Recording Instruments and Waveform Generation 6.1 Introduction It is usually required to have a permanent record of any quantity being analysed. In many industrial applications, it is often required to monitor continuously the process variable mainly voltage, current, electrical power, temperature, pressure, flow etc. So the main utility of a recorder is to record electrical as well as non-electrical quantity as a function of time. Thus, a recorder is a measuring instrument which records time varying quantity, even after the quantity or variable to be measured has stopped. In today's life, automation is of great importance. So the instruments which are continuously recording the quantities have greatest utility in the central monitoring and control stations. These instruments provide continuous records of the changing quantities being measured. These records are then studied and analysed to get complete knowledge of control of process as well as quantity being measured. ‘The electrical quantities such as voltage and current are measured directly. The non-electrical quantities are recorded using indirect methods. The non-electrical quantities are first converted to their equivalent voltages or currents, using various transducers tlectronic recorders may be classined as : 1. Analog Recorders 2. Digital Recorders Analog recorders dealing with analog systems can be classified as 1, Graphic Recorders 2. Oscillographic Recorders 3. Magnetic Tape Recorders Digital recorders dealing with digital output can be classified as 1. Incremental Digital Recorders 2. Synchronous Digital Recorders6.2 Objectives and Requirements of Recording Data i) The recording of any physical quantity is done in order to preserve the details of that quantity time to time. This helps in analyzing that quantity with some other quantities or parameters. ii) The recorder provides display of any quantity with respect to time as well as with respect to other quantity. ii) In many applications, there are some critical parameters of the process or equipment. For better performance of process or equipment these parameters are recorded for taking necessary action time to time. iv) The performance of the unit, equipment or the process can be overviewed by just looking at the recorded chart. v) The recorded chart also reflects the necessary action taken by the operator for better performance of process or equipment. vi) The efficiency of process or equipment can be determined easily by using recorded chart. vii) The answers to the problems come up with the product quality can be obtained by analysing the permanent record charts. viii) The permanent record charts also helps in analysing the process or the equipment completely form the point of view of preventive maintenance. ix) The recorded chart indicated the performance of the equipment as per the specifications provided by the manufacturer. x) The accuracy of the recording must match the accuracy of measurement so as to obtain good results. xi) The record must be maintained properly. 6.3 Graphic Recorders The graphic recorders are the devices which display and store the record of physical quantity being measured. Graphic recorders use basic elements as chart paper for displaying and storing the physical quantity and pen (which is also called as stylus) for marking the variation in physical quantity. There are three types of graphic recorders : 1. Strip Chart Recorder 2. Circular Chart Recorder 3. X-Y Recorder. 6.4 Strip Chart Recorder Principle of Operation : Strip chart recorders are those in which physical quantity is recorded on a continuous roll of chart paper moving at a constant speed. Thisrecords variation of two or more physical quantities with respect to time. The basic elements of the strip chart recorder are pen used for marking and chart paper for recording data. The basic strip chart recorder is as shown in Fig. 6.1. Fig. 6.1 Block diagram of basic strip chart recorder Construction : The physical quantity to be recorded is given as input to the range selector. The range selector switch keeps data within acceptable limits. Whatever may be the input data, the stylus is to be moved along the calibrated scale in accordance with input data, So it is necessary to monitor and condition the input data to be recosded. To get proper record of input data, signal conditioning block is used which gives proper input signal along the calibrated scale. Most of the strip chart recorders use a servo feedback system which controls the displacement of stylus across the chart Paper. The position of stylus is measured using potentiometer system. The chart paper ‘moves vertically at a uniform speed. This movement is generally controlled by stepper motor. The speed selector switch enables user to select required speed for movement of chart paper. Many times, a pointer is attached at the tip of stylus, so that we can get directly instantaneous value of input data on calibrated scale. Operation The input data can be recorded on the chart paper by various methods. 1. Pen and ink Stylus : The ink is filled in the stylus using gravity of capillary action. In general, red colour is used to record the input data. One can use any colour to record data as per standard colour coding adopted. The stylus moves across chart Paper which is properly scaled, in accordance with the variations in input signal. The advantage of this system is that even we can use an ordinary paper to record input signal which reduces cost. The good quality chart paper hardly offers friction to the stylus tip. Also, we can have wide range of recording sheets.The disadvantages of the system are clogging of ink at rest condition and splattering of ink at higher speeds. Because of this there is a restriction on the higher speed. With this system, frequency range covered is of few Hz. ‘The modem technology offers disposable fibre tip pens and multiplexing of pens to record maximum of 6 data at an instant. 2. Impact Printing ; In impact printing method, there is a carbon ribbon placed between the paper and pointer mechanism. The carbon itself provides ink for recording data. The marking is done by pressing pointer on the paper. This method ‘ean record the data upto 20 variables simultaneously. The disadvantages of ink in previous method, such as splattering at higher speeds, clogging at lower speeds, et are avoided by using carbon ribbon 3. Chopper Bar Printing : In this method, the markings are done with chopper bar. This chopper bar applies pressure on the special purpose pressure sensitive paper. ‘The frequency of chopper bar is once per second. This system is not purely ‘continuous. It is therefore used to record slowly varying quantities, having variation of cone cycle per second. 4. Thermal Writing : In this method, recording is done by marking on a special paper with heated stylus. The special movable pen is heated by passing an electric ‘current through it. During marking, the colour on the special paper changes as heated stylus moves. In some systems, a black paper with white wax coating is used. During recording, the heated stylus melts thin, white coating of wax. Because of this, we can ‘get high contrast markings on the special paper. This method overcomes disadvantages of ink writing system. This method is quite reliable method with frequency response upto 40 Hz. The disadvantage is that it cannot record the processes producing heat itself which affects recordings. Also, the special wax coated ‘Paper increases cost. 5. Electric Writing : In this method, a paper base with a layer of coloured dye and thin surface of aluminium coating is used. The stylus consists of a conducting wire ‘moving over aluminium surface. As the paper is current sensitive,when the current is conducted from stylus, we get traces on the paper with removal of aluminium and keeping colour dye at those traces. This method has wide range of recording speeds. The friction between the stylus and paper is less. The life of stylus is more in this method. But the cost of special purpose paper is very high. 6. Optical Writing : In this method, special photosensitive paper is used. A beam of ultraviolet light is used to record data on the paper. The ultraviolet light reduces ambient light effects. With this method, we can have higher resolution, we can record higher frequencies with large paper rolling speeds. ‘The disadvantage is that the cost of paper is very high. As the recording is done ‘on photosensitive paper, we have to develop the paper before getting, record. So this method is not sulable where continuous monitoring and instantaneous analysis of a variable is required, ‘The tracing systems used to produce graphical representation are of two types 1. Curvilinear System : In this system, the stylus is mounted on a central pivot. The stylus cam trace the circular path. When the stylus moves through an arc, we get curved line traced on the paper. We can got circular time base for this line. But i i dificult to analyse a record due to complicated circular time base 2 Rectiinear System : In this systom, tho stylus produces a straight line across a width of the chart. The straight line is obtained as the stylus can move only in forward and reverse direction. The marking methods such as thermal writing and electri writing ‘use this system.5.3 X-Y Recorder ‘The galvanometer type revorder and null type recorder records the variations of quantity to be recorded as a function of time. But in many applications, it is required to study the behaviour of one variable with respect to another variable instead of recording them separately as a function of time. To achieve this, X-Y recorder is used, in which one variable is plotted with respect to variation of another variable. There are two types of X-Y recorders namely. 1. Analog X-Y Recorders. 2. Digital X-Y Recorders, Principle of Operation : In X-¥ Recorder, one variable is plotted against another variable. In this recorder, pen is moved in either X or Y direction on a fixed graph paper. The writing assembly movement is controlled by using either servo feedback system or self-balancing potentiometer. The writing assembly consists of one or two pens depending on the application. In practice, X-¥ recorder plots ane voltage as a function of other voltage. Many times XY recorder is used to record non-electrical physical quantity such as displacement, pressure, strain etc. as a function of another non-electrical physical quantity, Construction : ‘The block diagram of X-Y recorder is as shown in Fig. 5.1. Construction : ‘The block diagram of X-¥ recorder is as shown in Fig. 5.1. Fig. 5.1 Basle X-¥ recorderTk consists of attenuator which attenuates the input signal. The balancing circuit and error detector gives error signal. This error signal is de signal. The chopper circuit converts error signal to ac signal. The servoamplifier drives servomotor which drives writing assembly on a fixed graph paper. There are two such circuits for two different inputs to be recorded. The inputs are called as X-input and Y-input. The error signal of X-input is amplified by servoamplifier of X channel driving corresponding servomotor and pen in X-direction. Similar action is performed for Y channel. Operation : ‘The signal from appropriate transducer is applied to the attenuator. The attenuator attenuates this signal, so that the recorder works properly in the dynamic range. The self balancing circuit compares attenuated signal to the fixed reference voltage The output of ‘error detector is a difference between the variation in input signal and reference voliage. This voltage is de voltage. Using chopper circuits, de signal is converted to ac signals. As the ac signal level is very low, it is necessary to boost up the level of signal so that it can rive the writing assembly mounted on arm. The servo amplifier amplifies low ac signal to the appropriate signal level. Then, this amplified signal is applied to servomotor so that ‘witing assembly moves in proper direction reducing the error signal. So when the input signal to be recorded varies, the writing assembly moves across fixed graph paper ; so that the signal is recorded by keeping system in balanced condition. The same action exactly fakes place in both axes simultaneously. Hence, record of one physical quantity with respect to another physical quantity is obtained. Advantages : 1 The instantaneous relationship between two physical quantities can be recorded. 2 The relationship between either electrical or norvelectrical quantities can be recorded. 3. In modern types, zero offset adjustments are available. Applications of X-Y Recorder : ‘The X-Y Recorders, used in laboratories, greatly simplifies many meesurements and tests, They are extensively used to measure following > 1. Speed-torque characteristics of motors. 2 Regulating curves of power supply. 3. Plotting strain-stress characteristics, hysteresis curves, etc. 4 Plotting characteristics of active devices such as diodes, zener diodes, transistors, etc, 5. Plotting electrical characteristics of various materials such as resistance versus temperature, 6. Lift drag wind tunnel tests.Specifications of X-Y Recorder : 1 The input signal range is 0 to 5 mV for working in dynamic range of the recorder. 2. High speed X-Y recorder is capable of recording signal upto 10 Hz with maximum amplitude of 2 em peak to peak. 3. The slewing rate is about 97 cm/s and peak acceleration is 7520 m/s for high speed recorder. 4. The sensitivity is about 10 hV/mm. 5. Standard slewing rate 1.5 m/s with accuracy about + 0.3 %. 6. The frequency response is of about 6 Hz for both the axis. 7. The standard chart size is about 250 « 180 mm. & X-¥ Recorders provide continuously varying X and Y input ranges, between 0.25 mV/em and 10 V/cm. 9. Im modern X-Y Recorders, zero offset adjustments are provided. 5.5 Magnotic Tape Recorder The recorders discussed earlier are having very poor higher frequency response. They are mostly used for low frequency operation. The magnetic tape recorders are used for high frequency signal recording. In these recorders, the data is recorded in a way that it can be reproduced in electrical form any time. Also main advantage of these recorders is that the recorded data can be replayed for almost infinite times. Because of good higher frequency response, these are used in Instrumentation systems extensively. 5.5.1 Basic Components of Tape Recorder Following are the basic components of magnetic tape recorder 1. Recording Head 2. Magnetic Tape 3. Reproducing Head 4. Tape Transport Mechanism 5. Conditioning Devices (1) Recording Head = The construction of the recording head is as shown in Fig. 52. carting earch Gap Magra ‘See Train me ‘eae Parte Base ‘area SO oz, Fig. 52 Magnetic tape recording head‘The construction of the magnetic recording head is very much similar to the construction of a transformer having a toroidal core with coil. There is a uniform fine air gap of 5 pm to 15 um between the head and the magnetic tape. When the current used. for recording is passed through coil wound around magnetic core, it produces magnetic flux. The magnetic tape is having iron oxide particles. When the magnetic tape is passing. the head, the flux produced due to recording current gets linked with iron oxide particles fon the magnetic tape and these particles get magnetised. This magnetisation of particles remain as it is, eventhough the magnetic tape leaves the gap. The actual recording takes place at the trailing edge of the air gap. Any signal is recorded in the form of the pattems. These magnetic pattems are dispersed anywhere along the length of magnetic tape in accordance with the variation in recording current with respect to time. (@) Magnetic Tape : The magnetic tape is made up of thin sheet of tough and dimensionally stable plastic ribbon. One side of this plastic ribbon is coated by powdered iron oxide particles (Fe,0,). A typical tape is 12.7 mm wide and 24.4 um thick The magnetic tape is wound around a reel, This tape is transferred from one reel to another. AS seen earlier, when the tape passes across air gap the magnetic pattem is created in accordance with variation of recording current. To reproduce this pattern, the same tape with some recorded pattem is ppassed across another magnetic head in which voltage is induced. This voltage induced is in accordance with the magnetic pattern. (8) Reproducing Head : ‘The use of the reproducing head is to get the recorded data played back. The working of the reproducing head is exactly opposite to that of the recording head. The reproducing head detects the magnetic pattern recorded on the tape. The reproducing head converts the ‘magnetic pattern back to the original electrical signal. In appearance, both recording and reproducing heads are very much similar. (4) Tape Transport Mechanism : “The simple arrangement of tape transport mechanism is as shown in Fig. 53 ‘The tape transport mechanisin moves the magnetic tape along the recording head or reproducing head with a constant speed. The tape transport mechanism must perform following tasks. 1. 1k must handle the tape without straining and wearing it. 2. It must guide the tape across magnetic heads with great precision. 3. It must maintain proper tension of magnetic tape. 4 It must maintain uniform and sufficient gap bebween the tape and heads. ~ = >=‘The magnetic tape is wound on reel. There are two reels; one is called as supply reel and other is called as take-up reel. Both the reels rotate in same direction. The transportation of the tape is done by using supply reel and take-up reel. The fast winding of the tape or the reversing of the tape is done by using special arrangements. The rollers are used to drive and guide the tape. (5) Conditioning Devices : ‘These devices consist of amplifiers and fitters to modify signal to be recorded. The conditioning devices allow the signals to be recorded on the magnetic tape with proper format. Amplifiers allow amplification of signal to be recorded and filters removes unwanted ripple quantities. 5.33.2 Principle of Tape Recorders The principle of the magnetic tape recording is as follows. When a magnetic tape is passed through a recording head, the signal to be recorded appears as some magnetic pattern on the tape. This magnetic pattern is in accordance with the variations of original recording current. The recorded signal can be reproduced back by passing the same tape through a reproducing head where the voltage is induced corresponding to the magnetic pattern on the tape When the tape is passed through the reproducing head, the head detects the changes in the magnetic pattern ie. magnetization. The change in magnetization of particles produces change in the reluctance of the magnetic circuit of the reproducing head, inducing a voltage in its winding. The induced voltage depends on the direction ‘of magnetisation and its magnitude on the tape. The emf, thus induced is proportional to the rate of change of magnitude of magnetisation ie. ea N (d@ / dt) where N = number of tums of the winding on reproducing head = magnetic flux produced. Suppose the signal to be recorded is Vy sin ot. Thus, the current in the recording head and flux induced will be proportional to this voltage. It is given by 6 =k,.V, sinot, where k, = constant. Above pattern of flux is recorded on the tape. Now , when this tape is passed through the reproducing head, above pattern is regenerated by inducing voltage in the reproducing head winding. It is given by noe at ne (&,.Vq sinot) = K,N.V,, (coset) e- kya, coset where k)= k.N..... constant Thus, the reproduced signal is equal to derivative of input signal and it is proportional to flux recorded and frequency of recorded signal.