction of thickness of base course for
observed that, with increase in the N value, the base unreinforced road section compared with reinforced
course thicknesses also get increased. Tables 2 and 3 section is higher for higher allowable rut depths. There
also show that there is a decrease in the base course is a decrease in the base course thickness reduction with
thickness reduction with increase in the N value. increase in the N value and this decreasing amount is
similar for both rut depth cases (60 and 75 mm) as well
Table 2 Base Course Thickness Reduction as for both base CBR (10 and 20%) cases.
Percentage For Cbrbase= 10%
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Allowable rut depth Allowable rut depth
75 mm 60 mm The work reported in this paper is a part of the work
carried out in the project “Use of geocells in flexible
CBRsg N CBRsg N
pavements” sponsored by the Department of Science
and Technology, Government of India, New Delhi. The
100 103 104 10 5 100 103 10 4 10 5 authors thank the DST for the financial assistance in
the project.
1 58.48 55.41 52.55 50.51 1 58.68 54.49 51.59 49.41
REFERENCES
3 68.48 63.53 57.78 53.47 3 64.13 57.08 52.36 49.02
1. American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) (1993).
4 74.52 74.61 70.06 61.82 4 70.3 63.27 56.40 51.77
“Guide for Design of Pavement Structures”,
Washington, D.C.

2. Bathurst, R.J. and Jarrett, P.M. (1988). “Large- 11. Pokharel, S.K. (2010). Experimental Study on
Scale Model Tests of Geocomposite Mattresses Geocell-Reinforced Bases Under Static and
Over Peat Subgrades.” Transportation Research Dynamic Loadings. Ph.D. Dissertation, CEAE
Record 1188, pp. 28-36. Department, the University of Kansas.
3. Bathurst, R.J. and Karpurapu, R. (1993). 12. Rajagopal, K., Krishnaswamy, N.R., and
“Large-scale Triaxial Compression Testing Madhavi Latha, G. (1999). “Behaviour of Sand
of Geocell-Reinforced Granular Soils.” Confined with Single and Multiple Geocells”
Geotechnical Testing Journal, GTJODJ, 16 Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 17 (3),
(32), pp. 296-303. pp. 171-184.
4. Cowland, J.W. and Wong S.C.K. (1993). 13. Rea, M. and Mitchell, J.K. (1978). “Sand
“Performance of Road Embankment on Reinforcement Using Paper Grid Cells.”
Soft Clay Supported on a Geocell Mattress
Regular. Meeting- Rocky Mountain Coal
Foundation.” Geotextiles and Geomembranes,
Mining Institute, 644-663.
12 (8), pp. 687-705.
14. Sivakumar Babu, G.L. and Pawan Kumar.
5. Giroud, J.P. and Han, J. (2004a). “Design
(2012). “An Approach for Evaluation of Use
Method for Geogrid-Reinforced Unpaved
Roads. I. Development of Design Method.” of Geocells in Flexible Pavements.” Journal
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental of Indian Roads Congress, Paper No. 578,
Engineering, 130 (8), pp. 775-786. pp. 159-168.
6. Giroud, J.P. and Han, J. (2004b). “Design 15. Steward, J., Williamson, R., and Mohney,
Method for Geogrid-Reinforced Unpaved J. (1977), “Guidelines for Use of Fabrics in
Roads. II. Calibration of Applications.” Construction and Maintenance of Low-Volume
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Roads.” Report No. FHWA-TS-78-205, U.S.
Engineering, 130 (8), pp. 787-797. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway
Administration, Washington, D.C.
7. Han, J., Yang, X.M., Leshchinsky, D.,
and Parsons, R.L. (2008a). “Behavior of 16. Webster, S.L. and Watkins, J.E. (1977).
Geocellreinforced Sand Under a Vertical Investigation of Construction Techniques for
Load.” Journal of Transportation Research Tactical Approach Roads Across Soft Ground.
Board, No.2045, pp. 95-101. Report S-77-1, Soils and Pavements Laboratory,
8. Henkel, D.J. and Gilbert, G.D. (1952). U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment
“The Effect of the Rubber membrane on the Station, Vicksburg.
Measured Triaxial Compression Strength 17. Xiaoming Yang A., Jie Han, Sanat K. Pokharel,
of Clay Samples.” Geotechnique, 3 (1), Chandra Manandhar, Robert L. Parsons,
pp. 20-29. Dov Leshchinsky, Izhar Halahmi (2011).
9. Madhavi Latha, G.M., Rajagopal, K., and “Accelerated Pavement Testing of Unpaved
Krishnaswamy, N.R. (2006). “Experimental Roads with Geocell-Reinforced Sand Bases
and Theoretical Investigations on Geocell- Geotextiles and Geomembrane” 32 (2012)
Supported Embankments.” International pp. 95-103.
Journal of Geomechanics, 6 (1), pp. 30-35.
18. Yang, X.M. (2010). “Numerical Analyses
10. Madhavi Latha, G. and Murthy, V.S. (2007). of Geocell-Reinforced Granular Soils under
“Effects of Reinforcement Form on the Behavior Static and Repeated Loads”. Ph.D. dissertation,
of Geosynthetic Reinforced Sand.” Geotextiles CEAE Department, the University of Kansas.
and Geomembranes, 25 (1), pp. 23-32.
The views expressed in the paper are personal views of the Authors. For any query, the author may be contacted at: E-mail: gls@civil.iisc.ernet.in

Paper No. 605
Analytical Design of Short Panelled Concrete

Pavements
M.V. Arun Chand* and B.B. Pandey**
Abstract
Concrete pavements are not very common in India due to its higher cost though the well-constructed ones last much longer without any maintenance. The
paper presents an analytical solution for stresses in short panelled concrete pavements so that thin concrete slabs can be used for village roads, highways,
bus and truck parking areas and toll plaza. Finite Element method is used for the computation of maximum flexural stresses for slab of different sizes.
Flexural stresses caused by wheel loads of any magnitude can be accurately computed. It is found that the stresses are drastically reduced by reducing the
slab size. Examples are solved to illustrate design of thin concrete pavements for (i) a village road and (ii) for a toll plaza.
1 Introduction cemented treated granular layer, stabilised soil or dry

lean concrete depending upon the traffic and drainage
1.1 Bituminous pavements are commonly favoured conditions. For each of the above panel sizes, stresses
for most roads in India because of the high initial cost of were computed without load transfer across the joints
concrete pavements. Bituminous pavements of majority so that a designer can select appropriate pavement
of city streets as well those of state and district roads thickness for pavement design. Load transfer at the
get damaged within two years of their construction joints and bond with the foundation add to the safety of
particularly when heavily loaded vehicles operate the pavements because of reduction of flexural stresses
on them, and their maintenance is always a problem. as found in the analysis but long term bond with the
Using high end analytical tools, it is now possible to subbase or load transfer across the saw cut joints are
analyse, design and construct short panelled concrete doubtful. It may be mentioned that the conventional
pavements over granular/cemetitious subbase with a Westergards’ equations are valid only for slabs of
decreased thickness at a much reduced cost than the infinite dimensions.
conventional concrete pavements and it may very well
compare favourably with flexible pavement from the A number of design parameters such as foundation
consideration of initial cost. strength, thickness of slab and slab size were considered
in the analysis. Tests were carried out to determine
1.2 The short panelled concrete pavements of size the load transfer efficiency of a panelled concrete
0.5 m x 0.5 m to 2.0 m x 2.0 m laid on deteriorated pavement. Typical examples are solved for illustrating
bituminous pavements as overlays are termed as the pavement design method for the short panelled
white topping in the guidelines IRC:SP:76-2008(1) concrete pavements.
and approximate stress computation methods are
incorporated in the guidelines for thickness design. 2 Review of Literature
The present paper gives an analytical evaluation of
stresses in panelled concrete pavements for slabs resting Panelled concrete overlays over bituminous pavements,
on Westergaard foundation, also known as Winkler commonly known as white or thin white topping, were
foundation, commonly considered in conventional mostly laid over damaged bituminous pavements which
concrete pavements. Foundation can be untreated or are usually milled to get an even rough surface so that a
* Ex. M.Tech Student, IIT Kharagpur

** Advisor, Sponsored Research and Industrial Consultancy, Civil Engg. Departmrent, IIT Kharagpur, E-mail: bbpandey40@gmail.com

Analytical Design of Short Panelled Concrete Pavements 323
good bond is created between the concrete slab and the full depth after repeated application of wheel loads
milled existing bituminous pavement. Most literatures and expansion and contraction with climate. Bond
deal with such cases. Rasmusen and Rozycki(2) has with cemented subbase cannot be relied upon in the
given details of white topping and ultra-thin white presence of water since the concrete slabs are not cast
topping in USA. Wen et al(3) presented details of when the cementitious subbase is fresh and a good
such pavements laid over bituminous pavements in bond may not be ensured. Each panel is divided into
finite elements and springs are applied at each node
Wisconsin state in USA. A good bond between the
to represent reaction provided by the foundation.
concrete overlay and the existing bituminous base was
The finite element idealisation is shown in Fig. 2.
recommended. IRC:SP:76-2008(1) provides tentative Appropriate values of spring constant are assigned
guidelines for design of white and ultra-thin white to represent the modulus of subgrade reactions of the
topping. Stress computation is done using the software foundation.
IITRIGID used in IRC:58-2002(4) in which empirical
corrections for small size of concrete slabs are made
to get the stresses for the small bonded slab for the
examination of the safety of the structure.
Fig. 2 A Typical Panel divided into element with spring at each

node for Stress Computation by FEM
Fig. 1 Concrete slab panels over cement treated / 4 Contact Area

untreated granular subbase
The wheel contact area is close to what is shown in
Junadhare(5) reported a study of stresses and
Figs. 3 and 4.
deflections in unbounded white topping overlay over
bituminous pavements. Swati et al(6) examined the
load transfer behaviour of aggregate interlock in a
concrete pavement. Most white topping are bonded to
the underlying bituminous pavement resulting in higher
strength due to composite action. Readymade solutions
for stresses in concrete slabs laid over foundations of
different stiffness are not available.
3 Modelling
Fig. 3 Wheel contact area
The slab is assumed to be resting on a Winkler
foundation that is adopted in the computation of
stresses in the conventional concrete pavements. A
3-D Finite Element Method (FEM) is used for the
stress computation. ANSYS software is used for the
analysis. A typical panel over a subbase is shown in
Fig. 1. The joints are saw cut to one fourth to one
third the depth of the slab which may extend to Fig. 4 Equivalent Wheel contact area for Analysis

324 Chand and Pandey on
The dual wheel set is placed over a panel as shown in of time. The friction at the interface boundary of the
Fig. 5. The c/c spacing of the dual wheels is 310 mm. slab and the supporting foundation may be reduced
A tyre pressure of 0.80 MPa was considered in stress to a low value due to expansion and contraction of
analysis. slabs as well as due to presence of water. Hence stress
computation for the case (i) only is presented in the
paper. Effect of load transfer and bond with foundation
are also discussed.
The flexural stresses for different panel sizes as well as

slab thicknesses are presented in Figs. 6 to 9.
Fig. 5 Wheel contact area at the edge of a concrete panel
5 Stress Computation
The commercial structural analysis package ANSYS

(version-12) has been used in the present study. Three
dimensional finite element models representing concrete
slab and spring foundation system have been modelled
using the 3-D eight noded brick element SOLID45 and Fig. 6 Flexural stress vs panel size for 50 mm thickness
COMBIN-14 respectively. Stress computations were
done for dual wheel load of 50 kN for different slab
thicknesses and sizes as indicated below.
Panel sizes (m) = 0.5x0.5, 0.75x0.75, 1.0x1.0 & 1.25x1.25

Thicknesses of concrete panel (mm) = 50, 75, 100 & 150
Modulus of Elasticity of concrete slab Ec (MPa) = 30,000
Poisson’s ratio of concrete slab, µ = 0.15
Effective Modulus of Reaction (MPa/m) = 80, 150 & 300
Concrete slabs of short dimensions develop very less Fig. 7 Flexural stress vs panel size for 75 mm thickness
flexural stresses due to non-linear temperature gradients
and hence they are neglected(7).
Following three cases for stress analysis may arise:
i) Each panel has no load transfer across the

joints to neighbouring panels
ii) There is a load transfer among the neighbouring
panels due to aggregate interlock
iii) There is a bond or a partial bond between the
foundation and the slab
If there are repeated applications of heavy loads, the
aggregate interlock at joint may be lost over a period Fig. 8 Flexural stress vs panel size for 100 mm thickness

Fig. 12 Flexural stress vs thickness of slab of size 1.0 x 1.0 m
Fig. 9 Flexural stress vs panel size for 150 mm thickness
Figs. 6 to 9 indicate that the flexural stresses can be

reduced drastically with reduction in slab sizes, the
reduction being more than 60% for decreasing the
length of panel size from 1.25 m to 0.50 m. Even a
75 mm concrete slab with panel size of 0.50 m x
0.50 m will develop a flexural stress of only 2.6 MPa
under a dual wheel load of 50 kN and can be a cost
effective solution for village roads. A thickness of Fig. 13 Flexural stress vs thickness of slab of size 1.25 m x 1.25 m
about 150 mm is sufficient for bus bays, truck parking It can be seen that the flexural stresses decreases rapidly
area and toll plaza for a panel size up to about 1.50 m with increase in slab thickness. Appropriate thickness
as indicated in Fig. 9. and size of the panel can be selected to optimise
thickness design.
Figs. 10 to 13 illustrate the variation of stress in panelled
slabs with change in thickness of the slabs. 6 Stresses due to higher loads
and load transfer across
joints
Figs. 6 to 13 give stresses due to 50 kN dual wheel

loads with no load transfer across the joints. In case
of heavy traffic, stresses due to heavier wheel loads
also are required. Computations show that the stresses
computed by finite element method are directly
proportional to the wheel load due to linear elastic
analysis and cumulative fatigue damage analysis used
for rigid pavements(4) can be used for examination of
the safety of pavements. The Short panels of concrete
pavements can have a good load transfer across the
joints resulting in considerable reduction in flexural
stresses. Computation(11) also shows that if there is
20% load transfer across the joints, the flexural stresses
also are reduced by about 20%. If long term load
transfer value across the joints of the panelled concrete
slabs can be established from field tests, slabs can be

326 Chand and Pandey on
designed accordingly taking the advantage of load of plastic strips before placement of concrete and the
sharing behaviour through aggregate interlocks across finished surfaces of a concrete slab. Wooden forms
the joints. were used during the casting. It was found that the load
transfer efficiency defined as the ratio of deflection of
7 Effect of bond with subbase the unloaded edge to the loaded edge was over 90% for
a well-constructed joint. Two Benkelman beams were
If a slab gets bonded partially or fully to cement or
used for the evaluation of the deflections on the loaded
bitumen bound subbases, stresses in the slab is reduced.
and unloaded sides.
Analysis(11) was done using CONTA 173 and Target
170 elements of the ANSYS finite element software for 9 Subbase for light and heavy
a 0.5 m x 0.5 m panel 100 mm thick and it is found traffic
that the flexural stresses for the fully bonded case for
a dual wheel load of 60 kN is about 1.43 MPa, while Most village roads as well as minor roads of city streets
for the partially bonded case considering a friction have low volume of traffic and a subbase made up of
of 0.6 between the slab and the subbase, the stress is 100 mm of granular layer with marginal aggregates
found to be 2.56 MPa. Bonding thus reduces the stress and 75 mm of Water Bound Macadam (WBM) are
considerably. If complete bond between the cemented expected to perform well without loss of support.
subbase and the concrete slab is to be established over 150 mm of marginal aggregates stabilised with cement
the entire life of pavements, special types of concrete to have a seven day unconfined compressive strength of
pavers can be used which can lay both the cement 3 MPa can be used instead of unbound granular layer and
concrete pavement slab and the lean concrete subbase WBM to bring about economy. Concrete roads display
one after another. Thickness of pavement slab can be poor performance under heavy loading due to lateral
reduced considerably in case of monolithic action of displacement of the foundation support in the presence
the slab and the cemented subbase. If the pavement of water. For the panelled pavements also, a good non-
slab is laid after curing of DLC, bonding cannot be erodible subbase such as DLC over stabilised subgrade
ensured over a long period of time due to expansion is necessary for a good long term performance under
and contraction. heavy traffic. Accelerating and braking forces of heavy
axles at toll plaza may not cause any problem if the
8 Constructability subgrade is stabilised and DLC subbse has a minimum
7 day strength of 10 MPa. Dowel bars are not required
A short panelled concrete pavement with panel size for load transfer across the joints.
0.50 m x 0.50 m having a thickness of 100 mm was
cast for the evaluation of load transfer efficiency at 9 Examples of pavement design
the joints. Formation of joints was done by creating
discontinuity to one third of the depth of a slab is a i) Design of Panelled Concrete Pavements
problem. Saw cutting is one alternative and completing
such operations within 20 hours of laying of concrete is a) A Village Road
necessary. Alternate solution is to insert reusable metal
A concrete pavement must have a strong non-erodible
strips to create 3 to 5 mm wide slot to the required depth
subbase so that the support is ensured even in wet
and take it out carefully as soon the concrete has set.
weather. Both granular layer over subgrade and water
Another alternative is to place a grid of plastic strips
bound macadam layer are necessary to provide a
about 3 to 5 mm wide and one third deep from the
stable support. Cement stabilised or lime-fly stabilised
surface and leave the strip in concrete itself. No joint
subbase also provides a non-erodible subbase. Let the
sealing may be needed. The authors have successfully
granular subbase 150 mm thick over subgrade of CBR
attempted the third option in a model experiment.
5% be stabilised with 2% cement. Effective modulus of
Figs. 14, 15 and 16 show the photographs of formwork

subgrade reaction may be taken as k=80 MPa/m (4). It A panel size of 1.00 m x 1.00 m with a thickness of 150
may be noted that minor variation in k value has little mm over 150 mm DLC will develop a flexural stress of
effect upon the stresses for practical range of thickness 1.70 MPa for a dual wheel load of 50 kN (Figs. 4.3 and
of slab. Consider M30 concrete. 90 day flexural strength 4.7). If the wheel load is doubled to 100 kN (Single axle
=4.3 MPa (Approximately). load 20.4 tons), the stress is 3.40 MPa, which much less
For 100 mm thick slab of panel size 1.0 m x 1.0 m than 4.90 MPa the 90 day strength flexural strength.
subjected to a dual wheel load of 50 kN, the flexural Fatigue damage principle(4) can be used to check the
stress= 3.5 MPa (Fig. 12). If 200 kN axle load (100 safety of structure due to spectrum of axle load. For a
kN dual wheel load) is expected, a panel size of slab of dimension 3.5 m x 4.5 m, the flexural stress for
0.50 x 0.50 m for 100 mm thick slab gives a stress 100 kN dual wheel load (20.4 Ton single axle load),
of about 3.0 MPa (double that of 50 kN wheel load). stress = 4.91>4.90, hence unsafe.
Curling stresses due to temperature gradients are
negligible and they need not be considered. Stress due Conclusions
to Westergaard equation in 100 mm thick x 3.5 m x
4.5 m slab = 6.94 MPa, hence highly unsafe. The following conclusions are drawn from the present
study.
i) It is seen that shorter the joint spacing, lower

are the tensile stresses at the edge.
ii) Pavements of village roads, bus bays, bus and
truck parking terminals and toll plaza can be
Fig. 14 Plastic strips for forming Fig. 15 Concrete filled into constructed at much lower cost.
joints to one third depth the formwork
iii) For a particular panel size, higher the thickness
of the pavement, lower are the stresses.
iv) In the case of fully bonded slab it is seen that
stresses are much lower than a partially bonded
slab (coefficient of friction 0.6).
v) Field trials indicated that short panelled
concrete pavement can be laid with plastic strip
separators without the need of saw cutting to
avoid random cracking due to delay in sawing.
References
Fig. 16 A view of multi-panel slab for model testing
1. IRC:SP:76-2008 (2008).“Tentative Guidelines
b) Toll Plaza
for Conventional, Thin and Ultra-Thin
Toll plaza is usually provided with Dry Lean Concrete Whitetopping”, Indian Roads Congress,
(DLC) subbase to provide a non-erodible support. New Delhi.
Subgrade CBR=5%. Axle loads may approach as high 2. Rasmussen, R.O. and Rozycki, D.K., (2004).
as 200 kN.
“Thin and Ultra-Thin Whitetopping-A Synthesis
Consider M40 concrete having a 90 day flexural of Highway Practice.” NCHRP Synthesis 338,
strength of 4.90 Mpa, k value over 150 mm DLC (4) Transportation research Board, Washington,
may be taken as 300 MPa/m. D.C.

Chand and Pandey on
328 Analytical Design of Short Panelled Concrete Pavements
3. Wen, Haifang., Li, Xiaojun. and Martono, 6. Swati Roy Maitra, Reddy, K.S. and
Wilfung. (2010). “Performance Assessment of Ramachandra, L.S. (2010). “Load Transfer
Wisconsin’s Whitetopping and Ultra-thin White Characteristics of Aggregate Interlocking
topping Projects.” WHRP, Transportation in Concrete Pavement”, ASCE Journal of
Research Board. Transportation Engineering, pp. 190-195.
4. IRC:58-2002, “Guidelines for the Design of 7. B.B. Pandey ‘Warping Streses in Concrete
Rigid Pavements for Highways”. Indian Roads Pavements- A Re-examination’ HRB No. 73,
Congress, New Delhi, 2002. 2005, Indian Roads Congress, pp. 49-58.
5. Jundhare, D.R. et al., (March 2011). “Edge 8. Arun Chand, M.V. (2011), ‘Stresses in Jointed
Stresses and Deflections of Unbonded Concrete Pavements’, M. Tech. Thesis, IIT
Conventional Whitetopping Overlay”, The Kharagpur, May 2011.
Indian Concrete Journal, pp. 35-44.
The views expressed in the paper are personal views of the Authors. For any query, the author may be contacted at: E-mail: bbpandey40@gmail.com
NEW DEVELOPMENT
Irc Congratulate Shri Ashok Basa on Becoming New President of

Institution of Engineers (India)
Shri Ashok Basa has taken over as President of Institution of Engineers (India) during the 94th AGM on 22nd December,
2013 held at Chennai along with the 28th Indian Engineering Congress which was inaugurated by Shri Pranab
Mukherjee, Hon’ble President of India. He is a Life Member of IRC for about three decades. He is also actively
working in different committees of Indian Roads Congress including BSS Committees besides being a reviewer
for papers relating to bridges. He has flair for writing technical papers and till date about fifteen papers have been
published in different national and international journals including Indian Roads Congress, ING-IABSE, etc. He
has got several awards from different organizations. He has also got the IRC Medal for Best Paper in Construction
twice. He is the co-editor of a book 'Rehabilitation & Retrofitting of Structure' brought out by The Institution of
Engineers (India) and published by MacMillan. He is also member of the Disaster Risk Management Committee
of World Federation of Engineering Organization (WFEO). Shri Basa is not only active in his professional field but
also believes in serving his fraternity for an inclusive growth & development of the nation.

Paper No. 606
DETAILING PROVISIONS OF IRC:112-2011 COMPARED WITH

PREVIOUS CODES (i.e. IRC:21 & IRC:18)
Part 1 : General Detailing Requirements (Section 15 of IRC:112)
Alok Bhowmick*
SYNOPSIS
The new unified concrete code (IRC:112) represents a significant difference from the previous Indian practice followed through IRC:21 & IRC:18. The
code is less prescriptive and offer greater choice of design and detailing methods with scientific reasoning. This new generation code, when used with
full understanding, will bring benefits to all sectors of our society as it will eventually lead to safer construction and make a tangible contribution towards
a sustainable society. The present situation in the industry is that most of the consulting offices are struggling to understand this code, which is not so
user-friendly. Since the designer is hard pressed for time, majority of the Consultants are unfortunately spending their valuable time only in fulfilling the
prescribed rules of the code, acting as a technical lawyer, with very little understanding of the subject.
In order to make use of the code effectively and to minimize the potential for any error due to non familiarity with the code, there will be the urgent need by
the professional institutions, Indian Roads Congress, Ministry of Road Transport & Highways and other government authorities for organizing workshops,
seminars for dissemination of the knowledge.
One of the useful methods of understanding the new code in the short term is by comparing the provisions of this code with the previous practice that used
to be followed prior to publication of this code. This paper is written with this objective in mind and it covers the comparative study of general detailing
requirements of the present and past code (i.e. detailing provision of IRC:112 compared with detailing provisions given in IRC:21/IRC:18/IRC:78). In
order to contain the length of the paper, only Section 15 of the new code pertaining to General Detailing Requirements are covered in this paper. As a sequel
to this paper, similar comparative study for Section 16 & Section 17 will also be covered in a separate paper.
1 INTRODUCTION The new code covers detailing in much greater detail

than the previous codes. There are 3 sections dedicated
The unified concrete code (IRC:112) published by to detailing in the new code (i.e. Section 15, 16 & 17).
the Indian Roads Congress (IRC) in November 2011 Minimum cover requirements are specified in Section
combining the code for Reinforced Concrete and
14, under ‘Durability’. Main concern in detailing is for
Prestressed Concrete structures represents a new
generation code, which is significantly different as anchoring of bars carrying stress and lapping of bars.
compared to the previous codes (i.e. IRC:21 for RCC General rules on detailing are covered in Section 15. In
structures & IRC:18 for PSC structures). IRC:21 and addition, Section 16 covers specific detailing rules for
IRC:18 stands withdrawn, with the publication of Beams, Columns, Walls, Brackets, Corbels and Zones
IRC:112. The fundamental difference between IRC:112 below bearings etc. Section 17 is dedicated to ductile
and the old set of codes is that IRC:112 is based on detailing from seismic considerations.
limit state theory while the previous codes were based
on working stress design philosophy. Another major The objective of this paper is to provide an explanation
difference is the format of the new code, which is less to various clauses of IRC:112 and to provide a
user-friendly and is greatly influenced by the format comparative analysis with the previous codes. This
of Euro code. The new code is less prescriptive and paper covers only provisions of Section 15 of IRC:112
offer greater choice of design methods, allows more pertaining to general detailing requirements and
advanced method of analysis and take into account all
attempts to compare the same with the corresponding
the scientific and technological progress made in last 3
decades. The consequent need for strong understanding provisions of IRC:21 and IRC:18. As a sequel to this
of structural behavior and for correct usage of the new paper, similar comparative study for Section 16 and
code need not be overemphasized. This paper is a step Section 17 of IRC:112 will also be published in a
forward in that direction. separate paper.
*Managing Director, B&S Engineering Consultants Pvt. Ltd., Noida-201 301, E-mail : bsecmail@yahoo.com

330 Bhowmick on
For the benefit of readers, relevant clause numbers of a) avoiding damage to the concrete when
IRC:112 is mentioned in bracket in all heads and sub- a hook or bend carries stress & causes
heads of this paper. compressive stresses in concrete inside the
bend (Table 15.1 of the code) and
2 GENERAL DETAILINg REQUIREMENTS
(Section 15) a) avoiding bending cracks in the reinforcement
as a result of bending of the bars (Table 15.2
2.1 Cover to Reinforcement (14.3.2, 15.3.1) of the code).
Cover to reinforcement is normally required to Minimum prescribed bend diameter specified in

ensure: IRC:21 was dependent on bar diameter and the grade
of reinforcement only. As per IRC:112, the minimum
a) Safe transmission of bond forces.
bend diameter is also dependent upon the concrete
b) Protection of steel against corrosion. cover provided in the direction perpendicular to the
c) Adequate fire resistance (This aspect is not plane of curvature. Larger bend diameter is mandated
covered in IRC:112) for bars of diameter 20 mm and above. The comparison
of minimum bend diameter between IRC:21 & IRC:112
The comparison of minimum cover to reinforcement is shown in Table 2.
and prestressing steel between IRC:21 / IRC:18 &
IRC:112 is given in Table 1. Table 1 Minimum Cover to Reinforcement
2.2 Spacing of Bars (15.2.1) S. No. Item IRC:21-2000 / IRC:112-2011
IRC:18-2000 Provision
The minimum spacing between bars as per IRC:112 Provisions
(both vertically as well as horizontally) is maximum 1. Cover to 75 mm 75 mm
of [bar diameter, maximum aggregate size + 10 mm, Reinforcement
20mm]. IRC:21 had different spacing requirements in Foundation
vertically and horizontally. In case of laps, IRC:112 2. Cover to Moderate : 40 mm Moderate :
permits lapped bars to come in contact with one another Reinforcement Severe : 50 mm 40 mm
within the lap length. IRC:21 in contrast require the in Substructure Alternate wetting Severe : 45 mm
& Superstructure & drying : 75 mm Very Severe :
bars to be grouped in the vertical plane. 50 mm
Extreme : 75 mm
3. Cover for Post 75 mm Maximum of
Tensioned outer diameter of
Tendons duct or 75 mm
(Measured from
outer diameter
of duct)
4. Cover for Pre Same as for the 65 mm
In situations where bars are provided in separate Tensioned untensioned
horizontal layers and where access for vibrator needle is Tendons reinforcement (As
per IRC:SP:71-
required, a minimum spacing between columns of bars
2006)
shall be kept as 50 mm as per IRC:112. This provision
did not exist in the previous code. NOTE : IRC:21 had two exposure conditions
(“Moderate” & “Severe”), while IRC:112 has four
2.3 Minimum Bend Diameter of Bars (15.2.2)
(“Moderate”, “Severe”, “Very Severe” and “Extreme”).
IRC:112 prescribes minimum mandrel diameter “Moderate” condition of exposure as per IRC:21 is
separately for : split to “Moderate” and “Severe” condition in IRC:112.

Detailing Provisions of Irc:112-2011 Compared with Previous Codes (i.e. Irc:21 & Irc:18) 331
“Severe” condition of exposure as per IRC:21 is split For unfavorable bond condition, the anchorage length
to “Very Severe” & “Extreme” condition of exposure is increased by a factor 1.43 as per IRC:112. This
as per IRC:112. factor was prescribed as 1.4 in IRC:21. Increase in
bond strength has not been considered in IRC:112
2.4 Basic Anchorage Length of Reinforcement beyond concrete grade M60, to account for increased
(15.2.3) brittleness of concrete with increased strength. This
upper limit was set at grade M40 in case of IRC:21.
The basic anchorage length of bars depends upon the For reinforcement of f > 32 mm, IRC:112 has further
ultimate bond strength between concrete and the rebar. de-rated the bond strength and provided additional
The bond strength for high-bond bars are a function of rules for detailing in clause 15.2.6.
type and condition of reinforcing bar, tensile strength
of concrete (fctk,0.05), concrete cover, bar spacing & Anchorage lengths as per IRC:112 works out lesser
transverse reinforcement. Depending upon the location as compared to IRC:21. This percentage reduction
of bar, the bond condition is treated as either ‘favourable’ increases with concrete grade and is constant 40% for
or ‘unfavorable’. Any reinforcement above concrete grade of concrete M60 and above. Fig.1 shows the %
layer of thickness of more than 250 mm below it is reduction in anchorage length with grade of concrete.
considered as ‘unfavorable’ as per IRC:112. This limit
was 300 mm in IRC:21.
Table 2 Minimum Bend Diameter of Reinforcement

S. No. Item IRC:21-2000 provisions IRC:112-2011 Provision
1. Minimum Bend Diameter 1. For Bars with Bent Case 1 : Cover perpendicular to plane of curvature less than
from concrete stress (Up or Down) 3φ, 50 mm
considerations • 20φ for Fe 415/Fe 500 • 20 φ for Fe 415 to Fe 600
• 15φ for Fe 240 • 15 φ for Fe 240 bars
Case 2 : Cover perpendicular to plane of curvature more
than 3φ, 50 mm
• 15φ for Fe 415 to Fe 600
• 10φ for Fe 240 bars
2. Minimum Bend Diameter 2. For bars with end hooks : Case 1 : For φ < 20 mm
from consideration • 6φ for Fe 415/Fe 500 • 4φ for Fe 415 to Fe 600
of bending cracks in • 4φ for Fe 240 bars • 2.5φ for Fe 240 bars
reinforcement Case 2 : For φ = 20 mm
• 7φ for Fe 415 to Fe 600
• 5φ for Fe 240 bars
2.5 Methods of Anchorage (15.2.4)
Anchorage of HYSD bars in tension can be provided

using either straight anchor or bends or hooks or loops or
welded bars. For plain bars of φ > 8 mm (Fe 240), straight
anchor and bends are not permitted. For anchorage of bars
in compression, only straight anchor is to be considered
as effective. Hooks or bends, even if provided, shall not
be considered as effective for providing anchorage in
compression. Use of welded transverse bar for anchorage
is a new concept added in IRC:112, which was not there
in IRC:21. Fig. 15.2 of IRC:112 shows the requirements
Fig. 1 Percentage Reduction in Anchorage Length as per IRC:112
compared to IRC:21 for anchorage of longitudinal reinforcement.

332 Bhowmick on
Minimum anchorage length in tension as per IRC:112 lap length as per IRC:112 is substantially less than the
is maximum of [0.3 x ld; 10φ; 100 mm] & minimum IRC:21. Fig. 2 gives the comparison.
anchorage length in compression is maximum of
[0.6 x ld; 10φ; 100 mm]. Minimum anchorage length as 2.7 Transverse Reinforcement at Laps (15.2.5.1
per IRC:21 was 0.33 x ld irrespective of whether the bar (3) (b))
is in compression or tension.
Need for transverse reinforcement at lap splices is
Anchorages of shear reinforcements or links are recognized in both the codes. However, IRC:21 only
normally to be achieved by using bends, hooks or by
mentioned about the requirement of providing minimum
welded transverse reinforcements. Use of welded bar
for stirrup is a new addition in IRC:112, which was not reinforcement without quantifying it. IRC:112 has
there in IRC:21. Also there is a change in the dimension covered this aspect in much greater detail. Transverse
of bends and hooks compared to IRC:21 provisions, for tension arises at the location of anchorage of bar, as
which reference may be made to Fig. 15.3 of the code. shown in Fig.3.
2.6 Splicing of Bars (15.2.5) As per IRC:112, in case the diameter of the lapped bars
is less than 20 mm or in case the area of the lapped
Splicing or reinforcement can be done by lapping, bar is less than 25% of the total area of bars, minimum
welding or by mechanical devices. The maximum clear
transverse reinforcement provided for other reasons are
space between two lapped bars as per IRC:112 should
not be more than lesser of (4φ; 50 mm). In case the sufficient and no additional transverse reinforcement is
clear space provided is more than above, lap length required. In case the above condition is not satisfied,
shall be increased by a length equal to the clear space. the total transverse reinforcement shall be provided
This requirement was 40 mm in IRC:21. between longitudinal reinforcement and the concrete
surface. The total area of such reinforcement shall not
The lap length is dependent on percentage of lapped be less than area of one spliced bar. Spacing of such
bars with respect to total cross sectional area. As
bar shall not exceed 150 mm. Distribution of transverse
compared to IRC:21, the provision of IRC:112 on lap
length is less onerous. Table 3 & 4 below gives the reinforcement for bars in compression/tension shall
comparison. conform to Fig. 15.5 of the code.
Table 3 Irc:112 Provisions on Lap Length It may be noted that the transverse Reinforcement is
required to be provided between the lapped bar and
% of p<25% 25%= p =33% 33% < p=50% p>
lapped the concrete surface. This is easily possible in case
50%
bars of Beams & Columns. For slabs, main reinforcement
Coeffi- 1.00 1.15 1.40 1.50 being lapped, has to be provided in 2nd layer to satisfy
cient this clause and distribution reinforcement has to be the
‘α1’
layer with minimum cover. This is a departure from the
Table 4 Irc:21 Provisions on Lap Length IRC:21 provision.
% of p =25% 25% < p =40% 40% < p = 50% p > 50% 2.8 Welding of Reinforcement (15.2.5.2)
lapped
bars Welding of HYSD bars is generally not recommended,
Coeffi- 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.20 except in special circumstances, provided the
cient
‘k’ percentage carbon equivalent is within the permissible
limit. The Carbon Equivalent (CE) limits prescribed
Note : These values can be reduced by 20% when the axial
are diluted in IRC:112 as compared to IRC:21. The
spacing of bar > 10 φ and/or edge distance of bar > 5 φ.
IRC:21 limit for CE is 0.4% , which has been increased
It can be seen from the above comparative table that the
to 0.53% in IRC:112 when micro alloys/low alloys are

used and 0.42% when micro alloys / low alloys are not suppliers, acceptance testing shall be carried out in
used. Also, as per IRC:21, for HYSD bars, only 80% of laboratories first, before choosing the system.
the area of welded bar could be taken as effective for
design purpose at the location where it is welded. This 2.10 Additional Rules for Hysd Bars Exceeding
condition is withdrawn in IRC:112. 32 mm in Diameter (15.2.6)
This is a new clause in IRC:112 and did not exist in

IRC:21. For HYSD bars with φ > 32 mm, lapping is
generally not permitted as per IRC:112. Such bars
shall be either butt-welded or joined using mechanical
devices. Exceptions to this can be made in situations
where minimum dimension of the member lapped is
1m or the stress in the reinforcement does not exceed
80% of the design ultimate strength.
2.11 Use of Bundled Bars (15.2.7)

Fig. 2 Percentage Reduction in Lap Length as per IRC:112
compared to IRC:21 Unlike IRC:21, the new code, IRC:112 has detailed
provision for bundled HYSD bars. It allows bundles of
upto four bars in compression zones and three bars in
all other zones. All the bars in a bundle shall be of the
same characteristics (i.e. Type, Grade and preferably
the diameter). Bars of different diameter can be bundled
provided the ratio of diameter does not exceed 1.7.
For design purpose, the bundled bars are treated as

Fig. 3 Transverse Tension at Anchorage equivalent to a single notional bar of same cross
sectional area and same centre of gravity as the bundle.
The equivalent dia: φn = φ.√nb ≤ 55 mm, where nb is the
2.9 Splicing of Reinforcement by Mechanical number of bars in a bundle. With this limiting condition,
Devices (15.2.5.3) the maximum diameter of bars which can be bundled
are 36 mm for 2 bars, 28 mm for 3 bars and 25 mm for
As per the provision of both the codes (i.e. new and
4 bars. Lap length calculation & spacing of bars shall
old), the mechanical splice including its connecting
be based on equivalent diameter. Maximum number of
elements shall be capable of resisting in tension or in
bars in a bundle is limited to 4 in case of vertical bars
compression at least 125% of the characteristic strength
and 3 for all other cases.
fy. At location of mechanical splice, a reduction of cover
is acceptable as per IRC:112, but clear cover shall not In case the equivalent diameter for a bundle of two bars
be less than 30 mm in any case. does not exceed 32 mm, both may be spliced at the same
section with lap length calculated based on equivalent
IRC:112 gives further details on acceptance criteria
diameter. Otherwise (i.e. number of bundled bars > 2
for established or new system supplier for mechanical and/or φ>32 mm) , only one bar in a bundle of two or
devices. For established system suppliers, the design three bars may be spliced at a section and splices must
shall be based on manufacturer’s test certificate. In be staggered longitudinally by a distance of 1.3 times
addition, field testing on selected samples from actual the lap length. No increase in splice length is required
supply at site shall be carried out. For new system above that for an individual bar in such case.

334 Bhowmick on
2.12 Prestressing Units (15.3) for estimation of transmission length. IRC:SP:71 gives
a very simple formula, which is only dependent upon the
IRC:112 gives minimum spacing and cover to post concrete strength at transfer and the initial prestressing
tensioned ducts as well as pretensioned tendons on force. IRC:112 formula is however quite elaborate and
similar lines as given in IRC:18 (for post tensioned includes the effect of bond condition, nature of release
ducts) and IRC:SP:71 for pretensioned tendons. For of prestress, design tensile strength of concrete and the
post tensioned bonded cables, the minimum clear tendon stress after release of prestress. The provisions
spacing between individual cables is kept as maximum of IRC:112 draws distinction between the transmission
of [φduct, 50 mm, dg+10 mm], where φduct denotes the length (lpt), over which the prestressing force is fully
outer diameter of the duct. transmitted to the concrete; the dispersion length (ldisp),
over which the concrete stresses gradually disperse to
Grouping of cables in pairs are permitted, both B-Region (region in which the assumption of plane
horizontally as well as vertically in IRC:112 for the section remaining plane is valid) and the anchorage
straight portion of the cable. This was discouraged length (lbpd), over which the tendon force at the ultimate
in IRC:18. For horizontal grouping, the limiting limit state is fully transmitted to the concrete. This
duct diameter is 50 mm and for vertical grouping, distinction is very aptly demonstrated in Fig. 15.11 and
the maximum duct diameter is limited to 110 mm. Fig. 15.12 of the code.
Minimum clear cover for the post tensioned ducts is
given as maximum of [φduct, 75 mm]. This is a departure For the anchorage devices used for post tensioned
from the provision of IRC:18, according to which, the tendons, IRC:112 requires that the full design strength
clear cover is restricted to 75 mm only. of tendons should be developed taking account of any
load effects. As per the IRC:18 provisions, the overall
For Pretensioned individual tendons, the spacing
equilibrium of the end block should be checked and
requirements between tendons have been diluted in
reinforcement provided to cater for bursting tensile
IRC:112 as compared to IRC:SP:71. The minimum
force and spalling of concrete.
clear vertical spacing between individual tendons as per
IRC:112 is kept as maximum of [2φ, dg+10 mm], and IRC:112 also provides specific rules for couplers which
minimum clear horizontal spacing between individual was not included in IRC:18 (IRC:18 was meant for
tendons is kept as maximum of [2φ, 20 mm, dg+10 simply supported structures only). In general, couplers
mm], where φ denotes the diameter of the tendon. As should be located away from the intermediate supports
per the provision in IRC:SP:71, the minimum centre to and use of couplers of more than 50% of the tendons of
centre distance between strands is given as 44 mm & one cross section shall be avoided.
51 mm for 12.7 mm and 15.2 mm strands respectively.
3 CONCLUSIONS
Minimum cover requirements for the pretensioned
tendons has been increased in IRC:112 as compared to The general detailing provisions in the new unified
IRC:SP:71. The minimum clear cover is stipulated as concrete code (IRC:112) represents a significant
65 mm from consideration of durability. As per difference from the previous practice followed through
IRC:SP:71 provisions, the cover requirement IRC:21 & IRC:18. The provisions are exhaustive, less
for pretensioned tendons refers to the rules for prescriptive and offer greater choice of design and
reinforcement. detailing methods with scientific reasoning. Significant
change in general detailing practices as per the new
2.13 Anchorages and Couplers for Prestressing code, compared to the previous codes are as follows :
Tendons (15.3.2)
a) New code requires increased cover for
Both IRC:112 as well as IRC:SP:71 provides guidance pretensioned strands as well as post tensioned

ducts, which will lead to increased thickness of REFERENCES

webs and deck slab/soffit slabs for PSC girders/
PSC Box girder bridges. 1 IRC:18-2000 : Design Criteria for Prestressed
Concrete Road Bridges (Post Tensioned
b) Application of new code will lead to significant Concrete) (Third Revision).
reduction in anchorage length (10% to 40%) and
2 IRC:21-2000 : Standard Specifications & Code
lap lengths (20% to 60%) for reinforcement, as
of Practice for Road Bridges SECTION: III –
compared to previous codes.
Cement Concrete (Plain & Reinforced) (Third
c) For weld ability requirements of reinforcements, Revision).
the Carbon Equivalent (CE) limits prescribed 3 Irc:112-2011 : Code of Practice for Concrete
are diluted in IRC:112 as compared to IRC:21. Road Bridges.
The views expressed in the paper are personal views of the Authors. For any query, the author may be contacted at: E-mail: bsecmail@yahoo.com

Copyright ©
Regd. No. 17549/57 with the Registrar of Newspapers Volume 74-3 October - December 2013 ` 20.00
JOURNAL OF THE INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS

Volume 74-3
JOURNAL
OF THE
INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS
October - December 2013
ISSN 0258-0500
October - December 2013 October - December 2013

Final Journal of The Indian Roads Congress

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JOURNAL OF THE INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS

The Indian Roads Congress Founded: December 1934

The Indian Roads Congress as a body does not hold

"promoting usage of new materials/ techniques/ technologies/

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, October-December 2013

Glimpses of Inaugural Function

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, October-December 2013

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, October-December 2013

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, October-December 2013

List of Technical Presentations made during the Regional Workshop

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, October-December 2013

View of the Audiences during the Regional Workshop

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, October-December 2013

Glimpses of Some Lighter Moments

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, October-December 2013

Distresses In Cement Concrete Pavements –

1 Introduction • Selection of panels to be rehabilitated or replaced

*Scientist : Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi-110025, E-mail : akmishra.crri@nic.in

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, October-December 2013

km 585.753 to 628.753, short length to full length

• At chainage 586 to 588, 622-623, 623-624

Photo 1-2 Cracks in middle one third portion of outer lane

• The rigid pavement in the right carriageway

Photo 4-5 longitudinal cracks extending to many slabs

• No faulting or other types of deformations were

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, October-December 2013

After completion of crack mapping of the entire stretch,

Table 1 Details of Cores

1 1 570.860, crack, outer lane < 0.50 52 230* - -

2 3 571.430, crack, outer lane < 0.50 47 311 - -

3 4 571.460, transverse crack, outer lane 1.00 to 1.50 150 334 - -

4 5 572.060, crack, outer lane < 0.50 60 333 - -

5 6 573.240, crack, outer lane 0.50 to 1.00 130 330 - -

6 7 573.410, crack, outer lane 1.00 to 2.00 130 325 - -

7 9 574.960, crack, outer lane 1.00 to 2.00 142 310 - -

8 10 578.940, crack, outer lane 0.50 to 1.00 27 340 - -

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, October-December 2013

9 11 579.430, crack, outer lane 0.5 to 1.00 146 330 - -

10 12 580.290, crack, outer lane 0.50 to 1.00 30 312 - -

11 13 580.910, longitudinal joint - Full depth 155* 5 100

12 14 582.560, crack, outer lane 0.50 to 1.00 90 340 - -

13 15 582.780, crack, outer lane 0.50 to 1.00 70 340 - -

14 16 583.050, crack, outer lane 1.00 to 1.50 110 210* - -

15 17 584.370, crack ,outer lane 0.50 to 1.00 85 345 - -

16 18 584.505, transverse crack, inner lane 1.50 145 330 - -

17 19 584.505, transverse joint, inner lane - Full depth 330 6 100

18 20 585.325, crack, outer lane 1.00 to 1.50 152 330 - -

19 22 585.830, crack, outer lane 1.00 to 1.50 120 350 - -

20 23 586.150 , crack, outer lane 2.50 Full depth 324 - -

21 24 587.210, crack, outer lane 1.00 to 2.00 160 330 - -

22 46 587.750, crack, outer lane 2.50 Full depth 345 - -

23 47 587.750, tied shoulder - Crack induced 327 5 85

24 49 587.750, longitudinal joint - Full depth 340 5 60

25 51 595.030, crack outer lane 3.00 Full depth 337

26 50 595.030, longitudinal joint - Full depth 345 6 80

27 53 598.290, crack, outer lane 1.50 to 2.00 110 342 - -

28 52 598.290, tied shoulder - Crack induced 340 4 85

29 55 598.290, longitudinal joint - Full depth 325 - -

30 43 603.500, crack, outer lane 1.00 to 1.50 100 327 - -

31 44 603.500,crack , outer lane 2.00 160 330 - -

32 45 603.525, tied shoulder, outer lane - Crack induced 345 5 90

33 42 617.170, crack, outer lane 2.50 Full depth 340 - -