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PreCalc12 Textbook
PreCalc12 Textbook
Pre-Calculus
12
McGraw-Hill Ryerson
Pre-Calculus
Authors
Bruce McAskill, B.Sc., B.Ed., M.Ed., Ph.D.
Mathematics Consultant, Victoria, British
Assessment Consultant
Chris Zarski, B.Ed., M.Ed.
Wetaskiwin Regional Division No. 11,
Advisors
12
John Agnew, School District 63 (Saanich),
British Columbia
Columbia Alberta Len Bonifacio, Edmonton Catholic Separate
Wayne Watt, B.Sc., B.Ed., M.Ed. School District No. 7, Alberta
Pedagogical Consultant
Mathematics Consultant, Winnipeg, Manitoba Katharine Borgen, School District 39
Scott Carlson, B.Ed., B. Sc.
Eric Balzarini, B.Sc., B.Ed., M.Ed. (Vancouver) and University of British
Golden Hills School Division No. 75,
School District 35 (Langley), British Columbia Columbia, British Columbia
Alberta
Blaise Johnson, B.Sc., B.Ed. Renée Jackson, University of Alberta, Alberta
School District 45 (West Vancouver), British Aboriginal Consultant Gerald Krabbe, Calgary Board of Education,
Columbia Chun Ong, B.A., B.Ed. Alberta
Manitoba First Nations Education Resource
Ron Kennedy, B.Ed. Gail Poshtar, Calgary Roman Catholic
Centre, Manitoba
Mathematics Consultant, Edmonton, Alberta Separate School District, Alberta
Terry Melnyk, B.Ed. Differentiated Instruction Consultant Harold Wardrop, Brentwood College
Edmonton Public Schools, Alberta Heather Granger School, Mill Bay (Independent), British
Prairie South School Division No. 210, Columbia
Chris Zarski, B.Ed., M.Ed.
Saskatchewan
Wetaskiwin Regional Division No. 11, Francophone Advisors
Alberta Mario Chaput, Pembina Trails School
Gifted and Career Consultant
Division, Manitoba
Contributing Author Rick Wunderlich
School District 83 (North Okanagan/ Luc Lerminiaux, Regina School Division
Gail Poshtar, B.Ed.
Shuswap), British Columbia No. 4, Saskatchewan
Calgary Roman Catholic Separate School
District, Alberta Inuit Advisor
Math Processes Consultant
Senior Program Consultants Reg Fogarty Christine Purse, Mathematics Consultant,
School District 83 (North Okanagan/ British Columbia
Bruce McAskill, B.Sc., B.Ed., M.Ed., Ph.D.
Mathematics Consultant, Victoria, British Shuswap), British Columbia
Métis Advisor
Columbia
Technology Consultants Greg King, Northern Lights School Division
Wayne Watt, B.Sc., B.Ed., M.Ed. Ron Kennedy No. 69, Alberta
Mathematics Consultant, Winnipeg, Manitoba Mathematics Consultant, Edmonton, Alberta
Technical Advisor
Ron Coleborn Darren Kuropatwa, Winnipeg School
School District 41 (Burnaby), British Division #1, Manitoba
Columbia
The Geometer’s Sketchpad®, Key Curriculum Press, 1150 65th Street, Emeryville, CA
94608, 1-800-995-MATH.
Reviewers
Kristi Allen R. Paul Ledet
Wetaskiwin Regional Public Schools School District 63 (Saanich)
Alberta British Columbia
Karen Bedard Amos Lee
School District 22 (Vernon) School District 41 (Burnaby)
British Columbia British Columbia
Robert Burzminski Jay Lorenzen
Medicine Hat Catholic Board of Education Horizon School District No. 205
Alberta Saskatchewan
Tracy Connell Deanna Matthews
School District 57 (Prince George) Edmonton Public Schools
British Columbia Alberta
Janis Crighton Dick McDougall
Lethbridge School District No. 51 Calgary Catholic School District
Alberta Alberta
Cynthia L. Danyluk Yasuko Nitta
Light of Christ Catholic School Division No. 16 School District 38 (Richmond)
Saskatchewan British Columbia
Kelvin Dueck Catherine Ramsay
School District 42 (Maple Ridge/Pitt Meadows) River East Transcona School Division
British Columbia Manitoba
Pat Forsyth Dixie Sillito
Elk Island Public Schools Prairie Rose School Division No. 8
Alberta Alberta
Barbara Gajdos Jill Taylor
Calgary Catholic School District Fort McMurray Public School District
Alberta Alberta
Murray D. Henry John J. Verhagen
Prince Albert Catholic School Board No. 6 Livingstone Range School Division No. 68
Saskatchewan Alberta
Christopher Hunter Jimmy Wu
Curriculum and Instructional Services Centre School District 36 (Surrey)
British Columbia British Columbia
Jane Koleba
School District 61 (Greater Victoria)
British Columbia
Contents
A Tour of Your Textbook ..................... vii Unit 2 Trigonometry ........................ 162
Unit 1 Transformations and Chapter 4 Trigonometry and the
Functions .............................................. 2 Unit Circle ....................................................................164
4.1 Angles and Angle Measure ........................... 166
Chapter 1 Function Transformations .................... 4
4.2 The Unit Circle .................................................... 180
1.1 Horizontal and Vertical Translations ...............6
4.3 Trigonometric Ratios ....................................... 191
1.2 Reflections and Stretches ................................ 16
4.4 Introduction to Trigonometric
1.3 Combining Transformations ............................. 32 Equations .............................................................. 206
1.4 Inverse of a Relation .......................................... 44 Chapter 4 Review ......................................................... 215
Chapter 1 Review ............................................................ 56 Chapter 4 Practice Test ............................................. 218
Chapter 1 Practice Test ................................................ 58
Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions and
Graphs ..........................................................................220
Chapter 2 Radical Functions ................................. 60 5.1 Graphing Sine and Cosine Functions ........ 222
2.1 Radical Functions and Transformations ..... 62
5.2 Transformations of Sinusoidal
2.2 Square Root of a Function ..................................78 Functions .............................................................. 238
2.3 Solving Radical Equations Graphically ........ 90 5.3 The Tangent Function..................................... 256
Chapter 2 Review ............................................................ 99 5.4 Equations and Graphs of Trigonometric
Chapter 2 Practice Test ............................................. 102 Functions .............................................................. 266
Chapter 5 Review ......................................................... 282
Chapter 3 Polynomial Functions ........................104 Chapter 5 Practice Test ............................................. 286
3.1 Characteristics of Polynomial
Functions .............................................................. 106 Chapter 6 Trigonometric Identities...................288
6.1 Reciprocal, Quotient, and Pythagorean
3.2 The Remainder Theorem ............................... 118
Identities............................................................... 290
3.3 The Factor Theorem ........................................ 126
6.2 Sum, Difference, and Double-Angle
3.4 Equations and Graphs of Polynomial Identities............................................................... 299
Functions .............................................................. 136
6.3 Proving Identities.............................................. 309
Chapter 3 Review ......................................................... 153
6.4 Solving Trigonometric Equations
Chapter 3 Practice Test ............................................. 155 Using Identities.................................................. 316
Chapter 6 Review ......................................................... 322
Unit 1 Project Wrap-Up .................... 157
Chapter 6 Practice Test ............................................. 324
Cumulative Review, Chapters 1–3 .. 158
Unit 2 Project Wrap-Up .................... 325
Unit 1 Test ........................................ 160
Cumulative Review, Chapters 4–6 .. 326
iv MHR • Contents
Unit 3 Exponential and Unit 4 Equations and Functions ..... 426
Logarithmic Functions ..................... 330
Chapter 9 Rational Functions .............................428
Chapter 7 Exponential Functions ......................332 9.1 Exploring Rational Functions Using
7.1 Characteristics of Exponential Transformations................................................. 430
Functions .............................................................. 334 9.2 Analysing Rational Functions ...................... 446
7.2 Transformations of Exponential 9.3 Connecting Graphs and Rational
Functions .............................................................. 346 Equations .............................................................. 457
7.3 Solving Exponential Equations ................... 358 Chapter 9 Review ......................................................... 468
Chapter 7 Review ......................................................... 366 Chapter 9 Practice Test ............................................. 470
Chapter 7 Practice Test ............................................. 368
Chapter 10 Function Operations .......................472
Chapter 8 Logarithmic Functions ......................370 10.1 Sums and Differences of Functions .......... 474
8.1 Understanding Logarithms ........................... 372 10.2 Products and Quotients of Functions ...... 488
8.2 Transformations of 10.3 Composite Functions ....................................... 499
Logarithmic Functions .................................... 383
Chapter 10 Review ...................................................... 510
8.3 Laws of Logarithms ......................................... 392
Chapter 10 Practice Test........................................... 512
8.4 Logarithmic and Exponential
Equations .............................................................. 404 Chapter 11 Permutations, Combinations,
Chapter 8 Review ......................................................... 416 and the Binomial Theorem ...................................514
11.1 Permutations ...................................................... 516
Chapter 8 Practice Test ............................................. 419
11.2 Combinations ...................................................... 528
Unit 3 Project Wrap-Up .................... 421 11.3 Binomial Theorem ............................................. 537
Answers............................................. 554
Contents • MHR v
A Tour of Your Textbook
Unit Opener Unit 2
Trigonometry
Each unit begins with a two-page
spread. The first page of the Unit Trigonometry is used extensively
in our daily lives. For example,
will you listen to music today?
Most songs are recorded digitally
Opener introduces what you will and are compressed into MP3
format. These processes all
involve trigonometry.
learn in the unit. The Unit Project is Your phone may have a built-in
Global Positioning System
(GPS) that uses trigonometry to
introduced on the second page. Each tell where you are on Earth’s
surface. GPS satellites send a
signal to receivers such as the
one in your phone. The signal
Unit Project helps you connect the from each satellite can be
represented using trigonometric
functions. The receiver uses
these signals to determine the
math in the unit to real life using location of the satellite and then
uses trigonometry to calculate
your position. Unit 2 Project Applications of Trigonometry
experiences that may interest you. In this project, you will explore
trigonometric functions, and you
applications.
angle measurement, trigonometri
will explore how they relate to
c equations, and
past and present
Project Corner boxes throughout the chapters help you gather information for
your project. Some Project Corner boxes include questions to help you to begin
thinking about and discussing your project.
The Unit Projects in Units 1, 3, and 4 provide an opportunity for you to choose
a single Project Wrap-Up at the end of the unit.
The Unit Project in Unit 2 is designed for you to complete in pieces, chapter by
chapter, throughout the unit. At the end of the unit, a Project Wrap-Up allows
you to consolidate your work in a meaningful presentation.
Chapter Opener
CHAPTER
Each chapter begins with a two-page
10 Function
spread that introduces you to what
Operations
Throughout your mathematics courses,
you have learned methods of interpreting
you will learn in the chapter.
a variety of functions. It is important
to understand functional relationships
to the
between variables since they apply
physical
fields of engineering, business,
sciences, and social sciences, to
a few.
name
The opener includes information
The relationships that exist between
variables can be complex and can
combining two or more functions.
this chapter, you will learn how
involve
In
to use
about a career that uses the skills
to
various combinations of functions
model real-world phenomena.
covered in the chapter. A Web Link
Did You Know?
Career Link
Wave interference occurs when two
travel through the same medium
The net amplitude at each point
or more waves
at the same time.
of the resulting
of the individual
In 2004, researchers from universities
Columbia, Alberta, Ontario, and
in British
Québec, as
allows you to learn more about
wave is the sum of the amplitudes
in wave pools Council of
waves. For example, waves interfere well as from the National Research
and in noise-cancelling headphones.
Canada, began using the Advanced
Source (ALLS) to do fascinating
Laser Light
experiments.
quadrillionth
this career and how it involves the
The ALLS is a femtosecond (one
facility
(10-15) of a second) multi-beam laser
used in the dynamic investigation
of matter
in disciplines such as biology, medicine,
such as
mathematics you are learning.
chemistry, and physics. Universities
offer
the University of British Columbia
degrees
students the chance to obtain advanced
research.
leading to careers involving laser
We b Link
Visuals on the chapter opener
go
about a career involving laser research,
earn more a
To learn
• y = -x?
Understanding.
a third ring of 12 hexagons, and b) How are the graphs and equations
so on. The
quadratic function f (r) models the of quadratic and quartic
total functions similar?
number of hexagons in a honeycomb, Did Yo
Youu Know?
where c) Describe the relationship
r is the number of rings. Then, between the end behaviours of
you can use Falher, Alberta is known graphs and the degree of the correspondin the
the graph of the function to solve g function.
questions as the “Honey Capital of
6. What is the relationship between
about the honeycomb pattern. Canada.” The Fahler Honey the sign of the leading coefficient
Festival is an annual event of a function equation and the end
A quadratic function that models behaviour of the graph of
this pattern will that celebrates beekeeping the function?
be discussed later in this section. and francophone history in
the region. 7. What is the relationship between
the constant term in a function
equation and the position of the graph of
the function?
8. What is the relationship between
the minimum and maximum
b) tan 105°
12
sin (60° + 45°)
= ___
cos (60° + 45°)
= sin
___ 60° cos 45° +___
cos 60° sin 45°
Use sum identities with
special angles. Could
you use a difference of
cos 60° cos 45° - sin 60° sin 45° angles identity here?
Solution __ __
tan (A - B) = ___
30°
tan A - tan B
1 + tan A tan B .
angles? 12
(
tan (A + B) = ___
)(
tan A - tan B
1-_
__
√3
1__
√3
1__
_
-√3
__
-√__
3 Multiply
)
__ numerator and denominator
by -√3 .
1 - tan A tan B
The double-angle identities are
tan (A - B) = ___
1 + tan A tan B
special cases of the sum identities
two angles are equal. The double-angle
in three forms using the Pythagorean
when the
identity for cosine can be expressed
√3 + 1 identity, cos2 A + sin2 A = 1.
= __
another method that means more __ How could you rationalize the
1 - √3 denominator? Double-Angle Identities
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A cos 2A = cos2 A - sin2 A
tan 2A = __ 2 tan A
cos 2A = 2 cos2 A - 1 1 - tan2 A
to you.
cos 2A = 1 - 2 sin2 A
• After all the Examples are presented, the Key Ideas summarize the
main new concepts.
has a domain of {x | x ∈ R}
has a range of {y | y > 0, y ∈ R}
has a y-intercept of 1
4
2
4
Practise
A y
1. Decide whether each of the
following
functions is exponential. Explain 4
how
you can tell.
• Apply: These questions ask you to apply what you have learned
2
a) y = x3
b) y = 6x -4 -2 0 2 4 x
1
_
c) y = x 2
B y
to solve problems. You can choose your own methods of solving d) y = 0.75x
2. Consider the following exponential
functions:
4
2
• f (x) = 4x
• Extend: These questions may be more challenging. Many What is this value?
3. Match each exponential function
corresponding graph.
to its D
-4 -2 0
y
2 4 x
c) y = 2x
(4)
x
-2 0
2
2 4 6 x
(3)
x
2
d) y = _
Other Features
Key Terms are listed on the Chapter Opener pages.
Key Terms
You may already know the meaning of some of
logarithmic function
them. If not, watch for these terms the first time
logarithm
they are used in the chapter. The meaning is given common logarithm
in the margin. Many definitions include visuals that logarithmic equation
help clarify the term.
of each chapter. The review is 1. If f(x) = x + 1, which point A Only the domains differ. used to estimate the speed,
p S, in kilometres
____ is on the graph metres Canadian Islamic Centre in Edmonton,
of y = √f(x) ? B Only the ranges differ. per hour, of a vehicle before it brakes
from Alberta. The diameter of the base
the length, d, in metres, of the skid of the
A (0, 0) C Both the domains and ranges mark. roof is approximately 10 m, and
B (0, 1) differ. The vehicle has all four wheels the
braking vertical distance from the centre
C (1, 0) D Neither the domains nor and skids to a complete stop on of the
need help with a question. y = √2x - 5 - 4 that represents the function shown cosine ratios. mark expected from a vehicle travelling
cos x in A finite number of terms
the graph. from a Fourier series is often used at 100 km/h on this road. d) sin _ 5π a) Describe two methods that
D y-intercepts off the graph b) _
of the function cos x to 12 can be used
_______ to determine
y = √2x - 5 + 4 tan x y approximate the behaviour of waves. whether this equation is
Extended Response 9. If cos A = - _ 5
, where _ π
3. Which function has a domain c) ___ sin x 12
1 2 y 13 ≤ A < π, an identity.
1 - 2 cos x 2
4 ff(x)
(x) 4. Which function has a domain 2
of {x | x ∈ R} 10. The graph of the function
(x) = |x|
ff(x)
numerical response, and is .. 15. Mary and John were asked
yD y = (x y-intercept for each of the y ______ to solve
13.the Divide each of the following as
- 4)3 - 3 following equation 2x = √x + 1 + 4. indicated.
The equation of the transformed ______ transformations of f(x). Express your answer in the form
5. If 6 the graph 8
of y = √x + 3 is reflected Written Response g(x) a) Mary chose to solve the equation P(x)
function is a) y = f(3x) b) y = -2f(x) __ R
in
4 the line y = x, then which statement 6 algebraically. Her first steps are x - a = Q(x) + __ x - a . Confirm your
12. a) The graph of y = x2 is shown.
( )
6. Consider the graph of y =
written response questions. A g(x) = f _ 1 (x is true? |x| + 4. stretched Identify any errors in her work, remainder using the remainder theorem.
- 3) + 1 horizontally about the y-axis and
2 2 y y xis by a factor
y-a 4
B g(x) = f(2(x - 3)) + 1
A All invariant points lie on
the y-axis. 1 f(x)complete the correct solution. a) x 4 + 3x + 4 divided by x
y _
of and then translated horizontally ______ +1
B The new graph is not a function. 8 2 2 2x = √x + 1 + 4 b) x3 + 5x2 + x - 9 divided
C g(x) = f _
2(
1 (x
+ 3) + 1)
-6 -4 -2 0
-2
2 4 x
C The point (6, 3) will become
(-3, 6). 6
6 units to the right. Sketch the
graph.
______
Step 1: (2x)2 = (√x + 1 + 4)2
14. List the possible integral
by x + 3
Transformations
and Functions
Functions help you make sense of the world
around you. Many ordinary measuring devices
are based on mathematical functions:
• Car odometer: The odometer reading is a
function of the number of rotations of the
car’s transmission drive shaft.
• Display on a barcode reader: When the
screen displays the data about the object,
the reader performs an inverse function by
decoding the barcode image.
Many natural occurrences can be modelled by
mathematical functions:
• Ripples created by a water droplet in a pond:
You can model the area spanned by the
ripples by a polynomial function.
• Explosion of a supernova: You can model the
time the explosion takes to affect a volume
of space by a radical function.
In this unit, you will expand your knowledge
of transformations while exploring radical
and polynomial functions. These functions
and associated transformations are useful in a
variety of applications within mathematics.
Looking Ahead
In this unit, you will solve problems involving…
• transformations of functions
• inverses of functions
• radical functions and equations
• polynomial functions and equations
“My Indian name is Earth Blanket (all that covers the earth
such as grass, flowers, and trees). The sun, the blankets, and
the flowers/rocks are all the same colours to show how all
things are equal.”
Simone’s work is collected all over the world, including Europe, India,
Asia, South Africa, and New Zealand.
1 Function
Transformations
Mathematical shapes are found in architecture,
bridges, containers, jewellery, games, decorations,
art, and nature. Designs that are repeated, reflected,
stretched, or transformed in some way are pleasing
to the eye and capture our imagination.
Did Yo u Know ?
Key Terms
transformation invariant point
mapping stretch
translation inverse of a function
image point horizontal line test
reflection
4 MHR • Chapter 1
Career Link
A physicist is a scientist who studies the
natural world, from sub-atomic particles to
matters of the universe. Some physicists focus
on theoretical areas, while others apply their
knowledge of physics to practical areas, such
as the development of advanced materials
and electronic and optical devices. Some
physicists observe, measure, interpret, and
develop theories to explain celestial and
physical phenomena using mathematics.
Physicists use mathematical functions to make
numerical and algebraic computations easier.
We b Link
To find
ind out more about the career of a physicist, go to
www.mcgrawhill.ca/school/learningcentres and follow
the links.
Chapter 1 • MHR 5
1.1
Horizontal and
Vertical Translations
Focus on . . .
• determining the effects of h and k in y - k = f(x - h)
on the graph of y = f(x)
• sketching the graph of y - k = f(x - h) for given values
of h and k, given the graph of y = f(x)
• writing the equation of a function whose graph is a
vertical and/or horizontal translation of the graph of
y = f(x)
6 MHR • Chapter 1
B: Compare the Graphs of y = f (x) and y = f(x - h)
4. Consider the function f(x) = |x|.
a) Use a table of values to compare the output values for y = f(x),
y = f(x + 3), and y = f(x - 3) given input values of -9, -6, -3, 0,
3, 6, and 9.
b) Graph the functions on the same set of coordinate axes.
5. a) Describe how the graphs of y = f(x + 3) and y = f(x - 3) compare
to the graph of y = f(x).
b) Relative to the graph of y = f(x), what information about the graph
of y = f(x - h) does h provide?
6. Would the relationship between the graphs of y = f(x) and
y = f(x - h) change if f(x) = x or f (x) = x2? Explain.
x y = x2 x y = x2 + 2 x y = (x - 5)2
-3 9 -3 11 2 9
-2 4 -2 6 3 4
-1 1 -1 3 4 1
0 0 0 2 5 0
1 1 1 3 6 1
2 4 2 6 7 4
3 9 3 11 8 9
y
For y = x2 + 2, the input values are the
y = x2 + 2
10 same but the output values change.
Each point (x, y) on the graph of y = x 2
8 is transformed to (x, y + 2).
8 MHR • Chapter 1
Therefore, the graph of y - 2 = x2 is the graph of y = x2 translated
vertically 2 units up.
Each point (x, y) on the graph of y = x2 is transformed to become the
point (x + 5, y) on the graph of y = (x - 5)2. In mapping notation,
(x, y) → (x + 5, y).
Therefore, the graph of y = (x - 5)2 is the graph of y = x2 translated
horizontally 5 units to the right.
Your Turn
How do the graphs of y + 1 = x2 and y = (x + 3)2 compare to the graph
of y = x2? Justify your reasoning.
Example 2
Horizontal and Vertical Translations
Sketch the graph of y = |x - 4| + 3.
Solution
For y = |x - 4| + 3, h = 4 and k = -3. y
• Start with a sketch of the graph of the 6 D i d You K n ow?
base function y = |x|, using key points. y = |x - 4| y = |x|
4 Key points are
• Apply the horizontal translation of points on a graph
4 units to the right to obtain the graph of 2 that give important
y = |x - 4|. information, such
as the x-intercepts,
To ensure an accurate sketch of a -2 0 2 4 6 x the y-intercept, the
transformed function, translate key maximum, and the
points on the base function first. minimum.
4
Would the graph be in the correct y = |x - 4|
location if the order of the 2
translations were reversed?
-2 0 2 4 6 x
Your Turn
Sketch the graph of y = (x + 5)2 - 2.
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
g(x)
-6
b) y
4
f(x) B C
It is a common
A D E
2 convention to use a
prime () next to each
letter representing an
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
image point.
-2
-4
B C
g(x)
-6
D E
A
Solution
a) The base function is f (x) = x2. Choose key points on the graph of
image point f(x) = x2 and locate the corresponding image points on the graph
• the point that is of g(x).
the result of a
transformation of a f(x) g(x)
point on the original (0, 0) → (-4, -5)
For a horizontal translation and
graph (-1, 1) → (-5, -4) a vertical translation where
(1, 1) → (-3, -4) every point (x, y) on the graph
(-2, 4) → (-6, -1) of y = f(x) is transformed to
(x + h, y + k), the equation of the
(2, 4) → (-2, -1)
transformed graph is of the form
(x, y) → (x - 4, y - 5) y - k = f(x - h).
10 MHR • Chapter 1
To obtain the graph of g(x), the graph of f(x) = x2 has been translated D i d You K n ow?
4 units to the left and 5 units down. So, h = -4 and k = -5.
In Pre-Calculus 11,
To write the equation in the form y - k = f(x - h), substitute -4 you graphed quadratic
functions of the form
for h and -5 for k. y = (x - p)2 + q
by considering
y + 5 = f(x + 4) transformations from
the graph of y = x2.
b) Begin with key points on the graph of f(x). Locate the corresponding In y = (x - p)2 + q,
image points. the parameter p
f(x) g(x) determines the
horizontal translation
A(-5, 2) → A(-1, -7) and the parameter
B(-4, 4) → B(0, -5) q determines the
C(-1, 4) → C(3, -5) vertical translation
of the graph. In this
D(1, 3) → D(5, -6) unit, the parameters
E(3, 3) → E(7, -6) for horizontal and
(x, y) → (x + 4, y - 9) vertical translations
are represented by h
To obtain the graph of g(x), the graph of f(x) has been translated and k, respectively.
Your Turn
Describe the translation that has been applied to the graph of f(x)
to obtain the graph of g(x). Determine the equation of the translated
function in the form y - k = f(x - h).
a) y
10
g(x)
8
4
f(x) = |x|
2
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
b) A y
C 6
g(x)
4
D A
B f(x) C
2
D
-6 -4 -2 0 2 B4 6 x
Translations are transformations that shift all points on the graph of a function
up, down, left, and right without changing the shape or orientation of the graph.
The table summarizes translations of the function y = f (x).
Transformation
Function from y = f(x) Mapping Example
y - k = f(x) or A vertical translation (x, y) → (x, y + k)
y = f(x) + k If k > 0, the
translation is up. y - k = f(x), k > 0 y = f(x)
If k < 0, the
translation is down.
0
y - k = f(x), k < 0
-4 -2 0 2 x
D E
-2
A
12 MHR • Chapter 1
3. Describe, using mapping notation, how the 8. Copy and complete the table.
graphs of the following functions can be
Transformed Transformation of
obtained from the graph of y = f(x). Translation Function Points
a) y = f(x + 10) vertical y = f(x) + 5 (x, y) → (x, y + 5)
b) y + 6 = f(x) y = f(x + 7) (x, y) → (x - 7, y)
c) y = f(x - 7) + 4 y = f(x - 3)
d) y - 3 = f(x - 1) y = f(x) - 6
horizontal
4. Given the graph of y = f(x), sketch the y + 9 = f(x + 4)
and vertical
graph of the transformed function. Describe
horizontal
the transformation that can be applied to (x, y) → (x + 4, y - 6)
and vertical
the graph of f(x) to obtain the graph of
(x, y) → (x - 2, y + 3)
the transformed function. Then, write the
horizontal
transformation using mapping notation. y = f(x - h) + k
and vertical
a) r(x) = f(x + 4) - 3
9. The graph of the function y = x2 is
b) s(x) = f(x - 2) - 4 translated 4 units to the left and 5 units up
c) t(x) = f(x - 2) + 5 to form the transformed function y = g(x).
d) v(x) = f(x + 3) + 2 a) Determine the equation of the function
y
y = g(x).
A
D E b) What are the domain and range of the
2
y = f(x) image function?
B C
-6 -4 -2 0 2 x c) How could you use the description of
-2 the translation of the function y = x2 to
determine the domain and range of the
image function?
2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 x
-2 0 2 4 6 x
a) Use the coordinate plane overlay with
-2 the base semicircle shown to describe
f(x) = 1
_
x the approximate transformations of
-4
the semicircles.
b) If the semicircle at the bottom left of
b) y
the image is defined by the function
4
y = f(x), state the approximate
y = f(x) equations of three other semicircles.
2
14. This Pow Wow belt shows a frieze
-2 0 2 4 6 x pattern where a particular image has
-2 been translated throughout the length
of the belt.
-4
A B
evolved into multi-tribal festivals. Traditional dances
20 are performed by men, women, and children. The
dancers wear traditional regalia specific to their
10 dance style and nation of origin.
0 2 4 6 8 10 x
Time (h)
14 MHR • Chapter 1
15. Michele Lake and Coral Lake, located Extend
near the Columbia Ice Fields, are the only 17. The graph of the function y = x2 is
two lakes in Alberta in which rare golden translated to an image parabola with
trout live. zeros 7 and 1.
a) Determine the equation of the image
function.
b) Describe the translations on the graph
of y = x2.
c) Determine the y-intercept of the
translated function.
18. Use translations to describe how the
graph of y = _1
x compares to the graph
of each function.
Suppose the graph represents the number a) y - 4 = _
1 b) y = __
1
x x+2
of golden trout in Michelle Lake in the 1 1
years since 1970. c) y - 3 = __ d) y = __ - 4
x-5 x+3
f(t) 19. a) Predict the relationship between the
20
graph of y = x 3 - x2 and the graph of
y + 3 = (x - 2)3 - (x - 2)2.
Number of Trout
16
b) Graph each function to verify your
(hundreds)
12 prediction.
8 Create Connections
4 C1 The graph of the function y = f(x)
is transformed to the graph of
0 2 4 6 8 10 t y = f(x - h) + k.
Time Since 1970 (years)
a) Show that the order in which you apply
translations does not matter. Explain
Let the function f(t) represent the number why this is true.
of fish in Michelle Lake since 1970.
b) How are the domain and range affected
Describe an event or a situation for the by the parameters h and k?
fish population that would result in the
C2 Complete the square and explain how to
following transformations of the graph.
transform the graph of y = x2 to the graph
Then, use function notation to represent
of each function.
the transformation.
a) f(x) = x2 + 2x + 1
a) a vertical translation of 2 units up
b) g(x) = x2 - 4x + 3
b) a horizontal translation of 3 units to
the right C3 The roots of the quadratic equation
x2 - x - 12 = 0 are -3 and 4.
16. Paul is an interior house painter. He
Determine the roots of the equation
determines that the function n = f(A) gives
(x - 5)2 - (x - 5) - 12 = 0.
the number of gallons, n, of paint needed
to cover an area, A, in square metres. C4 The function f(x) = x + 4 could be a
Interpret n = f(A) + 10 and n = f(A + 10) vertical translation of 4 units up or a
in this context. horizontal translation of 4 units to the left.
Explain why.
6
y = f(x)
4
-2 0 2 4 6 x
a) Explain how you could graph the mirror image of the function in
the x-axis.
b) Make a conjecture about how the equation of f(x) changes to graph
the mirror image.
16 MHR • Chapter 1
3. Use graphing technology to graph the function y = x2 + 2x,
-5 ≤ x ≤ 5, and its mirror image in the x-axis. What equation
did you enter to graph the mirror image?
4. Repeat steps 1 to 3 for a mirror image in the y-axis.
reflection A reflection of a graph creates a mirror image in a line called the line
• a transformation where of reflection. Reflections, like translations, do not change the shape of
each point of the the graph. However, unlike translations, reflections may change the
original graph has an orientation of the graph.
image point resulting
from a reflection in • When the output of a function y = f (x) is multiplied by -1, the result,
a line
y = -f(x), is a reflection of the graph in the x-axis.
• may result in a change
of orientation of a • When the input of a function y = f(x) is multiplied by -1, the result,
graph while preserving y = f(-x), is a reflection of the graph in the y-axis.
its shape
Example 1
Compare the Graphs of y = f (x), y = -f (x), and y = f (-x)
a) Given the graph of y = f (x), graph the functions y = -f(x) and
y = f(-x).
b) How are the graphs of y = -f(x) and y = f(-x) related to the
graph of y = f(x)?
y
D
4
-4 -2 0 x
C 2 4
-2
A
y = f(x) B
-4
E
18 MHR • Chapter 1
Solution
a) Use key points on the graph of y = f(x) to create tables of values.
• The image points on the graph of y = -f (x) have The negative sign
the same x-coordinates but different can be interpreted
as a change in
y-coordinates. Multiply the y-coordinates of sign of one of
points on the graph of y = f(x) by -1. the coordinates.
x y = f(x) x y = -f(x)
A -4 -3 A -4 -1(-3) = 3
B -2 -3 B -2 -1(-3) = 3
C 1 0 C 1 -1(0) = 0
D 3 4 D 3 -1(4) = -4
E 5 -4 E 5 -1(-4) = 4
y
D E
y = -f(x) 4 Each image point is the same
A B distance from the line of
2 reflection as the corresponding
C key point. A line drawn
-4 -2 0 x perpendicular to the line of
C 2 4
reflection contains both the key
-2
A point and its image point.
y = f(x) B
-4
D E
x y = f(x) x y = f(-x)
A -4 -3 A -1(-4) = 4 -3
B -2 -3 B -1(-2) = 2 -3
C 1 0 C -1(1) = -1 0
D 3 4 D -1(3) = -3 4
E 5 -4 E -1(5) = -5 -4
y = f(-x) y
D D
4
2
C
-4 -2 0 C 2 4 x
-2
A
B B A
y = f(x) -4
E E
4
y = f(x)
2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
-4
20 MHR • Chapter 1
Example 2
Graph y = af (x)
Given the graph of y = f(x), y
• transform the graph of f(x) to 6
sketch the graph of g(x) y = f(x)
• describe the transformation 4
• state any invariant points
2
• state the domain and range
of the functions x
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
a) g(x) = 2f(x)
1
b) g(x) = _ f(x)
2
Solution
a) Use key points on the graph of y = f(x) to create a table of values.
The image points on the graph of g(x) = 2f(x) have the same
x-coordinates but different y-coordinates. Multiply the y-coordinates
of points on the graph of y = f(x) by 2.
-6 4 8 y = g(x) 8
-2 0 0
6
0 2 4
4
2 0 0
y = f(x)
6 4 8 2
For f(x), the domain is How can you determine the There are several
{x | -6 ≤ x ≤ 6, x ∈ R}, or [-6, 6], range of the new function, ways to express the
g(x), using the range of f(x) domain and range of a
and the range is function. For example,
and the parameter a?
{y | 0 ≤ y ≤ 4, y ∈ R}, or [0, 4]. you can use words,
a number line, set
For g(x), the domain is {x | -6 ≤ x ≤ 6, x ∈ R}, or [-6, 6], notation, or interval
and the range is {y | 0 ≤ y ≤ 8, y ∈ R}, or [0, 8]. notation.
Did Yo u Know ? y
y = f(x)
4 The vertical distances of the transformed
Translations and
reflections are called graph have been changed by a factor
2 a, where 0 < |a| < 1. The points on the
rigid transformations
because the shape of y = g(x) graph of y = af(x) are closer to the x-axis
the graph does not x than the corresponding points of the
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
change. Stretches graph of y = f(x).
are called non-rigid
because the shape of 1 , the points on the graph of y = g(x) relate to the points
the graph can change. Since a = _
2
1 y . Therefore,
on the graph of y = f (x) by the mapping (x, y) → x, _
2 ( )
each point on the graph of g(x) is one half as far from the x-axis as the
corresponding point on the graph of f (x). The graph of g(x) = _ 1 f(x)
2
is a vertical stretch of the graph of y = f(x) about the x-axis by a factor
1.
of _
2
The invariant points are (-2, 0) and (2, 0). What conclusion can you
make about the invariant
For f(x), the domain is points after a vertical stretch?
{x | -6 ≤ x ≤ 6, x ∈ R}, or [-6, 6],
and the range is
{y | 0 ≤ y ≤ 4, y ∈ R}, or [0, 4].
For g(x), the domain is {x | -6 ≤ x ≤ 6, x ∈ R}, or [-6, 6],
and the range is {y | 0 ≤ y ≤ 2, y ∈ R}, or [0, 2].
Your Turn
Given the function f(x) = x2,
• transform the graph of f(x) to sketch the graph of g(x)
• describe the transformation
• state any invariant points
• state the domain and range of the functions
a) g(x) = 4f(x)
1
b) g(x) = _ f(x)
3
22 MHR • Chapter 1
Example 3
Graph y = f (bx)
Given the graph of y = f(x), y
y = f(x)
• transform the graph of f(x) to sketch 4
the graph of g(x)
• describe the transformation 2
Solution
a) Use key points on the graph of y = f(x) to create a table of values.
The image points on the graph of g(x) = f(2x) have the same
y-coordinates but different x-coordinates. Multiply the x-coordinates
1.
of points on the graph of y = f(x) by _
2
x y = f(x) x y = g(x) = f(2x)
-4 4 -2 4
-2 0 -1 0
0 2 0 2
2 0 1 0
4 4 2 4
y
y = g(x) y = f(x) The horizontal distances of the
4
transformed graph have been changed by
1
2 a factor of _ , where |b| > 1. The points
b
on the graph of y = f(bx) are closer to the
-4 -2 0 2 4 x y-axis than the corresponding points of
the graph of y = f(x).
x y = f(x) x
1
y = g(x) = f _ x
2 ( )
-4 4 -8 4
-2 0 -4 0
0 2 0 2
2 0 4 0
4 4 8 4
The invariant point is (0, 2). How do you know which points will be
invariant points after a horizontal stretch?
Your Turn
Given the function f(x) = x2,
• transform the graph of f(x) to sketch the graph of g(x)
• describe the transformation
• state any invariant points
• state the domain and range of the functions
a) g(x) = f(3x)
1
( )
b) g(x) = f _ x
4
24 MHR • Chapter 1
Example 4
Write the Equation of a Transformed Function
The graph of the function y = f(x) has been transformed by either a
stretch or a reflection. Write the equation of the transformed graph, g(x).
a) y b) y
20 4
16 f(x) = |x|
g(x) 2
12
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
8 -2
g(x)
f(x) = |x|
4 -4
-8 -4 0 4 8 x
Solution
a) Notice that the V-shape has changed, so the graph has been
transformed by a stretch.
Since the original function is f (x) = |x|, a stretch can be Why is this
described in two ways. the case?
x y = f(x) y = g(x) y
-6 6 18 20
g(x)
-4 4 12 16
f(x) = |x|
-2 2 6
12
0 0 0
2 2 6 8
4 4 12 4
6 6 18
-12 -8 -4 0 4 8 12x
A vertical stretch results when the vertical
distances of the transformed graph are a
constant multiple of those of the original
graph with respect to the x-axis.
x y = f(x) x y = g(x)
-12 12 -4 12
-6 6 -2 6
0 0 0 0
6 6 2 6
12 12 4 12
20
g(x)
16 A horizontal stretch results when
the horizontal distances of the
12
transformed graph are a constant
multiple of those of the original
8
f(x) = |x| graph with respect to the y-axis.
4
-12 -8 -4 0 4 8 12 x
1 x, y .
The transformation can be described by the mapping (x, y) → _
3 ( )
This is of the form y = f (bx), indicating that there is a horizontal
stretch about the y-axis by a factor of _1 . The equation of the
3
transformed function is g(x) = f (3x) or g(x) = |3x|.
b) Notice that the shape of the graph has not changed, so the graph has
been transformed by a reflection.
Choose key points on the graph of f (x) = |x| and determine their
image points on the graph of the transformed function, g(x).
x y = f(x) y = g(x)
-4 4 -4
-2 2 -2
0 0 0
2 2 -2
4 4 -4
26 MHR • Chapter 1
Your Turn
y
The graph of the function y = f(x) has
16
been transformed. Write the equation g(x)
of the transformed graph, g(x). f(x) = x 2
12
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
Key Ideas
Transformation from
Function y = f(x) Mapping Example
y = -f(x) A reflection in the x-axis (x, y) → (x, -y) y
y = f(x)
0 x
y = -f(x)
y = f(x)
0 x
y = f(-x)
0 x
graph of f (x) = 2x + 1? 2
2. a) Copy and complete the table of values g(x) = x2 + 1
for the given functions. -2 0 2 x
1
x f(x) = x2 g(x) = 3f(x) h(x) = _ f(x) c) y
3
-6 4
-3 h(x) = 1
_
2 x
0
3 -4 -2 0 2 4 x
6 -2
28 MHR • Chapter 1
5. Use words and mapping notation to b) y
describe how the graph of each function 4
can be found from the graph of the f(x)
function y = f(x). 2
a) y = 4f(x)
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
b) y = f(3x)
-2
g(x)
c) y = -f(x)
-4
d) y = f(-x)
6. The graph of the function y = f(x) is
vertically stretched about the x-axis by c) y
g(x) f(x)
a factor of 2. 4
y
2
4
y = f(x)
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
2
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x d) y
-2 4
-4 2
g(x) f(x)
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
a) Determine the domain and range of
-2
the transformed function.
b) Explain the effect that a vertical -4
stretch has on the domain and
range of a function.
7. Describe the transformation that Apply
must be applied to the graph of f (x) 8. A weaver sets up a pattern on a computer
to obtain the graph of g(x). Then, using the graph shown. A new line of
determine the equation of g(x) in the merchandise calls for the design to be
form y = af(bx). altered to y = f(0.5x). Sketch the graph of
a) y the new design.
8 y
6
6
g(x)
4
4
2
2 f(x)
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
-2 0 2 4 x
-2
-4
D id Yo u Know ?
30 MHR • Chapter 1
Extend C3 A point on the function f (x) is mapped
14. Consider the function f(x) = (x + 4)(x - 3). onto the image point on the function g(x).
Without graphing, determine the zeros of Copy and complete the table by describing
the function after each transformation. a possible transformation of f(x) to obtain
a) y = 4f(x)
g(x) for each mapping.
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
A: Stretches
1. a) Copy the graph of y = f(x).
b) Sketch the transformed graph after the following two stretches
are performed in order. Write the resulting function equation
after each transformation.
• Stretch vertically about the x-axis by a factor of 2.
• Stretch horizontally about the y-axis by a factor of 3.
32 MHR • Chapter 1
c) Sketch the transformed graph after the same two stretches are
performed in reverse order. Write the resulting function equation
after each transformation.
• Stretch horizontally about the y-axis by a factor of 3.
• Stretch vertically about the x-axis by a factor of 2.
2. Compare the final graphs and equations from step 1b) and c).
Did reversing the order of the stretches change the final result?
B: Combining Reflections and Translations
3. a) Copy the graph of y = f(x).
b) Sketch the transformed graph after the following two
transformations are performed in order. Write the resulting
function equation after each transformation.
• Reflect in the x-axis.
• Translate vertically 4 units up.
c) Sketch the transformed graph after the same two transformations
are performed in reverse order. Write the resulting function
equation after each transformation.
• Translate vertically 4 units up.
• Reflect in the x-axis.
4. Compare the final graphs and equations from step 3b) and c). Did
reversing the order of the transformations change the final result?
Explain.
5. a) Copy the graph of y = f(x).
b) Sketch the transformed graph after the following two
transformations are performed in order. Write the resulting
function equation after each transformation.
• Reflect in the y-axis.
• Translate horizontally 4 units to the right.
c) Sketch the transformed graph after the same two transformations
are performed in reverse order. Write the resulting function
equation after each transformation.
• Translate horizontally 4 units to the right.
• Reflect in the y-axis.
6. Compare the final graphs and equations from step 5b) and c). Did
reversing the order of the transformations change the final result?
Explain.
y - k = af(b(x - h))
Reflection in Reflection in
the y-axis the x-axis
if b < 0 if a < 0 How does this compare to the
usual order of operations?
Example 1
Graph a Transformed Function
Describe the combination of transformations y (9, 3)
3
that must be applied to the function y = f (x)
y = f(x)
to obtain the transformed function. Sketch 2
(4, 2)
the graph, showing each step of the
1
transformation. (1, 1)
(0, 0)
a) y = 3f(2x) x
0 2 4 6 8
b) y = f(3x + 6)
Solution
a) Compare the function to y = af (b(x - h)) + k. For y = 3f (2x), a = 3,
b = 2, h = 0, and k = 0.
The graph of y = f(x) is horizontally stretched about the y-axis by a
1 and then vertically stretched about the x-axis by a factor
factor of _
2
of 3.
• Apply the horizontal stretch by a y
1 to obtain the graph y = f(2x) (4.5, 3) (9, 3)
factor of _ 3
2
(2, 2) y = f(x)
of y = f(2x). 2
(0.5, 1) (4, 2)
1
(1, 1)
(0, 0)
—2 0 2 4 6 8 x
34 MHR • Chapter 1
• Apply the vertical stretch by a factor y
of 3 to y = f(2x) to obtain the graph 9
(4.5, 9)
of y = 3f(2x).
8
y = 3f(2x)
3
(0.5, 3) (4.5, 3)
2
(2, 2) y = f(2x)
1 (0.5, 1)
(0, 0)
0 2 4 6 8 x
Solution
1 f(2(x - 4)) + 1, a = - _
For g(x) = - _ 1 , b = 2, h = 4, and k = 1.
2 2
Description Mapping Graph
Horizontal stretch (-2, 4) → (-1, 4) y
about the y-axis by a (0, 0) → (0, 0)
1 4
factor of _ (2, 4) → (1, 4)
2 1 y = x2
y = (2x) 2
2 (
(x, y) → _ x, y ) 2
y = (2x)2
-2 0 2 4x
-2 0 2 4 x
-2 0 2 4 6x
-2
y = -1
_ (2x)2
-4 2
-4
1 (2(x - 4))2 + 1.
The equation of the transformed function is g(x) = - _
2
36 MHR • Chapter 1
Your Turn
Describe the combination of transformations that should be applied
to the function f(x) = x2 in order to obtain the transformed function
1 (x + 8) - 3. Write the corresponding equation and sketch
g(x) = -2f _(
2 )
the graph of g(x).
Example 3
Write the Equation of a Transformed Function Graph
The graph of the function y = g(x) y
10
represents a transformation of the
graph of y = f(x). Determine the 8
equation of g(x) in the form y = g(x)
6
y = af(b(x - h)) + k. Explain your
answer. 4
2
y = f(x)
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 x
Solution
Locate key points on the graph of f(x) and their image points on the
graph of g(x).
(-4, 4) → (-8, 10)
(0, 0) → (-7, 2)
(4, 4) → (-6, 10)
The point (0, 0) on the graph of f(x) is not affected by any stretch, either
horizontal or vertical, or any reflection so it can be used to determine the
vertical and horizontal translations. The graph of g(x) has been translated
7 units to the left and 2 units up.
h = -7 and k = 2
2 units y
There is no reflection.
10
Compare the distances between
key points. In the vertical 8
direction, 4 units becomes 8 units. y = g(x)
8 units 6
There is a vertical stretch by a 8 units
factor of 2. In the horizontal 4
direction, 8 units becomes 2 units.
There is also a horizontal stretch y = f(x) 2 4 units
by a factor of _1.
4 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 x
a = 2 and b = 4
Substitute the values of a, b, h,
and k into y = af(b(x - h)) + k. How could you use the mapping
1
The equation of the transformed
( )
(x, y) → _ x + h, ay + k to
b
verify this equation?
function is g(x) = 2f(4(x + 7)) + 2.
-4
y = g(x)
-6
-8
Key Ideas
Write the function in the form y = af(b(x - h)) + k to better identify the
transformations.
Stretches and reflections may be performed in any order before translations.
The parameters a, b, h, and k in the function y = af (b(x - h)) + k correspond
to the following transformations:
a corresponds to a vertical stretch about the x-axis by a factor of |a|.
If a < 0, then the function is reflected in the x-axis.
b corresponds to a horizontal stretch about the y-axis by a factor of _1 .
|b|
If b < 0, then the function is reflected in the y-axis.
h corresponds to a horizontal translation.
k corresponds to a vertical translation.
38 MHR • Chapter 1
3. Copy and complete the table by describing 5. For each graph of y = f(x), sketch the
the transformations of the given functions, graph of the combined transformations.
compared to the function y = f(x). Show each transformation in the sequence.
a) y
Horizontal Translation
4
y = f(x)
Vertical Translation
2
Reflections
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
y
-2 0 2 x
4
y = f(x)
2 • vertical stretch about the x-axis by
3
a factor of _
x
4
-6 -4 -2 0 2
• horizontal stretch about the y-axis
-2
by a factor of 3
• translation of 3 units to the right
a) y and 4 units down
y = k(x)
2 6. The key point (-12, 18) is on the graph
of y = f (x). What is its image point under
-4 -2 0 2 4 x each transformation of the graph of f (x)?
-2 a) y + 6 = f(x - 4)
-4 b) y = 4f(3x)
c) y = -2f(x - 6) + 4
2
b) y
3 (
d) y = -2f - _ x - 6 + 4 )
-4 -2 0 2 4 x 1
e) y + 3 = - _ f(2(x + 6))
3
y = m(x) -2
-4
-6
e) y = - _ f - _ x
2 3
3 4 ( ) 2
f) 3y - 6 = f(-2x + 12)
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12x
8. Given the function y = f(x), write the
-2
equation of the form y - k = af(b(x - h))
that would result from each combination b) y
of transformations. 4
y = f(x)
a) a vertical stretch about the x-axis by a
2
factor of 3, a reflection in the x-axis,
a horizontal translation of 4 units to
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 x
the left, and a vertical translation of
5 units down -2
x -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8x
-6 -4 -2 0 2
-2
a) y + 2 = f(x - 3) -4
b) y = -f(-x)
-6
c) y = f(3(x - 2)) + 1
1 11. Given the function f(x), sketch the graph
d) y = 3f _ x (3 ) of the transformed function g(x).
e) y + 2 = -3f(x + 4)
a) f(x) = x2, g(x) = -2f(4(x + 2)) - 2
1 1
2 (
f) y = _ f - _ (x + 2) - 1
2 ) b) f(x) = |x|, g(x) = -2f(-3x + 6) + 4
1
c) f(x) = x, g(x) = - _ f(-2(x + 3)) - 2
3
40 MHR • Chapter 1
12. Alison often sketches her quilt designs 14. Two parabolic arches are being built. The
on a coordinate grid. The coordinates for first arch can be modelled by the function
a section of one her designs are A(-4, 6), y = -x2 + 9, with a range of 0 ≤ y ≤ 9.
B(-2, -2), C(0, 0), D(1, -1), and E(3, 6). The second arch must span twice the
She wants to transform the original design distance and be translated 6 units to the
by a horizontal stretch about the y-axis by left and 3 units down.
a factor of 2, a reflection in the x-axis, and a) Sketch the graph of both arches.
a translation of 4 units up and 3 units to
b) Determine the equation of the second
the left.
arch.
a) Determine the coordinates of the image
points, A, B, C, D, and E. Extend
b) If the original design was defined by 15. If the x-intercept of the graph of y = f (x)
the function y = f(x), determine the is located at (a, 0) and the y-intercept is
equation of the design resulting from located at (0, b), determine the x-intercept
the transformations. and y-intercept after the following
13. Gil is asked to translate the graph of y = |x| transformations of the graph of y = f(x).
according to the equation y = |2x - 6| + 2. a) y = -f(-x)
He decides to do the horizontal translation 1
of 3 units to the right first, then the stretch (2 )
b) y = 2f _ x
Create Connections
C1 MINI LAB Many designs, Materials • Recreate the diagram on a graphing
such as this Moroccan carpet, • grid paper calculator. Use the window settings
are based on transformations. • graphing x: [-3, 3, 1] y: [-3, 3, 1].
calculator
• Describe the transformations
necessary to create the image.
• Write the equations necessary to
transform the original function.
C2 Kokitusi`aki (Diana Passmore) and
Siksmissi (Kathy Anderson) make and sell
beaded bracelets such as the one shown
representing the bear and the wolf.
Work with a partner. Use transformations If they make b bracelets per week at
of functions to create designs on a graphing a cost of f(b), what do the following
calculator. expressions represent? How do they
Step 1 The graph shows the function relate to transformations?
f(x) = -x + 3 and transformations a) f(b + 12) b) f(b) + 12
1, 2, and 3.
c) 3f(b) d) f(2b)
D i d You K n ow ?
42 MHR • Chapter 1
C4 Musical notes can be repeated (translated b) H
horizontally), transposed (translated
vertically), inverted (horizontal mirror), in
retrograde (vertical mirror), or in retrograde
inversion (180° rotation). If the musical
pattern being transformed is the pattern in
red, describe a possible transformation to
arrive at the patterns H, J, and K.
a) H J K
c) H
J K
J K
( 4
5 x -—
) +—
2
f(x) = -— 36
4 5 5
6
40 |
17 x -16 + 9
h(x) = -— — —
3 10|
6 x - 12
g(x) = —
5
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 x
-2
Plain Text I N V E R S E
Numeric Values, x 8 13 21 4 17 18 4
Cipher, x – 2 6 11 19 2 15 16 2
Cipher Text G L T C P Q C
1
1. Consider the function f(x) = _ x - 5.
Materials
4
• grid paper a) Copy the table. In the first column, enter the ordered pairs of five
points on the graph of f (x). To complete the second column of
the table, interchange the x-coordinates and y-coordinates of the
points in the first column.
Key Points on the Graph of f(x) Image Points on the Graph of g(x)
44 MHR • Chapter 1
b) Plot the points for the function f(x) and draw a line through them.
c) Plot the points for the relation g(x) on the same set of axes and
draw a line through them.
2. a) Draw the graph of y = x on the same set of axes as in step 1.
b) How do the distances from the line y = x for key points and
corresponding image points compare?
c) What type of transformation occurs in order for f(x) to
become g(x)?
3. a) What observation can you make about the relationship of the
coordinates of your ordered pairs between the graphs of f(x)
and g(x)?
b) Determine the equation of g(x). How is this equation related to
1 x - 5?
f (x) = _
4
c) The relation g(x) is considered to be the inverse of f(x). Is the
inverse of f(x) a function? Explain.
Example 1
Graph an Inverse
Consider the graph of the y
relation shown. 6
a) Sketch the graph of the inverse
4
relation.
b) State the domain and range of 2
the relation and its inverse.
c) Determine whether the relation -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
and its inverse are functions.
Solution
a) To graph the inverse relation, interchange the x-coordinates and
y-coordinates of key points on the graph of the relation.
Points on the Relation Points on the Inverse Relation
(-6, 4) (4, -6)
(-4, 6) (6, -4)
(0, 6) (6, 0)
(2, 2) (2, 2)
(4, 2) (2, 4)
(6, 0) (0, 6)
46 MHR • Chapter 1
y
6
The graphs are reflections of each
4 other in the line y = x. The points
on the graph of the relation are
D i d You K n ow?
2 related to the points on the graph
of the inverse relation by the A one-to-one function
x mapping (x, y) → (y, x). is a function for which
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
What points are invariant after a every element in the
-2 range corresponds to
reflection in the line y = x?
exactly one element
-4 in the domain. The
y=x graph of a relation is
-6 a function if it passes
the vertical line
b) The domain of the relation becomes the range of the inverse test. If, in addition, it
passes the horizontal
relation and the range of the relation becomes the domain of the
line test, it is a
inverse relation. one-to-one function.
Domain Range
Relation {x | -6 ≤ x ≤ 6, x ∈ R} {y | 0 ≤ y ≤ 6, y ∈ R}
Inverse Relation {x | 0 ≤ x ≤ 6, x ∈ R} {y | -6 ≤ y ≤ 6, y ∈ R}
Your Turn
Consider the graph of the relation y
shown. 4
a) Determine whether the relation
and its inverse are functions. 2
Solution
a) The graph of f (x) = x2 - 2 is a y f(x)
translation of the graph of y = x2 by 4
2 units down.
2
Since the graph of the function fails the
horizontal line test, the inverse of f (x) -4 -2 0 2 4 x
is not a function. -2
Your Turn
Consider the function f(x) = (x + 2)2.
a) Graph the function f (x). Is the inverse of f (x) a function?
b) Graph the inverse of f (x) on the same set of coordinate axes.
c) Describe how the domain of f(x) could be restricted so that the inverse
of f(x) is a function.
48 MHR • Chapter 1
Example 3
Determine the Equation of the Inverse
Algebraically determine the equation of the inverse of each function.
Verify graphically that the relations are inverses of each other.
a) f(x) = 3x + 6
b) f(x) = x2 - 4
Solution
a) Let y = f(x). To find the equation of the inverse, x = f(y), interchange
x and y, and then solve for y.
f(x) = 3x + 6
y = 3x + 6 Replace f(x) with y.
x = 3y + 6 Interchange x and y to determine the inverse.
x-6 = 3y Solve for y.
x-6
__ =y
3
x-6 Replace y with f -1(x), since the inverse of a linear
f -1(x) = __ function is also a function.
3
x - 6 on the same set of coordinate axes.
Graph y = 3x + 6 and y = __
3
y
y=x
6
4
y = 3x + 6
2
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
x-6
-2 y = _____
3
-4
-6
f(x) = x2 - 4
y = x2 - 4 Replace f(x) with y.
x = y2 - 4 Interchange x and y to determine the inverse.
x + 4 = y2 Solve for y.
______
±√x + 4 = y ______
Why is this y not replaced with f -1(x)? What could be
y = ±√x + 4 done so that f -1(x) could be used?
______
Graph y = x2 - 4 and y = ±√x + 4 on the same set of coordinate axes.
______
x y = x2 - 4 x y = ± √x + 4
-3 5 5 ±3
-2 0 0 ±2
-1 -3 -3 ±1
0 -4 -4 0
1 -3
2 0
3 5
6
y = x2 - 4
4
2
How could you use the tables of
x values to verify that the relations
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
are inverses of each other?
-2
-4
y = ±√x + 4
y=x
-6
Your Turn
x+8
Write the equation for the inverse of the function f(x) = __ .
3
Verify your answer graphically.
50 MHR • Chapter 1
Key Ideas
You can find the inverse of a relation by interchanging the x-coordinates and
y-coordinates of the graph.
The graph of the inverse of a relation is the graph of the relation reflected in the
line y = x.
The domain and range of a relation become the range and domain, respectively,
of the inverse of the relation.
Use the horizontal line test to determine if an inverse will be a function.
You can create an inverse that is a function over a specified interval by restricting
the domain of a function.
When the inverse of a function f (x) is itself a function, it is denoted by f -1(x).
You can verify graphically whether two functions are inverses of each other.
b) y -6
y = f(x)
4
2 b) y
6
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2 4
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
x d) y
-4 -2 0 2
y = -(x + 4)2 + 2
2
b) y
-6 -4 -2 0 x
4
-2
2
-4
-4 -2 0 2 x
-2 5. Algebraically determine the equation of the
inverse of each function.
-4
a) f(x) = 7x
c) y b) f(x) = -3x + 4
4 x+4
c) f(x) = __
3
2 d) f(x) = _
x -5
3
-4 -2 0 2 x e) f(x) = 5 - 2x
1
f) f(x) = _ (x + 6)
4. For each graph, identify a restricted
2
6. Match the function with its inverse.
domain for which the function has an
Function
inverse that is also a function.
a) y = 2x + 5
a) y
1
b) y = _ x - 4
4
2
2 c) y = 6 - 3x
y = x2 - 1
d) y = x2 - 12, x ≥ 0
-2 0 2 4 x 1
e) y = _ (x + 1)2, x ≤ -1
2
b) y Inverse
_______
4 A y = √x + 12
6-x
B y = __
2
y = (x + 2)2 3
C y = 2x + 8
-6 -4 -2 0 x ___
D y = -√2x - 1
x-5
E y = __
2
52 MHR • Chapter 1
Apply c) y
7. For each table, plot the ordered pairs (x, y) 6
and the ordered pairs (y, x). State the
4
domain of the function and its inverse. y = f(x)
a) x y 2
-2 -2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-1 1
0 4
9. For each of the following functions,
1 7
• determine the equation for the
2 10
inverse, f -1(x)
b) x y • graph f(x) and f -1(x)
• determine the domain and range
-6 2
of f(x) and f -1(x)
-4 4
a) f(x) = 3x + 2
-1 5
b) f(x) = 4 - 2x
2 5
1
c) f(x) = _ x - 6
5 3
2
8. Copy each graph of y = f(x) and then d) f(x) = x2 + 2, x ≤ 0
sketch the graph of its inverse. Determine e) f(x) = 2 - x2, x ≥ 0
if the inverse is a function. Give a reason
10. For each function f(x),
for your answer.
i) determine the equation of the inverse of
a) y
f(x) by first rewriting the function in the
2 form y = a(x - h)2 + k
ii) graph f(x) and the inverse of f (x)
-2 0 2 4 6 x
a) f(x) = x2 + 8x + 12
-2
y = f(x) b) f(x) = x2 - 4x + 2
-4
11. Jocelyn and Gerry determine that the
-6 inverse of the function f(x) = x2 - 5, x ≥ 0,
______
is f -1(x) = √x + 5 . Does the graph verify
that these functions are inverses of each
b) y
other? Explain why.
8 y
y = f(x)
6 6
4 4
y = f (x)
-1
2 2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
-2 -2
y = f (x)
-4
-6
54 MHR • Chapter 1
Extend Create Connections
19. When a function is constantly increasing
C1 Describe the inverse sequence of
or decreasing, its inverse is a function. For operations for each of the following.
each graph of f(x),
a) f(x) = 6x + 12
i) choose an interval over which the
b) f(x) = (x + 3)2 - 1
function is increasing and sketch the
inverse of the function when it is C2 a) Sketch the graphs of the function
restricted to that domain f(x) = -x + 3 and its inverse, f -1(x).
ii) choose an interval over which the b) Explain why f(x) = f -1(x).
function is decreasing and sketch c) If a function and its inverse are the
the inverse of the function when it is same, how are they related to the line
restricted to that domain y = x?
a) y C3 Two students are arguing about whether
6
or not a given relation and its inverse are
f(x)
4 functions. Explain how the students could
verify who is correct.
2
x+5
C4 MINI LAB Two functions, f (x) = __ and
3
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6x
g(x) = 3x - 5, are inverses of each other.
-2
Step 1 Evaluate output values for f(x) for
-4 x = 1, x = 4, x = -8, and x = a. Use
the results as input values for g(x).
What do you notice about the output
b) y
values for g(x)? Explain why this
4 happens. State a hypothesis that could
f(x)
2 be used to verify whether or not two
functions are inverses of each other.
-12 -8 -4 0 4 8 x Step 2 Reverse the order in which you used
-2 the functions. Start with using the
input values for g(x), and then use the
-4 outputs in f(x). What conclusion can
you make about inverse functions?
20. Suppose a function f(x) has an inverse
function, f -1(x). Step 3 Test your conclusions and hypothesis
by selecting two functions of your own.
a) Determine f -1(5) if f (17) = 5.
__ Step 4 Explain how your results relate to the
b) Determine f(-2) if f -1(√3 ) = -2.
statement “if f(a) = b and f -1(b) = a,
c) Determine the value of a if f -1(a) = 1 then the two functions are inverses
and f(x) = 2x2 + 5x + 3, x ≥ -1.25. of each other.” Note that this must
21. If the point (10, 8) is on the graph of the also be true when the function roles
function y = f(x), what point must be on are switched.
the graph of each of the following?
a) y = f -1(x + 2)
b) y = 2f -1(x) + 3
c) y = -f -1(-x) + 1
56 MHR • Chapter 1
1.3 Combining Transformations, pages 32—43 1.4 Inverse of a Relation, pages 44—55
9. Given the graph of y = f(x), sketch the 13. a) Copy the graph of y = f (x) and sketch
graph of each transformed function. the graph of x = f(y).
y b) Name the line of reflection and list
2 any invariant points.
c) State the domain and range of the
-2 0 2 4 6 x two functions.
-2 y
y = f(x)
-4 4
2
1 1
a) y = 2f _ x (2 ) 2
b) y = _ f(3x)
-2 0 2 x
10. Explain how the transformations described -2
y = f(x)
by y = f(4(x + 1)) and y = f(4x + 1) are
similar and how they are different. -4
x
17. Graphically determine if the functions are
0 2 4 6 8
inverses of each other.
1 x+5
a) y = _ f(-(x + 2)) a) f(x) = -6x + 5 and g(x) = __
2 6
x-3
b) f(x) = __ and g(x) = 8x + 3
b) y - 2 = -f(2(x - 3))
8
c) y - 1 = 3f(2x + 4)
C y - 4 = |x + 6| 6
D y + 6 = |x + 4| 4
f(x)
3. If (a, b) is a point on the graph of y = f(x),
2
which of the following points is on the
graph of y = f(x + 2)? x
-4 -2 0 2 4 6
A (a + 2, b) -2
B (a - 2, b) g(x)
-4
C (a, b + 2)
-6
D (a, b - 2)
4. Which equation represents the image of
1
y = x2 + 2 after a reflection in the y-axis? (
A g(x) = f - _ x
2 )
A y = -x2 - 2 B g(x) = f(-2x)
B y = x2 + 2 C g(x) = -f(2x)
C y = -x2 + 2 1
D y=x -2 2
D g(x) = -f _ x (2 )
58 MHR • Chapter 1
Short Answer Extended Response
8. The domain of the function y = f(x) 13. The graph of the function f (x) = |x|
is {x | -3 ≤ x ≤ 4, x ∈ R}. What is is transformed to the graph of
the domain of the function g(x) = f(x + 2) - 7.
y = f(x + 2) - 1? a) Describe the transformation.
9. Given the graph of y = f(x), sketch the b) Write the equation of the function g(x).
1 (x + 3) .
1f _
graph of y - 4 = - _
4 (2 ) c) Determine the minimum value of g(x).
y d) The domain of the function f (x) is the
6
set of real numbers. The domain of
the function g(x) is also the set of real
4 numbers. Does this imply that all of
y = f(x) the points are invariant? Explain your
2
answer.
-6 -4 -2 0 2 x 14. The function g(x) is a transformation of the
-2
function f(x).
y
-4 f(x)
4
g(x)
2
10. Consider the graph of the function y = f (x).
y x
-4 -2 0 2 4
2
a) Write the equation of the function f (x).
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
b) Write the equation of the function g(x)
-2
y = f(x) in the form g(x) = af(x), and describe
-4 the transformation.
c) Write the equation of the function g(x)
in the form g(x) = f (bx), and describe
a) Sketch the graph of the inverse.
the transformation.
b) Explain how the coordinates of key
d) Algebraically prove that the two
points are transformed.
equations from parts b) and c) are
c) State any invariant points. equivalent.
11. Write the equation of the inverse function 15. Consider the function h(x) = -(x + 3)2 - 5.
of y = 5x + 2. Verify graphically that the
a) Explain how you can determine
functions are inverses of each other.
whether or not the inverse of h(x) is
12. A transformation of the graph of y = f(x) a function.
results in a horizontal stretch about
b) Write the equation of the inverse
the y-axis by a factor of 2, a horizontal
relation in simplified form.
reflection in the y-axis, a vertical stretch
about the x-axis by a factor of 3, and c) What restrictions could be placed on
a horizontal translation of 2 units to the domain of the function so that the
the right. Write the equation for the inverse is also a function?
transformed function.
2 Radical
Functions
How far can you see from the top of a hill? What
range of vision does a submarine’s periscope have?
How much fertilizer is required for a particular
crop? How much of Earth’s surface can a satellite
“see”? You can model each of these situations
using a radical function. The functions can range
from simple square root functions to more complex
radical functions of higher orders.
Did Yo u Know ?
Key Terms
radical function square root of a function
60 MHR • Chapter 2
Career Link
Scientists and engineers use remote sensing to
create satellite images. They use instruments
and satellites to produce information that
is used to manage resources, investigate
environmental issues, and produce
sophisticated maps.
We b Link
To learn
earn more aabout a career or educational
opportunities involving remote sensing, go to
www.mcgrawhill.ca/school/learningcentres and
follow the links.
Yellowknife Wetlands
Chapter 2 • MHR 61
2.1
Radical Functions and
Transformations
Focus on . . .
__
• investigating the function y = √x using a table of values
and a graph
• graphing radical functions using transformations
• identifying the domain and range of radical functions
Materials For objects falling near the surface of Earth, the function d = 5t 2
• grid paper approximately models the time, t, in seconds, for an object to fall a
• graphing technology distance, d, in metres, if the resistance caused by air can be ignored.
(optional)
1. a) Identify any restrictions on the domain of this function. Why are
these restrictions necessary? What is the range of the function?
b) Create a table of values and a graph showing the distance fallen as
a function of time.
2. Express time in terms of distance for the distance-time function from
step 1. Represent the new function graphically and using a table
of values.
3. For each representation, how is the equation of the new function
from step 2 related to the original function?
62 MHR • Chapter 2
Reflect and Respond
4. a) The original function is a distance-time function. What would you
call the new function? Under what circumstances would you use
each function?
b) What is the shape of the graph of the original function? Describe
the shape of the graph of the new function.
The function that gives the predicted fall time for an object under the
influence of gravity is an example of a radical function. Radical functions radical function
have restricted domains if the index of the radical is an even number. Like • a function that involves
many types of functions, you can represent radical functions in a variety a radical with a variable
of ways, including tables, graphs, and equations. You can create graphs of in the radicand
___
radical functions using tables of values or technology, or by transforming • y = √3x and
______
3
__ y = 4 √5 + x are
the base radical function, y = √x . radical functions.
Example 1
Graph Radical Functions Using Tables of Values
Use a table of values to sketch the graph of each function.
Then, state the domain and range
______
of each function.
__ __
a) y = √x b) y = x - 2
√ c) y = √x - 3
Solution
__
a) For the function y = √x , the radicand x must be greater
than or equal to zero, x ≥ 0.
x y
0 0
1 1 How can you choose values
of x that allow you to
4 2
complete the table without
9 3 using a calculator?
16 4
25 5
2 y= x
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 x
x y
2 0 How is this table related to the table for
__
3 1 y = √x in part a)?
6 2
11 3 ______
18 4 How does the graph of y = √x - 2
__
compare to the graph of y = √x ?
27 5
4
y= x-2
2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 x
2 y= x-3
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 x
-2
Your Turn
______
Sketch the graph of the function y = √x + 5 using a table of values. State
the domain and the range.
64 MHR • Chapter 2
Graphing Radical Functions Using Transformations
________
You can graph a radical function of the form y = a √b(x - h) + k by
__
transforming the graph of y = √x based on the values of a, b, h, and k.
The effects of changing parameters in radical functions are the same as
the effects of changing parameters in other types of functions.
__
• Parameter a results in a vertical stretch of the graph of y = √x by a
__
factor of |a|. If a < 0, the graph of y = √x is reflected in the x-axis.
__
• Parameter b results in a horizontal stretch of the graph of y = √x by a
factor of _1 . If b < 0, the graph of y = √__
x is reflected in the y-axis.
|b|
• Parameter h determines the horizontal translation. If h > 0, the graph
__
of y = √x is translated to the right h units. If h < 0, the graph is
translated to the left |h| units.
• Parameter k determines the vertical translation. If k > 0, the graph of
__
y = √x is translated up k units. If k < 0, the graph is translated down
|k| units.
Example 2
Graph Radical Functions Using Transformations
Sketch the graph of each function using transformations. Compare the
__
domain and range to those of y = √x and identify any changes.
_________ ___
a) y = 3 √-(x - 1) b) y - 3 = - √2x
Solution
_________
a) The function y = 3 √-(x - 1) is expressed in the Why is it acceptable
________ to have a negative
form y = a √b(x - h) + k. Identify the value of sign under a square
each parameter and how it will transform the root sign?
__
graph of y = √x .
• a = 3 results in a vertical stretch by a factor of 3 (step 1).
• b = -1 results in a reflection in the y-axis (step 2).
• h = 1 results in a horizontal translation of 1 unit to the right
(step 3).
• k = 0, so the graph has no vertical translation.
Method 1: Transform the Graph Directly In what order do
__
Start with a sketch of y = √x and apply the transformations need
transformations one at a time. to be performed?
y step 3: horizontal y
step 1: vertical translation
8 8
stretch
6 6
step 2: horizontal
step 2: horizontal reflection
reflection 4 4
2 y = 3 -(x - 1) 2
y= x
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 x -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 x
6
y = 3 -(x - 1)
4
2
y= x
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10x
__
The function y = √x is reflected horizontally, stretched vertically
by a factor of 3, and then translated 1 unit right. So, the graph of
_________
y = 3 √-(x - 1) extends to the left from x = 1 and its domain is
{x | x ≤ 1, x ∈ R}.
Since the function is_________
not reflected vertically or translated vertically,
the graph of y = 3 √-(x - 1) extends up from y = 0, similar to the
__
graph of y = √x . The range, {y | y ≥ 0, y ∈ R}, is unchanged by the
transformations.
___ ________
b) Express the function y - 3 = - √2x in the form y = a √b(x - h) + k to
identify the ___
value of each parameter.
2x
y - 3 = - √___
y = - √2x + 3
• b = 2 results in horizontal stretch by a factor of _1 (step 1).
2
• a = -1 results in a reflection in the x-axis (step 2).
• h = 0, so the graph is not translated horizontally.
• k = 3 results in a vertical translation of 3 units up (step 3).
__
Apply these transformations either directly to the graph of y = √ x or
to key points, and then sketch the transformed graph.
66 MHR • Chapter 2
Method 1: Transform the Graph Directly
__
Use a sketch of y = √x and apply the transformations to the curve one
at a time.
y y
step 1: horizontal stretch
4 4
step 3: vertical translation
2 2
y= x y = - 2x + 3
0 2 4 6 8 10x 0 2 4 6 8 10x
-2 -2
-4 -4
step 2: vertical reflection step 2: vertical reflection
__
Choose key points on the graph of y = √x and use the general
1 x, -y + 3 to determine their image
mapping notation (x, y) → _
2 ___
( )
points on the function y - 3 = - √2x .
(0, 0) → (0, 3)
(1, 1) → (0.5, 2)
(4, 2) → (2, 1)
(9, 3) → (4.5, 0)
y
4
y= x
2
0 2 4 6 8 10x
-2 y = - 2x + 3
Example 3
Determine a Radical Function From a Graph
Mayleen is designing a symmetrical pattern. She sketches the curve
shown and wants to determine its equation and the equation of
its reflection in each quadrant. The graph is a transformation of
__
the graph of y = √x . What are the equations of the four functions
Mayleen needs to work with?
y
0 2 4 6 x
Solution
__
The base function y = √x is not reflected or translated, but it is stretched.
A radical function that involves a stretch can be obtained from either a
vertical stretch or___
a horizontal stretch. Use an equation of the form
__
√
y = a x or y = bx to represent the image function for each type of stretch.
√
68 MHR • Chapter 2
Method 2: Substitute Coordinates of a Point
Use the coordinates of one point on the function, such as (1, 2), to
determine the stretch factor.
__ ___
Represent the function in simplest form by y = 2 √x or by y = √4x .
__
Determine the equations of the reflected curves using y = 2 √x .
___
• A reflection in the y-axis results in the function y = 2 √-x ,
since b = -1.
__
• A reflection in the x-axis results in y = -2 √x , since a = -1.
Reflecting these graphs into the third quadrant Are the restrictions
___ on the domain in each
results in the function y = -2 √-x .
function consistent
__
Mayleen needs to use the equations y = 2 √x , with the quadrant in
___ __ ___ which the curve lies?
y = 2 √-x , y = -2 √x , and y = -2___
√-x . Similarly,
_____
she could
___
use the equations
_____
y = √4x , y = √-4x ,
y = - √4x , and y = - √-4x .
Your Turn
a) Determine two forms of the equation for the function shown.
__
The function is a transformation of the function y = √x .
b) Show algebraically that the two equations are equivalent.
c) What is the equation of the curve reflected in each quadrant?
y
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 x
Solution
a) Use the following inequality to determine the domain:
radicand ≥0
1 + __T ≥0
273.15
__T ≥ -1
273.15
T ≥ -273.15
The domain is {T | T ≥ -273.15, T ∈ R}. This means that the
temperature must be greater than or equal to -273.15 °C, which is
the lowest temperature possible and is referred to as absolute zero.
The range is {s | s ≥ 0, s ∈ R}, which means that the speed of sound is
a non-negative value.
b) Rewrite the function from the textbook in simplest form.
___________
T
√
s = 331.3 1 + __
273.15
_________________
273.15 + __ T
√
s = 331.3 __
273.15
___________273.15
273.15 + T
√
s = 331.3 ___
273.15
___________
√273.15 +T
s = 331.3 ___ _______
√273.15
________
How could you verify that these expressions
s ≈ 20 √T + 273
are approximately equivalent?
________
The function found on the Internet, s = 20 √T + 273 , is the
approximate simplest form of the function in the textbook.
70 MHR • Chapter 2
c) Analyse the transformations and determine the order in which
they must be performed.
__
The graph of s = √T is stretched vertically by a Are these
factor of about 20 and then translated about transformations
consistent with the
273 units to the left. Translating 273 units to the left domain and range?
will be most noticeable on the graph of the function.
d)
Your Turn
A company estimates its cost of production using the function
__
C(n) = 20 √n + 1000, where C represents the cost, in dollars, to
produce n items.
a) Describe the transformations represented by this function as
__
compared to C = √n .
b) Graph the function using technology. What does the shape of
the graph imply about the situation?
c) Interpret the domain and range in this context.
d) Use the graph to determine the expected cost to produce 12 000 items.
D id Yo u Kn ow?
72 MHR • Chapter 2
4. Write the equation of the radical function 8. For an observer at a height of h feet above
that results by applying each set of the surface of Earth, the approximate
__
transformations to the graph of y = x.
√ distance, d, in miles, to the horizon can
a) vertical stretch by a factor of 4, then be modelled
______ using the radical function
horizontal translation of 6 units left d = √1.50h .
1
b) horizontal stretch by a factor of _ , then
8
vertical translation of 5 units down
c) horizontal reflection in the y-axis, then
horizontal translation of 4 units right
and vertical translation of 11 units up
d) vertical stretch by a factor of 0.25,
vertical reflection in the x-axis, and
horizontal stretch by a factor of 10
5. Sketch the graph of each function using
transformations. State the domain and
range of each function.
___
a) f(x) = √ -x - 3
______
b) r(x) = 3 √x + 1
______
c) p(x) = - √x - 2
__________
d) y - 1 = - √-4(x - 2) a) Use the language of transformations to
___
describe how to obtain the graph from
e) m(x) = √_12 x + 4 the base square root graph.
_________
1
f) y + 1 = _ √-(x + 2) b) Determine an approximate equivalent
3 __
function of the form d = a √h for the
Apply function. Which form of the function do
1 ___ you prefer, and why?
6. Consider the function f(x) = _ √5x .
4
c) A lifeguard on a tower is looking out
a) Identify the transformations represented
__ over the water with binoculars. How
by f(x) as compared to y = x.
√
far can she see if her eyes are 20 ft
b) Write two functions equivalent to f (x): above the level of the water? Express
__
one of the form y ___
= a √x and the other your answer to the nearest tenth of
√
of the form y = bx a mile.
___
c) Identify the transformation(s) 9. The function 4 - y = √3x is translated
represented by each function you wrote 9 units up and reflected in the x-axis.
in part b). a) Without graphing, determine the
d) Use transformations to graph all three domain and range of the image
functions. How do the graphs compare? function.
7. a) Express the radius of a circle as a b) Compared to the base function,
__
function of its area. y = √x , by how many units and
b) Create a table of values and a graph in which direction has the given
to illustrate the relationship that this function been translated horizontally?
radical function represents. vertically?
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
d) y
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
-4
-6
-8
D i d You K n ow ?
74 MHR • Chapter 2
13. A manufacturer wants to predict the 15. While meeting with a client, a
consumer interest in a new smart manufacturer of custom greenhouses
phone. The ____
company uses the function sketches a greenhouse in the
P(d) = -2 √-d + 20 to model the number, shape of the graph of a radical
P, in millions, of pre-orders for the phone function. What equation could the
as a function of the number, d, of days manufacturer use to represent the
before the phone’s release date. shape of the greenhouse roof?
a) What are the domain and range and
what do they mean in this situation?
b) Identify the transformations represented
__
by the function as compared to y = √d .
c) Graph the function and explain what
the shape of the graph indicates about
the situation. 4.8
76 MHR • Chapter 2
Extend Step 1 Create an isosceles right triangle with
__
19. The inverse of f(x) = √ x is legs that are each 1 cm long. Mark
f -1(x) = x2, x ≥ 0. one end of the hypotenuse as point C.
a) Graph both functions, and use them
What is the length of the hypotenuse,
to explain why the restriction is expressed as a radical?
necessary on the domain of the Step 2 Use the hypotenuse of the first triangle
inverse function. as one leg of a new right triangle.
b) Determine the equation, including
Draw a length of 1 cm as the other leg,
any restrictions, of the inverse of each opposite point C. What is the length of
of the following functions. the hypotenuse of this second triangle,
______ expressed as a radical?
i) g(x) = - √x - 5
___ Step 3 Continue to create right triangles,
ii) h(x) = -x + 3
√
_______ each time using the hypotenuse of the
iii) j(x) = √2x - 7
-6 previous triangle as a leg of the next
______
5 7 triangle, and a length of 1 cm as the
√
20. If f(x) = _ - _ x and
8 12
________ other leg (drawn so that the 1-cm leg is
2
_
g(x) = - √6(x + 3) - 4, what
5 opposite point C). Continue the spiral
transformations could you apply to until you would overlap the initial
the graph of f(x) to create the graph base.
of g(x)? 1 cm
1 cm
Create Connections
________
C1 Which parameters in y = a √b(x - h) + k 1 cm
__
affect the domain of y = √x ? Which
parameters affect the range? Explain, 1 cm
The Pythagorean theorem is often applied by engineers. They use right We b Link
triangles in the design of large domes, bridges, and other structures because
For more information
inform
the triangle is a strong support unit. For example, a truss bridge consists of about how triangles
triangular units of steel beams connected together to support the bridge deck. are fundamental
to the design of
You are already familiar with the square root operation (and its effect domes, go to www.
on given values) in the Pythagorean theorem. How does the square root mcgrawhill.ca/school/
operation affect the graph of the function? If you are given the graph of a learningcentres and
follow the links.
function, what does the graph of the square root of that function look like?
____
Investigate Related Functions: y = f (x) and y = √f (x)
78 MHR • Chapter 2
2. a) Write an equation for the length of v as a function of h. Graph the
function using an appropriate domain for the situation.
b) Compare the measured values for side v in the triangles you drew
to the calculated values of v from your graph.
3. a) Draw a square on side v of each triangle. Let the area of this
square be A, and write an equation for A as a function of h.
b) Graph the area function.
____
You can determine how two functions, y = f (x) and y = √f(x) , are
related by comparing how the values of y are calculated:
• For y = 2x + 1, multiply x by 2 and add 1.
_______
• For y = √2x + 1 , multiply x by 2, add 1, and take the square root.
The two functions start with the same two operations, but the function
_______
y = √2x + 1 has the additional step of taking the square root. For any
_______
value of x, the resulting value of y for y = 2x + 1 is the square root of
√
the value of y for y = 2x + 1, as shown in the table.
_______
x y = 2x + 1 y = √2x + 1
0 1 1
4 9 3
12 25 5
24 49 7
_______
square root The function y = √2x + 1 represents the square root of the function
of a function y = 2x + 1.
____
• the function y = √f (x)
is the square root of
the function y = f (x) Example 1
____
• y = √f (x) is only
defined for f (x) ≥ 0 Compare Graphs of a Linear Function and the Square Root of the
Function
____
a) Given f(x) = 3 - 2x, graph the functions y = f (x) and y = √f(x) .
b) Compare the two functions.
Solution
_______
a) Use a table of values to graph y = 3 - 2x and y = √3 - 2x .
______
x y = 3 – 2x y = √3 – 2x
__
–2 7 √7
__
–1 5 √5
__
0 3 √3
1 1 1
1.5 0 0
y
6
4
y = 3 - 2x
2
y = 3 - 2x
-2 -1 0 1 2 x
80 MHR • Chapter 2
b) Compare the graphs.
y
7
Why is____
the graph of
y = √f (x) above the graph
6
of y = f (x) for values of y
Invariant points occur when between 0 and 1? Will this
5 f(x) = 0 or f(x) = 1,
y = f(x) always be true?
because at these values
4 f(x) = f(x) .
2
y = f(x)
1
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5x
For y = f(x),
____
the domain is {x | x ∈ R} and the range is {y | y ∈ R}.
For y = √f(x) , the domain is {x | x ≤ 1.5, x ∈ R} and the range
is {y | y ≥ 0, y ∈ R}. How does the domain
____ of the
graph of y = √f (x) relate to
Invariant points occur at (1, 1) and (1.5, 0). the restrictions on the variable
in the radicand? How could
you determine the domain
algebraically?
Your Turn
____
a) Given g(x) = 3x + 6, graph the functions y = g(x) and y = √g(x) .
b) Identify the domain and range of each function and any
invariant points.
____
Relative Locations of y = f(x) and y = √f(x)
____
The domain of y = √f(x) consists only of the values in the domain of f (x)
for which f (x) ≥ 0.
____
The range of y = √f(x) consists of the square roots of the values in the
____
range of y = f(x) for which √f(x) is defined.
____
The graph of y = √f(x) exists only where f(x) ≥ 0. You can predict the
____
location of y = √f(x) relative to y = f(x) using the values of f (x).
Value of f(x) f(x) < 0 f(x) = 0 0 < f (x) < 1 f (x) = 1 f (x) > 1
Relative The graph of The graphs The graph The graph The graph
____ ____ ____ ____ ____
Location of y = √f(x) is of y = √f(x) of y = √f (x) of y = √f (x) of y = √f (x)
Graph____
of undefined. and is above the intersects is below the
y = √f(x) y = f(x) graph of the graph of graph of
intersect on y = f (x). y = f (x). y = f (x).
the x-axis.
Solution
a) Method 1: Analyse Graphically
y = 2 - 0.5x2 is a quadratic function, its
Since the function_________
root, y = √2 - 0.5x2 , cannot be expressed in the form
square ________
__
y = a √b(x - h) + k. It cannot be graphed by transforming y = √ x.
Both graphs can be created using technology. Use the maximum and
minimum or equivalent features to find the coordinates of points
necessary to determine the domain and range.
82 MHR • Chapter 2
Quadratic functions are defined for all real numbers. So, the domain
of y = 2 - 0.5x2 is {x | x ∈ R}. Since the maximum value is 2, the
range of y = 2 - 0.5x2 is {y | y ≤ 2, y ∈ R}.
_________
The locations of the x-intercepts of y = √2 - 0.5x2 mean that
the function is defined for -2 ≤ x ≤_________
2. So, the domain is
{x | -2 ≤ x ≤ 2, x ∈ R}. Since__y = √2 - 0.5x2 has a minimum__
value of
0 and a maximum value of √2 , the range is {y | 0 ≤ y ≤ √2 , y ∈ R}.
Both functions extend infinitely to the left and the right, so the
domain of each function is {x | x ∈ R}.
The range of y = x2 + 5 is {y | y ≥ 5, y ∈ R}.
______
The range of y = √x2 + 5 is approximately {y | y ≥ 2.24, y ∈ R}.
Quadratic functions are defined for all real numbers. So, the domain
of y = x2 + 5 is {x | x ∈ R}. Since the minimum value is 5, the range
of y = x2 + 5 is {y | y ≥ 5, y ∈ R}.
______
Since y = √x2 + 5 has no x-intercepts, the function is defined for
______
all real numbers. So, the domain is {x | x ∈ R}. Since y = √x2 + 5
__
has a minimum
__
value of √5 and no maximum value, the range is
{y | y ≥ √5 , y ∈ R}.
Your Turn
Identify and compare the domains and ranges of the functions y = x2 - 1
______
and y = √x2 - 1 . Verify your answers.
2
-6 -4 -2 0 2 x
-2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
Solution
Sketch each graph by locating key points, including invariant points,
and determining the image points on the graph of the square root of the
function.
Step 1: Locate invariant points on y = f(x) What is significant about
and y = g(x). When graphing the square root y = 0 and y = 1? Does this
apply to all graphs of functions
of a function, invariant points occur at y = 0 and their square roots? Why?
and y = 1.
Step 2: Draw the portion of each graph between the invariant points for
values of y = f(x) and y = g(x) that are positive but less than 1. Sketch a
smooth curve above those of y = f(x) and y = g(x) in these intervals.
y y
y = f(x)
4 6
y = g(x)
2 4
y = f(x)
2
-6 -4 -2 0 2 x
y = g(x)
-2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
Step 3: Locate other key points on y = f(x) and y = g(x) where the values
are greater than ____
1. Transform these
____
points to locate image points on the
graphs of y = √f(x) and y = √g(x) .
y y
y = f(x)
4 6
y = g(x)
2 4
y = f(x) How can a value of y be
2 mapped to a point on the
-6 -4 -2 0 2 x square root of the function?
y = g(x)
-2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
84 MHR • Chapter 2
Step 4: Sketch smooth curves between the image points; they will be
below those of y = f(x)
____
and y = g(x)____
in the remaining intervals. Recall
that graphs of y = √f(x) and y = √g(x) do not exist in intervals where
y = f (x) and y = g(x) are negative (below the x-axis).
y y
y = f(x) Where is the square root of
4 6
a function above the original
y = g(x) function? Where is it below?
2 4
y = f(x) Where are they equal? Where
2 are the endpoints on a graph
-6 -4 -2 0 2 x of the square root of a
y = g(x)
-2 function? Why?
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
Your Turn
____
Using the graph of y = h(x), sketch the graph of y = √h(x) .
y
2
y = h(x)
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
Key Ideas
____
You can use values of f(x)____
to predict values of √f(x) and to
sketch the graph of y = √f(x) .
The key values to consider are f (x) = 0 and f(x) = 1. What do you know ____
about
____ the graph of y = √f (x) at
The domain of y = √f(x) consists of all values in the domain f (x) = 0 and f(x) = 1? How
of f(x) for which f(x) ≥ 0. graphs of y = f (x) and
do the____
____ y = √f (x) compare on either
The range of y = √f(x) consists of the square roots of all side of these locations?
values in the range of f(x) for which f(x) is defined.
____
The y-coordinates of the points on the graph of y = √f(x ) are the square roots of the
y-coordinates of the corresponding points on the original function y = f(x).
Practise c) y
1. Copy and complete the table. 8
____
f (x) √f (x) 6
36
4
0.03 y = f(x)
1 2
-9
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
1.6
0 d) y
2. For each point on the graph of y = f(x),
8
does a____
corresponding point on the graph of y = f(x)
6 2
4
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
y = f(x)
2
B y y = f(x)
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
2
-2
-4 -4 -2 0 2 4 x
b) y C y
4 4
y = f(x)
y = f(x)
2 2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x -4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
-4 D y
y = f(x)
2
-6
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
86 MHR • Chapter 2
4. a) Given f(x) = 4 - x,____
graph the functions c) y
y = f(x) and y = √f(x) . 6
b) Compare the two functions and explain y = f(x)
4
how their values are related.
c) Identify the domain and range of each 2
b) y
y = f(x) -2 0 2 4 6 x
4
-2
2 ____
a) Sketch the graph of y = √f(x) , and
explain the strategy you used.
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2 b) State the domain and range of each
function, and explain how the domains
and the ranges are related.
d
a) For an iglu with diameter 3.6 m, determine
a function that gives the vertical height,
v, in metres, in terms of the horizontal
h distance, h, in metres, from the centre.
b) What are the domain and range of this
function, and how are they related to
the situation?
c) What is the height of this iglu at a point
a) If Earth’s radius is assumed to be 1 m in from the bottom edge of the wall?
6378 km, determine the equation for
the distance, d, in kilometres, to the D i d You K n ow ?
horizon for an object that is at a height An iglu is actually built in a spiral from blocks cut
of h kilometres above Earth’s surface. from inside the iglu floor space. Half the floor space
is left as a bed platform in large iglus. This traps cold
b) Identify the domain and range of the air below the sleeping area.
function.
c) How can you use a graph of the
function to find the distance to the
horizon for a satellite that is 800 km
above Earth’s surface?
d) If the function from part a) were just an
arbitrary mathematical function rather
than in this context, would the domain
or range be any different? Explain.
13. a) When determining whether the graph
shown represents a function or the 15. MINI LAB Investigate how the constants
square root of the function, Chris in radical functions affect their graphs,
states, “it must be the function y = f(x) domains, and ranges.
_______
because the domain consists of negative Step 1 Graph the function y = √a2 - x2 for
values,____
and the square root of a function various values of a. If you use graphing
y = √f(x) is not defined for negative software, you may be able to create
values.” sliders that allow you to vary the value
Do you agree with Chris’s answer? Why? of a and dynamically see the resulting
y
changes in the graph.
Step 2 Describe how the value of a affects the
4
graph of the function and its domain
y = f(x)
2 and range.
Step 3 Choose one value of a and write an
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
equation for the reflection of this
-2 function in the x-axis. Graph both
functions and describe the graph.
b) Describe how you would determine Step 4 Repeat_______
steps 1 to 3 for the function
whether a graph shows the function or y = √a2 + x2 as well as another square
the square root of the function. root of a function involving x2.
88 MHR • Chapter 2
Extend 19. Develop a formula for radius as a function
16. If (-24, 12) is a point on the graph of the of surface area for
function y = f(x), identify one point on the a) a cylinder with equal diameter and height
graph of each of the following functions. b) a cone with height three times its
_________
a) y = √4f(x + 3) diameter
_____
b) y = - √f(4x) + 12
_______________ Create Connections
c) y = -2 √f(-(x - 2)) - 4 + 6
C1 Write a summary of your strategy for
17. Given the graph of the function y = f (x), ____
sketch the graph of each function. graphing the function y = √f(x) if you are
given only the graph of y = f (x).
y
C2 Explain how the relationship between
6 the two equations y = 16 - 4x and
________
4
y = √16 - 4x is connected to the
relationship between their graphs.
y = f(x)
2
C3 Is it possible to completely graph the
function y = f(x) given only the graph of
____
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
y = √f(x) ? Discuss this with a classmate
-2 and share several examples that you create.
____ Write a summary of your conclusions.
a) y = 2 √f(x) - 3
_________ C4 a) Given f (x) = (x - 1)2 - 4, graph
____
the
b) y = - √2f(x - 3)
___________ functions y = f(x) and y = √f(x) .
c) y = √-f(2x) + 3
___________ b) Compare the two functions and explain
d) y = √2f(-x) - 3 how their values are related using
18. Explain your strategy for completing #17b). several points on each graph.
• What radical functions are represented by the curves drawn on each image?
y
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 x
-2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 x
-2
______
Materials The radical equation √x - 4 = 5 can be solved in several ways.
• graphing calculator or 1. a) Discuss with a classmate how you might solve the equation
graphing software
graphically. Could you use more than one graphical method?
b) Write step-by-step instructions that explain how to use your
method(s) to determine the solution to the radical equation.
c) Use your graphical method(s) to solve the equation.
2. a) Describe one method of solving the equation algebraically.
b) Use this method to determine the solution.
c) How might you verify your solution algebraically?
d) Share your method and solution with those of another pair
and discuss any similarities and differences.
90 MHR • Chapter 2
Link the Ideas
Example 1
Relate Roots and x-Intercepts
______
a) Determine the root(s) of √x + 5 - 3 = 0 algebraically.
b) Using ______
a graph, determine the x-intercept(s) of the graph of
y = √x + 5 - 3.
c) Describe the connection between the root(s) of the equation
and the x-intercept(s) of the graph of the function.
Solution
a) Identify any restrictions on the variable in the radical.
x+5≥0
x ≥ -5
To______
solve a radical equation algebraically, first isolate the radical.
√x + 5 - 3 = 0
______
√x + 5 = 3
______
( √x + 5 )2 = 32 Why do you need to square both sides?
x+5=9
Is this an extraneous root? Does it meet the
x=4 restrictions on the variable in the square root?
The value x = 4 is the root or solution to the equation.
c) The value x = 4 is the zero of the function because the value of the
function is 0 when x = 4. The roots to a radical equation are equal to
the x-intercepts of the graph of the corresponding radical function.
Your Turn
______
a) Use a graph to locate the x-intercept(s) of the graph of______
y = √x + 2 - 4.
b) Algebraically determine the root(s) of the equation √x + 2 - 4 = 0.
c) Describe the relationship between your findings in parts a) and b).
Solution
______
√x + 5
= x+3
______
( √x + 5 )2
= (x + 3)2
x+5= x2 + 6x + 9
0= x2 + 5x + 4
0= (x + 4)(x + 1)
x+4=0 or x + 1 = 0
x = -4 x = -1
Check:
Substitute x = -4 and x = -1 into the original equation to identify
any extraneous roots. Why do extraneous roots occur?
Left______
Side Right Side Left______
Side Right Side
√x + 5 x+3 √x + 5 x+3
_______ _______
-4 + 5
= √__ = -4 + 3 -1 + 5
= √__ = -1 + 3
= √1 = -1 = √4 =2
=1 =2
Left Side ≠ Right Side Left Side = Right Side
The solution is x = -1.
Solve the equation graphically using functions to represent the
two sides of the equation.
______
y1 = √x + 5
y2 = x + 3
y
4
(-1, 2)
2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
The two functions intersect at the point (-1, 2). The value of x at this
point, x = -1, is the solution to the equation.
Your Turn
______
Solve the equation 4 - x = √6 - x graphically and algebraically.
92 MHR • Chapter 2
Example 3
Approximate Solutions to Radical Equations
_______
a) Solve the equation √3x2 - 5 = x + 4 graphically. Express your
answer to the nearest tenth.
b) Verify your solution algebraically.
Solution
a) To determine the roots or solutions to an equation of the form
f(x) = g(x), identify the x-intercepts of the graph of the corresponding
function, y = f(x) - g(x).
The values of the x-intercepts of the graph are the same as the
solutions to the original equation. Therefore, the solution is
x ≈ -1.8 and x ≈ 5.8.
_______
The solution to the equation √3x2 - 5 = x + 4 is
x ≈ -1.8 and x ≈ 5.8.
Your Turn
_________
Solve the equation x + 3 = √12 - 2x2 using two different methods.
94 MHR • Chapter 2
Example 4
Solve a Problem Involving a Radical Equation
An engineer designs a roller D i d You K n ow?
coaster that involves a vertical drop
Top Thrill Dragster
section just below the top of the is a vertical
ride. She uses the equation
___________ drop-launched roller
v = √(v0)2 + 2ad to model the coaster in Cedar Point
amusement park, in
velocity, v, in feet per second, of Sandusky, Ohio. When
the ride’s cars after dropping a it opened in 2003, it
distance, d, in feet, with an initial set three new records
for roller coasters:
velocity, v0, in feet per second, at tallest, fastest top
the top of the drop, and constant speed, and steepest
acceleration, a, in feet per second drop. It stands almost
130 m tall, and on a
squared. The design specifies that
clear day riders at the
the speed of the ride’s cars be top can see Canada’s
120 ft/s at the bottom of the vertical Pelee Island across
drop section. If the initial velocity Lake Erie.
Solution
Substitute the known values into the formula. Then, graph the functions We b Link
that correspond to both sides of the equation and determine the point
To see
ee a computer
comput
of intersection. animation of Top Thrill
___________
Dragster, go to www.
v = √(v0)2 + 2ad mcgrawhill.ca/school/
______________
(10)2 + 2(32)d
120 = √__________ What two functions do learningcentres and
you need to graph? follow the links.
120 = √100 + 64d
The intersection point indicates
that the drop distance should be
approximately 223 ft to result in a
velocity of 120 ft/s at the bottom of
the drop.
Your Turn
Determine the initial velocity required in a roller coaster design if
the velocity will be 26 m/s at the bottom of a vertical drop of 34 m.
(Acceleration due to gravity in SI units is 9.8 m/s2.)
96 MHR • Chapter 2
6. Solve each equation algebraically. What are 11. The period, T, in seconds, of a pendulum
the restrictions on the variables? depends on the distance, L, in metres,
_________
2
a) √5x + 11 = x + 5 between the pivot and the pendulum’s
_______ centre of mass. If the initial swing angle
b) x + 3 = √2x2 - 7
_________ is relatively small, the period__is given by
c) √13 - 4x2 = 2 - x L , where
_________
d) x + √-2x2 + 9 = 3
the radical function T = 2π _ g √
g represents acceleration due to gravity
7. Solve each equation algebraically and
(approximately 9.8 m/s² on Earth). Jeremy
graphically. Identify any restrictions on
is building a machine and needs it to have
the variables.
______ a pendulum that takes 1 s to swing from
a) √8 - x = x + 6 one side to the other. How long should the
______
b) 4 = x + 2 √x - 7 pendulum be, in centimetres?
_________
c) √3x2 - 11 = x + 1 12. Cables and ropes are made of several
_______
2
d) x = √2x - 8 + 2 strands that contain individual wires or
threads. The term “7 × 19 cable” refers
Apply to a cable with 7 strands, each containing
8. Determine, graphically, the approximate 19 wires.
value(s) of a in each formula if b = 6.2, Suppose
___
a manufacturer uses the function
c = 9.7, and d = -12.9. Express answers to b to relate the diameter, d, in
the nearest hundredth.
d= _ √30
_______ millimetres, of its 7 × 19 stainless steel
a) c = √ab - d
______ aircraft cable to the safe working load, b,
b) d + 7 √a + c = b in kilograms.
______
c) c = b - √a2 + d
_______
d) √2a2 + c + d = a - b
9. Naomi______
says that the equation
6 + √x + 4 = 2 has no solutions.
a) Show that Naomi is correct, using both
a graphical and an algebraic approach.
b) Is it possible to tell that this equation
a) Is a cable with a diameter of 6.4 mm
has no solutions just by examining the
large enough to support a mass of
equation? Explain.
1000 kg?
10. Two researchers, Greg and Yolanda, use the
_ b) What is the safe working load for a
function N(t) = 1.3 √t + 4.2 to model the
cable that is 10 mm in diameter?
number of people that might be affected
by a certain medical condition in a region D i d You K n ow ?
of 7.4 million people. In the function,
The safe working load for a cable or rope is related
N represents the number of people, in to its breaking strength, or minimum mass required
millions, affected after t years. Greg for it to break. To ensure safety, manufacturers rate
predicts that the entire population would a cable’s safe working load to be much less than its
actual breaking strength.
be affected after 6 years. Yolanda believes
that it would take only 1.5 years. Who is __
correct? Justify your answer. 13. Hazeem states that the equations √x2 = 9
__
and ( √x )2 = 9 have the same solution. Is
he correct? Justify your answer.
98 MHR • Chapter 2
Chapter 2 Review
2.1 Radical Functions and Transformations, 6. The sales, S, in units, of a new product can
pages 62—77 be modelled as a function of the time, t, in
days, since it first appears in stores
_
using
1. Graph each function. Identify the domain
the function S(t) = 500 + 100 √t .
and range, and explain how they connect
to the values in a table of values and the a) Describe how to graph the function
_
by
shape of the graph. transforming the graph of y = √t .
__ b) Graph the function and explain what
a) y = √x
______ the shape of the graph indicates about
b) y = √3 - x
_______ the situation.
c) y = √2x + 7
c) What are the domain and range? What
2. What transformations can you apply do they mean in this situation?
__
to y = √x to obtain the graph of each
d) Predict the number of items sold after
function? State the domain and range
60 days.
in each case.
_______ 7. Write an equation of the form
a) y = 5 √x + 20 ________
_____ y = a √b(x - h) + k for each graph.
b) y = √-2x - 8
__________ a) y
1
√6
c) y = - _ (x - 11) 4
y -4
16
12 b) y
y = f(x) 4
8
2
4
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-8 -4 0 4 8 12x
-2
-4
____
a) Graph the function y = √f(x) and
describe your strategy. c) y
b) Explain how the graphs are related. 4
c) Identify the domain and range of each
y = f(x) 2
function and explain any differences.
10. Identify and compare the domains and -4 -2 0 2 4 x
ranges of the functions in each pair, and
-2
explain why they differ.
______
a) y = 4 - x2 and y = √4 - x2 -4
_________
b) y = 2x2 + 24 and y = √2x2 + 24
_______
c) y = x2 - 6x and y = √x2 - 6x
2.3 Solving Radical Equations Graphically,
11. A 25-ft-long ladder leans against a wall.
The height, h, in feet, of the top of the pages 90—98
ladder above the ground is related to 13. a) Determine the root(s) of the
______
its distance, d, in feet, from the base of equation √x + 3 - 7 = 0 algebraically.
the wall. b) Use a graph to locate the______
x-intercept(s)
a) Write an equation to represent h as a of the function f(x) = √x + 3 - 7.
function of d. c) Use your answers to describe the
b) Graph the function and identify the connection between the x-intercepts of
domain and range. the graph of a function and the roots of
c) Explain how the shape of the graph, the corresponding equation.
the domain, and the range relate to the
situation.
D id Yo u K n ow ?
{y | y ≥ 0, y ∈ R}? 8
______
A f(x) = √x - 5
__ 6
B f(x) = √x-5
______ 4
C f(x) = √x + 5
__
D f(x) = √x+5 2
__
4. If y =√x is stretched horizontally by a
Extended Response
14. a) How can you use transformations
___
to
graph the function y = - √2x + 3?
Canadian Islamic Centre (Al-Rashid),
b) Sketch the graph.
Edmonton, Alberta
c) Identify the domain and range of the
a) Determine a function of the form
function. ________
y = a √b(x - h) + k, where y
d) Describe how the domain and range
represents the distance from the
connect to your answer to part a). base to the roof and x represents the
e) How can the graph
___
be used to solve the horizontal distance from the centre.
equation 5 + √2x = 8? b) What are the domain and range of
15. Using the graph of ____
y = f(x), sketch this function? How do they relate to
the graph of y = √f(x) and explain the situation?
your strategy. c) Use the function you wrote in part
y a) to determine, graphically, the
6 approximate height of the roof at
y = f(x)
a point 2 m horizontally from the
4 centre of the roof.
2
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
-2
-4
3 Polynomial
Functions
Polynomial functions can be used to model
different real-world applications, from
business profit and demand to construction
and fabrication design. Many calculators use
polynomial approximations to compute function
key calculations. For example, the first four
terms of the Taylor polynomial approximation
for the square root function are
__ 1 1 1
√x ≈ 1 + _ (x - 1) - _ (x - 1)2 + _ (x - 1)3.
2 8 16
___
Try calculating √1.2 using this expression. How
close is your answer to the one the square root
key on a calculator gives you?
Did Yo u Know ?
Key Terms
polynomial function factor theorem
end behaviour integral zero theorem
synthetic division multiplicity (of a zero)
remainder theorem
We b Link
To learn
earn more about
a a career in the
field of computer engineering, go to
www.mcgrawhill.ca/school/learningcentres
and follow the links.
A cross-section of a honeycomb
has a pattern with one hexagon surrounded
by six more hexagons. Surrounding these is
a third ring of 12 hexagons, and so on. The
quadratic function f (r) models the total
number of hexagons in a honeycomb, where r D i d You K n ow ?
is the number of rings. Then, you can use the
Falher, Alberta is known as the
graph of the function to solve questions about “Honey Capital of Canada.” The
the honeycomb pattern. Falher Honey Festival is an
annual event that celebrates
A quadratic function that models this pattern beekeeping and francophone
will be discussed later in this section. history in the region.
2. Compare the graphs within each set from step 1. Describe their
similarities and differences in terms of
end behaviour • end behaviour
• the behaviour of the • degree of the function in one variable, x Recall that the degree
y-values of a function • constant term of a polynomial is the
as |x| becomes very greatest exponent of x.
• leading coefficient
large
• number of x-intercepts
Solution
__
a) The function g(x) = x + 5 is a radical function, not a
√
polynomial function.
__ 1
_
√x is the same as x 2 , which has an exponent that is not a whole
number.
Your Turn
Identify whether each function is a polynomial function. Justify your
answer. State the degree, the leading coefficient, and the constant
term of each polynomial function.
1
a) h(x) = _
x
b) y = 3x2 - 2x5 + 4
c) y = -4x 4 - 4x + 3
1
_
d) y = x 2 - 7
2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x -4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2 -2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x f(x) = 2x2 - 3
-2 -4 -4
-4 -2 0 2 4 x -4 -2 0 2 4 x
4
-2 -2
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
-4 -4
f(x) = x3 + 2x2 - x - 2 -4
-6 -6
-8
-8 -8
f(x) = x4 + 5x3 + 5x2 - 5x - 6 -12
A B
C D
Solution
a) The function g(x) = -x 4 + 10x2 + 5x - 4 is a quartic (degree 4),
which is an even-degree polynomial function. Its graph has a
maximum of four x-intercepts. Since the leading coefficient is
negative, the graph of the function opens downward, extending down
into quadrant III and down into quadrant IV (similar to y = -x2), and
has a maximum value. The graph has a y-intercept of a0 = -4. This
function corresponds to graph D.
Your Turn
a) Describe the end behaviour of the graph of the function
f(x) = -x3 - 3x2 + 2x + 1. State the possible number of
x-intercepts, the y-intercept, and whether the graph has a
maximum or minimum value.
b) Which of the following is the graph of the function?
A B
C D
Solution
a) Method 1: Graph the Polynomial Function
Use a graphing calculator or computer with graphing software
to graph the polynomial function. Then, use the trace feature to
determine the value of V that corresponds to w = 1.
b) The least volume occurs when the width of the door What is the domain
is 0 m. This is the y-intercept of the graph of the of the function in
this situation?
function and is the constant term of the function, 72.
The least volume of the vault is 72 m3. This situation
is not realistic because the vault would not have a door.
Your Turn
A toaster oven is built in the shape of a rectangular prism. Its volume, V,
in cubic inches, is related to the height, h, in inches, of the oven door by
the function V(h) = h3 + 10h2 + 31h + 30.
a) What is the volume, in cubic inches, of the toaster oven if the oven
door height is 8 in.?
b) What is the height of the oven door for the least toaster oven volume?
Explain.
A polynomial function has the form f(x) = anxn + an - 1xn - 1 + an - 2xn - 2 + … + a2x2 + a1x + a0,
where an is the leading coefficient; a0 is the constant; and the degree of the polynomial, n,
is the exponent of the greatest power of the variable, x.
Graphs of odd-degree polynomial functions have the following characteristics:
a graph that extends down into a graph that extends up into quadrant
quadrant III and up into quadrant I II and down into quadrant IV (similar
(similar to the graph of y = x) when to the graph of y = -x) when the
the leading coefficient is positive leading coefficient is negative
y y
4 4
y = x3 + 2x2 - x - 2
y=x y = -x
2 2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x -4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2 -2
-4 -4
y = -x3 + 2x2 + 4x - 3
a y-intercept that corresponds to the constant term of the function
at least one x-intercept and up to a maximum of n x-intercepts,
where n is the degree of the function
a domain of {x | x ∈ R} and a range of {y | y ∈ R}
no maximum or minimum points
Graphs of even-degree polynomial functions have the following characteristics:
a graph that extends up into quadrant a graph that extends down into
II and up into quadrant I (similar to quadrant III and down into quadrant IV
the graph of y = x2) when the leading (similar to the graph of y = -x2) when
coefficient is positive the leading coefficient is negative
y y
4 4
y = x2 y = -x4 + 6x2 + x - 5
2 2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x -4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2 -2
-4 -4
-6 -6
y = -x2
-8 -8
y = x + 5x3 + 5x2 - 5x - 6
4
Practise b)
1. Identify whether each of the following is a
polynomial function. Justify your answers.
__
a) h(x) = 2 - √ x
b) y = 3x + 1
c) f(x) = 3x
d) g(x) = 3x 4 - 7
e) p(x) = x-3 + x2 + 3x
c)
f) y = -4x3 + 2x + 5
2. What are the degree, type, leading
coefficient, and constant term of each
polynomial function?
a) f(x) = -x + 3
b) y = 9x2
c) g(x) = 3x 4 + 3x2 - 2x + 1
d) k(x) = 4 - 3x3 d)
e) y = -2x5 - 2x3 + 9
f) h(x) = -6
3. For each of the following:
• determine whether the graph represents
an odd-degree or an even-degree
polynomial function
• determine whether the leading
coefficient of the corresponding function 4. Use the degree and the sign of the leading
is positive or negative coefficient of each function to describe the
• state the number of x-intercepts end behaviour of the corresponding graph.
• state the domain and range State the possible number of x-intercepts
and the value of the y-intercept.
a)
a) f(x) = x2 + 3x - 1
b) g(x) = -4x3 + 2x2 - x + 5
c) h(x) = -7x 4 + 2x3 - 3x2 + 6x + 4
d) q(x) = x5 - 3x2 + 9x
e) p(x) = 4 - 2x
f) v(x) = -x3 + 2x 4 - 4x2
D i d You K n ow ?
a) What are the key features of the graph b) Predict the relationship between the
of this function? graphs of y = x 4 and y = 3(x - 4)4 + 2.
b) What is the current population of this c) Verify the accuracy of your prediction
town? in part b) by graphing using technology.
c) What will the population of the town be 13. If a polynomial equation of degree n
10 years from now? has exactly one real root, what can
you conclude about the form of the
d) When will the population of the town
corresponding polynomial function?
be approximately 24 000?
Explain.
D id Yo u Know ?
Create Connections
A demographer uses statistics to study human
populations. Demographers study the size, structure, C1 Prepare a brief summary of the relationship
and distribution of populations in response to birth, between the degree of a polynomial
migration, aging, and death. function and the following features of the
corresponding graph:
• the number of x-intercepts
Extend • the maximum or minimum point
10. The volume, V, in cubic centimetres, of • the domain and range
a collection of open-topped boxes can be C2 a) State a possible equation for a
modelled by V(x) = 4x3 - 220x2 + 2800x, polynomial function whose graph
where x is the height, in centimetres, of extends
each box. i) from quadrant III to quadrant I
a) Use technology to graph V(x). State the
ii) from quadrant II to quadrant I
restrictions.
iii) from quadrant II to quadrant IV
b) Fully factor V(x). State the relationship
iv) from quadrant III to quadrant IV
between the factored form of the
equation and the graph. b) Compare your answers to those of a
classmate. Discuss what is similar and
11. a) Graph each pair of even-degree
different between your answers.
functions. What do you notice? Provide
an algebraic explanation for what C3 Describe to another student the similarities
you observe. and differences between the line y = x
• y = (-x)2 and y = x2 and polynomial functions with odd degree
• y = (-x)4 and y = x 4 greater than one. Use graphs to support
• y = (-x)6 and y = x6 your answer.
327 x2
x + 3
+
7x
17
+
24 x2 + 3x
87 4x + 17
84 4x + 12
3 5
For statements a) and b), identify the value or expression
that corresponds to
• the divisor
• the dividend
• the quotient
• the remainder
5. Compare the values of each remainder from the long division to the
value from substituting x = a into the dividend. What do you notice?
You can divide polynomials by other polynomials using the same long
division process that you use to divide numbers.
Example 1
Divide a Polynomial by a Binomial of the Form x - a
a) Divide the polynomial P(x) = 5x3 + 10x - 13x2 - 9 by x - 2. Express
P(x) R
the result in the form _ _
x - a = Q(x) + x - a .
b) Identify any restrictions on the variable.
c) Write the corresponding statement that can be used to check the division.
d) Verify your answer.
Solution
a) Write the polynomial in order of descending powers:
5x3 - 13x2 + 10x - 9
5x2 - 3x + 4 Divide 5x 3 by x to get 5x2.
5x3 - 13x2 + 10x - 9
x - 2
Multiply x - 2 by 5x2 to get 5x 3 - 10x2.
Subtract. Bring down the next term, 10x.
5x3 - 10x2
Then, divide -3x2 by x to get -3x.
-3x2 + 10x
Multiply x - 2 by -3x to get -3x2 + 6x.
-3x2 + 6x Subtract. Bring down the next term, -9.
4x - 9 Then, divide 4x by x to get 4.
4x - 8 Multiply x - 2 by 4 to get 4x - 8.
-1 Subtract. The remainder is -1.
3 2
5x + 10x - 13x - 9 -1
____
x-2 (
= 5x2 - 3x + 4 + __
x-2 )
b) Since division by zero is not defined, the divisor cannot be zero:
x - 2 ≠ 0 or x ≠ 2.
d) To check, multiply the divisor by the quotient and add the remainder.
(x - 2)(5x2 - 3x + 4) - 1 = 5x3 - 3x2 + 4x - 10x2 + 6x - 8 - 1
= 5x3 - 13x2 + 10x - 9
= 5x3 + 10x - 13x2 - 9
Example 2
Apply Polynomial Long Division to Solve a Problem
The volume, V, of the nested boxes in the introduction to this section,
in cubic centimetres, is given by V(x) = x3 + 7x2 + 14x + 8. What are
the possible dimensions of the boxes in terms of x if the height, h, in
centimetres, is x + 1?
Solution
Divide the volume of the box by the
height to obtain an expression for the
area of the base of the box: h=x +1
V(x)
_ = lw, where lw is the area of
h
the base.
l
x2 + 6x + 8
w
x3 + 7x2 + 14x + 8
x + 1
x3 + x2
6x2 + 14x
6x2 + 6x
8x + 8
8x + 8
0
Since the remainder is zero, the volume x3 + 7x2 + 14x + 8 can be
expressed as (x + 1)(x2 + 6x + 8). The quotient x2 + 6x + 8 represents
the area of the base. This expression can be factored as (x + 2)(x + 4).
The factors represent the possible width and length of the base of the box.
Expressions for the possible dimensions, in centimetres, are x + 1, x + 2,
and x + 4.
Your Turn
The volume of a rectangular prism is given
by V(x) = x3 + 3x2 - 36x + 32. Determine h
possible measures for w and h in terms of x
if the length, l, is x - 4.
l=x -4
w
+3 2 3 -4 15
-
×
Your Turn
x3 + 7x2 - 3x + 4
Use synthetic division to determine ____ .
x-2
Solution
a) Since the binomial is x + 4 = x - (-4), determine the remainder
by evaluating P(x) at x = -4, or P(-4).
P(x) = x3 - 10x + 6
P(-4) = (-4)3 - 10(-4) + 6
P(-4) = -64 + 40 + 6
P(-4) = -18
The remainder when x3 - 10x + 6 is divided by x + 4 is -18.
remainder
The remainder when using synthetic division is -18.
Your Turn
What is the remainder when 11x - 4x 4 - 7 is divided by x - 3? Verify
your answer using either long or synthetic division.
Key Ideas
Extend
a) What is the remainder when
14. When the polynomial mx3 - 3x2 + nx + 2
is divided by x + 3, the remainder is -1. 0.0003d2 + 2 is divided by d - 500?
When it is divided by x - 2, the remainder b) What is the remainder when
is -4. What are the values of m and n? 0.0003d2 + 2 is divided by d + 500?
15. When the polynomial 3x3 + ax2 + bx - 9 c) Compare your results from
is divided by x - 2, the remainder is -5. parts a) and b). Use the graph of the
When it is divided by x + 1, the remainder function h(d) = 0.0003d2 + 2 to explain
is -16. What are the values of a and b? your findings.
Port of Vancouver
Each year, more than 1 million intermodal containers
pass through the Port of Vancouver. The total volume of D i d You K n ow ?
these containers is over 2 million twenty-foot equivalent
An intermodal container is a standard-sized
units (TEU). Suppose the volume, in cubic feet, of a metal box that can be easily transferred
1-TEU container can be approximated by the polynomial between different modes of transportation,
function V(x) = x 3 + 7x2 - 28x + 20, where x is a positive such as ships, trains, and trucks. A TEU
represents the volume of a 20-ft intermodal
real number. What dimensions, in terms of x, could the container. Although container heights vary, the
container have? equivalent of 1 TEU is accepted as 1360 ft3.
Solution
a) Use the factor theorem to evaluate P(a) given x - a.
For x - 1, substitute x = 1 into the polynomial expression.
P(x) = x3 - 3x2 - x + 3
P(1) = 13 - 3(1)2 - 1 + 3
P(1) = 1 - 3 - 1 + 3
P(1) = 0
Since the remainder is zero, x - 1 is a factor of P(x).
Your Turn
Determine which of the following binomials are factors of the polynomial
P(x) = x3 + 2x2 - 5x - 6.
x - 1, x + 1, x - 2, x + 2, x - 3, x + 3, x - 6, x + 6
Your Turn
What is the factored form of x3 - 4x2 - 11x + 30? How can you use the
graph of the corresponding polynomial function to simplify your search
for integral roots?
Example 3
Factor Higher-Degree Polynomials
Fully factor x 4 - 5x3 + 2x2 + 20x - 24.
Solution
Let P(x) = x 4 - 5x3 + 2x2 + 20x - 24.
Find a factor by testing factors of -24: ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6, ±8, ±12, and ±24
P(x) = x 4 - 5x3 + 2x2 + 20x - 24
P(1) = 14 - 5(1)3 + 2(1)2 + 20(1) - 24
P(1) = 1 - 5 + 2 + 20 - 24
P(1) = -6 When should you stop
testing possible factors?
P(x) = x 4 - 5x3 + 2x2 + 20x - 24
P(-1) = (-1)4 - 5(-1)3 + 2(-1)2 + 20(-1) - 24
P(-1) = 1 + 5 + 2 - 20 - 24
P(-1) = -36
P(x) = x 4 - 5x3 + 2x2 + 20x - 24
P(2) = 24 - 5(2)3 + 2(2)2 + 20(2) - 24
P(2) = 16 - 40 + 8 + 40 - 24
P(2) = 0
Since P(2) = 0, x - 2 is a factor of x 4 - 5x3 + 2x2 + 20x - 24.
Use division to find the other factors.
-2 1 -5 2 20 -24
- -2 6 8 -24
× 1 -3 -4 12 0
Therefore,
x 4 - 5x3 + 2x2 + 20x - 24
= (x - 2)(x - 3)(x - 2)(x + 2)
= (x - 2)2(x + 2)(x - 3)
Your Turn
What is the fully factored form of x 4 - 3x3 - 7x2 + 15x + 18?
Example 4
Solve Problems Involving Polynomial
Expressions
An intermodal container that has the
shape of a rectangular prism has a
volume, in cubic feet, represented
by the polynomial function
V(x) = x3 + 7x2 - 28x + 20, where
x is a positive real number.
What are the factors that represent
possible dimensions, in terms of x,
of the container?
The trace or zero feature of a graphing calculator shows that the zeros
of the function are x = -10, x = 1, and x = 2. These correspond to
the factors x + 10, x - 1, and x - 2. The factors represent the possible
dimensions, in terms of x, of the container.
Your Turn
A form that is used to make large rectangular blocks of ice comes in
different dimensions such that the volume, V, in cubic centimetres, of
each block can be modelled by V(x) = x3 + 7x2 + 16x + 12, where x is in
centimetres. Determine the possible dimensions, in terms of x, that result
in this volume.
The factor theorem states that x - a is a factor of a polynomial P(x) if and only if
P(a) = 0.
The integral zero theorem states that if x - a is a factor of a polynomial function
P(x) with integral coefficients, then a is a factor of the constant term of P(x).
You can use the factor theorem and the integral zero theorem to factor some
polynomial functions.
Use the integral zero theorem to list possible integer values for the zeros.
Next, apply the factor theorem to determine one factor.
Then, use division to determine the remaining factor.
Repeat the above steps until all factors are found or the remaining factor is a
trinomial which can be factored.
Apply
7. Determine the value(s) of k so that the
binomial is a factor of the polynomial.
a) x2 - x + k, x - 2
b) x2 - 6x - 7, x + k
c) x3 + 4x2 + x + k, x + 2 Walrus created in 1996 by Mikisiti Saila
Interval x < -3
Sign of f(x) positive
D id Yo u Kn ow?
0 x
zero of
multiplicity 1
At x = -2 (zero of odd multiplicity), the sign of the function changes.
y
At x = 1 (zero of even multiplicity), the sign of the function does
not change.
0 x
Example 1
zero of
multiplicity 2 Analyse Graphs of Polynomial Functions
For each graph of a polynomial function, determine
y
• the least possible degree
• the sign of the leading coefficient
• the x-intercepts and the factors of the function with least
0 x possible degree
• the intervals where the function is positive and the intervals
zero of where it is negative
multiplicity 3
a) b)
Did Yo u Know ?
The multiplicity of a
zero or root can also
be referred to as the
order of the zero or
root.
• The graph extends down into quadrant III and up into quadrant I, so
the leading coefficient is positive.
• The x-intercepts are -4, -2, and 2. The factors are x + 4, x + 2,
and x - 2.
• The function is positive for values of x in the intervals -4 < x < -2
and x > 2. The function is negative for values of x in the intervals
x < -4 and -2 < x < 2.
Your Turn
For the graph of the polynomial function shown, determine
• the least possible degree
• the sign of the leading coefficient
• the x-intercepts and the factors of the function of least possible degree
• the intervals where the function is positive and the intervals where it
is negative
Solution
a) The function y = (x - 1)(x + 2)(x + 3) is in
factored form.
Use a table to organize information about the function. Then, use the
information to sketch the graph.
Degree 3
Leading Coefficient 1
End Behaviour extends down into quadrant III and up into quadrant I
Zeros/x-Intercepts -3, -2, and 1
y-Intercept (0 - 1)(0 + 2)(0 + 3) = -6
Interval(s) Where the positive values of f(x) in the intervals -3 < x < -2 and x > 1
Function is Positive negative values of f(x) in the intervals x < -3 and -2 < x < 1
or Negative
(-2, 0) 2
(-3, 0) (1, 0)
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
-4
(0, -6)
-6
y = (x - 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)
Mark the intercepts. Since the multiplicity of each zero is odd, the
graph crosses the x-axis at both x-intercepts. Beginning in quadrant
III, sketch the graph so that it passes through x = -2 to above the
x-axis through the y-intercept 32, continuing upward, and then back
down to pass through x = 4, and then downward in quadrant IV. In
the neighbourhood of x = -2, the graph behaves like the cubic curve
y = (x + 2)3.
f(x) Why is it useful to evaluate the
f(x) = -(x + 2)3(x - 4) function for values such as x = 2
140
and x = 3?
120 How are the multiplicity of the
zero of -2 and the shape of the
100 graph at this x-intercept related?
80
60
40
(0, 32)
20
(-2, 0) (4, 0)
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
-20
Next, use the integral zero theorem and the factor theorem
to determine the factors of the polynomial expression
x3 - 3x + 2. Test possible factors of 2, that is, ±1 and ±2.
Substitute x = 1.
x3 - 3x + 2
= 13 - 3(1) + 2
=1-3+2
=0
Then, factor x2 + x - 2 to give (x + 2)(x - 1). How can you check that the
So, the factored form of y = -2x3 + 6x - 4 is factored form is equivalent
to the original polynomial?
y = -2(x - 1)2(x + 2).
Degree 3
Leading Coefficient -2
End Behaviour extends up into quadrant II and down into quadrant IV
Zeros/x-Intercepts -2 and 1 (multiplicity 2)
y-Intercept -4
Interval(s) Where the positive values of f(x) in the interval x < -2
Function Is Positive negative values of f(x) in the intervals -2 < x < 1 and x > 1
or Negative
4
y = -2x 3 + 6x - 4
2
(-2, 0) (1, 0)
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
-2
(0, -4)
-4
-6
-8
Your Turn
Sketch a graph of each polynomial function by hand. State the
characteristics of the polynomial functions that you used to sketch
the graphs.
a) g(x) = (x - 2)3(x + 1)
b) f(x) = -x3 + 13x + 12
Parameter Transformation
k • Vertical translation up or down
• (x, y) → (x, y + k)
b 1
• Horizontal stretch about the y-axis by a factor of _
|b|
• For b < 0, the graph is also reflected in the y-axis.
x
( )
• (x, y) → _ , y
b
Example 3
Apply Transformations to Sketch a Graph
The graph of y = x3 is transformed to obtain the graph of
y = -2(4(x - 1))3 + 3.
a) State the parameters and describe the corresponding transformations.
b) Copy and complete the table to show what happens to the given
points under each transformation.
y = x3 y = (4x)3 y = -2(4x)3 y = -2(4(x - 1))3 + 3
(-2, -8)
(-1, -1)
(0, 0)
(1, 1)
(2, 8)
c) To sketch the graph, plot the points from column 4 and draw a
smooth curve through them.
y
20
(0.5, 19)
16
y = x3
12
8
(0.75, 5)
4
(1, 3)
(1.25, 1)
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
-4
y = -2(4(x - 1))3 + 3
-8
-12
(1.5, -13)
Your Turn
Transform the graph of y = x3 to sketch the graph of y = -4(2(x + 2))3 - 5.
Solution
a) Let x represent the amount to be removed from each dimension.
Degree 3
Leading Coefficient -1
End Behaviour extends up into quadrant II and down into quadrant IV
Zeros/x-Intercepts 3, 4, and 5
y-Intercept 60
Interval(s) Where the
positive values of V(x) in the intervals x < 3 and 4 < x < 5
Function Is Positive
negative values of V(x) in the intervals 3 < x < 4 and x > 5
or Negative
V(x)
V(x) = (5 - x)(3 - x)(4 - x)
60
50
40
30
(1, 24) V(x) = 24
20
10
0 2 4 6 8 x
Your Turn
Three consecutive integers have a product of -210.
a) Write a polynomial function to model this situation.
b) What are the three integers?
You can sketch the graph of a polynomial function using the x-intercepts, the
y-intercept, the degree of the function, and the sign of the leading coefficient.
The x-intercepts of the graph of a polynomial function are the roots of the
corresponding polynomial equation.
When a polynomial function is in factored form, you can determine the zeros
from the factors. When it is not in factored form, you can use the factor theorem
and the integral zero theorem to determine the factors.
When a factor is repeated n times, the corresponding zero has multiplicity, n.
The shape of a graph close to a zero of x = a (multiplicity n) y
is similar to the shape of the graph of a function with 4
degree equal to n of the form y = (x - a)n. For example, the
graph of a function with a zero of x = 1 (multiplicity 3) 2
y = (x - 1)3
will look like the graph of the cubic function (degree 3)
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
y = (x - 1)3 in the region close to x = 1.
-2
Polynomial functions change sign at x-intercepts that
correspond to zeros of odd multiplicity. The graph crosses -4
over the x-axis at these intercepts. y = (x + 2)(x - 1)3
-6
Polynomial functions do not change sign at x-intercepts
-8
that correspond to zeros of even multiplicity. The graph
touches, but does not cross, the x-axis at these intercepts.
The graph of a polynomial function of the form y = a(b(x - h))n + k
[or y - k = a(b(x - h))n] can be sketched by applying transformations to the
graph of y = xn, where n ∈ N. The transformations represented by a and b may be
applied in any order before the transformations represented by h and k.
Practise 2. Solve.
1. Solve. a) (x + 1)2(x + 2) = 0
a) x(x + 3)(x - 4) = 0 b) x3 - 1 = 0
b) (x - 3)(x - 5)(x + 1) = 0 c) (x + 4)3(x + 2)2 = 0
c) (2x + 4)(x - 3) = 0
a) y -40
2
c) y
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2 8
-4 -4 -2 0 2 4 x
-6 -8
-16
b) y -24
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-8 d) y
-16 8
-24 -4 -2 0 2 4 x
-8
c) y -16
20
-24
-4 -2 0 2 4 x -32
-20
c) h(x) = x3 + 3x2 - x - 3 -4 -2 0 2 4 x
4 3 2
d) k(x) = -x - 2x + 7x + 8x - 12 -8
8. Sketch the graph of each function in #7.
-16
9. Without using technology, sketch the graph
-24
of each function. Label all intercepts.
a) f(x) = x 4 - 4x3 + x2 + 6x
b) y = x3 + 3x2 - 6x - 8 d) y
3 2
c) y = x - 4x + x + 6 4
3 2
d) h(x) = -x + 5x - 7x + 3
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
e) g(x) = (x - 1)(x + 2)2(x + 3)2
-4
f) f(x) = -x 4 - 2x3 + 3x2 + 4x - 4
-8
D i d You K n ow ?
D id Yo u Know ?
A type of limestone called Tyndall stone has
Forty-four aquatic events in diving and swimming been quarried in Garson, Manitoba, since the
were held at the Saanich Commonwealth Pool during 1890s. You can see this stone in structures such
the 1994 Commonwealth Games held in Victoria, as the Parliament Buildings in Ottawa, Ontario,
British Columbia. Canada won 32 medals in aquatics. the Saskatchewan Legislative Building in Regina,
Saskatchewan, and the Manitoba Legislative
Building in Winnipeg, Manitoba.
13. A boardwalk that is x feet wide is
built around a rectangular pond. The
pond is 30 ft wide and 40 ft long. The
combined surface area of the pond and
the boardwalk is 2000 ft2. What is the
width of the boardwalk?
x2 - 12
D id Yo u K n ow ? 1
1 -x
Stroud is a coarse woollen cloth traditionally used to a
make wall hangings. x
D i d You K n ow ?
mobject
(mass of ρobject
the object) (density of
the object)
ρfluid
(density of the fluid)
19. Four consecutive integers have a product
Buoyancy
of 840. What are the four integers?
ii) y = 3x3
1
ii) y = _ x 4
C3 How can you tell from a graph if the
3
multiplicity of a zero is 1, an even number, 1
iii) y = -3x 3
iii) y = - _ x 4
or an odd number greater than 1? 3
a) Compare the graphs in set C. For
C4 MINI LAB Materials
any integer value a, describe the
Apply your prior • graphing calculator
relationship between the graphs
knowledge of or computer with
graphing software of y = x3 and y = ax3.
transformations to
b) Compare the graphs in set D. For
predict the effects
any rational value a such that
of translations, stretches, and
-1 < a < 0 or 0 < a < 1, describe
reflections on polynomial functions
the relationship between the graphs
of the form y = a(b(x - h))n + k and
of y = x 4 and y = ax 4.
the associated graphs.
Step 4 Graph each set of functions on one set
Step 1 Graph each set of functions on one set
of coordinate axes. Sketch the graphs
of coordinate axes. Sketch the graphs
in your notebook.
in your notebook.
Set E Set F
Set A Set B
3
i) y = x i) y = x 4
i) y = x3 i) y = x 4 4
1
ii) y = x3 + 2 ii) y = (x + 2)4
ii) y = (3x)3 (3 )
ii) y = _ x
4
iii) y = x3 - 2 iii) y = (x - 2)4 iii) y = (-3x)3
1
iii) y = (- _ x)
3
a) Compare the graphs in set A.
a) Compare the graphs in set E. For
For any constant k, describe the any integer value b, describe the
relationship between the graphs relationship between the graphs
of y = x3 and y = x3 + k. of y = x3 and y = (bx)3.
b) Compare the graphs in set B.
b) Compare the graphs in set F. For
For any constant h, describe the any rational value b such that
relationship between the graphs -1 < b < 0 or 0 < b < 1, describe
of y = x 4 and y = (x - h)4. the relationship between the graphs
Step 2 Describe the roles of the parameters of y = x 4 and y = (bx)4.
h and k in functions of the form Step 5 Describe the roles of the parameters
y = a(b(x - h))n + k. a and b in functions of the form
y = a(b(x - h))n + k.
2 x
36 cm
-4
C y
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
-4
Trigonometry
Trigonometry is used extensively
in our daily lives. For example,
will you listen to music today?
Most songs are recorded digitally
and are compressed into MP3
format. These processes all
involve trigonometry.
Looking Ahead
In this unit, you will solve problems
involving . . .
• angle measures and the unit circle
• trigonometric functions and their graphs
• the proofs of trigonometric identities
• the solutions of trigonometric equations
In this project, you will explore angle measurement, trigonometric equations, and
trigonometric functions, and you will explore how they relate to past and present
applications.
In Chapter 4, you will research the history of units of angle measure such as radians.
In Chapter 5, you will gather information about the application of periodic functions
to the field of communications. Finally, in Chapter 6, you will explore the use of
trigonometric identities in Mach numbers.
At the end of the unit, you will choose at least one of the following options:
• Research the history, usage, and relationship of types of units for angle measure.
• Examine an application of periodic functions in electronic communications and
investigate why it is an appropriate model.
• Apply the skills you have learned about trigonometric identities to supersonic travel.
• Explore the science of forensics through its applications of trigonometry.
4 Trigonometry
and the
Unit Circle
Have you ever wondered about the repeating
patterns that occur around us? Repeating patterns
occur in sound, light, tides, time, and molecular
motion. To analyse these repeating, cyclical
patterns, you need to move from using ratios in
triangles to using circular functions to approach
trigonometry.
Did Yo u Know ?
Key Terms
radian cosecant
coterminal angles secant
general form cotangent
unit circle trigonometric equation
We b Link
To learn
earn more about
ab accident reconstruction and
training to become a forensic analysis investigator,
go to www.mcgrawhill.ca/school/learningcentres and
follow the links.
Did Yo u Know ?
O A
Solution
a) y
Unitary Method
360° = 2π
1° = _2π
360
=_ π
180
π
30° = 30 _ (
180 )
=_π π
_
is an exact value.
6 6
≈ 0.52
b) y
Proportion Method
180° = π
-120° = _
__ x
180° π
-120π
x = __
180
= -_2π
3
≈ -2.09
2π or approximately -2.09.
So, -120° is equivalent to - _
3
Unit Analysis
5π =
_
4 (_
5π _ 180°
4 )( π )
180°
Why does _π ( )
have value 1?
5(180°)
= __
4
= 225°
5π
_
4 is equivalent to 225°.
1
d) π (approximately 3.14) is _ rotation. y
2
π (approximately 1.57) is _
_ 1 rotation.
2 4 2.57
2.57 is between 1.57 and 3.14,
so it terminates in the second quadrant. 0 x
≈ 147.25°
462.6° or approximately 147.25°.
2.57 is equivalent to __π
Example 2
Identify Coterminal Angles
Determine one positive and one negative angle measure that is
coterminal with each angle. In which quadrant does the terminal arm lie?
8π
a) 40° b) -430° c) _
3
Solution
a) The terminal arm is in quadrant I.
To locate coterminal angles, begin on the terminal arm of the given
angle and rotate in a positive or negative direction until the new
terminal arm coincides with that of the original angle.
y y
40° 40°
0 x 0 x
-430°
0 x 0 x
-430°
n 1 2 3
110° - (360°)n -250° -610° -970°
110° + (360°)n 470° 830° 1190°
From the table, the values that satisfy the domain -720° ≤ θ < 720°
are -610°, -250°, and 470°. These angles are coterminal.
8π 8π
b) _ ± 2πn, n ∈ N, represents all angles coterminal with _ .
3 3
Substitute values for n to determine these angles.
n 1 2 3 4
_
8π
- 2πn 2π
_ 4π
-_ 10π
-_ 16π
-_
3 3 3 3 3
_
8π
+ 2πn 14π
_ 20π
_ 26π
_ 32π
_
3 3 3 3 3
The angles in the domain -4π ≤ θ < 4π that are 16π not an
Why is - _
10π , - _ 2π .
4π , and _ 3
coterminal are - _ acceptable answer?
3 3 3
Your Turn
Write an expression for all possible angles coterminal with each
given angle. Identify the angles that are coterminal that satisfy
-360° ≤ θ < 360° or -2π ≤ θ < 2π.
9π
a) -500° b) 650° c) _
4
Example 4
Determine Arc Length in a Circle
Rosemarie is taking a course in industrial engineering. For an
assignment, she is designing the interface of a DVD player. In her
plan, she includes a decorative arc below the on/off button. The arc
has central angle 130° in a circle with radius 6.7 mm. Determine the
length of the arc, to the nearest tenth of a millimetre.
6.7 mm
130°
Your Turn
If a represents the length of an arc of a circle with radius r, subtended by
a central angle of θ, determine the missing quantity. Give your answers to
the nearest tenth of a unit.
a) r = 8.7 cm, θ = 75°, a = cm
b) r = mm, θ = 1.8, a = 4.7 mm
c) r = 5 m, a = 13 m, θ =
Angles can be measured using different units, including degrees and radians.
An angle measured in one unit can be converted to the other unit using the
relationships 1 full rotation = 360° = 2π.
An angle in standard position has its vertex at the origin and its initial
arm along the positive x-axis.
Angles that are coterminal have the same initial arm and the same
terminal arm.
An angle θ has an infinite number of angles that are coterminal expressed
by θ ± (360°)n, n ∈ N, in degrees, or θ ± 2πn, n ∈ N, in radians.
The formula a = θr, where a is the arc length; θ is the central angle, in
radians; and r is the length of the radius, can be used to determine any of
the variables given the other two, as long as a and r are in the same units.
D i d You K n ow ?
Materials 1. Select a can or other cylinder. Cut a strip of paper about 1.5 cm wide
• paper and the same length as the circumference of the cylinder.
• scissors 2. Create a number line by drawing a line along the centre of the strip.
• tape Label the left end of the line 0 and the right end 2π. According to
• can or other cylinder this labelling, how long is the number line?
• straight edge 3. Divide the number line into eight equal subdivisions. What value
• compass would you use to label the point midway between 0 and 2π? What
value would you use to label halfway between 0 and the middle
of the number line? Continue until all seven points that subdivide
the number line are labelled. Write all values in terms of π. Express
fractional values in lowest terms.
4. Tape the number line around the bottom of the can, so that the labels
read in a counterclockwise direction.
5. Use the can to draw a circle on a sheet of paper. Locate the centre of
the circle and label it O. Draw coordinate axes through O that extend
beyond the circle. Place the can over the circle diagram so that the
zero of the number line lies above where the circle intersects the
positive x-axis.
Unit Circle
The circle you drew in the investigation is a unit circle. unit circle
y • a circle with radius
1 unit
(0, 1) • a circle of radius 1 unit
with centre at the
origin on the Cartesian
plane is known as the
(-1, 0) (1, 0) unit circle
0 x
(0, -1)
Example 1
Equation of a Circle Centred at the Origin
Determine the equation of the circle y
with centre at the origin and radius 2.
P(x, y)
Solution 2
Your Turn
Determine the equation of a circle with centre at the origin and
radius 6.
Solution
a) Coordinates on the unit circle satisfy the equation x2 + y 2 = 1.
2
( _23 ) + y 2
=1 Since x is positive, which quadrants could the points be in?
4 + y2 = 1
_
9
5
y2 = _ y
9 __
√5 Why are there
y = ±_
3 two answers?
1
( 2_3 , y )
Two points satisfy the given
__ 0 x
√5
2, _
conditions: _ in (3 3 ) __
( 2_3 , y )
√5
2 , -_
quadrant I and _ in (3 3 )
quadrant IV.
b) y = - ___ 1 y
√2
Example 3
π
Multiples of _ on the Unit Circle
3
π
a) On a diagram of the unit circle, show the integral multiples of _ in
3
the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
b) What are the coordinates for each point P(θ) in part a)?
c) Identify any patterns you see in the coordinates of the points.
Solution
π
a) This is essentially a counting problem using _ .
3
π in the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π are
Multiples of _
3
π = 0, 1 _
π =_ 2π , 3 _
π =_
π, 2 _ π = π, 4 _ 4π ,
π =_
(3)
0 _ (3) 3 (3) 3 (3) (3) 3
π
5( ) = 5π π = 2π.
, and 6( _
3)
_ _
3 3
y Why must you show only the multiples in
2π
__
P 3 ( ) ( )
π
_
P 3
one positive rotation in the unit circle?
π
_
P(π) 3 P(0) = (1, 0)
0 x
P(2π)
4π
__
P 3 ( ) ( )
5π
__
P 3
π
_
P ( 1 √3
Why are _ , _ the
2 2 ) 60°
3
__ π O A
3 2
coordinates of P _ ?
3 ( ) 1
_
2
(1, 0)
0 _ A
1 x
2
A 0 x
-1
_
2
( ) ( )
π = _ 1, _√3
P(0) = P(2π) = (1, 0) P(π) = (-1, 0) P _
__ __ 3 2 2 __
P( ) (
2π
_
3
= - ,1
_
2 2
√3
_ P 4π
_
3 ) 1
_
= - ,-
2 ( ) (
√3
_
2
P 5π
_
3
= _
2 )
1 , -_ √3
2 ( ) ( )
c) Some patterns are:
• The points corresponding to angles that are multiples of _π that
3
π 2π 4π 5π ,
cannot be simplified, for example, P _
3
,P _
3
,P _
( ) ( ) ( )
3
, and P _
3 ( )
have the same coordinates except for their signs.
• Any points where θ reduces to a multiple of π, for example, P(0),
3π = P(π), and P _ 6π = P(2π), fall on an axis.
P _( )
3 3 ( )
Your Turn
π
a) On a diagram of the unit circle, show all the integral multiples of _ in
6
the interval 0 ≤ θ < 2π.
b) Label the coordinates for each point P(θ) on your diagram.
c) Describe any patterns you see in the coordinates of the points.
( )
π
_
P 2
π
_
P 2 ( )
( )
2π
__
( ) ( )
π
_ 1 3
_ __
( )
3π
__
P 4 ( )
π
_ __
P 4 = 2 2 (
1 , __
1
) P 3 P 3 = 2, 2
( ) P( 6 ) = ( 2 , 2 )
5π
__ π
_ 3 1
__ _
P 6
( )
7π
__
P 6
( )
11π
__
P 6
( )
5π
__
P 4 ( )
7π
__
P 4 ( )
5π
__
P 3
( )
3π
__
P 2 ( )
4π
__
P 3 3π
__
P 2 ( )
5 12
b) 3 units (
c) - _ , _
13 13 ) d) ( _45 , - _53 )
__ __
c) 12 units
d) 2.6 units
e) ( √3 1
-_, -_
2 2 ) f) ( 4 4)
√7 _
_ , 3
( ) ( )
4. If P(θ) is the point at the intersection of the π = _ 1, _√3
P _ , and
terminal arm of angle θ and the unit circle, 3 2 2 __
determine the exact coordinates of each of
the following.
P _5π = _
3 ( ) (
1 , -_
2
√3
2
. )
Show these points on a diagram.
a) P(π) ( π2 )
b) P - _
Step 2 Move + _ 1 rotation from each point.
4
π π Determine each new point and its
(3)
c) P _ d)
6)
P(- _
coordinates. Show these points on your
3π
(4)
e) P _ ( 7π4 )
f) P - _ diagram from step 1.
Step 3 Move - _ 1 rotation from each original
g) P(4π)
5π
h) P( _ ) 4
2 point. Determine each new point and
5π 4π
(6)
i) P _ j) P(- _ )
3
its coordinates. Mark these points on
your diagram.
5. Identify a measure for the central angle θ Step 4 How do the values of the x-coordinates
in the interval 0 ≤ θ < 2π such that P(θ) is and y-coordinates of points change
the given point. with each quarter-rotation? Make a
a) (0, -1) b) (1, 0) copy of the diagram and complete
__ __
c) ( 2 ,_
√2
_
2 )
√2
d) (- 12 , 12 )
_
√
__ ___
√
the coordinates to summarize your
findings.
__ __
y
e) ( ,
2 2 )
f) ( , -
2 )
1 √
_ _ 3 1 _ 3 √
_
__
2
__ (
P θ+ π
2 )
_ = (?, ?)
g) (-
2 2)
h) (- , -1)
√
_3 1
_ 3 √
_ _
, P(θ) = (a, b)
__ __
2 2
i) (- , -_)
√
_2 2 √
j) (-1, 0) 0 x
2 2
6. Determine one positive and__one negative
(
√3 1
measure for θ if P(θ) = - _ , _
2 2
. ) ( π π
)
P θ + _ + _ = (?, ?)
2 2 ( π+ _
P θ+ _ π+ _
)
π = (?, ?)
2 2 2
P( 4 ) = ( 2 , 2 )
A to B. π
_ __2 __ 2
d) Let P(θ) = B. In which quadrant
P( 6 ) = ( 2 , 2 )
π ? π
_ 3 1
__ _
(
is P θ - _
2 )
e) What are the maximum and minimum 0 x
values for either the x-coordinates
or y-coordinates of points on the
unit circle?
y
B
b) What do you notice about the
denominators?
C
c) What do you notice about the
A(1, 0)
numerators of the x-coordinates?
0 x
Compare them with the numerators
of the y-coordinates. Why do these
patterns make sense?
d) Why are square roots involved?
e) Explain this memory trick to a partner.
10. Mya claims that every value of x between
0 and 1 can be used to find the coordinates 12. a) Explain, with reference to the unit
of a point on the unit circle in quadrant I. circle, what the interval -2π ≤ θ < 4π
represents.
a) Do you agree with Mya? Explain.
b) Use your explanation to determine
b) Mya showed the following work to find
all values for θ in the interval
the y-coordinate when x = 0.807.
-2π ≤ θ < 4π__such that
y = 1 - (0.807)2
= 0.348 751 (
P(θ) = - _
2 2
√3
1, _
)
.
The point on the unit circle is (0.807, 0.348 751). c) How do your answers relate to the word
“coterminal”?
How can you check Mya’s answer? Is __
she correct? If not, what is the correct ( 1 2√2
)
13. If P(θ) = - _ , - _ , determine the
3 3
answer? following.
c) If y = 0.2571, determine x so the point a) What does P(θ) represent? Explain using
is on the unit circle and in the first a diagram.
quadrant.
b) In which quadrant does θ terminate?
π
( 2)
c) Determine the coordinates of P θ + _ .
π .
Determine the coordinates of P(θ - _
2)
d)
Extend
17. a) Determine the coordinates of all points
15. a) In the diagram, A has coordinates (a, b).
where the line represented by y = -3x
ABCD is a rectangle with sides parallel
intersects the unit circle. Give your
to the axes. What are the coordinates of
answers as exact values in simplest
B, C, and D?
y form.
b) If one of the points is labelled P(θ + π),
draw a diagram and show at least two
B A(a, b)
values for θ. Explain what θ represents.
θ F(1, 0)
0 x 18. a) P(θ) lies at the intersection of the unit
circle and the line joining A(5, 2) to
C D
the origin. Use your knowledge of
similar triangles and the unit circle
to determine the exact coordinates
b) ∠FOA = θ, and A, B, C, and D lie on the of P(θ).
unit circle. Through which point will the b) Determine the radius of a larger circle
terminal arm pass for each angle? Assume with centre at the origin and passing
all angles are in standard position. through point A.
i) θ + π ii) θ - π c) Write the equation for this larger circle.
iii) -θ + π iv) -θ - π
c) How are the answers in part b) different
if θ is given as the measure of arc FA?
θ B(1, 0)
0 A x
P(θ) = (x, y)
1
θ B(1, 0)
0 A x
You can describe the coordinates of any point P(θ) as (cos θ, sin θ). This
is true for any point P(θ) at the intersection of the terminal arm of an
angle θ and the unit circle.
y Explain how this statement is
Also, you know that tan θ = _ x. consistent with the right-triangle
definition of the tangent ratio.
cotangent ratio
(1, 0)
• the reciprocal of the
θ 0 x tangent ratio
• abbreviated cot
( 3 4
_ _
A - 5, -5 ) • for P(θ) = (x, y) on the
x
unit circle, cot θ = _
y
• if tan θ = 0, then cot θ
is undefined
b) sin θ = - _
4 The y-coordinate of P(θ) is defined as sin θ.
5
3
cos θ = - _ Why is this true?
5
y
_
tan θ = x
-_4
= _ 5 Explain the arithmetic used to simplify this double fraction.
-_3
5
=_4 Why does it make sense for tan θ to be positive?
3
csc θ = _ 1
sin θ
= -_5 Explain how this answer was determined.
4
sec θ = _ 1 Read as “sec θ equals the reciprocal of cos θ.”
cos θ
= -_5
3
cot θ = _ 1
tan θ
=_3
4
B
A
( π
_
P 45° or 4 ) What points have the same
π
C
( π
_
P 30° or 6 ) 3 ( )
coordinates as P _ except for
their signs?
P(π or 180°) P(0° or 0)
0 x For P(45°), what are the coordinates
and in which quadrant is θ?
E K
Which special triangle would you
F J
G I use and where would it be placed
H for θ = 135°?
Example 2
Exact Values for Trigonometric Ratios
Determine the exact value for each. Draw diagrams to illustrate your
answers.
5π 4π
a) cos _
6
b) sin - _
3 ( )
c) sec 315° d) cot 270°
Solution
5π
(6)
a) The point P _ lies in quadrant II.
( ) (
5π
__ 3 1
__ _
P 6 = - 2 , 2
y
)
The reference angle for _ 5π is
6
5π
( ) (
π
_ 3 1
__ _
P 6 = 2 , 2 )
θR = π - _5π = _ π. __
6 6 6
θR P(0) = (1, 0)
Recall that the reference Its x-coordinate is negative and 0 x
angle, θR, is the acute its y-coordinate is positive.
angle formed between the __
terminal arm and the x-axis. √3 1
P(θ) = - _ , _
2 2
__
( )
cos 5π
_
6
=-
√3
_
2
P ( 5π6 ) has the same coordinates as P( π6 ),
_ _
Your Turn
Draw diagrams to help you determine the exact value of each
trigonometric ratio.
a) tan _
π 7π
b) csc _
2 6
c) sin (-300°) d) sec 60°
You can find the value of a trigonometric ratio for cosecant, secant, or
cotangent using the correct reciprocal relationship.
sec 3.3 = __ 1
cos 3.3
= -1.012 678 973…
≈ -1.0127
Example 3
Approximate Values for Trigonometric Ratios
Determine the approximate value for each trigonometric ratio. Give your
answers to four decimal places.
a) tan _
7π b) cos 260°
5
c) sin 4.2 d) csc (-70°)
Solution
7π
7π In which quadrant does an angle of _
a) _ is measured in radians. 5
5 terminate?
7π = 3.077 683 537…
tan _ Make sure your calculator is in radian mode.
5
≈ 3.0777 Why is the answer positive?
b) cos 260° = -0.173 648 177… In which quadrant does 260° terminate?
≈ -0.1736
0 -70° x
Your Turn
What is the approximate value for each trigonometric ratio? Round
answers to four decimal places. Justify the sign of each answer.
a) sin 1.92
b) tan (-500°)
c) sec 85.4°
d) cot 3
d) sec θ = _
2__ in the domain -2π ≤ θ < 2π. Give exact answers.
√3
Solution
Did Yo u Know ? a) sin θ > 0 in quadrants I and II.
The domain consists of one positive rotation.
By convention, if
the domain is given Therefore, two answers need to be identified.
in radian measure,
express answers in sin-1 0.879 = 1.073 760 909… Use a calculator in radian mode.
radians. If the domain ≈ 1.1
is expressed using
y
degrees, give the
answers in degrees.
θR 1.1
0 x
θR θ
0 x
60°
60° 0 x
-120°
( )
π
_ 3 1
(
P 6 = __ , _
2 2 )
π
_
6
0 x
11π
__
6
__
1 =_ √3
cos θ = _
sec__θ 2
π √ 3
cos _ = _
6 2
θ=_ π and θ = _11π in the domain 0 ≤ θ < 2π.
6 6
θ = -_π and θ = - _11π in the domain -2π ≤ θ < 0. How do coterminal
6 6 angles help?
11π , - _
π, _
The exact answers in radians are _ 11π .
π , and - _
6 6 6 6
Example 5
Calculating Trigonometric Values for Points Not on the Unit Circle
The point A(-4, 3) lies on the terminal arm of an angle θ in standard
position. What is the exact value of each trigonometric ratio for θ?
Solution
ABO is a right triangle. y
4
Identify trigonometric values for θ using A(-4, 3)
the lengths of the sides of ABO. 2
θ
Confirm this B
ABO has sides of lengths 3, 4, and 5. using the
-4 -2 0 2 x
Recall that OA is a length and the Pythagorean
theorem.
segments OB and BA are considered
as directed lengths.
y 1
sin θ = _
r csc θ = _
sin θ
=_3 =_5
5 3
x
cos θ = _ sec θ = _ 1
r cos θ
=_-4 = -_5
5 4
=- 4
_
5
y 1
tan θ = _
x cot θ = _
tan θ
=_ 3 = -_4
-4 3
=- 3
_
4
Your Turn
The point D(-5, -12) lies on the terminal arm of an angle θ in standard
position. What is the exact value of each trigonometric ratio for θ?
You can determine the trigonometric ratios for any angle in standard
position using the coordinates of the point where the terminal arm
intersects the unit circle.
π, _
Exact values of trigonometric rations for special angles such as 0, _ π,
π, _
6 4 3
and _π and their multiples may be determined using the coordinates of
2
points on the unit circle.
You can determine approximate values for trigonometric ratios using a
calculator in the appropriate mode: radians or degrees.
You can use a scientific or graphing calculator to determine an angle
measure given the value of a trigonometric ratio. Then, use your knowledge
of reference angles, coterminal angles, and signs of ratios in each quadrant
to determine other possible angle measures. Unless the domain is
restricted, there are an infinite number of answers.
Determine the trigonometric ratios for an angle θ in standard position
from the coordinates of a point on the terminal arm of θ and right triangle
definitions of the trigonometric ratios.
5 P
θ B(1, 0)
0 A x
0 5 x
(1, 0)
0 x
-4
b) cos (tan ( _ ))
trigonometric ratios. 4
-1
3
b) Does your formula apply in every
c) csc (cos (- _ )), where the angle is in
quadrant? Explain. -1 3
5
c) Write an equation for any line OP. Use quadrant II
your trigonometric value for the slope.
d) Use transformations to show that your ( ( 43 ))
d) sin tan-1 - _ , where the angle is in
Did Yo u Know ?
1
1. What are the exact measures of θ if cos θ = - _ , 0 ≤ θ < 2π? How is
2
In equations, the equation related to 2 cos θ + 1 = 0?
mathematicians often
2. What is the answer for step 1 if the domain is given as 0° ≤ θ < 360°?
use the notation
cos2 θ. This means 3. What are the approximate measures for θ if 3 cos θ + 1 = 0 and the
the same as (cos θ)2.
domain is 0 ≤ θ < 2π?
Example 1
Solve Trigonometric Equations
Solve each trigonometric equation in the specified domain.
a) 5 sin θ + 2 = 1 + 3 sin θ, 0 ≤ θ < 2π
b) 3 csc x - 6 = 0, 0° ≤ x < 360°
Solution
a) 5 sin θ + 2 1 + 3 sin θ
=
5 sin θ + 2 - 3 sin θ 1 + 3 sin θ - 3 sin θ
=
2 sin θ + 2 1=
2 sin θ + 2 - 2 1-2
=
2 sin θ =
-1
1
sin θ = - _
2
π
( 3 1
__
2 2
, _ )
_
6
0 x
π.
The reference angle is θR = _ In which quadrants must θ terminate
6 1?
if sin θ = - _
2
θ=π+_ π =_7π (quadrant III)
6 6
θ = 2π - _π =_ 11π (quadrant IV)
6 6
The solutions are θ = _7π and θ = _
11π in the domain 0 ≤ θ < 2π.
6 6
b) 3 csc x - 6 = 0
3 csc x = 6
csc x = 2 What operations were performed to arrive at this equation?
1
If csc x = 2, then sin x = _
2
x = 30° and 150° Explain how to arrive at these answers.
The solutions are x = 30° and x = 150° in the domain 0° ≤ x < 360°.
Your Turn
Solve each trigonometric equation in the specified domain.
a) 3 cos θ - 1 = cos θ + 1, -2π ≤ θ ≤ 2π
b) 4 sec x + 8 = 0, 0° ≤ x < 360°
Example 2
Factor to Solve a Trigonometric Equation
Solve for θ.
tan2 θ - 5 tan θ + 4 = 0, 0 ≤ θ < 2π
Give solutions as exact values where possible. Otherwise, give
approximate angle measures, to the nearest thousandth of a radian.
Solution
tan2 θ - 5 tan θ + 4 = 0 How is this similar to solving
(tan θ - 1)(tan θ - 4) = 0 x2 - 5x + 4 = 0?
tan θ - 1 = 0 or tan θ - 4 = 0
tan θ = 1 tan θ = 4 In which quadrants is tan θ > 0?
5π
π, _ What angle mode must your
θ=_ tan-1 4 = θ calculator be in to find tan-1 4?
4 4
θ = 1.3258…
How do you know that
θ ≈ 1.326 is a measure in quadrant I. 1.326 is in quadrant I?
= π + 1.3258…
= 4.467 410 317…
≈ 4.467
The solutions are θ = _ 5π (exact), θ ≈ 1.326, and
π, θ = _
4 4
θ ≈ 4.467 (to the nearest thousandth).
Your Turn
Solve for θ.
cos2 θ - cos θ - 2 = 0, 0° ≤ θ < 360°
Give solutions as exact values where possible. Otherwise, give
approximate measures to the nearest thousandth of a degree.
Example 3
General Solution of a Trigonometric Equation
a) Solve for x in the interval 0 ≤ x < 2π if sin2 x - 1 = 0.
Give answers as exact values.
b) Determine the general solution for sin2 x - 1 = 0 over the real
numbers if x is measured in radians.
Solution
a) Method 1: Use Square Root Principles
sin2 x - 1 = 0
sin2 x = 1
sin x = ±1 Why are there two values for sin x?
sin x = 1 or sin x = -1
π.
If sin x = 1, then x = _
2
If sin x = -1, then x = _3π . π 3π
Where did _ and _ come from?
2 2 2
5π
y Why is _ not an acceptable
2
answer?
(0, 1)
(-1, 0) (1, 0)
0 x
(0, -1)
Apply θ1
n1
9. Aslan and Shelley are finding the
n2 0
solution for 2 sin2 θ = sin θ, 0 < θ ≤ π.
θ2
Here is their work.
2sin2 -0 = sin -0
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2,
2sin2 -
__ 0 sin -
_ 0
= Step 1 where θ1 is the angle of incidence,
sin -
0 sin -
0
θ2 is the angle of refraction, and
2sin -0 = 1 Step 2 n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the mediums.
1
sin -0 = _ Step 3
2
π 5π
-0 = _ , _ Step 4
6 6
a) Identify the error that Aslan and Shelley
made and explain why their solution is
incorrect.
b) Show a correct method to determine the
solution for 2 sin2 θ = sin θ, 0 < θ ≤ π.
__
i) (5 )
2√3
_ ,y
__
D (-_43 , -_47 )
√
ii) (x,
√
_
4 )
7
,x<0
y
c) Explain how to use the equation for the
unit circle to find the value of cos θ if
P you know the y-coordinate of the point
where the terminal arm of an angle θ
in standard position intersects the
0 x unit circle.
Extended Response
13. The diagram shows a stretch of road
from A to E. The curves are arcs of
circles. Determine the length of the road
from A to E. Give your answer to the
nearest tenth of a kilometre.
E
A B 1 km
1.9 km 2.5 km
1.3 km
1.48 79°
C D
5 Trigonometric
Functions and
Graphs
You have seen different types of functions and
how these functions can mathematically model the
real world. Many sinusoidal and periodic patterns
occur within nature. Movement on the surface of
Earth, such as earthquakes, and stresses within
Earth can cause rocks to fold into a sinusoidal
pattern. Geologists and structural engineers study
models of trigonometric functions to help them
understand these formations. In this chapter, you
will study trigonometric functions for which the
function values repeat at regular intervals.
Key Terms
periodic function vertical displacement
period phase shift
sinusoidal curve
amplitude
We b Link
To learn
earn more about
ab a career as a geologist, go to
www.mcgrawhill.ca/school/learningcentres and
follow the links.
Did Yo u Know ?
The Bay of Fundy, between New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, has the highest tides in
the world. The highest recorded tidal range is 17 m at Burntcoat Head, Nova Scotia.
Materials 1. a) Copy and complete the table. Use your knowledge of special
• grid paper angles to determine exact values for each trigonometric ratio.
• ruler Then, determine the approximate values, to two decimal places.
One row has been completed for you.
Angle, θ y = sin θ y = cos θ
0
__
π
_ 1
_ √3
_
= 0.50 ≈ 0.87
6 2 2
π
_
4
π
_
3
π
_
2
Sine and cosine functions are periodic functions. The values of these periodic function
functions repeat over a specified period. • a function that repeats
itself over regular
A sine graph is a graph of the function y = sin θ. You can also intervals (cycles) of its
describe a sine graph as a sinusoidal curve. domain
y period
y = sin θ Period
1 • the length of the
interval of the domain
0.5 over which a graph
repeats itself
-1
One Cycle sinusoidal curve
Period
• the name given to a
Trigonometric functions are sometimes called circular because they curve that fluctuates
back and forth like a
are based on the unit circle. sine graph
• a curve that oscillates
repeatedly up and
down from a centre line
y y
π
_
π
_ 4
2 1
3π
__
4
P y = sin θ
π 0, 2π 0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π θ
2 2
5π
__
4 -1
3π
__ 7π
__
2 4
y
y
P 1
( π3_ , cos π3_ )
0 x 0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π x
2 2
P
-1
(7π
6 6 )
__ , cos 7π
__
Example 1
Graph a Periodic Function
Sketch the graph of y = sin θ for 0° ≤ θ ≤ 360° or 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
Describe its characteristics.
Solution
To sketch the graph of the sine function for 0° ≤ θ ≤ 360° or 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π,
select values of θ and determine the corresponding values of sin θ. Plot
the points and join them with a smooth curve.
y y = sin θ
D i d You K n ow?
1
The Indo-Asian
mathematician
0 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360° θ
Aryabhata (476—550)
-1 made tables of
half-chords that are
now known as sine
y y = sin θ and cosine tables.
1
0 π
_ π
_ π
_ 2π
__ 5π
__ π 7π
__ 4π
__ 3π
__ 5π 11π 2π
__ ___ θ
6 3 2 3 6 6 3 2 3 6
-1
From the graph of the sine function, you can make general observations
about the characteristics of the sine curve:
• The curve is periodic.
• The curve is continuous. Which points would
you determine to be
• The domain is {θ | θ ∈ R}. the key points for
sketching a graph of
• The range is {y | -1 ≤ y ≤ 1, y ∈ R}.
the sine function?
• The maximum value is +1.
• The minimum value is -1.
• The amplitude of the curve is 1. amplitude (of
• The period is 360° or 2π. a sinusoidal
function)
• The y-intercept is 0. Look for a • the maximum vertical
• In degrees, the θ-intercepts are pattern in distance the graph of
the values. a sinusoidal function
…, -540°, -360°, -180°, 0°, 180°, 360°, …, or 180°n, varies above and below
where n ∈ I. the horizontal central
The θ-intercepts, in radians, are axis of the curve
…, -3π, -2π, -π, 0, π, 2π, …, or nπ,
where n ∈ I.
Your Turn
Sketch the graph of y = cos θ for 0° ≤ θ ≤ 360°. Describe
its characteristics.
Solution
a) Method 1: Graph Using Transformations
Sketch the graph of y = sin x.
For the graph of y = 3 sin x, apply a vertical stretch by a factor of 3.
For the graph of y = 0.5 sin x, apply a vertical stretch by a factor of 0.5.
For the graph of y = -2 sin x, reflect in the x-axis and apply a vertical
stretch by a factor of 2.
y
y = 3 sin x
3
y = 0.5 sin x
2
y = sin x
1
0 π
_ π
_ 3π
__ π 5π
__ 3π
__ 7π
__ 2π x
4 2 4 4 2 4
-1
-2
y = -2 sin x
-3
Amplitude = maximum
_______ value - minimum value .
2
1 - (-1) How is the
The amplitude of y = sin x is __ , or 1. amplitude
2
related to the
3 - (-3)
The amplitude of y = 3 sin x is __ , or 3. range of the
2 function?
0.5 - (-0.5)
The amplitude of y = 0.5 sin x is ___ , or 0.5.
2
2 - (-2)
The amplitude of y = -2 sin x is __ , or 2.
2
c) Function Period Amplitude Specified Domain Range
y = sin x 2π 1 {x | 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π, x ∈ R} {y | -1 ≤ y ≤ 1, y ∈ R}
y = 3 sin x 2π 3 {x | 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π, x ∈ R} {y | -3 ≤ y ≤ 3, y ∈ R}
y = 0.5 sin x 2π 0.5 {x | 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π, x ∈ R} {y | -0.5 ≤ y ≤ 0.5, y ∈ R}
y = -2 sin x 2π 2 {x | 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π, x ∈ R} {y | -2 ≤ y ≤ 2, y ∈ R}
Your Turn
a) On the same set of axes, graph y = 6 cos x and y = -4 cos x for
0 ≤ x ≤ 2π.
b) State the amplitude for each graph.
c) Compare your graphs to the graph of y = cos x. Consider the period,
amplitude, domain, and range.
d) What is the amplitude of the function y = 1.5 cos x?
Solution
a) Sketch the graph of y = sin x.
1.
For the graph of y = sin 4x, apply a horizontal stretch by a factor of _
4
y
2
y = sin x
y = sin 4x To find the period of a function, start from
1 any point on the graph (for example, the
y-intercept) and determine the length of
0 90° 180° 270° 360° x the interval until one cycle is complete.
-1
-2
0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π 5π
__ 3π 7π
__ 4π x
2 2 2 2
-1
Your Turn
a) Sketch the graph of the function y = cos 3x for 0 ≤ x ≤ 360°.
State the period of the function and compare the graph to the
graph of y = cos x.
1
b) Sketch the graph of the function y = cos _ x for 0 ≤ x ≤ 6π.
3
State the period of the function and compare the graph to the
graph of y = cos x.
c) What is the period of the graph of y = cos (-3x)?
Example 4
Sketch the Graph of y = a cos bx
a) Sketch the graph of y = -3 cos 2x for at least one cycle.
b) Determine
• the amplitude
• the period
• the maximum and minimum values
• the x-intercepts and the y-intercept
• the domain and range
Begin with the graph of y = cos x. Apply Why is the horizontal stretch
1
1 about the y-axis. by a factor of _ ?
a horizontal stretch of _ 2
2
y
3
2
y = cos 2x
1
0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π 5π
__ 3π 7π
__ 4πx
2 2 2 2
-1
y = cos x
-2
-3
2
y = cos 2x
1
0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π 5π
__ 3π 7π
__ 4πx
2 2 2 2
-1
-2
-3
0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π 5π
__ 3π 7π
__ 4πx
2 2 2 2
-1
-2
-3
0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π 5π
__ 3π 7π
__ 4π x
2 2 2 2
-1
-2
-3
Key Ideas
y y
y = sin θ y = cos θ
1 1
0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π θ 0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π θ
2 2 2 2
-1 -1
maximum
minimum C y
amplitude 1
period
domain 0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π x
2 2
range -1
y-intercept
x-intercepts
D y
-4
D id Yo u K n ow ?
160 0°
Systolic
Pressure 15°
120
Pressure
30°
80 45°
Diastolic
Pressure
40
1 ( 3π 2
__ , __
4 2
) 24. Is the function f (x) = 5 cos x + 3 sin x
sinusoidal? If it is sinusoidal, state the
period of the function.
__ -π - π
-3π _ 0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π θ
2 2 2 2 D i d You K n ow ?
-1
1
( π 3
_ , __
6 2
) model applies even to unusual waves such as square
waves and highly irregular waves such as human
speech. The discipline of reducing a complex wave to
__ -π - π
-3π _ 0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π θ a combination of sine waves is called Fourier analysis
2 2 2 2 and is fundamental to many of the sciences.
-1
Create Connections
19. Graph y = sin θ and y = cos θ on the same
set of axes for -2π ≤ θ ≤ 2π. C1 MINI LAB Explore the relationship between
the unit circle and the sine and cosine
a) How are the two graphs similar?
graphs with a graphing calculator.
b) How are they different?
Step 1 In the first list, enter the angle values
c) What transformation could you apply π . In
from 0 to 2π by increments of _
to make them the same graph? 12
the second and third lists, calculate
Extend the cosine and sine of the angles in
20. If y = f (x) has a period of 6, determine
the first list, respectively.
1x .
the period of y = f _
2 ( )
21. Determine the period, in radians, of each
function using two different methods.
a) y = -2 sin 3x
2 π
b) y = - _ cos _ x
3 6
22. If sin θ = 0.3, determine the value
of sin θ + sin (θ + 2π) + sin (θ + 4π).
a) domain {x | x ∈ R}
b) range {y | -1 ≤ y ≤ 1, y ∈ R}
c) period is 2π
d) amplitude is 1
e) x-intercepts are n(180°), n ∈ I
f) x-intercepts are 90° + n(180°), n ∈ I
g) y-intercept is 1
Step 5 a) Use the trace feature on the
h) y-intercept is 0
graphing calculator and trace
around the unit circle. What do you i) passes through point (0, 1)
notice about the points that you j) passes through point (0, 0)
trace? What do they represent? k) a maximum value occurs at (360°, 1)
b) Move the cursor to trace the sine or l) a maximum value occurs at (90°, 1)
cosine curve. How do the points on
m) y
the graph of the sine or cosine curve
relate to the points on the unit
circle? Explain.
0 x
C2 The value of (cos θ)2 + (sin θ)2 appears
to be constant no matter the value of θ.
What is the value of the constant? Why
is the value constant? (Hint: Use the unit
n) y
circle and the Pythagorean theorem in
your explanation.)
C3 The graph of y = f (x) is sinusoidal with
a period of 40° passing through the 0 x
point (4, 0). Decide whether each of the
following can be determined from this
information, and justify your answer.
a) f (0) C5 a) Sketch the graph of y = |cos x| for
-2π ≤ x ≤ 2π. How does the graph
b) f (4)
compare to the graph of y = cos x?
c) f (84)
b) Sketch the graph of y = |sin x| for
-2π ≤ x ≤ 2π. How does the graph
compare to the graph of y = sin x?
b) Domain: {x | x ∈ R}
Range: {y | 2 ≤ y ≤ 4, y ∈ R}
vertical c) The graph has been translated 3 units up. This is the vertical
displacement displacement. The graph has also been translated 30° to
• the vertical translation the right. This is called the phase shift.
of the graph of a
periodic function
Your Turn
phase shift a) Sketch the graph of the function y = cos (x + 45°) − 2.
• the horizontal b) What are the domain and range of the function?
translation of the graph
c) Use the language of transformations to compare your graph
of a periodic function
to the graph of y = cos x.
Example 2
Graph y = a cos (θ − c) + d
a) Sketch the graph of the function y = −2 cos (θ + π) − 1 over
two cycles.
b) Use the language of transformations to compare your graph to the
graph of y = cos θ. Indicate which parameter is related to each
transformation.
0 π 2π 3π 4π θ
-1
-2
-3
b) Since a is −2, the graph has been reflected about the θ-axis and then D i d You K n ow?
stretched vertically by a factor of two. The d-value is −1, so the graph is
In this chapter,
translated 1 unit down. The sinusoidal axis is defined as y = −1. Finally, the parameters for
the c-value is -π. Therefore, the graph is translated π units to the left. horizontal and vertical
translations are
Your Turn represented by c and
π d, respectively.
(
a) Sketch the graph of the function y = 2 sin θ − _ + 2 over
2 )
two cycles.
b) Compare your graph to the graph of y = sin θ.
Example 3
Graph y = a sin b(x - c) + d
2π + 2 over two
(
Sketch the graph of the function y = 3 sin 2x - _
3 )
cycles. What are the vertical displacement, amplitude, period, phase
shift, domain, and range for the function?
Solution
First, rewrite the function in the standard form y = a sin b(x - c) + d.
π +2
(
y = 3 sin 2 x - _
3 )
Method 1: Graph Using Transformations
Step 1: Sketch the graph of y = sin x for one cycle. Apply the horizontal
and vertical stretches to obtain the graph of y = 3 sin 2x.
Compared to the graph of y = sin x, the graph of y = 3 sin 2x is a
1 and a vertical stretch by a factor of 3.
horizontal stretch by a factor of _
2
For the function y = 3 sin 2x, b = 2.
Period = _2π
|b|
=_ 2π
2
=π
So, the period is π.
0 π 2π 3π x
-2
y = sin x
0 π 2π 3π x
-2
6 (
y = 3 sin 2 x - π
_ +2
3 )
Would it matter if the order
4 (
y = 3 sin 2 x - π
_
3 ) of the transformations were
changed? Try a different order
2 for the transformations.
0 π 2π 3π 4π x
-2
0≤x-_≤π π
3
π ≤x≤_
_ 4π
3 3
π + 2,
For the graph of the function y = 3 sin 2 x - _
3 ( )
• the vertical displacement is 2 units up
• the amplitude is 3
π units to the right
• the phase shift is _
3
• the domain is {x | x ∈ R}
• the range is {y | -1 ≤ y ≤ 5, y ∈ R}
Your Turn
Sketch the graph of the function y = 2 cos 4(x + π) - 1 over two cycles.
What are the vertical displacement, amplitude, period, phase shift,
domain, and range for the function?
Example 4
Determine an Equation From a Graph
The graph shows the function y
y = f (x). 4
a) Write the equation of the
function in the form 2
Solution
a) Determine the values of the y
parameters a, b, c, and d. 4
a=2
Locate the sinusoidal axis d=2
2
or mid-line. Its position
determines the value of d. x
-π
_ 0 π
_ 2π
__ π 4π
__ 5π
__ 2π
Thus, d = 2. 3 3 3 3 3
Amplitude = maximum
_______ value - minimum value
2
a= 4
__- 0
2
a=2
The amplitude is 2.
Locate the start of the first cycle of the sine curve to the right of the
y-axis. Thus, c = _π.
6
Substitute the values of the parameters a = 2, b = 3, c = _ π,
6
and d = 2 into the equation y = a sin b(x - c) + d.
-π
_ 0 π
_ 2π
__ π 4π
__ 5π
__ 2πx
3 3 3 3 3
-2
The equation of the function in the How do the two equations compare?
form y = a cos b(x - c) + d is Could other equations define the
π + 2. function y = f(x)?
(
y = 2 cos 3 x - _
3 )
c) Enter the functions on a graphing calculator. Compare the graphs to
the original and to each other.
The graphs confirm that the equations for the function are correct.
Your Turn
The graph shows the function y = f (x).
y
0 π
_ 2π
__ π x
3 3
-2
a) Write the equation of the function in the form y = a sin b(x - c) + d, a > 0.
b) Write the equation of the function in the form y = a cos b(x - c) + d, a > 0.
c) Use technology to verify your solutions.
Solution
a) d Depth of Berths for Prince Rupert Harbour
20
16
Depth (m)
12
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 t
Time (h)
π
b) Use b = _ to determine the period.
6
2π
Period = _
|b|
_
Period = 2π
π
_
6 | |
Period = 12
The period for the tides is 12 h. What does the period of 12 h represent?
Your Turn
The depth, d, in metres, of the water in the harbour at New Westminster,
2π t + 3.7,
British Columbia, is approximated by the equation d(t) = 0.6 cos _
13
where t is the time, in hours, after the first high tide.
a) Graph the function for two cycles starting at t = 0.
b) What is the period of the tide?
c) If a boat requires a minimum of 3.5 m of water to launch safely, for
how many hours per cycle can the boat safely launch?
d) What is the depth of the water at 7 h? At what other times is the water
level at this depth? Explain your solution.
You can determine the amplitude, period, phase shift, and vertical
displacement of sinusoidal functions when the equation of the function
is given in the form y = a sin b(x - c) + d or y = a cos b(x - c) + d.
For: y = a sin b(x - c) + d
How does changing each
y = a cos b(x - c) + d parameter affect the graph of
a function?
y
3 2π
__
|b|
2 a
c
1
d
-π
_ 0 π
_ π
_ 3π
__ π 5π
__ 3π
__ 7π
__ x
4 4 2 4 4 2 4
-1
e) y = 4 cos (x - π) + 4 d) y = sin x + 1
π A y
(
f) y = 3 cos 2x - _ + 7
6 ) 2
3. a) Determine the range of each function.
π
2(
i) y = 3 cos x - _ + 5 ) -π
_
2
0 π
_
2
π 3π
__
2
2π x
ii) y = -2 sin (x + π) - 3 y
B
iii) y = 1.5 sin x + 4 2
2 3
iv) y = _ cos (x + 50°) + _ x
3 4 -π
_ 0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π
2 2 2
b) Describe how to determine the range -2
when given a function of the form
C y
y = a cos b(x - c) + d or
y = a sin b(x - c) + d. x
-π
_ 0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π
2 2 2
-2
D y
2
π 0 π π 3π 2π x
-_ _ __
2 2 2
-2
c) f (x) + 3
-2
d) f (x) - 4
13. The range of a trigonometric function -3
x
-π
_ 0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π 5π
__ 3π
2 2 2 2
-1
c) y
0 π 2π 3π 4π 5π x
diagram from 0 ≤ t ≤ 5.
a g(x) = 5 cos x
20 cm
C4 The equation of a sine function can
be expressed in the form
y = a sin b(x - c) + d. Determine
the values of the parameters a, b, c,
8 cm
and/or d, where a > 0 and b > 0, for
b) Determine the position of the pendulum
each of the following to be true.
after 6 s. Express your answer to the
a) The period is greater than 2π.
nearest tenth of a centimetre.
b) The amplitude is greater than 1 unit.
Create Connections c) The graph passes through the origin.
C1 Consider a sinusoidal function of the d) The graph has no x-intercepts.
form y = a sin b(x - c) + d. Describe the
e) The graph has a y-intercept of a.
effect that each of the parameters a, b, c,
f) The length of one cycle is 120°.
and d has on the graph of the function.
Compare this to what you learned in
Chapter 1 Function Transformations.
Did Yo u Know ?
θ
0 1 unit x 0 90° 180° 270° 360° θ
-1
θ A(1, 0)
0 1 unit x
The value of the tangent of an angle θ is the slope of the line passing
through the origin and the point on the unit circle (cos θ, sin θ).
You can think of it as the slope of the terminal arm of angle θ in
standard position.
sin θ When sin θ = 0, what is tan θ? Explain.
tan θ = _ When cos θ = 0, what is tan θ? Explain.
cos θ
The tangent ratio is the length of the line segment tangent to the unit
circle at the point A(1, 0) from the x-axis to the terminal arm of angle
θ at point Q.
From the diagram, the distance AQ is equal to the y-coordinate of
point Q. Therefore, point Q has coordinates (1, tan θ).
y
P(cos θ, sin θ)
Q(1, tan θ)
How could you show
that the coordinates
θ A(1, 0) of Q are (1, tan θ)?
0 1 x
Solution
The function y = tan θ is known as the tangent function. Using the unit
circle, you can plot values of y against the corresponding values of θ.
Between asymptotes, the graph of y = tan θ passes through a point with
y-coordinate -1, a θ-intercept, and a point with y-coordinate 1.
y Period
8
3π -π π 0 π π 3π θ
- __ -_ _ __
2 2 2 2
-2
-4
-6
-8
Example 2
Model a Problem Using the Tangent Function
A small plane is flying at a constant altitude of 6000 m Why is this
directly toward an observer. Assume that the ground is assumption
made?
flat in the region close to the observer.
a) Determine the relation between the horizontal distance,
in metres, from the observer to the plane and the angle, in
degrees, formed from the vertical to the plane.
b) Sketch the graph of the function.
c) Where are the asymptotes located in this graph? What do
they represent?
d) Explain what happens when the angle is equal to 0°.
Solution
a) Draw a diagram to model the situation.
Let d represent the horizontal distance from the observer to the plane.
Let θ represent the angle formed by the vertical and the line of sight to
the plane.
plane
d
6000 m
θ
observer
tan θ = _ d
6000
d = 6000 tan θ
16000
12000
8000
4000
d = 6000 tan θ
—8000
—12000
—16000
d) When the angle is equal to 0°, the plane is directly over the head of
the observer. The horizontal distance is 0 m.
Your Turn
A small plane is flying at a constant altitude of 5000 m directly
toward an observer. Assume the ground is flat in the region close
to the observer.
a) Sketch the graph of the function that represents the relation between
the horizontal distance, in metres, from the observer to the plane and
the angle, in degrees, formed by the vertical and the line of sight to
the plane.
b) Use the characteristics of the tangent function to describe what
happens to the graph as the plane flies from the right of the observer
to the left of the observer.
You can use asymptotes and three How can you y y = tan x
points to sketch one cycle of a tangent determine the
8
location of the
function. To graph y = tan x, draw one asymptotes for 6
asymptote; draw the points where the function
y = -1, y = 0, and y = 1; and then y = tan x? 4
draw another asymptote.
2
The tangent function y = tan x has the following
characteristics: x
-π
_ 0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π 5π
__
The period is π. 2 2 2 2
-2
The graph has no maximum or minimum values.
-4
The range is {y | y ∈ R}.
-6
π + nπ, n ∈ I.
Vertical asymptotes occur at x = _
2 -8
π
The domain is x | x ≠ _
{
2 }
+ nπ, x ∈ R, n ∈ I .
The x-intercepts occur at x = nπ, n ∈ I.
The y-intercept is 0.
Practise c) y
1. For each diagram, determine tan θ and the
value of θ, in degrees. Express your answer
θ
to the nearest tenth, when necessary.
0 1 x
a) y
Q(1, 1)
θ Q(1, -1.7)
0 1 x
d) y
Q(1, 1)
θ
b) y
0 1 x
0 1 x
Q(1, -1.7)
-4
6. Point P(x, y) is plotted where the terminal
-6
arm of angle θ intersects the unit circle.
-8 a) Use P(x, y) to determine the slope of
the terminal arm.
π b) Explain how your result from part a)
a) tan _
2 is related to tan θ.
b) tan
3π
_ c) Write your results for the slope from
4
7π part a) in terms of sine and cosine.
(
c) tan - _
4 ) d) From your answer in part c), explain
d) tan 0 how you could determine tan θ when
the coordinates of point P are known.
e) tan π
7. Consider the unit circle shown.
5π
f) tan _ y
4
3. Does y = tan x have an amplitude? B(0,1)
P(x, y) = (cos θ, sin θ)
Explain.
1
4. Use graphing technology to graph y
A’(-1, 0) θ A(1, 0)
y = tan x using the following window
0 x M x
settings: x: [-360°, 360°, 30°] and
y: [-3, 3, 1]. Trace along the graph to
locate the value of tan x when x = 60°.
B’(0, -1)
Predict the other values of x that will
produce the same value for tan x within
the given domain. Verify your predictions. a) From
POM, write the ratio for tan θ.
b) Use cos θ and sin θ to write the ratio
for tan θ.
c) Explain how your answers from parts a)
and b) are related.
Start
Distance
4. Create a scatterplot of distance versus time. Draw a smooth curve D i d You K n ow?
connecting the points.
A scatter plot is the
5. Write a function for the resulting curve. result of plotting
6. a) From your initial starting position, move the marker around the data that can be
represented as
circle in a counterclockwise direction for 3 s. Measure the vertical
ordered pairs on
distance of the marker from the tangent line. Label this point on
a graph.
your graph.
b) Continue to move the marker around the circle to a point that is
the same distance as the distance you recorded in part a). Label
this point on your graph.
c) How do these two points relate to your function in step 5?
d) How do the measured and calculated distances compare?
7. Repeat step 6 for other positions on the circle.
Solution
Method 1: Solve Graphically
Graph the related function f(x) = 2 cos2x -1.
Use the graphing window [0, 360, 30] by [-2, 2, 1].
Your Turn
Determine the solutions for the trigonometric equation 4 sin2 x - 3 = 0
for the interval 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
Your Turn
Determine the general solutions for the trigonometric equation
π x + 8.
10 = 6 sin _
4
c) How many times does the voltage reach 110 V in the first second? is the RMS voltage
for Canada?
6.12 9.36 12.36 15.69 18.88 20.83 18.95 15.69 12.41 9.24 6.05 4.34
Solution
a) Graph the data as a scatter plot.
c) The maximum value is 20.83, and the minimum value is 4.34. Use these
values to find the amplitude and the equation of the sinusoidal axis.
Amplitude = maximum
_______ value - minimum value
2
|a| = 20.83
___ - 4.34
2
|a| = 8.245
365 = _ 2π
|b|
b=_ 2π Choose b to be positive.
365
Determine the phase shift, the value of c. For h(t) = -cos t the
minimum value occurs at t = 0. For the daylight hours curve, the
actual minimum occurs at day 355, which represents a 10-day shift to
the left. Therefore, c = -10.
The number of hours of daylight, h, on the day of the year, t,
2π (t + 10) + 12.585.
is given by the function h(t) = -8.245 cos _(
365 )
d) Graph the function in the same window as your scatter plot.
e) Use the value feature of the calculator or substitute the values into
the equation of the function.
9.62 10.87 12.20 13.64 14.79 15.28 14.81 13.64 12.22 10.82 9.59 9.08
Key Ideas
4
b) Determine the general solution for y=3
sin x = 0. 2
c) Determine the solutions for sin 3x = 0
in the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π. 0 60° 120° 180° 240° 300° 360° x
8
model the temperature for Winnipeg.
6
d) Graph your model. How well does
4 your model fit the data?
e) For how long in a 12-month period
2
does Winnipeg have a temperature
greater than or equal to 16 °C?
0 8 16 24 x
Elapsed Time (h) 17. An electric heater turns on and off on a
cyclic basis as it heats the water in a hot
a) Determine the maximum and minimum tub. The water temperature, T, in degrees
heights of the Sun above the horizon in Celsius, varies sinusoidally with time, t,
terms of Sun widths. in minutes. The heater turns on when the
temperature of the water reaches 34 °C
b) What is the period?
and turns off when the water temperature
c) Determine the sinusoidal equation that is 43 °C. Suppose the water temperature
models the midnight Sun. drops to 34 °C and the heater turns on.
After another 30 min the heater turns off,
D id Yo u Know ?
and then after another 30 min the heater
In 2010, a study showed that the Sun’s width, or starts again.
diameter, is a steady 1 500 000 km. The researchers
a) Write the equation that expresses
discovered over a 12-year period that the diameter
changed by less than 1 km. temperature as a function of time.
b) Determine the temperature 10 min
after the heater first turns on.
0 Time
Extend
22. An investment company invests the money
it receives from investors on a collective
basis, and each investor shares in the
profits and losses. One company has an
annual cash flow that has fluctuated in
cycles of approximately 40 years since
1920, when it was at a high point. The
highs were approximately +20% of
the total assets, while the lows were
approximately -10% of the total assets. a) If the distance for a turn, to the left or
to the right, from the midline is 1.2 m,
a) Model this cash flow as a cosine
determine the function that models the
function of the time, in years,
path of the skier.
with t = 0 representing 1920.
b) How would the function change if the
b) Graph the function from part a).
skier made only eight turns in the same
c) Determine the cash flow for the 20-s interval?
company in 2008.
d) Based on your model, do you feel that Create Connections
this is a company you would invest C1 a) When is it best to use a sine function
with? Explain. as a model?
b) When is it best to use a cosine
function as a model?
C2 a) Which of the parameters in
y = a sin b(x - c) + d has the
greatest influence on the graph of the
function? Explain your reasoning.
b) Which of the parameters in
y = a cos b(x - c) + d has the
greatest influence on the graph of the
function? Explain your reasoning.
function.
c) State the phase shift of the function 11. a) Write the equation of the sine function
y = cos b(x - π). with amplitude 4, period π, phase
d) State the phase shift of the function π units to the right, and vertical
shift _
y = cos (bx - π). 3
displacement 5 units down.
b) Write the equation of the cosine
function with amplitude 0.5, period
π units to the left, and
4π, phase shift _
6
vertical displacement 1 unit up.
c) Write the equation of the sine function
with amplitude _ 2 , period 540°, no
3
phase shift, and vertical displacement
5 units down.
2. What are the phase shift, period, and III The value of b determines the number
amplitude, respectively, for the function of cycles within the distance of 2π.
π + 1? IV The values of a and b are vertical and
(
f (x) = 3 sin 2 x - _
3 ) horizontal stretches.
A _π , 3, π π
B π, _ , 3
3 3 Monique’s correct statements are
C 3, , π
π
_ D
π
_ , π, 3 A I, II, III, and IV
3 3
3. Two functions are given as B I only
π and g(x) = cos (x - a).
(
f (x) = sin x - _
4) C I, II, and III only
Determine the smallest positive value for a D I, II, and IV only
so that the graphs are identical. 7. The graph shows how the height of a
π π 3π 5π
A _ B _ C _ D _ bicycle pedal changes as the bike is
4 2 4 4
pedalled at a constant speed. How would
4. A cosine curve has a maximum point at the graph change if the bicycle were
(3, 14). The nearest minimum point to pedalled at a greater constant speed?
the right of this maximum point is (8, 2).
Which of the following is a possible
equation for this curve? 50
Height of Pedal (cm)
2π
A y = 6 cos _ (x + 3) + 8
5 40
B y = 6 cos
2π
_ (x - 3) + 8 30
5
π
C y = 6 cos _ (x + 3) + 8 20
5
π
_
D y = 6 cos (x - 3) + 8 10
5
5. The graph of a sinusoidal function is 0 10 20 30
shown. A possible equation for the Time (s)
function is
y A The height of the function would
2 increase.
B The height of the function would
0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π θ decrease.
2 2
-2
C The period of the function would
1 decrease.
A y = 2 cos _ θ B y = 2 sin 2θ
2 D The period of the function would
C y = 2 cos 2θ
1
D y = 2 sin _ θ
2 increase.
graphically. -4
π
( )
a) sin _ (x - 1) = 0.5, general solution in
3
radians a) Determine a function for the graph in
b) 4 cos (15(x + 30°)) + 1 = -2, general the form y = a sin b(x - c) + d.
solution in degrees b) Determine a function for the graph in
the form y = a cos b(x - c) + d.
Extended Response 17. A student is investigating the effects of
14. Compare and contrast the two graphs of
changing the values of the parameters
sinusoidal functions. a, b, c, and d in the function
y = a sin b(x - c) + d. The student
I y
graphs the following functions:
2
A f (x) = sin x
B g(x) = 2 sin x
-2 -1 0 1 2x
-2 C h(x) = sin 2x
D k(x) = sin (2x + 2)
II y E m(x) = sin 2x + 2
6 Trigonometric
Identities
Trigonometric functions are used to model
behaviour in the physical world. You can
model projectile motion, such as the path of
a thrown javelin or a lobbed tennis ball with
trigonometry. Sometimes equivalent expressions
for trigonometric functions can be substituted to
allow scientists to analyse data or solve a problem
more efficiently. In this chapter, you will explore
equivalent trigonometric expressions.
Did Yo u Know ?
Elizabeth Gleadle, of
Vancouver, British Columbia,
holds the Canadian women’s
javelin record, with a distance
of 58.21 m thrown in
July 2009.
Key Terms
trigonometric identity
We b Link
To learn
earn more about
ab kinesiology and a career as an
athletic therapist, go to www.mcgrawhill.ca/school/
learningcentres and follow the links.
Materials 1. Graph the curves y = sin x and y = cos x tan x over the domain
• graphing technology -360° ≤ x < 360°. Graph the curves on separate grids using the
same range and scale. What do you notice?
The equation sin x = cos x tan x that you explored in the investigation
is an example of a trigonometric identity. Both sides of the equation trigonometric
have the same value for all permissible values of x. In other words, when identity
the expressions on either side of the equal sign are evaluated for any • a trigonometric
permissible value, the resulting values are equal. Trigonometric identities equation that is true
for all permissible
can be verified both numerically and graphically.
values of the variable
You are familiar with two groups of identities from your earlier work in the expressions
on both sides of the
with trigonometry: the reciprocal identities and the quotient identity. equation
Reciprocal Identities
1 1 1
csc x = _ sec x = _ cot x = _
sin x cos x tan x
Quotient Identities
sin x cos x
tan x = _ cot x = _
cos x sin x
Example 1
Verify a Potential Identity Numerically and Graphically
a) Determine the non-permissible values, in degrees, for the equation
tan θ .
sec θ = _
sin θ
π
b) Numerically verify that θ = 60° and θ = _ are solutions of the
4
equation.
c) Use technology to graphically decide whether the equation could be
an identity over the domain -360° < θ ≤ 360°.
Solution
a) To determine the non-permissible values, assess each trigonometric
function in the equation individually and examine expressions that may
have non-permissible values. Visualize the graphs of y = sin x, y = cos x
and y = tan x to help you determine the non-permissible values.
b) Substitute θ = 60°.
Left Side = sec θ tan θ
Right Side = _
sin θ
= sec 60° Why does substituting
tan
= __ 60°
= __ 1 60° in both sides
cos 60° sin 60° of the equation not
__
1 √3
_ prove that the identity
=_ = __
is true?
0.5 √3
_
=2 2
=2
Left Side = Right Side
The equation sec θ = _ tan θ is true for θ = 60°.
sin θ
π
Substitute θ = _ .
4
Left Side = sec θ Right Side = _ tan θ
π sin θ
= sec _ π
4 tan _
__ 4
= __ 1 = π
π sin _
cos _ 4
4
_ 1
=_ 1 =
_1__
_1__
√2
√2
__ __
= √2 = √2
Left Side = Right Side
The equation sec θ = _ tan θ is true for θ = _ π.
sin θ 4
Your Turn
a) Determine the non-permissible values, in degrees, for the equation
cot x = _cos x .
sin x
π
b) Verify that x = 45° and x = _ are solutions to the equation.
6
c) Use technology to graphically decide whether the equation could be
an identity over the domain -360° < x ≤ 360°.
Example 2
Use Identities to Simplify Expressions
a) Determine the non-permissible values, in radians, of the variable in
the expression ___cot x
csc x cos x .
b) Simplify the expression.
Solution
a) The trigonometric functions cot x and csc x both have non-permissible
values in their domains.
For cot x, x ≠ πn, where n ∈ I. Why are these the non-permissible
For csc x, x ≠ πn, where n ∈ I. values for both reciprocal functions?
Your Turn
a) Determine the non-permissible values, in radians, of the variable in
sec x .
the expression _
tan x
b) Simplify the expression.
Pythagorean Identity
Recall that point P on the terminal arm of an angle θ in standard position
has coordinates (cos θ, sin θ). Consider a right triangle with a hypotenuse
of 1 and legs of cos θ and sin θ.
P(cos θ, sin θ)
θ
0 1 x
The hypotenuse is 1 because it is the radius of the unit circle. Apply the
Pythagorean theorem in the right triangle to establish the Pythagorean
identity:
x2 + y 2 = 12
cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1
Solution
π
a) Substitute x = _ .
6
2
Left Side = cot x + 1 Right Side = csc2 x
= cot2 _ π +1 = csc2 _π
6 6
= __ 1 = __ 1
tan π + 1
2 _
sin2 _ π
6 6
= __ 1 +1 = _ 1
__1__ 1 2
_
(√3 )2 2 ( )
__ 2
2
= (√3 ) + 1 = 2
=4 =4
Left Side = Right Side
The equation cot2 x + 1 = csc2 x is true when x = _ π.
6
b) cos2 x + sin2 x = 1
Since this identity is true for all permissible values of x, you can
multiply both sides by __ 1 , x ≠ πn, where n ∈ I.
sin2 x
1 1 1 Why multiply both sides
sin x )
( __2
cos2
x + __(
sin2 x ) (
sin2 x = __
sin2 x
1 ) by
__ 1
? How else could
sin2 x
cos2 x + 1 = __
__ 1 you simplify this equation?
sin2 x sin2 x
cot2 x + 1 = csc2 x
Your Turn
3π
a) Verify the equation 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x numerically for x = _ .
4
b) Express the Pythagorean identity cos2 x + sin2 x = 1 as the equivalent
identity 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x.
θ=_ π?
6
c) What percent of light is lost when R θ
θ = 60°?
We b Link
To learn
earn more about
ab Guilloché patterns, go to www.
mcgrawhill.ca/school/learningcentres and follow the links.
In the investigation, you discovered the angle sum identities for sine and
cosine. These identities can be used to determine the angle sum identity
for tangent.
The angle sum identities for sine, cosine, and tangent can be used to
determine angle difference identities for sine, cosine, and tangent.
For sine,
sin (A - B) = sin (A + (-B))
= sin A cos (-B) + cos A sin (-B)
= sin A cos B + cos A (-sin B) Why is cos (-B) = cos B?
= sin A cos B - cos A sin B Why is sin (-B) = -sin B?
We b Link
To see a derivat
derivation The three angle difference identities are
of the difference
cos (A - B), go to
sin (A - B) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B
www.mcgrawhill.ca/ cos (A - B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
school/learningcentres tan A - tan B
and follow the links.
tan (A - B) = ___
1 + tan A tan B
Example 1
Simplify Expressions Using Sum, Difference, and Double-Angle
Identities
Write each expression as a single trigonometric function.
a) sin 48° cos 17° - cos 48° sin 17°
π π
b) cos2 _ - sin2 _
3 3
Solution
a) The expression sin 48° cos 17° - cos 48° sin 17° has the
same form as the right side of the difference identity for sine,
sin (A - B) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B.
Thus,
sin 48° cos 17° - cos 48° sin 17° = sin (48° - 17°)
= sin 31°
π π
b) The expression cos2 _ - sin2 _ has the same form as the right side of
3 3
the double-angle identity for cosine, cos 2A = cos2 A - sin2 A.
Therefore,
π - sin2 _
π = cos 2 _π
cos2 _
3 3 ( ( ))
3
How could you use technology
to verify these solutions?
= cos 2π
_
3
Your Turn
Write each expression as a single trigonometric function.
a) cos 88° cos 35° + sin 88° sin 35°
π
b) 2 sin _ cos _
π
12 12
Solution
An identity for cos 2A is cos 2A = cos2 A - sin2 A.
Write an equivalent expression for the term containing sin A.
Use the Pythagorean identity, cos2 A + sin2 A = 1.
Substitute sin2 A = 1 - cos2 A to obtain another form of the double-angle
identity for cosine.
cos 2A = cos2 A - sin2 A
= cos2 A - (1 - cos2 A)
= cos2 A - 1 + cos2 A
= 2 cos2 A - 1
Your Turn
Determine an identity for cos 2A that contains only the sine ratio.
Example 3
Simplify Expressions Using Identities
Consider the expression 1 - cos 2x .
__
sin 2x
a) What are the permissible values for the expression?
b) Simplify the expression to one of the three primary trigonometric
functions.
c) Verify your answer from part b), in the interval [0, 2π), using
technology.
Solution
a) Identify any non-permissible values. The expression is undefined
when sin 2x = 0.
Method 1: Simplify the Double Angle
Use the double-angle identity for sine to simplify sin 2x first.
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x
2 sin x cos x ≠ 0
So, sin x ≠ 0 and cos x ≠ 0.
sin x = 0 when x = πn, where n ∈ I.
cos x = 0 when x = _ π + πn, where n ∈ I.
2
When these two sets of non-permissible values are combined, the
permissible values for the expression are all real numbers except
x≠_ πn , where n ∈ I.
2
Your Turn
Consider the expression __ sin 2x .
cos 2x + 1
a) What are the permissible values for the expression?
b) Simplify the expression to one of the three primary trigonometric
functions.
c) Verify your answer from part b), in the interval [0, 2π), using
technology.
Solution
a) Use the difference identity for sine with two special angles.
For example, because _ π =_ 3π - _2π , use _π -_ π.
12 12 12 4 6
π π
π = sin _ π -_ π The special angles _ and _ could also
sin _
12 (4 6 ) be used.
3 4
π cos _ π - cos _ π
π sin _ Use sin (A - B)
= sin _ = sin A cos B - cos A sin B.
__
4 __ 6 __
4 6
√
( )( ) ( )( )
2
= _ _ - _ _
2
__
√
2
3
__
√ 2 1
2 2
√6 √2
=_-_
4__ 4__
√ 6 - √ 2 How could you verify this answer with
= __ a calculator?
4
b) Method 1: Use the Difference Identity for Tangent
Rewrite tan 105° as a difference of special angles.
tan 105° = tan (135° - 30°) Are there other ways of writing 105° as the
sum or difference of two special angles?
-1 - _ 1__
__ √3
= Simplify.
1-_ 1__
√3
1__
(
-1 - _
)(
__
= __
_
1 - __
√3
1 - √
3
-√__
_
3 )Multiply
__ numerator and denominator
by -√3 .
√3
__
√ 3 + 1 How could you rationalize the
= __ __
denominator?
1- 3 √
=
( )( ) ( )
2 2
√3
_
_____
__
(2) 2
__ __
√2
_ 1
+ _
√2
_
( 12 )( 22 ) - ( 23 )( 22 )
_ √
_ √
_ √
_
__ __
√6
_ √2
+_
4__
= __ 4__
√2
_ √6
_
-
4 4
__ __
= ( √6 + √2
__
4 )( __ 4 __
__
√2 - √6 )
__ __
√6 + √2
__ How could you verify that
= __ __
this is the same answer as in
√2 - √6
Method 1?
Your Turn
Use a sum or difference identity to find the exact values of
a) cos 165° b) tan _
11π
12
Key Ideas
You can use the sum and difference identities to simplify expressions and to
determine exact trigonometric values for some angles.
Sum Identities Difference Identities
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B sin (A - B) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B
cos (A + B) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B cos (A - B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
tan A + tan B tan A - tan B
tan (A + B) = ___ tan (A - B) = ___
1 - tan A tan B 1 + tan A tan B
The double-angle identities are special cases of the sum identities when the
two angles are equal. The double-angle identity for cosine can be expressed
in three forms using the Pythagorean identity, cos2 A + sin2 A = 1.
Double-Angle Identities
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A cos 2A = cos2 A - sin2 A 2 tan A
tan 2A = __
1 - tan2 A
cos 2A = 2 cos2 A - 1
cos 2A = 1 - 2 sin2 A
Example 1
Verify Versus Prove That an Equation Is an Identity
a) Verify that 1 - sin2 x = sin x cos x cot x for some values of x.
Determine the non-permissible values for x. Work in degrees.
b) Prove that 1 - sin2 x = sin x cos x cot x for all permissible values of x.
Solution
a) First, determine the non-permissible values.
The only function in the equation that has non-permissible values in
its domain is cot x.
Recall that cot x is undefined when sin x = 0.
Therefore, x ≠ 180°n, where n ∈ I.
Verify the identity graphically and numerically.
Method 1: Verify Graphically
Use technology to graph y = 1 - sin2 x and y = sin x cos x cot x
over the domain -360° ≤ x ≤ 360°. The graphs appear to be the
same. So, graphically, it seems that 1 - sin2 x = sin x cos x cot x
is an identity.
Example 2
Prove an Identity Using Double-Angle Identities
Prove that tan x = 1
__- cos 2x is an identity for all permissible values of x.
sin 2x
Solution
Left Side = tan x Right Side = 1__ - cos 2x
sin 2x
- (1 - 2 sin2 x) Recall the
1____
= double-angle
2 sin x cos x identities.
= ___ 2 sin2 x
2 sin x cos x
_sin x
= cos Remove common
x factors.
= tan x
Left Side = Right Side
Therefore, tan x = - cos 2x is an identity for all permissible values of x.
1
__
sin 2x
Your Turn
Prove that __sin 2x = tan x is an identity for all permissible values of x.
cos 2x + 1
Example 3
Prove More Complicated Identities
Prove that 1 - cos x = __
__ sin x is an identity for all permissible
sin x 1 + cos x
values of x.
Solution
Left Side = 1__- cos x
sin x
Right Side = __ sin x
1 + cos x
sin x How does multiplying by 1 - cos x,
= __ × 1__- cos x
1 + cos x 1 - cos x which is the conjugate of 1 + cos x,
sin x (1 - cos x) let you express the denominator in
= ____ terms of sin x?
1 - cos2 x
sin x (1 - cos x)
= ____
sin2 x
= 1__- cos x
sin x
Left Side = Right Side
Therefore, 1 - cos x = __
__ sin x is an identity for all permissible
sin x 1 + cos x
values of x.
Your Turn
Prove that __ 1 = sec x - sin x sec x is an identity for all
____
cos x
1 + sin x
permissible values of x.
Solution
Left Side = cot x - csc x Right Side = cos
___ 2x - cos x
cos x - _ 1 sin 2x + sin x
=_ (2 cos2 x - 1) - cos x Why is 2 cos2 x - 1
sin x sin x = ____ substituted for
2 sin x cos x + sin x
= cos
__ x-1 cos 2x?
sin x cos2 x - cos x - 1
= 2____
sin x (2 cos x + 1)
(2 cos x + 1)(cos x - 1)
= _____
sin x (2 cos x + 1)
cos
= __ x-1
sin x
Left Side = Right Side
Therefore, cot x - csc x = cos
___ 2x - cos x is an identity for all
sin 2x + sin x
permissible values of x.
Your Turn
2
2x - cos x = sin x cos x + cos3 x
Prove the identity sin
___
2
____ for all
4 sin x - 1 2 sin x + 1
permissible values of x.
Key Ideas
Verifying an identity using a specific value validates that it is true for that value
only. Proving an identity is done algebraically and validates the identity for all
permissible values of the variable.
To prove a trigonometric identity algebraically, separately simplify both sides of
the identity into identical expressions.
It is usually easier to make a complicated expression simpler than it is to make a
simple expression more complicated.
Some strategies that may help you prove identities include:
Use known identities to make substitutions.
If quadratics are present, the Pythagorean identity or one of its alternate forms
can often be used.
Rewrite the expression using sine and cosine only.
Multiply the numerator and the denominator by the conjugate of an expression.
Factor to simplify expressions.
Practise Apply
1. Factor and simplify each rational 8. As the first step of proving the
trigonometric expression. identity cos
__ 2x - 1 = -tan x, Hanna chose
sin 2x
sin x - sin x cos2 x
a) ____ to substitute cos 2x = 1 - 2 sin2 x, while
sin2 x
2 Chloe chose cos 2x = 2 cos2 x - 1. Which
cos x - cos x - 2
b) ____
6 cos x - 12 choice leads to a shorter proof? Explain.
sin
____ x cos x - sin x Prove the identity.
c)
cos2 x - 1 9. The distance, d, in metres, that a golf ball
2
tan x - 3 tan x - 4
d) ____ travels when struck by a golf club is given
sin x tan x + sin x
(v0)2 sin 2θ
2. Use factoring to help to prove each identity by the formula d = __ g , where v0
for all permissible values of x. is the initial velocity of the ball, θ is the
a) cos x + cos x tan2 x = sec x angle between the ground and the initial
2
sin x - cos x 2 path of the ball, and g is the acceleration
b) ___ = sin x - cos x
sin x + cos x due to gravity (9.8 m/s2).
c)
sin
____x cos x - sin x = 1 - cos x
__
cos2 x - 1 sin x
____ 1 - sin2
x 1 + sin x
d) = ___
1 + 2 sin x - 3 sin2 x 1 + 3 sin x
3. Use a common denominator to express the
rational expressions as a single term.
a) _
sin x
cos x + sec x
1
b) __ + __
1
sin x - 1 sin x + 1
sin x
c) __ + _
cos x
1 + cos x sin x a) What distance, in metres, does the ball
cos x cos x travel if its initial velocity is 21 m/s and
d) __ + __
sec x - 1 sec x + 1 the angle θ is 55°?
sec x - cos x
4. a) Rewrite the expression ___ in b) Prove the identity
tan x (v )2 sin 2θ 2(v )2(1 - cos2 θ)
terms of sine and cosine functions only. __
0
= ____
0
.
g g tan θ
b) Simplify the expression to one of the 10. Verify each potential identity by graphing,
primary trigonometric functions. and then prove the identity.
sin 2x
5. Verify graphically that cos x = __ csc x
2 sin x a) __ = csc 2x
2 cos x
could be an identity. Then, prove the sin x cos x 1 - cos x
identity. Determine any non-permissible b) __ = __
1 + cos x tan x
values. sin x + tan x
c) ___ = sin 2x
__
6. Expand and simplify the expression 1 + cos x 2 cos2 x
(sec x - tan x)(sin x + 1) to a primary 11. Prove each identity.
trigonometric function. sin 2x cos 2x
a) __ + __ = csc x
cos x sin x
7. Prove each identity.
csc x b) csc2 x + sec2 x = csc2 x sec2 x
a) __ = csc 2x cot x - 1 csc x
2 cos x c) __ = _
b) sin x + cos x cot x = csc x 1 - tan x sec x
(
n1 cos θi - n2 1 - _ √ ( )
)
1 2
a) Determine the non-permissible values n2 sin θi
= ______ _______________
for x.
n 2
b) Prove that the equation is an identity
for all permissible values of x.
1 i 2 √ (n )
n cos θ + n 1 - _1 sin2 θ
2
i
D i d You K n ow ?
Extend Fresnel equations were developed by French
16. Use double-angle identities to prove the physicist Augustin-Jean Fresnel (1788—1827). A
identity tan x = ___sin 4x - sin 2x . Fresnel lens is also named for him, and is a common
cos 4x + cos 2x lens in lights used for movies, TV, and live theatre.
A new use for Fresnel lenses is to focus light
17. Verify graphically and then prove the
in a solar array to allow for much more efficient
identity __ sin 2x = 2 csc 2x - tan x. collection of solar energy.
1 - cos 2x
18. Prove the identity
- sin2 x - 2 cos x = __
1____ 1 . Create Connections
cos2 x - cos x - 2 1 + sec x
19. When a ray of light hits a lens at angle of C1 Why is verifying, either numerically or
incidence θi , some of the light is refracted graphically, that both sides of an equation
(bent) as it passes through the lens, and some seem to be equal not sufficient to prove
is reflected by the lens. In the diagram, θr is that the equation is an identity?
the angle of reflection and θt is the angle of C2 Use the difference identity for cosine to
refraction. Fresnel equations describe the π - x = sin x.
behaviour of light in this situation.
prove the identity cos _
2 ( )
C3 Consider the equation
__________
light source lens
cos x = √1 - sin2 x .
a) What are the non-permissible values for
θi x in this equation?
θr θt b) What is a value for x that makes this
equation true?
c) What is a value for x that does not work
in this equation and provides evidence
a) Snells’s law states that n1 sin θi = n2 sin θt,
that this equation is not an identity?
where n1 and n2 are the refractive
d) Explain the difference between an
indices of the mediums. Isolate sin θt in
this equation. identity and an equation.
Did Yo u Know ?
Example 1
Solve by Substituting Trigonometric Identities and Factoring
Solve each equation algebraically over the domain 0 ≤ x < 2π.
a) cos 2x + 1 - cos x = 0
b) 1 - cos2 x = 3 sin x - 2
Solution
a) cos 2x + 1 - cos x = 0 Why is this version of the identity for
(2 cos2 x - 1) + 1 - cos x = 0 cos 2x chosen?
2
2 cos x - cos x = 0 Simplify.
cos x (2 cos x - 1) = 0 Factor.
cos x = 0 or 2 cos x - 1 = 0 Use the zero
π
_ 3π
_ 1
_ product property.
x= or x = or cos x =
2 2 2
x=_ π or x = _ 5π
3 3
There are no non-permissible values for the original equation, so the
solutions over the domain 0 ≤ x < 2π are x = _ π, x = _ π, x = _ 3π , and
3 2 2
x=_ 5π .
3
b) 1 - cos2 x = 3 sin x - 2
sin2 x = 3 sin x - 2 Use the Pythagorean identity.
2
sin x - 3 sin x + 2 = 0
(sin x - 1)(sin x - 2) = 0 Use the zero product property.
sin x - 1 = 0 or sin x - 2 = 0
sin x = 1 sin x = 2
x=_ π sin x = 2 has no solution.
2
Why is there no solution for sin x = 2?
Your Turn
Solve each equation algebraically over the domain 0 ≤ x < 2π.
a) sin 2x - cos x = 0
b) 2 cos x + 1 - sin2 x = 3
Solution
a) cos2 x = cot x sin x What is the quotient identity for cot x?
cos x sin x
(
cos2 x = _
sin x)
cos2 x = cos x Why is it incorrect to divide by cos x here?
cos2 x - cos x = 0
cos x (cos x - 1) = 0 Factor.
cos x = 0 or cos x = 1 Apply the zero product property.
b) Graph y = cos2 x and y = cot x sin x over the domain 0° ≤ x < 360°.
Determine the points of intersection of the two functions.
Your Turn
1
a) Solve the equation sin2 x = _ tan x cos x algebraically
2
over the domain 0° ≤ x < 360°.
b) Verify your answer graphically.
Solution __
sin 2x 2 cos x
= √__
2 sin __
x cos x = √2 cos x Use the double-angle identity for sin 2x.
2 sin x cos x - √2 cos__x =0
cos x (2 sin x - √2 ) =0 Why is it incorrect to divide by cos x here?
__
Then, cos x = 0 or 2 sin x - √2 =0
__
√2
sin x = _
2
For cos x = 0, x = _ π + πn, where n ∈ I.
2
__
√ 2 π + 2πn and x = _3π + 2πn, where n ∈ I.
For sin x = _ , x = _
2 4 4
Since there are no non-permissible values for the original equation, the
solution is x = _ π + πn, x = _
π + 2πn, and x = _3π + 2πn, where n ∈ I.
2 4 4
Your Turn
Algebraically solve cos 2x = cos x. Give general solutions expressed
in radians.
Example 4
Determine the General Solution Using Reciprocal Identities
Algebraically solve 2 sin x = 7 - 3 csc x. Give general solutions
expressed in radians.
Solution
2 sin x = 7 - 3 csc x
2 sin x = 7 - _ 3 Use the reciprocal identity for cosecant.
sin x
3
sin x (2 sin x) = sin x 7 - _(
sin x ) Why multiply both sides by sin x?
2 sin2 x = 7 sin x - 3
2
2 sin x - 7 sin x + 3 = 0
(2 sin x - 1)(sin x - 3) = 0 Factor.
sin x = 1
_
2
x=_ π + 2πn and x = _5π + 2πn
6 6
For sin x - 3 = 0,
sin x = 3 Why is there no solution for sin x = 3?
There is no solution for sin x = 3.
Key Ideas
a) sin 2x + sin x = 0
2 __
cos x - cos 2x
11. Simplify the expression ___ b) cot x + √3 = 0
0.5 sin 2x
to one of the primary trigonometric ratios. c) 2 sin2 x - 3 sin x - 2 = 0
d) sin2 x = cos x - cos 2x
6.3 Proving Identities, pages 309—315 18. Solve each equation algebraically over the
domain 0° ≤ x < 360°. Verify your solution
12. Factor and simplify each expression.
2 graphically.
1 - sin x
a) ____
cos x sin x - cos x a) 2 sin 2x = 1
b) tan2 x - cos2 x tan2 x b) sin2 x = 1 + cos2 x
13. Prove that each identity holds for all c) 2 cos2 x = sin x + 1
permissible values of x. d) cos x tan x - sin2 x = 0
2 2
a) 1 + cot x = csc x
19. Algebraically determine the general
b) tan x = csc 2x - cot 2x solution to the equation 4 cos2 x - 1 = 0.
cos x
c) sec x + tan x = __ Give your answer in radians.
1 - sin x
20. If 0° ≤ x < 360°, what is the value of cos x
1 1
d) __ + __ = 2 csc2 x
1 + cos x 1 - cos x in the equation 2 cos2 x + sin2 x = _41 ?
25
2 tan x .
14. Consider the equation sin 2x = __ 2 21. Use an algebraic approach to find the
1 + tan x
a) Verify that the equation is true when solution of 2 sin x cos x = 3 sin x over the
π . Does this mean that the equation domain -2π ≤ x ≤ 2π.
x=_
4
is an identity? Why or why not?
b) What are the non-permissible values for
the equation?
c) Prove that the equation is an identity
for all permissible values of x.
C _
5 D 1 sin θ + tan θ
13 7. The expression ___ is
1 + cos θ
2. If the point (3, -5) lies on the terminal equivalent to
arm of an angle θ in standard position, the A sin θ
value of sin (π - θ) is
B cos θ
A _
3
___ B -_
3
___
√34 √34 C tan θ
C _
5
___ D -_
5
___ D cot θ
√34 √34
8. Which of the following is not an identity?
3. The function y = a sin b(x - c) + d has a sec
__ θ csc θ = sec θ
A
range of {y | -2 ≤ y ≤ 6, y ∈ R}. What are cot θ
the values of the parameters a and d? B tan2 θ - sin2 θ = sin2 θ tan2 θ
A a = -2 and d = 8 1 - cos 2θ
C __ = sin2 θ
2
B a = 2 and d = 4 tan 2
θ = sin2 θ
D __
C a = 4 and d = 2 1 + tan2 θ
D a = 8 and d = -2
Numerical Response
4. What are the period and phase shift for the
π ? Copy and complete the statements in #9 to #13.
(
function f(x) = 3 cos 4x + _
2 ) 17π
9. The exact value of sin _ is .
π π
A period = _ , phase shift = _ units to __ 3
the left
2 2
( √5
)
10. Point P x, _ is on the unit circle. The
3
π
B period = 4, phase shift = _ units to
8 possible values of x are and .
the left -5 π
π π 11. If cos θ = _ and _ ≤ θ ≤ π, then the
C period = _ , phase shift = _ units to 13 2
2 8 π is .
the left exact value of sin θ + _(
4 )
π
D period = 4, phase shift = _ units to
2 12. An arc of a circle subtends a central
the left angle θ. The length of the arc is 6 cm and
5. Which sinusoidal function has a graph the radius is 4 cm. The measures of θ in
equivalent to the graph of y = 3 sin x? radians and in degrees, to the nearest tenth
π of a unit, are and .
(
A y = 3 cos x + _
2) 6 cm
π
(
B y = 3 cos x - _
2) 4 cm
θ
π
(
C y = 3 cos x - _
4)
π
(
D y = 3 cos x + _
4)
Exponential
and Logarithmic
Functions
Exponential and logarithmic functions can
be used to describe and solve a wide range of
problems. Some of the questions that can be
answered using these two types of functions
include:
• How much will your bank deposit be worth
in five years, if it is compounded monthly?
• How will your car loan payment change if
you pay it off in three years instead of four?
• How acidic is a water sample with a pH
of 8.2?
• How long will a medication stay in your
bloodstream with a concentration that
allows it to be effective?
• How thick should the walls of a spacecraft
be in order to protect the crew from harmful
radiation?
Looking Ahead
In this unit, you will solve problems involving…
• exponential functions and equations
• logarithmic functions and equations
In this project, you will explore the use of mathematics to model box
office revenues for a movie of your choice.
7 Exponential
Functions
In the 1920s, watch companies produced
glow-in-the-dark dials by using
radioluminescent paint, which was made
of zinc sulphide mixed with radioactive
radium salts. Today, a material called tritium
is used in wristwatches and other equipment
such as aircraft instruments. In commercial
use, the tritium gas is put into tiny vials of
borosilicate glass that are placed on the hands
and hour markers of a watch dial.
Did Yo u Know ?
Key Terms
exponential function half-life
exponential growth exponential equation
exponential decay
We b Link
To learn
earn more about
ab a career in chemistry, go to
www.mcgrawhill.ca/school/learningcentres and
follow the links.
The following ancient fable from India has several variations, but
Amount of
each makes the same point. Rice on
32nd Square
When the creator of the game of chess showed his invention to the ruler
of the country, the ruler was so pleased that he gave the inventor the
right to name his prize for the invention. The man, who was very wise,
asked the king that he be given one grain of rice for the first square of the 4.7 m
chessboard, two for the second one, four for the third one, and so on. The
ruler quickly accepted the inventor’s offer, believing the man had made a
mistake in not asking for more.
By the time he was compensated for half the chessboard, the man owned all of 8m
the rice in the country, and, by the sixty-fourth square, the ruler owed him almost
20 000 000 000 000 000 000 grains of rice.
0 x 0 x
Increasing Decreasing
D id Yo u K n ow?
1 4 12
2 16
10
6
(1, 4)
4
-3 8
10 f(x) = 1
_
2
-2 4 8
(-3, 8)
-1 2
6
0 1
1 4
1 _ (-2, 4)
2
2
1
_
4
(-1, 2)
2 (1, 12_ ) (2, 14_ )
(0, 1)
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
Your Turn
Graph the exponential function y = 3x without technology. Identify the
following:
• the domain and range
• the x-intercept and the y-intercept, if they exist
• whether the graph represents an increasing or a decreasing function
• the equation of the horizontal asymptote
Verify your results using graphing technology.
Example 2
Write the Exponential Function Given Its Graph
What function of the form y = cx can be used to describe the graph shown?
y
(-2, 16)
16
12
4
(-1, 4)
(0, 1)
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
x y
-2 16
-1 4
0 1
Check:
Left Side Right Side
x
1
y ( )
_
4
= 16 1 -2
( )
= _
4 ()
Why is the power with a negative exponent, _ ,
1 -2
4
= 12
_
equivalent to the reciprocal of the power with a
1
( )
_
4
1
positive exponent, _2 ?
1
4 2 ()_
= ( )
_
1
4
= 16
The right side equals the left side, so the function that describes the
x
1 .
graph is y = _
4 ( ) What is another way of expressing
this exponential function?
Your Turn
What function of the form y = cx can be used to describe the graph
shown?
y
30
(2, 25)
20
10
(1, 5)
(0, 1)
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
Solution
a) From the graph, the m-intercept is 1. So, the initial mass of Ra-225 in
the sample is 1 g.
The graph is decreasing by a constant factor over time, representing
exponential decay. It appears to approach m = 0 or 0 g of Ra-225
remaining in the sample.
b) From the graph, the domain of the function is {t | t ≥ 0, t ∈ R}, and the
range of the function is {m | 0 < m ≤ 1, m ∈ R}.
c) The exponential decay model that relates the Why is the base
mass of Ra-225 remaining to time, in 15-day of the exponential
1
1 t. function _ ?
( )
intervals, is the function m(t) = _
2
2
0.0333.
1 4.9 ≈ 0.0335.
( )
Try 4.9: _
2
Therefore, it will take approximately 4.9 15-day intervals, or
73.5 days, for Ra-225 to decay to _1 of its original mass.
30
D i d You K n ow?
Your Turn Exponential functions
can be used to model
Under ideal circumstances, a certain bacteria B
situations involving
population triples every week. This is 16
Number of Bacteria
continuous or discrete
modelled by the following exponential graph. data. For example,
12 problems involving
a) What are the domain and range of this radioactive decay are
(2, 9)
function? 8 based on continuous
data, while those
b) Write the exponential growth model that
4 involving populations
relates the number, B, of bacteria to the (1, 3)
are based on discrete
(0, 1)
time, t, in weeks. data. In the case of
0 1 2 3 t
discrete data, the
c) Determine approximately how many days Time (weeks) continuous model will
it would take for the number of bacteria only be valid for a
to increase to eight times the quantity on restricted domain.
day 1.
d) y = 0.75 x 4
4
a) Which is greatest when x = 5?
b) Which is greatest when x = -5? 2
-2 0 2 4 6 x
10
(-1, 5) (0, 1)
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
Create Connections
C1 Consider the functions f(x) = 3x, g(x) = x3,
and h(x) = 3x.
a) Graph each function.
b) List the key features for each function:
domain and range, intercepts, and
equations of any asymptotes.
c) Identify key features that are common
to each function.
A sampler showing
grains sorted from silt to very coarse sand. d) Identify key features that are different
for each function.
a) Why would a coarse material have a
C2 Consider the function f(x) = (-2)x.
negative scale value?
a) Copy and complete the table of values.
b) How does the diameter of fine sand
compare with the diameter of coarse x f (x)
gravel? 0
15. Typically, compound interest for a savings 1
account is calculated every month and 2
deposited into the account at that time. The
3
interest could also be calculated daily, or
4
hourly, or even by the second. When the
period of time is infinitesimally small, the 5
interest calculation is called continuous b) Plot the ordered pairs.
compounding. The exponential function
c) Do the points form a smooth curve?
that models this situation is A(t) = Pert,
Explain.
where P is the amount of the initial deposit,
1
r is the annual rate of interest as a decimal d) Use technology to try to evaluate f _ (2)
value, t is the number of years, and e is the 5 . Use numerical reasoning to
base (approximately equal to 2.7183). and f _
2 ( )
a) Use graphing technology to estimate the explain why these values are undefined.
doubling period, assuming an annual e) Use these results to explain why
interest rate of 2% and continuous exponential functions are defined to
compounding. only include positive bases.
Did Yo u Know ?
b) Compare the graphs in set C. For any real value a, describe the
x x
1 and f (x) = a _ 1 .
relationship between the graphs of f(x) = _
2 ( ) 2 ( )
c) Compare the graphs in set D. For any real value b, describe the
relationship between the graphs of f(x) = 2x and f (x) = 2bx.
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
y = -2(3)x
-4
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
Example 1
Apply Transformations to Sketch a Graph
Consider the base function y = 3x. For each transformed function,
i) state the parameters and describe the corresponding transformations
ii) create a table to show what happens to the given points under
each transformation
y = 3x
(-1, 31 )
_
(0, 1)
(1, 3)
(2, 9)
(3, 27)
iii) sketch the graph of the base function and the transformed function
iv) describe the effects on the domain, range, equation of the horizontal
asymptote, and intercepts
a) y = 2(3)x − 4
1x
1
b) y = - _ (3) 5 - 5
_
2
Solution
a) i) Compare the function y = 2(3)x − 4 to y = a(c)b(x − h) + k to determine
the values of the parameters.
• b = 1 corresponds to no horizontal stretch.
• a = 2 corresponds to a vertical stretch of factor 2. Multiply the
y-coordinates of the points in column 1 by 2.
• h = 4 corresponds to a translation of 4 units to the right. Add 4
to the x-coordinates of the points in column 2.
• k = 0 corresponds to no vertical translation.
ii) Add columns to the table representing the transformations.
y = 3x y = 2(3)x y = 2(3)x − 4
(-1, 31 )
_
(-1, 32 )
_
(3, 32 )
_
40
30
20
(6, 18)
10
(5, 6)
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
-10 ( ) 2 (4, 2)
3, _
3
b)
1 _1 x
i) Compare the function y = - _ (3) 5 - 5 to y = a(c)b(x − h) + k to
2
determine the values of the parameters.
•b=_ 1 corresponds to a horizontal stretch of factor 5. Multiply
5
the x-coordinates of the points in column 1 by 5.
• a = -_ 1 and
1 corresponds to a vertical stretch of factor _
2 2
a reflection in the x-axis. Multiply the y-coordinates of the
points in column 2 by - _ 1.
2
• h = 0 corresponds to no horizontal translation.
• k = -5 corresponds to a translation of 5 units down. Subtract 5
from the y-coordinates of the points in column 3.
2 2
(-1, 31 )
_
(-5, 31 )
_
(-5, - 61 )
_
(-5, - 316 )
_
Your Turn
Transform the graph of y = 4x to sketch the graph of y = 4-2(x + 5) - 3.
Describe the effects on the domain, range, equation of the horizontal
asymptote, and intercepts.
Temperature (°C)
temperature, T, in degrees Celsius, is 80
measured every minute as a function 60
of time, m, in minutes, and these
points are plotted on a coordinate 40
grid. It is found that the temperature
20
of the water decreases exponentially at
a rate of 25% every 5 min. A smooth
0 20 40 60 80 100 m
curve is drawn through the points, Time (min)
resulting in the graph shown.
a) What is the transformed exponential function in the form
y = a(c)b(x − h) + k that can be used to represent this situation?
b) Describe how each of the parameters in the transformed function
relates to the information provided.
Solution
a) Since the water temperature decreases by 25% Why is the base of the
3
for each 5-min time interval, the base function exponential function _
4
3 t, where T is the
must be T(t) = _
4 ( ) when the temperature is
reduced by 25%?
temperature and t is the time, in 5-min
intervals.
What is the value of
The exponent t can be replaced by the rational m
the exponent _ when
exponent _m , where m represents the number 5
5 m = 5? How does this
m
3 _5 . relate to the exponent t
of minutes: T(m) = _
4 ( ) in the first version of the
function?
The T-intercept of the graph occurs at (0, 100). So, there must be a
vertical stretch factor, a. Use the coordinates of the T-intercept to
determine a.
m
3 _5 + 20
( )
T(m) = a _
4
0
3 _
100 = a ( )_
4
5 + 20
100 = a(1) + 20
80 = a
m
3 _5 + 20.
Substitute a = 80 into the function: T(m) = 80 _
4 ( )
3 4 + 20
(
= 80 _
4 )
= 80 81 + 20
(_
)
256
= 45.3125
From the graph, the value of T when m = 20 is approximately 45.
This matches the calculated value. Therefore, the transformed
function that models the water temperature as it cools is
m
3 _5 + 20.
( )
T(m) = 80 _
4
b) Based on the function y = a(c)b(x − h) + k, the parameters of the
transformed function are
•b=_ 1 , representing the interval of time, 5 min, over which a 25%
5
decrease in temperature of the water occurs
• a = 80, representing the difference between the initial temperature
of the heated cup of water and the air temperature of the room
• h = 0, representing the start time of the cooling process
• k = 20, representing the air temperature of the room
Your Turn
The radioactive element americium (Am) is used in household
smoke detectors. Am-241 has a half-life of approximately 432 years.
The average smoke detector contains 200 μg of Am-241.
A D i d You K n ow?
200
Amount of Am-241 (µg)
A translation up b) g(x) = 6x − 2 + 3
-2
-4
(-1, 41 )
_
(0, 1)
(1, 4)
b) y
(2, 16)
4
1
c) Sketch the graph of y = _ (4)−(x − 3) + 2.
2
2
d) Identify the domain, range, equation
of the horizontal asymptote, and any
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
intercepts for the function
-2 1 (4)−(x − 3) + 2.
y=_
2
-4
6. For each function,
i) state the parameters a, b, h, and k
c) y ii) describe the transformation that
4 corresponds to each parameter
iii) sketch the graph of the function
2
iv) identify the domain, range, equation
-4 -2 0 2 4 x of the horizontal asymptote, and any
-2 intercepts
a) y = 2(3)x + 4
-4
b) m(r) = -(2)r − 3 + 2
1
c) y = _ (4)x + 1 + 1
d) y 3
1s
1 1 _
4 d) n(s) = - _ _
2 3 ( ) 4 -3
2
Apply
-4 -2 0 2 4 x 7. Describe the transformations that must be
-2
applied to the graph of each exponential
function f(x) to obtain the transformed
-4 function. Write each transformed function
in the form y = a(c)b(x − h) + k.
x
1
A y = 32(x − 1) - 2
2( )
a) f(x) = _ , y = f (x - 2) + 1
x−2
B y=2 +1 b) f(x) = 5x, y = -0.5f (x - 3)
1x
1 _
C y=- _ (2) 2 +2 1
x
( )
c) f(x) = _ , y = -f (3x) + 1
4
1 (x + 1)
1
D y = - _ (4) 2
_
1
2
+2 (
d) f(x) = 4x, y = 2f - _ (x - 1) - 5
3 )
7.2 Transformations of Exponential Functions • MHR 355
8. For each pair of exponential functions in 11. A biologist places agar, a gel made from
#7, sketch the original and transformed seaweed, in a Petri dish and infects it with
functions on the same set of coordinate bacteria. She uses the measurement of
axes. Explain your procedure. the growth ring to estimate the number of
9. The persistence of drugs in the bacteria present. The biologist finds that
human body can be modelled using the bacteria increase in population at an
an exponential function. Suppose exponential rate of 20% every 2 days.
a new drug follows the model a) If the culture starts with a population
h
_
M(h) = M0(0.79) 3 , where M is the mass, of 5000 bacteria, what is the
in milligrams, of drug remaining in the transformed exponential function in
body; M0 is the mass, in milligrams, of the form P = a(c)bx that represents the
the dose taken; and h is the time, in population, P, of the bacteria over time,
hours, since the dose was taken. x, in days?
a) Explain the roles of the numbers 0.79 b) Describe the parameters used to create
1. the transformed exponential function.
and _
3 c) Graph the transformed function and
b) A standard dose is 100 mg. Sketch use it to predict the bacteria population
the graph showing the mass of the after 9 days.
drug remaining in the body for the
first 48 h.
c) What does the M-intercept
represent in this situation?
d) What are the domain and range of
this function?
10. The rate at which liquids cool can
be modelled by an approximation
of Newton’s law of cooling,
t
_
T(t) = (Ti - Tf )(0.9) 5 + Tf , where Tf
12. Living organisms contain carbon-12 (C-12),
represents the final temperature, in
which does not decay, and carbon-14
degrees Celsius; Ti represents the initial
(C-14), which does. When an organism
temperature, in degrees Celsius; and t
dies, the amount of C-14 in its tissues
represents the elapsed time, in minutes.
decreases exponentially with a half-life of
Suppose a cup of coffee is at an initial
about 5730 years.
temperature of 95 °C and cools to a
temperature of 20 °C. a) What is the transformed exponential
a) State the parameters a, b, h, and
function that represents the percent, P,
k for this situation. Describe the of C-14 remaining after t years?
transformation that corresponds to b) Graph the function and use it to
each parameter. determine the approximate age of a
dead organism that has 20% of the
b) Sketch a graph showing the
original C-14 present in its tissues.
temperature of the coffee over a
period of 200 min. D i d You K n ow ?
c) What is the approximate temperature of
Carbon dating can only be used to date organic
the coffee after 100 min? material, or material from once-living things. It is
d) What does the horizontal asymptote of only effective in dating organisms that lived up to
about 60 000 years ago.
the graph represent?
n (_12 ) 2n 4n
-2
-2 ( 12 )
_
= (2-1)-2
= 22
-1
0
1
42 = (22)2
2
= 24
Solution
a) 27 = 33 27 is the third power of 3.
Your Turn
Write each expression as a power with base 2.
1 2
_ ___ 3
a) 43 b) _ c) 8 3 (√16 )
8
Example 2
Solve an Equation by Changing the Base
Solve each equation.
a) 4x + 2 = 64x b) 42x = 82x − 3
Solution
a) Method 1: Apply a Change of Base
4x + 2 = 64x
4x + 2 = (43)x Express the base on the right side as a power with base 4.
4x + 2 = 43x Apply the power of a power law.
Since both sides are single powers of the same base, the exponents
must be equal.
Equate the exponents.
x + 2 = 3x
2 = 2x Isolate the term containing x.
x=1
b) 42x 82x − 3
=
2 2x
(2 ) (23)2x − 3
= Express the bases on both sides as powers of 2.
24x 26x − 9
= Apply the power of a power law.
4x 6x - 9
= Equate the exponents.
-2x -9 = Isolate the term containing x.
9
x=_ Solve for x.
2
Check:
Left Side Right Side
42x 82x - 3
9 9 -3
= 4 (2) = 8 (2)
2 _ 2 _
= 49 = 89 - 3
= 262 144 = 86
= 262 144
Left Side = Right Side
9.
The solution is x = _
2
Your Turn
Solve. Check your answers using graphing technology.
a) 24x = 4x + 3 b) 94x = 27x − 1
Solution
The formula for compound interest is A = P(1 + i)n,
where A is the amount of money at the end of the
investment; P is the principal amount deposited; i is the
interest rate per compounding period, expressed as a
decimal; and n is the number of compounding periods.
In this problem:
A = 5900
P = 5000
i = 0.0612 ÷ 4 or 0.0153 Divide the interest rate by 4
because interest is paid quarterly
or four times a year.
You may have to adjust the window settings to view the point
of intersection.
Use the features of the graphing calculator to show that the zero of the
function is approximately 11.
Since interest is paid quarterly, there are four compounding periods
in each year. Therefore, it will take approximately _11 or 2.75 years for
4
Christina’s investment to reach a value of $5900.
Your Turn
Determine how long $1000 needs to be invested in an account that earns
8.3% compounded semi-annually before it increases in value to $1490.
Key Ideas
Some exponential equations can be solved directly if the terms on either side of the
equal sign have the same base or can be rewritten so that they have the same base.
If the bases are the same, then equate the exponents and solve for the variable.
If the bases are different but can be rewritten with the same base, use the
exponent laws, and then equate the exponents and solve for the variable.
Exponential equations that have terms with bases that you cannot rewrite using a
common base can be solved approximately. You can use either of the following methods:
Use systematic trial. First substitute a reasonable estimate for the solution into
the equation, evaluate the result, and adjust the next estimate according to
whether the result is too high or too low. Repeat this process until the sides of
the equation are approximately equal.
Graph the functions that correspond to the expressions on each side of the
equal sign, and then identify the value of x at the point of intersection, or graph
as a single function and find the x-intercept.
Practise Apply
1. Write each expression with base 2. 8. If seafood is not kept frozen (below 0 °C),
a) 46 b) 83 it will spoil due to bacterial growth. The
2 relative rate of spoilage increases with
c) ( _18 ) d) 16 temperature according to the model
T
_
2. Rewrite the expressions in each pair so R = 100(2.7) 8 , where T is the temperature,
that they have the same base. in degrees Celsius, and R is the relative
a) 23 and 42 spoilage rate.
b) 9x and 27 a) Sketch a graph of the relative spoilage
2x x-1 rate R versus the temperature T from
c) ( _12 ) 1
and _
4 ( ) 0 °C to 25 °C.
x-2
1
d) ( _ ) and 16x b) Use your graph to predict the
8 temperature at which the relative
3. Write each expression as a single power spoilage rate doubles to 200.
of 4. c) What is the relative spoilage rate at 15 °C?
___ 2 3
___
a) (√16 ) b) √16 d) If the maximum acceptable relative
___
3
___ 2 __ 8 __ 4
c) √16 ( √64 )
4
d) (√2 ) ( √4 ) spoilage rate is 500, what is the
4. Solve. Check your answers using maximum storage temperature?
substitution.
D i d You K n ow ?
a) 24x = 4x + 3 b) 25x − 1 = 53x
The relative rate of spoilage for seafood is defined
c) 3w + 1 = 9w − 1 d) 363m − 1 = 62m + 5 as the shelf life at 0° C divided by the shelf life at
5. Solve. Check your answers using graphing temperature T, in degrees Celsius.
technology.
a) 43x = 8x − 3 b) 27x = 9x − 2 9. A bacterial culture starts with 2000 bacteria
and doubles every 0.75 h. After how many
c) 1252y − 1 = 25y + 4 d) 162k − 3 = 32k + 3
hours will the bacteria count be 32 000?
6. Solve for x using systematic trial. Check
10. Simionie needs $7000 to buy a
your answers using graphing technology.
snowmobile, but only has $6000. His bank
Round answers to one decimal place.
offers a GIC that pays an annual interest
a) 2 = 1.07x b) 3 = 1.1x rate of 3.93%, compounded annually. How
c) 0.5 = 1.2x − 1 d) 5 = 1.08x + 2 long would Simionie have to invest his
7. Solve for t graphically. Round answers to money in the GIC to have enough money
two decimal places, if necessary. to buy the snowmobile?
2t
1
a) 100 = 10(1.04)t b) 10 = _ (2) D i d You K n ow ?
t t
1 _
1 _
c) 12 = _ (4) 3 d) 100 = 25 _ (2) 4 A Guaranteed Investment Certificate (GIC) is a secure
investment that guarantees 100% of the original
e) 2t = 3t − 1 f) 5t − 2 = 4t amount that is invested. The investment earns
interest, at either a fixed or a variable rate, based
g) 8t + 1 = 3t − 1 h) 72t + 1 = 4t − 2 on a predetermined formula.
Set A 12
a) The population of a country, in millions,
8
grows at a rate of 1.5% per year.
b) y = 10x 4
(-1, 4)
(0, 1)
c) Tungsten-187 is a radioactive isotope
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
that has a half-life of 1 day.
d) y = 0.2x
4. The value, v, of a dollar invested for t years
Set B at an annual interest rate of 3.25% is given
A y by v = 1.0325t.
4 a) Explain why the base of the exponential
function is 1.0325.
2
b) What will be the value of $1 if it is
-2 0 2 4 6 x invested for 10 years?
c) How long will it take for the value of
B y the dollar invested to reach $2?
8
-2 0 2 4 6 x Parameter Function
Transformation Value Equation
D y horizontal stretch
20 vertical stretch
translation left/right
10
translation up/down
6
y = 2x
4
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
-4
( 2)
1, - 9
_
y = -4
(2, -5)
(3, -6)
-6
b) What function could be used to model 14. A computer, originally purchased for
this situation? $3000, depreciates in value according to
1 _3t , where V is
c) What are the domain and range of the the function V(t) = 3000 _
2 ( )
function for this situation? the value, in dollars, of the computer at
d) At this rate, approximately how long any time, t, in years. Approximately how
would it take for Saskatoon’s population long will it take for the computer to be
to grow by 25%? worth 10% of its purchase price?
8 Logarithmic
Functions
Logarithms were developed over 400 years ago,
and they still have numerous applications in
the modern world. Logarithms allow you to
solve any exponential equation. Logarithmic
scales use manageable numbers to represent
quantities in science that vary over vast ranges,
such as the energy of an earthquake or the pH
of a solution. Logarithmic spirals model the
spiral arms of a galaxy, the curve of animal
horns, the shape of a snail, the growth of
certain plants, the arms of a hurricane, and
the approach of a hawk to its prey.
Did Yo u Know ?
Key Terms
logarithmic function common logarithm
logarithm logarithmic equation
We b Link
To learn
earn more ab
about a career in radiology, go to
www.mcgrawhill.ca/school/learningcentres and
follow the links.
Investigate Logarithms
base logarithm
• an exponent
Since our number system is based on powers of 10, logarithms with
• in x = c y, y is called the
base 10 are widely used and are called common logarithms. When
logarithm to base c of x
you write a common logarithm, you do not need to write the base.
For example, log 3 means log10 3. common logarithm
• a logarithm with
base 10
Solution
a) The logarithm is the exponent that must be applied to base 7 to obtain 49.
Determine the value by inspection.
Since 72 = 49, the value of the logarithm is 2.
Therefore, log7 49 = 2.
Did Yo u Know ? b) The logarithm is the exponent that must be applied to base 6 to
obtain 1.
The input value What is the value of
Since, 60 = 1, the value of the logarithm is 0.
for a logarithm is any logarithm with an
called an argument. Therefore, log6 1 = 0. argument of 1? Why?
For example, in the
expression log6 1, c) This is a common logarithm. You need to find the exponent that must
the argument is 1. be applied to base 10 to obtain 0.001.
Let log10 0.001 = x. Express in exponential form.
10x = 0.001
10x = _ 1
1000
10x = _ 1
103
10x = 10-3
x = -3
Therefore, log 0.001 = -3.
d) The logarithm
__
is the __
exponent that must be applied to base 2 to
obtain __√8 . Let log2 √8 = x. Express in exponential form.
2x = √__
8
2x = √23
1
_
2x = (23) 2 Express the radical as a power with a rational exponent.
3
_
2x = 2 2
x=_ 3
2 __
Therefore, log2 √8 3.
=_
2
Your Turn
Evaluate.
5
___
a) log2 32 b) log9 √81__
c) log 1 000 000 d) log3 9 √3
The last two results are sometimes called the inverse properties, since
logarithms and powers are inverse mathematical operations that undo
each other. In logc c x = x, the logarithm of a power with the same base
equals the exponent, x. In clog x = x, a power raised to the logarithm of a
c
Example 2
Determine an Unknown in an Expression in Logarithmic Form
Determine the value of x.
a) log5 x = -3
b) logx 36 = 2
2
c) log64 x = _
3
Solution
a) log5 x = -3
5-3 = x Express in exponential form.
_1
=x
125
b) logx 36 = 2
x2 = 36 ___ Express in exponential form.
x = ± √36
Since the base of a logarithm must be greater than zero,
x = –6 is not an acceptable answer. So, x = 6.
2
c) log64 x = _
3
2
_
64 3
___
= x Express in exponential form.
3
( 64 )2
√ = x
42 = x
16 = x
Your Turn
Determine the value of x.
a) log4 x = -2
1
b) log16 x = - _
4
2
c) logx 9 = _
3
Solution
a) The inverse of y = f(x) = 3x is x = 3y or,
b) Set up tables of values for both the exponential function, f(x), and its
inverse, f -1(x). Plot the points and join them with a smooth curve.
y
f(x) = 3x
8
2
How are the values of
x and y related in these
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 x two functions? Explain.
-2
f -1(x) = log3 x
-4
y=x
-6
Your Turn
x
1
(2)
a) Write the inverse of f (x) = _ .
b) Sketch the graphs of f(x) and its inverse. Identify the following
characteristics of the inverse graph:
• the domain and range
• the x-intercept, if it exists
• the y-intercept, if it exists
• the equations of any asymptotes
Example 4
Estimate the Value of a Logarithm
Without using technology, estimate the value of log2 14, to one decimal
place.
Solution
The logarithm is the exponent that must be applied to base 2 to obtain 14.
Since 23 = 8, log2 8 = 3.
Also, 24 = 16, so log2 16 = 4.
Since 14 is closer to 16 than to 8, try an estimate of 3.7.
Then, 23.7 ≈ 13, so log2 13 ≈ 3.7. This is less than log2 14.
Try 3.8. Then, 23.8 ≈ 14, so log2 14 ≈ 3.8.
Your Turn
Without using technology, estimate the value of log3 50, to one decimal
place.
Solution
a) Since the amplitude of the Vancouver Island earthquake was 107.3
A.
times A0, substitute 107.3A0 for A in the formula M = log _
1
A 0
107.3A0
M = log (
__
A0
1
)
M = log 107.3
M = 7.3 logcc x = x, since in exponential form c x = c x.
The Vancouver Island earthquake had magnitude of 7.3 on the Richter
scale.
A
b) Substitute 8.1 for M in the formula M = log _ and express A in
A0
terms of A0.
A
8.1 = log _
A0
108.1 = _A Write in exponential form.
A0
108.1A0 = A
125 892 541A0 ≈ A
The amplitude of the Haida Gwaii earthquake was approximately
126 million times the amplitude of a standard earthquake.
1
amplitude of Haida Gwaii earthquake
________ 108.1A0
= __
amplitude of Vancouver Island earthquake 107.3A0
1
=_
108.1
107.3
≈ 6.3
Your Turn
The largest measured earthquake struck Chile in 1960. It measured 9.5
on the Richter scale. How many times as great was the seismic shaking
of the Chilean earthquake than the 1949 Haida Gwaii earthquake, which
measured 8.1 on the Richter scale?
Key Ideas
A logarithm is an exponent.
Equations in exponential form can be written in logarithmic form and
vice versa.
Exponential Form Logarithmic Form
x = cy y = logc x
The inverse of the exponential function y = c x, c > 0, c ≠ 1, is
x = c y or, in logarithmic form, y = logc x. Conversely, the inverse of
the logarithmic function y = logc x, c > 0, c ≠ 1, is x = logc y or, in
exponential form, y = c x.
The graphs of an exponential function and its inverse y y = 2x
logarithmic function are reflections of each other in the 4
line y = x, as shown.
2
For the logarithmic function y = logc x, c > 0, c ≠ 1,
the domain is {x | x > 0, x ∈ R} -4 -2 0 2 4 x
y = log2 x
the range is {y | y ∈ R} -2
y=x
the x-intercept is 1 -4
the vertical asymptote is x = 0, or the y-axis
A common logarithm has base 10. It is not necessary to write the base
for common logarithms:
log10 x = log x
a) y b) a negative integer
y = 2x c) zero
8
d) a rational number
6
7. The base of a logarithm can be any positive
4 real number except 1. Use examples to
2
illustrate why the base of a logarithm
cannot be
-4 -2 0 2 4 x a) 0
b) 1
b) y c) negative
( )
x
1
y= _ 8 8. a) If f(x) = 5x, state the equation of the
3
inverse, f -1(x).
6
b) Sketch the graph of f(x) and its inverse.
4 Identify the following characteristics of
2 the inverse graph:
• the domain and range
-4 -2 0 2 4 x • the x-intercept, if it exists
• the y-intercept, if it exists
• the equations of any asymptotes
2. Express in logarithmic form.
1
_ 9. a) If g(x) = log _1 x, state the equation of the
a) 122 = 144 b) 8 3 = 2 4
c) 10 -5
= 0.000 01 d) 72x
=y+3 inverse, g-1(x).
3. Express in exponential form. b) Sketch the graph of g(x) and its inverse.
Identify the following characteristics of
a) log5 25 = 2
the inverse graph:
2
b) log8 4 = _ • the domain and range
3
• the x-intercept, if it exists
c) log 1 000 000 = 6
• the y-intercept, if it exists
d) log11 (x + 3) = y • the equations of any asymptotes
x (1 + x )
1
_
4
10 2.593 742 460
2
100 2.704 813 829 P
1 000 2.716 923 932 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
10 000 2.718 145 927 -2
In some situations people are less sensitive to differences in the magnitude y Brightness
of a stimulus as the intensity of the stimulus increases. For example, if you
Subjective Magnitude
compare a 50-W light bulb to a 100-W light bulb, the 100-W light bulb seems
much brighter. However, if you compare a 150-W light bulb to a 200-W light
bulb, they appear almost the same. In 1860, Gustav Fechner, the founder of
psychophysics, proposed a logarithmic curve to describe this relationship.
Stimulus Magnitude x
Describe another situation that might be modelled by a logarithmic curve.
Parameter Transformation
a (x, y) → (x, ay)
x How would you describe the
b ( )
(x, y) → _ , y
b effects of each parameter?
h (x, y) → (x + h, y)
k (x, y) → (x, y + k)
Example 1
Translations of a Logarithmic Function
a) Use transformations to sketch the graph of the function
y = log3 (x + 9) + 2.
b) Identify the following characteristics of the graph of the function.
i) the equation of the asymptote ii) the domain and range
iii) the y-intercept, if it exists iv) the x-intercept, if it exists
Solution
a) To sketch the graph of y = log3 (x + 9) + 2, translate the graph of
y = log3 x to the left 9 units and up 2 units.
4 y = log3 (x + 9) + 2
2
y = log3 x
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 x
-2
Example 2
Reflections, Stretches, and Translations of a Logarithmic Function
a) Use transformations to sketch the graph of the function
y = -log2 (2x + 6).
b) Identify the following characteristics of the graph of the function.
i) the equation of the asymptote
ii) the domain and range
iii) the y-intercept, if it exists
iv) the x-intercept, if it exists
Solution
a) Factor the expression 2x + 6 to identify the horizontal translation.
y = -log2 (2x + 6)
y = -log2 (2(x + 3))
1.
Start by horizontally stretching about the y-axis by a factor of _
2
Key points on the graph of y = log2 x change as shown.
1 x, y .
In mapping notation, (x, y) → _
2 ( )
y = log2 x y = log2 2x y
y = log2 2x
(1, 0) (0.5, 0) 4
(2, 1) (1, 1)
2
y = log2 x
(4, 2) (2, 2)
(8, 3) (4, 3) -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 x
-2
At this stage, the asymptote
remains unchanged: it is -4
the vertical line x = 0.
Next, reflect in the x-axis. The key points change as shown.
In mapping notation, (x, y) → (x, -y).
y = log2 2x y = -log2 2x y
y = log2 2x
(0.5, 0) (0.5, 0) 4
Lastly, translate horizontally 3 units to the left. The key points change
as shown.
Example 3
Determine the Equation of a Logarithmic Function Given Its Graph
The red graph can be generated by stretching the y
2
blue graph of y = log4 x. Write the equation that
describes the red graph.
0 2 4 x
y = log4 x
-2
Solution
The red graph has been horizontally stretched since a vertical stretch
does not change the x-intercept.
Method 1: Compare With the Graph of y = log4 x
The key point (4, 1) on the graph of y = log4 x has become the image
point (1, 1) on the red graph. Thus, the red graph can be generated by
horizontally stretching the graph of y = log4 x about the y-axis by a factor
1 . The red graph can be described by the equation y = log 4x.
of _
4 4
Your Turn y
-4
Example 4
An Application Involving a Logarithmic Function
Welding is the most common way to permanently join metal parts
together. Welders wear helmets fitted with a filter shade to protect
their eyes from the intense light and radiation produced by a
welding light. The filter shade number, N, is defined by the function
7(-log T )
N = __ + 1, where T is the fraction of visible light that passes
3
through the filter. Shade numbers range from 2 to 14, with a lens shade
number of 14 allowing the least amount of light to pass through.
The correct filter shade depends on the type of welding. A shade number
12 is suggested for arc welding. What fraction of visible light is passed
through the filter to the welder, as a percent to the nearest ten thousandth?
Solution
Substitute 12 for N and solve for T.
12 = - _7 log T + 1
3 10
7
11 = - _ log10 T
3
3 = log T
( )
11 - _
7 10
-_33 = log T
7 10
33
-_
10 7 = T
0.000 019 ≈ T
A filter shade number 12 allows approximately 0.000 019, or 0.0019%, of
the visible light to pass through the filter.
Key Ideas
| |
1
Horizontally stretch by a factor of _ about the
b Horizontally translate h units.
y-axis. Reflect in the y-axis if b < 0.
Only parameter h changes the vertical asymptote and the domain. None of the
parameters change the range.
Did Yo u Know ?
Since logarithms are exponents, the laws of logarithms are related to the
laws of powers.
Product Law of Logarithms
The logarithm of a product of numbers can be expressed as the sum of
the logarithms of the numbers.
logc MN = logc M + logc N
Proof
Let logc M = x and logc N = y, where M, N, and c are positive real
numbers with c ≠ 1.
Write the equations in exponential form as M = c x and N = c y:
MN = (c x)(c y)
MN = cx + y Apply the product law of powers.
logc MN = x+y Write in logarithmic form.
logc MN = logc M + logc N Substitute for x and y.
Example 1
Use the Laws of Logarithms to Expand Expressions
Write each expression in terms of individual logarithms of x, y, and z.
xy
a) log5 _z
3 __
b) log7 √x
1
c) log6 _2
x
d) log _
x3__
y √z
Solution
xy
a) log5 _z = log5 xy - log5 z
= log5 x + log5 y - log5 z
3 __ 1
_
b) log7 x = log7 x 3
√
=_1 log x
3 7
1
c) log6 _2 = log6 x-2 You could also start by applying the quotient law to
x the original expression. Try this. You should arrive at
= -2 log6 x the same answer.
3
x __ = log x3 - log y √z __
d) log _
y √z 1
(
= log x3 - log y + log z 2
_
)
1 log z
= 3 log x - log y - _
2
Your Turn
Write each expression in terms of individual logarithms of x, y, and z.
x
a) log6 _
y
___
b) log5 √xy
c) log3 _
9__
3
√x2
x5y
d) log7 _ __
√z
1
_
= log7 7 + log7 7 2 How can you use your knowledge of exponents to
1 log 7 evaluate this expression using only the power law
= log7 7 + _ for logarithms?
2 7
1
_
= 1 + (1)
2
= _3
2
1 log 27
c) 2 log2 12 - log2 6 + _
3 ( 2 )
1
(
= log2 122 - log2 6 + log2 27 3
___
_
)
3
= log2 144 - (log2 6 + log2 √27 )
= log2 144 - (log2 6 + log2 3)
= log2 144 - log2 (6 × 3)
144
= log2 _
18
= log2 8
=3
Your Turn
Use the laws of logarithms to simplify and evaluate each expression.
__
a) log3 9 √3
b) log5 1000 - log5 4 - log5 2
1
c) 2 log3 6 - _ log3 64 + log3 2
2
Solution
5 log7 x
__
a) log7 x2 + log7 x -
2
5 log x
= log7 x + log7 x - _
2
2 7
_5
2
= log7 x + log7 x - log7 x 2
(x2)(x)
= log7 __ 5
_
x2
2+1-_ 5
= log7 x 2
1
_
= log7 x 2
=_1 log x, x > 0 The logarithmic expression is written as
2 7
a single logarithm that cannot be further
simplified by the laws of logarithms.
b) log5 (2x - 2) - log5 (x2 + 2x - 3)
= log5 ___ 2x - 2
x2 + 2x - 3
1
2(x - 1)
= log5 ___
(x + 3)(x - 1)
1
2
= log5 __
x+3
For the original expression to be defined, both logarithmic terms must
be defined.
2x - 2 > 0 x2 + 2x - 3 > 0 What other methods could
2x > 2 (x + 3)(x - 1) > 0 you have used to solve this
quadratic inequality?
x > 1 and x < -3 or x > 1
The conditions x > 1 and x < -3 or x > 1 are both satisfied when x > 1.
Your Turn
Write each expression as a single logarithm in simplest form. State the
restrictions on the variable.
1
a) 4 log3 x - _ (log3 x + 5 log3 x)
2
b) log2 (x2 - 9) - log2 (x2 - x - 6)
The unit used to The human ear is sensitive to a large range of sound intensities.
measure the intensity Scientists have found that the sensation of loudness can be described
of sound is the using a logarithmic scale. The intensity level, β, in decibels, of a sound
decibel (dB), named
I , where I is the intensity of the sound, in watts
is defined as β = 10 log _
after Alexander
Graham Bell, the
I0
inventor of the per square metre (W/m2), and I0 is 10-12 W/m2,
telephone. Bell was corresponding to the faintest sound
born in Scotland but
that can be heard by a person
lived most of his life
in Canada. of normal hearing.
a) Audiologists recommend
that people should wear
hearing protection if the
sound level exceeds 85 dB.
The sound level of a
chainsaw is about 85 dB.
The maximum volume
setting of a portable media
player with headphones is about 110 dB. How many times as intense
as the sound of the chainsaw is the maximum volume setting of the
portable media player?
b) Sounds that are at most 100 000 times as intense as a whisper are
considered safe, no matter how long or how often you hear them.
The sound level of a whisper is about 20 dB. What sound level, in
decibels, is considered safe no matter how long it lasts?
Solution
Decibel Scale
a) Let the decibel levels of two sounds be
I I 0 dB Threshold for human hearing
β1 = 10 log _1 and β2 = 10 log _2 . 10 dB
I0 I0
20 dB Whisper
Then, compare the two intensities.
30 dB Quiet library
I I
β2 - β1 = 10 log _2 - 10 log _1 40 dB Quiet conversation
I0 I0
50 dB
I_2 I_1
(
β2 - β1 = 10 log
I0
- log
I0) 60 dB
70 dB
Normal conversation
Hair dryer
80 dB
( ( I
I0
I
β2 - β1 = 10 log _2 ÷ _1
I0 ))
1
Apply the
quotient
law of
90 dB
100 dB
Lawnmower
logarithms.
( ( I I
β2 - β1 = 10 log _2 × 0
I0 I1
_
)) 110 dB
120 dB
Car horn
Rock concert
1
150 dB Jet engine up close
I
( )
β2 - β1 = 10 log _2
I1 For each increase of 10 on the
decibel scale, there is a tenfold
increase in the intensity of sound.
The ratio of these two intensities is approximately 316. Hence, the We b Link
maximum volume level of the portable media player is approximately
Some
me studies suggest
su
316 times as intense as the sound of a chainsaw. that people exposed
to excessive noise
b) The ratio of the intensity of sounds considered safe to the intensity from leisure activities
I tend to develop
of a whisper is 100 000 to 1. In the equation β2 - β1 = 10 log _2 , hearing loss. The
I1
I2
_
risk of noise-induced
substitute β1 = 20 and = 100 000. hearing loss depends
I1
on the sound level
β2 - 20 = 10 log 100 000 and the duration of
β2 = 10 log 100 000 + 20 the exposure. For
more information,
β2 = 10 log 105 + 20 go to www.
β2 = 10(5) + 20 mcgrawhill.ca/school/
β2 = 70 learningcentres and
follow the links.
Sounds that are 70 dB or less pose no known risk of hearing loss, no
matter how long they last.
Your Turn
The pH scale is used to measure the acidity 0
or alkalinity of a solution. The pH of a 1 Battery Acid
+
solution is defined as pH = -log [H ], Increasing 2 Lemon Juice
Acidity
where [H+] is the hydrogen ion 3 Vinegar
concentration in moles per litre (mol/L). A 4
neutral solution, such as pure water, has a 5
pH of 7. Solutions with a pH of less than 7 6
Milk
are acidic and solutions with a pH of greater Neutral 7
than 7 are basic or alkaline. The closer the 8
Baking Soda
pH is to 0, the more acidic the solution is. 9
a) A common ingredient in cola drinks is 10 Milk of
phosphoric acid, the same ingredient 11 Magnesia
Increasing
found in many rust removers. A cola Alkalinity 12 Ammonia
drink has a pH of 2.5. Milk has a pH of 13 Lye
6.6. How many times as acidic as milk is 14
a cola drink?
b) An apple is 5 times as acidic as a pear. If a pear has a pH of 3.8, then
what is the pH of an apple?
Let P be any real number, and M, N, and c be positive real numbers with c ≠ 1.
Then, the following laws of logarithms are valid.
11. Write each expression as a single logarithm 14. Abdi incorrectly states, “A noise of 20 dB
in simplest form. State any restrictions on is twice as loud as a noise of 10 dB.”
the variable. Explain the error in Abdi’s reasoning.
a) log2 (x2 - 25) - log2 (3x - 15) 15. The term decibel is also used in
b) log7 (x2 - 16) - log7 (x2 - 2x - 8) electronics for current and voltage ratios.
c) 2 log8 (x + 3) - log8 (x2 + x - 6)
Gain is defined as the ratio between the
signal coming in and the signal going
12. Show that each equation is true for c > 0
out. The gain, G, in decibels, of an
and c ≠ 1. V,
amplifier is defined as G = 20 log _
a) logc 48 - (logc 3 + logc 2) = logc 8 Vi
b) 7 logc 4 = 14 logc 2 where V is the voltage output and Vi
1 __ is the voltage input. If the gain of an
c) _ (logc 2 + logc 6) = logc 2 + logc √3 amplifier is 24 dB when the voltage
2
d) logc (5c)2 = 2(logc 5 + 1) input is 0.2 V, find the voltage output, V.
Answer to the nearest tenth of a volt.
The table shows box office receipts for a popular Cumulative Box Office
new movie. Week Revenue (millions of dollars)
• Determine the equation of a logarithmic 1 70
function of the form y = 20 log1.3 (x - h) + k 2 144
that fits the data. 3 191
Example 1
Solve Logarithmic Equations
Solve.
a) log6 (2x - 1) = log6 11 b) log (8x + 4) = 1 + log (x + 1)
2
c) log2 (x + 3) = 4
Solution
a) Method 1: Solve Algebraically
The following statement is true for c, L, R > 0 and c ≠ 1.
If logc L = logc R, then L = R.
Hence,
log6 (2x - 1) = log6 11
2x - 1 = 11
2x = 12
x = 6
Your Turn
Solve.
a) log7 x + log7 4 = log7 12
b) log2 (x - 6) = 3 - log2 (x - 4)
c) log3 (x2 - 8x)5 = 10
Example 2
Solve Exponential Equations Using Logarithms
Solve. Round your answers to two decimal places.
a) 4x = 605
b) 8(32x) = 568
c) 42x - 1 = 3x + 2
Solution
a) Method 1: Take Common Logarithms of Both Sides
4x = 605
log 4x = log 605
x log 4 = log 605
log 605
x = __
log 4
x ≈ 4.62
c) 42x - 1 = 3x + 2
log 42x - 1 = log 3x + 2
(2x - 1) log 4 = (x + 2) log 3
2x log 4 - log 4 = x log 3 + 2 log 3
2x log 4 - x log 3 = 2 log 3 + log 4
x(2 log 4 - log 3) = 2 log 3 + log 4
2 log 3 + log 4
x = ___
2 log 4 - log 3
x ≈ 2.14
Your Turn
Solve. Round answers to two decimal places.
a) 2x = 2500 b) 5x - 3 = 1700 c) 63x + 1 = 8x + 3
Did Yo u Know ?
Albertosaurus was
the top predator in
the semi-tropical
Cretaceous Albertosaurus display, Royal Tyrrell Museum, Drumheller, Alberta
ecosystem, more
than 70 million years
ago. It was smaller Solution
than its close relative
Tyrannosaurus Substitute s = 0.78 into the equation 3.6022 log s = log m - 3.4444.
rex, which lived a
few million years
3.6022 log10 0.78 = log10 m - 3.4444
later. The first 3.6022 log10 0.78 + 3.4444 = log10 m
Albertosaurus 3.0557 ≈ log10 m
was discovered by
103.0557 ≈ m
Joseph B. Tyrrell, a
geologist searching 1137 ≈ m
for coal deposits in
the Red Deer River The mass of the Albertosaurus was approximately 1137 kg.
valley, in 1884. Since
then, more than Your Turn
30 Albertosauruses
have been discovered To the nearest hundredth of a metre, what was the skull length of a
in western North Tyrannosaurus rex with an estimated body mass of 5500 kg?
America.
Your Turn
The rate at which an organism duplicates is called its doubling period.
t
_
The general equation is N(t) = N0(2) d , where N is the number present
after time t, N0 is the original number, and d is the doubling period.
E. coli is a rod-shaped bacterium commonly found in the intestinal tract
of warm-blooded animals. Some strains of E. coli can cause serious
food poisoning in humans. Suppose a biologist originally estimates the
number of E. coli bacteria in a culture to be 1000. After 90 min, the
estimated count is 19 500 bacteria. What is the doubling period of the
E. coli bacteria, to the nearest minute?
a) log4 x + log2 x = 6
Example Example Example Example
4
b) log3 x - log27 x = _
3
b) log9 _1 =x 4 y = log2 x
81 __
c) log3 27√3 = x 2
d) logx 8 = _ 3
4 0 2 4 6 8 x
e) 6 log x
= _1
-2
36
8.3 Laws of Logarithms, pages 392—403 16. The apparent magnitude, m, of a celestial
object is a measure of how bright it
11. Write each expression in terms of the
appears to an observer on Earth. The
individual logarithms of x, y, and z.
brighter the object, the lower the value of
a) log5 _
x5
3 __ its magnitude. The difference between the
y____
√z
apparent magnitudes, m2 and m1, of two
xy2
√
b) log _ z celestial objects can be found using the
F
12. Write each expression as a single logarithm
in simplest form.
equation m2 - m1 = -2.5 log _2 , where
F1 ()
2 F1 and F2 are measures of the brightness
a) log x - 3 log y + _ log z
3 of the two celestial objects, in watts per
1
b) log x - _ (log y + 3 log z) square metre, and m2 < m1. The apparent
2
magnitude of the Sun is -26.74 and the
13. Write each expression as a single logarithm
average apparent magnitude of the full
in simplest form. State any restrictions.
__ moon is -12.74. How many times brighter
a) 2 log x + 3 log √x - log x3 does the sun appear than the full moon, to
b) log (x2 - 25) - 2 log (x + 5) an observer on Earth?
x a) logx 3 = 4 b) loga (x + 5) = b
-8 -4 0 4
Equations and
Functions
Functions and equations can be used to model
many real-world situations. Some situations involve
functions with less complicated equations:
• The density, d, of a 10-kg rock sample with volume
V is given by the function d = _ 10 .
V
• The illuminance or brightness, I, of one type of light
100 .
at a distance d from the light is given by I = _
d2
Equations for more complicated functions can be
created by adding, subtracting, multiplying, or dividing
two simpler functions: ______
• The function h(x) = 3x2 + 2 + √x + 4 is the sum of
______
2
the functions f (x) = 3x + 2 and g(x) = √x + 4 .
• The rational function h(x) = __ x2 is the quotient of
x-1
2
the functions f (x) = x and g(x) = x - 1.
Looking Ahead
In this unit, you will solve problems involving…
• rational functions
• operations on functions, including sums, differences, products,
quotients, and compositions
• permutations, combinations, and the binomial theorem
For this project, you will choose a topic in Unit 4. Then, you will create a video or
slide show, a song, or a piece of artwork to communicate and/or demonstrate your
understanding of the concept you have chosen.
9 Rational
Functions
Why does the lens on a camera need to
move to focus on objects that are nearer
or farther away? What is the relationship
between the travel time for a plane and
the velocity of the wind in which it is
flying? How can you relate the amount of
light from a source to the distance from
the source? The mathematics behind
all of these situations involves rational
functions.
Key Terms
rational function point of discontinuity
We b Link
To learn
earn more ab
about a career as a chartered accountant, go
to www.mcgrawhill.ca/school/learningcentres and follow
the links.
The Trans Canada Trail is a system of 22 000 km of linked trails that passes
through every province and territory and connects the Pacific, Arctic,
and Atlantic Oceans. When completely developed, it will be the world’s
longest network of trails. Millions of people walk, run, cycle, hike, canoe,
horseback ride, snowmobile, and more on the trail.
If you cycle a 120-km section of the Trans Canada Trail, the time it takes
is related to your average speed. Cycling more quickly means it takes less
time; cycling more slowly means it takes more time. The relationship
between the time and the average speed can be expressed mathematically
with a rational function. What does the graph of this function look like? rational function
• a function that can be
written in the form
p(x)
f(x) = _ , where p(x)
q(x)
and q(x) are polynomial
expressions and q(x) ≠ 0
• some examples are
100 + 2n
20 , C(n) = __
y=_ ,
x n
3x + 4
2
and f (x) = __
x-5
b) What happens to the time as the average speed gets smaller and
smaller in value? larger and larger in value?
2. a) Write an equation to express the time, t, in hours, as a function of
the average speed, v, in kilometres per hour.
b) Is the value zero a part of the domain or the range in this
situation? Explain.
3. a) Graph the function.
b) How does the shape of the graph relate to your answer to step 2b)?
c) What does the graph show about the time to cycle a 120-km
stretch of the Trans Canada Trail as the average speed gets
closer to zero?
Did Yo u Know ? The rational function that relates speed to time for a given distance is
related to the base function y = _ 1
The equation of the x by a vertical stretch.
a a
function y = _x is The graph of a rational function of the form y = _
equivalent to xy = a. x represents a vertical
The equation xy = a 1
stretch by a factor of a of the graph of y = _ a
_
shows that for any x , because y = x can be
1 .
point on the graph,
the product of the
( )
written as y = a _x
x- and y-coordinates Graphs of rational functions of the form y = _ a
is always equal to a. x have two separate
branches that approach the asymptotes at x = 0 and y = 0.
Example 1
Graph a Rational Function Using a Table of Values
x y y
As x approaches 0
-100 -0.1 10
from the right,
-20 -0.5 y > 0 and |y| is very large.
-10 -1
-5 -2 5
10
-2 -5 y = __
x
-1 -10
Why does |y| get larger
-0.5 -20 as the values of x
-10 -5 0 5 10 x approach zero?
-0.1 -100
0 undefined What happens to the
values of y as |x|
0.1 100 becomes very large?
0.5 20 -5
1 10
As x approaches 0
2 5 from the left,
5 2 y < 0 and |y| is very large.
-10
10 1
20 0.5
100 0.1
For this function, when 0 is substituted for the value of x, the denominator
has a value of 0. Since division by 0 is undefined, 0 is a non-permissible
value. This corresponds to the vertical asymptote in the graph at x = 0. As
the values of x approach zero, the absolute value of y gets very large.
Summarize the characteristics of the function using a table.
10
y= _
Characteristic x
Non-permissible value x=0
D i d You K n ow?
Behaviour near non-permissible value As x approaches 0, |y| becomes very large.
End behaviour As |x| becomes very large, y approaches 0. In Pre-Calculus 11,
you graphed and
Domain {x | x ≠ 0, x ∈ R} analysed rational
Range {y | y ≠ 0, y ∈ R} functions that are
reciprocals of linear or
Equation of vertical asymptote x=0 quadratic functions:
y=0 1
Equation of horizontal asymptote y = _ , where
f (x)
f (x) ≠ 0. In this chapter,
Your Turn you will explore
6 rational functions
Analyse the function y = _ x using a table of values and a graph. with numerators and
Identify characteristics of the graph, including the behaviour of denominators that are
monomials, binomials,
the function for its non-permissible value. or trinomials.
Example 2
Graph a Rational Function Using Transformations
Solution
Compare the function y = _ 6 - 3 to the form y = __ a + k to
x-2 x-h
determine the values of the parameters: a = 6, h = 2, and k = -3.
y
y= 1
_
x 6 How can you use the
asymptotes to help you sketch
4 the graph?
Your Turn
Sketch the graph of the function y = _ 4 + 5 using transformations,
x+1
and identify the important characteristics of the graph.
Example 3
Graph a Rational Function With Linear Expressions in the Numerator
and the Denominator
4x - 5 . Identify any asymptotes and intercepts.
Graph the function y = __
x-2
Solution
Method 1: Use Paper and Pencil
Determine the locations of the intercepts and asymptotes first, and then
use them as a guide to sketch the graph.
Find the y-intercept of the function by substituting 0 for x.
4x - 5
y = __
x-2
4(0) -5
y = __
0-2
y = 2.5
The y-intercept occurs at (0, 2.5).
3 8
y = _____ + 4
x-2
6
How can considering the pattern
4 3 help you
of ordered pairs for y = _
y=4 x
(0, 2.5) locate the points shown in green?
2
How are these four green points
(1.25, 0)
related to the symmetry in
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
the graph?
-2
-4
x=2
Your Turn
2x + 2
Graph the function y = __ . Identify any asymptotes and intercepts.
x-4
Example 4
Compare Rational Functions
1 , g(x) = ___
Consider the functions f(x) = _ 3 , and
x2 x2 - 10x + 25
h(x) = 6 - __ 1 .
(x + 4)2
Graph each pair of functions.
• f (x) and g(x)
• f (x) and h(x)
Compare the characteristics of the graphs of the functions.
Solution
Graph the functions using a graphing calculator. Set the window
dimensions so that important features are visible.
Rewrite the functions g(x) and h(x) algebraically to reveal how they
1 . Then, use transformations to
are related to the base function f (x) = _
x2
explain some of the similarities in the graphs.
Your Turn
Graph the functions f(x) = _1 , g(x) = __-1 , and
x2 (x - 3)2
h(x) = 2 + ___ 5 . Compare the characteristics of the graphs.
x2 + 2x + 1
Solution
a) Write a function to represent each plan.
Let f1 and f2 represent the average cost per text sent or minute used
for the first and second plans, respectively.
Let x be the combined number of texts sent and minutes used. x is a
whole number.
Calculate the average cost per text or minute of each plan as
the quotient of the total cost and the combined number of texts
and minutes.
Determine expressions for the total cost of each plan.
Total cost = monthly fee + (rate per text or minute)(combined number
of texts and minutes)
Total cost = 10 + 0.1x for the first plan
or
Total cost = 5 + 0.15x for the second plan
Substitute each expression into the following formula:
Average cost = ________ total cost
combined number of texts and minutes
10 + 0.1x 5 + 0.15x
f1(x) = __ x and f2(x) = __ x Since x ≠ 0, the domain becomes
the set of natural numbers.
b) Graph the two functions using technology.
Key Ideas
p(x)
Rational functions are functions of the form f(x) = _ , where p(x) and
q(x)
q(x) are polynomial expressions and q(x) ≠ 0.
Rational functions where p(x) and q(x) have no common factor other
than one have vertical asymptotes that correspond to the non-permissible
values of the function, if there are any.
You can sometimes use transformations to graph rational functions
and explain common characteristics and differences between them.
You can express the equations of some rational functions in an
equivalent form and use it to analyse and graph functions without
using technology.
2
x -x-2
1. Consider the function y = __ .
Materials
x-2
• graphing technology a) What value of x is important to consider when analysing this
function? Predict the nature of the graph for this value of x.
b) Graph the function and display a table of values.
c) Are the pattern in the table and the shape of the graph what you
expected? Explain.
2. a) What are the restrictions on the domain of this function?
b) How can you simplify the function? What function is it
equivalent to?
c) Graph the simplified function and display a table of values. How
do these compare to those of the original function?
d) How could you sketch the graphs of these two functions so that
the difference between them is clear?
The graph of f(x) is the same as the graph of y = x - 2, except that f(x)
has a point of discontinuity at (3, y). To determine the y-coordinate of
the point of discontinuity, substitute x = 3 into the simplified function
equation.
y=x-2
y=3-2 What happens when x = 3 is substituted
y=1 into the original function?
x 2.5 2.8 2.9 2.99 2.999 3 3.001 3.01 3.1 3.2 3.5
f (x) 0.5 0.8 0.9 0.99 0.999 does not exist 1.001 1.01 1.1 1.2 1.5
From the table, it appears that the value of f(x) gets closer and closer to
1 as x gets closer to 3 from either side even though the function does not
exist when x is exactly 3.
Your Turn
x2 + 2x - 3
Sketch the graph of the function f (x) = ___ . Analyse its
x-1
behaviour near its non-permissible value.
Example 2
Rational Functions: Points of Discontinuity Versus Asymptotes
x2 - 2x
a) Compare the behaviour of the functions f (x) = __ and
4 - 2x
x2 + 2x
__
g(x) = near any non-permissible values.
4 - 2x
b) Explain any differences.
Solution
a) Use a graphing calculator to graph the functions.
Did Yo u Know ?
Your Turn
x2 + 3x
x2 - 3x and g(x) = __
Compare the functions f(x) = __ and explain
2x + 6 2x + 6
any differences.
Example 3
Match Graphs and Equations for Rational Functions
Match the equation of each rational function with the most appropriate
graph. Give reasons for each choice.
x2 + 2x 2x + 4 2x
A(x) = __ B(x) = __ C(x) = __
x2 - 4 x2 + 1 x2 - 4
Graph 1 y Graph 2 y Graph 3 y
4 4 4
2 2 2
-4 -2 0 2 4x -4 -2 0 2 4 x -2 0 2 4 x
-2 -2 -2
C (x) = __2x The graph of C(x) has How can you tell
x2 - 4 that the graph of
2x • vertical asymptotes at
C(x) = ___ C (x) will have two
(x - 2)(x + 2) x = -2 and x = 2 vertical asymptotes
• no points of discontinuity and one x-intercept,
• an x-intercept of 0 but no points of
Therefore, graph 1 discontinuity?
represents C(x).
Your Turn
Match the equation of each rational function with the most appropriate
graph. Explain your reasoning.
x2 + 2 x-1 x2 - 5x + 6
K (x) = __ L(x) = __ M(x) = ___
2
x -x-2 x2 - 1 3-x
2 2 2
-4 -2 0 2 4x -2 0 2 4 x -4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2 -2 -2
-4 -4 -4
point of discontinuity.
To analyse the behaviour of a function near a non-permissible value, use a
table of values or the graph, even though the function is undefined or does
not exist at the non-permissible value itself.
-4 -2 0 2 4 x c) y
-2 4
2
B y
4 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
-2
2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x d) y
-2 4
-4 2
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
C y
-2
2
-4
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
2
x +x-2
D y A f(x) = ___
2
x + x - 20
2 x 2
- 5x + 4
B g(x) = ___
x2 - x - 2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x x2 - 5x + 6
C h(x) = ___
-2 x2 - 5x + 4
x2 + x - 12
D j(x) = ___
x2 - 3x - 10
2
11. a) Predict the shape of the graph of
2x2 + 2
x
y = __ and explain your reasoning.
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 x2 - 1
-2 b) Use graphing technology to confirm
your prediction.
b) y
c) How would the graph of each of the
following functions compare to the
6
one in part a)? Check using graphing
4 technology.
2x2 - 2 2x2 + 2
2 i) y = __2
ii) y = __
x -1 x2 + 1
12. A de Havilland Beaver is a small plane
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 x
that is capable of an airspeed of about
-2 250 km/h in still air. Consider a situation
where this plane is flying 500 km from
8. Write the equation of a possible rational Lake Athabasca, Saskatchewan, to Great
function with each set of characteristics. Slave Lake, Northwest Territories.
a) Let w represent the speed of the wind,
a) vertical asymptotes at x = ±5 and
in kilometres per hour, where w is
x-intercepts of -10 and 4
positive for a tailwind and negative
b) a vertical asymptote at x = -4, a for a headwind, and t represent the
11 , 9 ,
point of discontinuity at - _
2 ( ) time, in hours, it takes to fly. What
and an x-intercept of 8 equation represents t as a function of w?
1 What is the non-permissible value for
c) a point of discontinuity at -2, _ ,
5 ( ) the function?
a vertical asymptote at x = 3, and an b) Graph the function for a domain that
x-intercept of -1 includes its non-permissible value.
d) vertical asymptotes at x = 3 and c) Explain what the behaviour of the
6 , and x-intercepts of - _
x=_ 1 and 0 function for various values of w means
7 4
in this context, including near its
9. Sydney noticed that the functions
non-permissible value.
f(x) = ___x-3 and g(x) = ___ x-3
x2 - 5x - 6 x2 - 5x + 6 d) Which part(s) of your graph are
have equations that are very similar. She actually realistic in this situation?
assumed that their graphs would also be Discuss this with a partner, and
very similar. explain your thoughts.
a) Predict whether or not Sydney is D i d You K n ow ?
correct. Give reasons for your answer.
Bush planes like the de Havilland Beaver have been
b) Graph the functions. Explain why your and still are critical to exploration and transportation
predictions were or were not accurate. in remote areas of Northern Canada where roads do
not exist.
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
23. Predict the location of any asymptotes and C3 MINI LAB Graphs of rational functions
points of discontinuity for each function. Then, can take on many shapes with a variety
use technology to check your predictions. of features. Work with a partner to
x+2 5 create your own classification system for
a) y = __ +_
x2 - 4 x+2 rational functions.
2x3 - 7x2 - 15x
b) y = ___ Step 1 Use technology to create graphs for
x2 - x - 20 rational functions. Try creating graphs
Create Connections with as many different general shapes
as you can by starting with a variety of
C1 Jeremy was absent the day his math class
types of equations. How many different
started learning about rational functions.
general shapes can you create?
His friend Rohan tells him that rational
functions are functions that have asymptotes Step 2 Group the rational functions you
and points of discontinuity, but Jeremy is not have created into categories or
sure what he means. classes. Consider the types of
features, aspects, and symmetries
a) Jeremy takes Rohan’s statement to
that the various graphs exhibit.
mean that all rational functions have
asymptotes and points of discontinuity. Step 3 Create a descriptive name for each
Is this statement true? Explain using of your categories.
several examples. Step 4 For each category, describe an
example function, including its
equation and graph.
D id Yo u Kn ow?
Only a small fraction of the amount of many medications taken orally actually makes it
into the bloodstream. The ratio of the amount of a medication in a patient’s bloodstream
to the amount given to the patient is called its bioavailability.
Your Turn
a) Determine the roots of the equation _
14
x - x + 5 = 0 algebraically.
b) Determine the x-intercepts of the graph of the corresponding function
y=_ 14 - x + 5.
x
c) Explain the connection between the roots of the equation and the
x-intercepts of the graph of the corresponding function.
Example 2
Determine Approximate Solutions for Rational Equations
2
x - 3x - 7
a) Solve the equation ___ = x - 1 graphically. Express your
3 - 2x
answer to the nearest hundredth.
b) Verify your solution algebraically.
Solution
a) Method 1: Use a Single Function
Rearrange the rational equation so that one side is equal to zero:
2
x
___ - 3x - 7 = x - 1
3 - 2x
2
x
___- 3x - 7 - x + 1 = 0
3 - 2x
Graph the corresponding function,
2
y=x ___- 3x - 7 - x + 1, and
3 - 2x
determine the x-intercept(s) of
the graph.
Example 3
Solve a Rational Equation With an Extraneous Root
x 8x + 15
a) Solve the equation __ + 2x = __ algebraically and
2x + 5 4x + 10
graphically.
b) Compare the solutions found using each method.
Solution
a) Factor the denominators to determine the non-permissible values.
x
__ 8x + 15
+ 2x = __
2x + 5 2(2x + 5)
The equation has one non-permissible value of - _5.
2
Multiply both sides of the equation by the lowest common
denominator, 2(2x + 5).
x 8x + 15
2(2x + 5) __ (
2x + 5 )
+ 2x = 2(2x + 5) __ (
2(2x + 5) )
1
x 1
8x + 15
(
2(2x + 5) __
2x + 5
1
)
+ 2(2x + 5)(2x) = 2(2x + 5) __ (
2(2x + 5)
1
)
2x + 8x2 + 20x = 8x + 15
8x2 + 14x - 15 = 0
(2x + 5)(4x - 3) = 0
2x + 5 = 0 or 4x - 3 = 0
5
x = -_ x=_ 3
2 4
However, - _5 is a non-permissible value for the original equation. It is
2
an extraneous root and must be rejected.
3.
Therefore, the solution is x = _
4
To solve the equation graphically, use two functions to represent the
two sides of the equation.
y1 = __ x + 2x
The curves appear to meet
2x + 5
at the top and bottom of
8x + 15
the graphing calculator y2 = __
screen. Do these represent 4x + 10
points of intersection? The graphs of the two functions
Explain.
intersect when x is 0.75.
The solution to the equation is
3.
x = 0.75, or _
4
Your Turn
x+3 x
a) Solve the equation __ = 2x - _ algebraically and graphically.
2x - 6 3-x
b) Compare the solutions found using each method.
Example 4
Solve a Problem Using a Rational Equation
In basketball, a player’s free-throw D i d You K n ow?
percentage is given by dividing
the total number of successful Basketball is one
of the sports
free-throw baskets by the total competitions included
number of attempts. So far this in the Canadian
year, Larry has attempted Francophone Games.
The Canadian
19 free-throws and has been Francophone Games
successful on 12 of them. If he is gives French speaking
successful on every attempt from youth from across
Canada a chance to
now on, how many more
demonstrate their
free-throws does he need to talents in the areas
attempt before his free-throw of art, leadership, and
percentage is 80%? sports.
Solution
Let x represent the number of
free-throws Larry takes from
now on.
Let P represent Larry’s new free-
throw percentage, as a decimal.
successes
P = __
attempts
12 + x Why is x used in both the
P= __
19 + x numerator and the denominator?
What domain is
appropriate for
this situation?
15.2 + 0.8x = 12 + x
3.2 = 0.2x
x = 16
Your Turn
Megan and her friends are organizing a fundraiser for the local children’s
hospital. They are asking local businesses to each donate a door prize. So
far, they have asked nine businesses, but only one has donated a prize.
Their goal was to have three quarters of the businesses donate. If they
succeed in getting every business to donate a prize from now on, how
many more businesses do they need to ask to reach their goal?
-4
0.4 m d
3m
fulcrum m
9.3 Connecting Graphs and Rational a) What is the domain in this situation if
the mass can be positioned at any point
Equations, pages 457—467
along the 3-m-long lever?
8. a) Determine the roots of the rational
b) Graph the function. What does it show
equation x + _ 4 -7=0
x-2 about this context?
algebraically. c) Describe the behaviour of the function
b) Graph the rational function for its non-permissible value, and
4 - 7 and determine
y=x+_ explain what the behaviour means in
x-2 this situation.
the x-intercepts.
d) How far from the fulcrum can the lever
c) Explain the connection between
support a maximum possible mass of
the roots of the equation and the
17.5 kg?
x-intercepts of the graph of the function.
D y
-6
Jarek’s Edward’s
-9 house house
a) What is the domain if Jarek makes the
complete round trip? Explain.
10 Function
Operations
Throughout your mathematics courses,
you have learned methods of interpreting
a variety of functions. It is important
to understand functional relationships
between variables since they apply to the
fields of engineering, business, physical
sciences, and social sciences, to name
a few.
Did Yo u Know ?
Key Terms
composite function
We b Link
To learn
earn more a
about a career involving laser research, go
to www.mcgrawhill.ca/school/learningcentres and follow
the links.
Physicists use ripple tanks to model wave motion. You know from previous
work that sinusoidal functions can be used to model single wave functions.
Waves are said to interfere with one another when they collide. Their collision
can be modelled by the addition or subtraction of two sine waves.
-2 0 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
g(x)
a) Copy the table and use the graph of each function to complete
the columns.
x f(x) g(x) h(x)
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
Solution
a) Add f(x) and g(x) to determine the equation of the
function h(x) = (f + g)(x).
h(x) = (f + g)(x) Is the function (f + g)(x) the same as
h(x) = f(x) + g(x) (g + f)(x)? Will this always be true?
h(x) = 2x + 1 + x 2
h(x) = x 2 + 2x + 1
b) Method 1: Use Paper and Pencil
y
8
6
h(x) = x2 + 2x + 1 How are the y-coordinates
4 of points on the graph of
g(x) = x2 h(x) related to those on the
2 graphs of f(x) and g(x)?
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
f(x) = 2x + 1
Your Turn
Consider the functions f(x) = -4x - 3 and g(x) = 2x 2.
a) Determine the equation of the function h(x) = (f + g)(x).
b) Sketch the graphs of f(x), g(x), and h(x) on the same set of
coordinate axes.
c) State the domain and range of h(x).
Solution
a) Subtract g(x) from f (x) to determine the equation of the function
h(x) = (f - g)(x).
h(x) = (f - g)(x)
h(x) = f(x) - g(x)
______
h(x) x - 1 - (x - 2)
= √______
h(x) = √x - 1 - x + 2
y
8
6
g(x) = x - 2
4
How could you use the
2 f(x) = x - 1 y-coordinates of points on
the graphs of f(x) and g(x)
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x to create the graph of h(x)?
-2
-4
h(x) = x - 1 - x + 2
______
c) The function f(x) = √x - 1 has domain {x | x ≥ 1, x ∈ R}.
The function g(x) = x - 2 has domain {x | x ∈ R}.
The function h(x) = (f - g)(x) has domain {x | x ≥ 1, x ∈ R}, which
consists of all values that are in both the domain of f(x) and the
domain of g(x).
Domain of
f(x) = x - 1 0 1 What values of x belong
Domain of to the domains of both
g(x) = x - 2 0 f(x) and g(x)?
Domain of
h(x) = f(x) - g(x) 0 1
Your Turn
Consider the functions f(x) = |x| and g(x) = x - 5.
a) Determine the equation of the function h(x) = (f - g)(x).
b) Sketch the graphs of f(x), g(x), and h(x) on the same set of
coordinate axes.
c) State the domain and range of h(x).
d) Is (f - g)(x) equal to (g - f )(x)? If not, what are the similarities
and differences?
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
-4
g(x)
-6
Solution
Method 1: Add the y-Coordinates of Corresponding Points
Create a table of values from the graphs of f(x) and g(x).
Add the y-coordinates at each point to determine points on the
graph of h(x) = (f + g)(x). Plot these points and draw the graph of
h(x) = (f + g)(x).
Your Turn
Sketch the graph of m(x) = (f - g)(x) given the graphs of f (x) and g(x).
y
4
f(x)
2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
-4
g(x)
-6
Example 4
Application of the Difference of Two Functions
Reach for the Top is an academic challenge program offered to students
across Canada. Suppose the cost of T-shirts for the program includes
$125 in fixed costs and $7.50 per T-shirt. The shirts are sold for
$12.00 each.
a) Write an equation to represent
• the total cost, C, as a function of the number, n, of T-shirts produced
• the revenue, R, as a function of the number, n, of T-shirts sold
b) Graph the total cost and revenue functions on the same set of axes.
What does the point of intersection represent?
c) Profit, P, is the difference between revenue and cost. Write a function
representing P in terms of n.
d) Identify the domain of the total cost, revenue, and profit functions in
the context of this problem.
Dollars
will result in profit.
200
150
100
50
0 10 20 30 40 n
Number of T-shirts
Your Turn
Did Yo u Know ? Math Kangaroo is an international mathematics competition that is held
in over 40 countries, including Canada. Suppose the cost of preparing
Math Kangaroo or
Kangourou sans booklets for the Canadian version of the contest includes $675 in fixed
frontières originated costs and $3.50 per booklet. The booklets are sold for $30 each.
in France in 1991. a) Write an equation to represent
The first Canadian
edition of the • the total cost, C, as a function of the number, n, of booklets produced
competition was • the revenue, R, as a function of the number, n, of booklets sold
held in 2001. • the profit, P, the difference between revenue and total cost
b) Graph the total cost, revenue, and profit functions on the same set of
axes. How many booklets must be sold to make a profit?
c) Identify the domain of the total cost, revenue, and profit functions in
the context of this problem.
You can add two functions, f(x) and g(x), to form the combined function h(x) = (f + g)(x).
You can subtract two functions, f(x) and g(x), to form the combined function
h(x) = (f - g)(x).
The domain of the combined function formed by the sum y
or difference of two functions is the domain common to h(x) = (f + g)(x)
4
the individual functions. For example,
f(x) g(x)
2
Domain of f(x): {x | x ≤ 3, x ∈ R}
Domain of g(x): {x | x ≥ -5, x ∈ R}
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 x
Domain of h(x): {x | -5 ≤ x ≤ 3, x ∈ R}
-2
The range of a combined function can be determined
using its graph.
To sketch the graph of a sum or difference of two functions given their graphs,
add or subtract the y-coordinates at each point.
______
Practise 4. Given f (x) = 3x 2 + 2, g(x) = √x + 4 , and
1. For each pair of functions, determine h(x) = 4x - 2, determine each combined
h(x) = f(x) + g(x). function and state its domain.
a) f(x) = |x - 3| and g(x) = 4 a) y = (f + g)(x) b) y = (h - g)(x)
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
-2
g(x)
g(x)
-4
-4
b) y
a) y = (f + g)(x) f(x)
4
b) y = (f - g)(x)
2
c) y = (g - f )(x) g(x)
A y -4 -2 0 2 4 x
6 -2
4 -4
2
i) y = (f + g)(x)
-4 -2 0 2 4 x ii) y = (f - g)(x)
-2 iii) y = (g - f )(x)
Apply
B y
9. Given f(x) = 3x 2 + 2, g(x) = 4x, and
2 h(x) = 7x - 1, determine each combined
function.
0 2 4 6 8 x a) y = f(x) + g(x) + h(x)
-2
b) y = f(x) + g(x) - h(x)
-4 c) y = f(x) - g(x) + h(x)
d) y = f(x) - g(x) - h(x)
-6
10. If h(x) = (f + g)(x) and f (x) = 5x + 2,
determine g(x).
C y
a) h(x) = x 2 + 5x + 2
______
2
b) h(x) = √x + 7 + 5x + 2
c) h(x) = 2x + 3
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
d) h(x) = 3x 2 + 4x - 2
-2
11. If h(x) = (f - g)(x) and f (x) = 5x + 2,
-4 determine g(x).
-6 a) h(x) = -x 2 + 5x + 3
______
b) h(x) = √x - 4 + 5x + 2
c) h(x) = -3x + 11
d) h(x) = -2x 2 + 16x + 8
e) What is the maximum daily profit the Destructive interference occurs when the sum
vendor can earn? of two waves has a lesser amplitude than the
component waves.
14. Two waves are generated in a ripple tank. y sum of waves
Suppose the height, in centimetres, above wave B
the surface of the water, of the waves
0 x
can be modelled by f(x) = sin x and
g(x) = 3 sin x, where x is in radians. wave A
a) Graph f(x) and g(x) on the same set of Constructive interference occurs when the sum
of two waves has a greater amplitude than the
coordinate axes.
component waves.
b) Use your graph to sketch the graph of y sum of waves
h(x) = (f + g)(x).
wave B
c) What is the maximum height of the
resultant wave? 0 x
wave A
D i d You K n ow ?
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 x 10 -66 23 -8 36 29
11 -52 24 -23 37 26
-4 -6
-2
0
2
4
6
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
-4
a) Explain how you can write the equation and produce the graph of
the product of f(x) and g(x).
b) Explain how you can write the equation and produce the graph of
the quotient of f(x) and g(x).
c) What must you consider when determining the domain of a
product of functions or the domain of a quotient of functions?
Did Yo u Know ? To combine two functions, f(x) and g(x), multiply or divide as follows:
Multiplication can Product of Functions Quotient of Functions
be shown using a f(x)
centred dot. For h(x) = f(x)g(x) h(x) = _
example,
g(x)
2×5=2·5
h(x) = (f · g)(x) h(x) = _
f
()
g (x)
4
(f · g)(x)
4
()
_f (x)
g
g(x) g(x)
2 2
f(x) f(x)
-2 0 2 4 6 x -2 0 2 4 6 x
-2 -2
-4 -4
Example 1
Determine the Product of Functions
Given f(x) = (x + 2)2 - 5 and g(x) = 3x - 4, determine h(x) = (f · g)(x).
State the domain and range of h(x).
Solution
To determine h(x) = (f · g)(x), multiply the two functions.
h(x) = (f · g)(x)
h(x) = f(x)g(x)
h(x) = ((x + 2)2 - 5)(3x - 4)
h(x) = (x 2 + 4x - 1)(3x - 4)
h(x) = 3x3 - 4x 2 + 12x 2 - 16x - 3x + 4 How can you tell from the original
3 2 functions that the product is a
h(x) = 3x + 8x - 19x + 4
cubic function?
Your Turn
_______
Given f(x) = x 2 and g(x) = √4x - 5 , determine h(x) = f(x)g(x). State the
domain and range of h(x).
Example 2
Determine the Quotient of Functions
Consider the functions f(x) = x 2 + x - 6 and g(x) = 2x + 6.
g
a) Determine the equation of the function h(x) = _ (x).
f ()
b) Sketch the graphs of f(x), g(x), and h(x) on the same set of
coordinate axes.
c) State the domain and range of h(x).
Solution
g
(f)
a) To determine h(x) = _ (x), divide the two functions.
g
()
h(x) = _ (x)
f
g(x)
h(x) = _
f(x)
2x + 6
h(x) = __
x2 + x - 6
2(x + 3)
h(x) = ___ Factor.
(x + 3)(x - 2)
1
2(x + 3)
h(x) = ___
(x + 3)(x - 2)
1
2 , x ≠ -3, 2
h(x) = __ Identify any non-permissible values.
x-2
2
x f (x) = x2 + x - 6 g(x) = 2x + 6 h(x) = __ , x ≠ -3, 2
x-2
How could you -3 0 0 does not exist
use the values 1
-2 -4 2 -_
in the columns 2
for f(x) and g(x) -1 -6 4 2
-_
to determine the 3
values in the 0 -6 6 -1
column for h(x)?
1 -4 8 -2
2 0 10 undefined
3 6 12 2
4 14 14 1
18
How are the
16 y-coordinates of
points on the graph of
14
h(x) related to those
on the graphs of f(x)
12
and g(x)?
10
f(x) = x2 + x - 6
8
4
2x + 6
h(x) = __________
2 x2 + x - 6
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
-2
-4
-6
g(x) = 2x + 6
-8
-10
2, y ∈ R .
{
The range of h(x) is y | y ≠ 0, - _
5 }
Your Turn
Let f(x) = x + 2 and g(x) = x 2 + 9x + 14.
a) Determine the equation of the function h(x) = _ (f)
g (x).
b) Sketch the graphs of f(x), g(x), and h(x) on the same set of coordinate
axes.
c) State the domain and range of h(x).
Example 3
Application of Products and Quotients of Functions
A local hockey team owner would like to boost fan support at the games.
He decides to reduce the ticket prices, T, in dollars, according to the
function T(g) = 10 - 0.1g, where g represents the game number.
To further increase fan support, he decides to randomly give away
noisemakers. The number, N, in hundreds, of noisemakers can be
modelled by the function N(g) = 2 - 0.05g. The community fan base is
small but the owner notices that since the incentives were put in place,
attendance, A, in hundreds, can be modelled by A(g) = 8 + 0.2g.
a) Determine r(g) = T(g)A(g) algebraically and explain what it represents.
b) Use the graph of r(g) = T(g)A(g) to determine whether the owner
increases or decreases revenue from the ticket sales with the changes
made to draw in new fans.
N(g)
c) Develop an algebraic and a graphical model for p(g) = _ . Explain
A(g)
what it means. What is the chance of receiving a free noisemaker for
a fan attending game 4?
Key Ideas
()
f
to both f (x) and g(x). The domain of the quotient _
g (x) is further
restricted by excluding values where g(x) = 0.
The range of a combined function can be determined using its graph.
Practise
f(x)
5. Repeat #4 using h(x) = _ (f)
g (x).
1. Determine h(x) = f(x)g(x) and k(x) = _
g(x)
for each pair of functions. Apply
6. Given f (x) = x + 2, g(x) = x - 3, and
a) f(x) = x + 7 and g(x) = x - 7
h(x) = x + 4, determine each combined
b) f(x) = 2x - 1 and g(x) = 3x + 4 function.
______
c) f(x) = √x + 5 and g(x) = x + 2 a) y = f(x)g(x)h(x)
______ ______
d) f(x) = √x - 1 and g(x) = √6 - x f (x)g(x)
b) y = __
h(x)
2. Use the graphs of f(x) and g(x) to evaluate f(x) + g(x)
the following. c) y = __
h(x)
y _f(x) g(x)
f(x) g(x)
d) y = ×_
4 h(x) h(x)
7. If h(x) = f(x)g(x) and f (x) = 2x + 5,
2
determine g(x).
a) h(x) = 6x + 15
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
b) h(x) = -2x 2 - 5x
__ __
a) (f · g)(-2) b) (f · g)(1) c) h(x) = 2x √x + 5 √x
c) ( gf )(0)
_ d) ( gf )(1)
_ d) h(x) = 10x 2 + 13x - 30
f(x)
8. If h(x) = _ and f (x) = 3x - 1,
3. Copy the graph. Add the sketch of the g(x)
graph of each combined function to the determine g(x).
same set of axes. 3x - 1
a) h(x) = __
y x+7
3x
__
b) h(x) = ______
-1
6
f(x) √x + 6
4 c) h(x) = 1.5x - 0.5
d) h(x) = __
1
2 x+9
g(x)
9. Consider f(x) = 2x + 5 and g(x) = cos x.
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
a) Graph f(x) and g(x) on the same set of
f(x) axes and state the domain and range of
a) h(x) = f(x)g(x) b) h(x) = _ each function.
g(x)
4. For each pair of functions, f(x) and g(x), b) Graph y = f (x)g(x) and state the domain
• determine h(x) = (f · g)(x) and range for the combined function.
• sketch the graphs of f(x), g(x), and h(x)
on the same set of coordinate axes
10. Given f (x) and g(x), graph y = _ ()
f
g (x).
• state the domain and range of the State the domain and range of the
combined function h(x) combined function and any restrictions.
a) f(x) = tan x and g(x) = cos x
a) f(x) = x 2 + 5x + 6 and g(x) = x + 2
b) f (x) = cos x and g(x) = 0.8x
b) f(x) = x - 3 and g(x) = x 2 - 9
1 1
c) f(x) = __ and g(x) = _
x+1 x
c) Use graphing technology to verify your a) Graph f(x), g(x), and y = (f · g)(x) on the
answers to parts a) and b). same set of axes.
12. A fish farm plans to expand. The fish b) State the domain and range of the
population, P, in hundreds of thousands, combined function.
as a function of time, t, in years, can be
modelled by the function P(t) = 6(1.03)t.
c) Graph y = _
f
()
g (x) and state its domain
The farm biologists use the function and range.
F(t) = 8 + 0.04t, where F is the amount d) Explain how the domain and range for
g
of food, in units, that can sustain the fish
population for 1 year. One unit can sustain
()
y = _ (x) differs from the domain and
f
one fish for 1 year. range in part c).
14. The motion of a damped harmonic
oscillator can be modelled by a function
of the form d(t) = (A sin kt) × 0.4ct, where
d represents the distance as a function of
time, t, and A, k, and c are constants.
a) If d(t) = f(t)g(t), identify the equations
of the functions f(t) and g(t) and graph
them on the same set of axes.
b) Graph d(t) on the same set of axes.
D i d You K n ow ?
A damped harmonic
Fish farm at Sonora Island, British Columbia oscillator is an
object whose
a) Graph P(t) and F(t) on the same set of motion is cyclic with
axes and describe the trends. decreasing
amplitude over time.
b) The amount of food per fish is calculated
Examples include a
F(t) F(t)
using y = _ . Graph y = _ on child on a swing
P(t) P(t) after the initial push
a different set of axes. Identify a and a freely
swinging pendulum.
suitable window setting for your
graph. Are there values that should not
be considered?
c) At what time is the amount of food per
fish a maximum?
2
1
0
-1
-2
________
To compute √2(7) - 3 on many graphing calculators, the entire
expression can be entered in one step. However, on some scientific
calculators the expression must be entered in sequential steps. In this
example, enter the expression 2(7) - 3 and press ___
the = button, which
evaluates the calculation as 11. Then, press the M button, which results
√
composite function in the square root of 11 or 3.3166…. The output of the expression
• the composition of f(x) 2(7) - 3 is used as the input for the square root operation.
and g(x) is defined as
f(g(x)) and is formed Composite functions are functions that are formed from two functions,
when the equation of f(x) and g(x), in which the output or result of one of the functions is
g(x) is substituted into __
used as the input for the other function. For example, if f(x) = √x_______
and
the equation of f(x)
g(x) = 2x - 3, then the composition of f (x) and g(x) is f (g(x)) = 2x - 3 ,
√
• f (g(x)) exists only for
those x in the domain as shown in the mapping diagram.
of g for which g(x) is in f(g(x))
the domain of f
• f (g(x)) is read as “f of g g(x) f(x)
of x” or “f at g of x” or
“f composed with g”
• ( f ◦ g)(x) is another x 2x - 3 2x - 3
way to write f(g(x))
• composition of
functions must not When composing functions, the order is important. f(g(x)) is not
be confused with
multiplication, that is,
necessarily the same as g(f(x)). f(g(x)) means first substitute into
(f ◦ g)(x) does not g, and then substitute the result into f. On the other hand, g(f (x))
mean (fg)(x) means first substitute into f, and then substitute the result into g.
Solution
a) Method 1: Determine the Value of the Inner Function and
Then Substitute
Evaluate the function inside the brackets for the indicated value of x.
Then, substitute this value into the outer function.
Determine g(3).
g(x) = x + 6
g(3) = 3 + 6
g(3) = 9
Your Turn
If f(x) = |x| and g(x) = x + 1, determine f(g(-11)) using two methods.
Which method do you prefer? Why?
Example 2
Compose Functions With Restrictions
______
Consider f(x) = √x - 1 and g(x) = x 2.
a) Determine (f ◦ g)(x) and (g ◦ f )(x).
b) State the domain of f (x), g(x), (f ◦ g)(x), and (g ◦ f )(x).
Solution
a) Determine (f ◦ g)(x) = f(g(x)).
(f ◦ g)(x) = f(x 2
)
________ Substitute x 2 for g(x).
______
(x 2) - 1
(f ◦ g)(x) = √______ Substitute x 2 into f(x) = √x - 1 .
(f ◦ g)(x) = √x 2 - 1
Determine (g ◦ ______
f )(x) = g(f (x)). ______
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(√x - 1 ) Substitute √x - 1 for f(x).
______ ______
(g ◦ f )(x) = (√x - 1 )2 Substitute √x - 1 into g(x) = x 2.
(g ◦ f )(x) = x - 1
Your Turn
______
Given the functions f(x) = √x - 1 and g(x) = -x 2, determine (g ◦ f )(x).
Then, state the domain of f(x), g(x), and (g ◦ f )(x).
Example 3
Determine the Composition of Two Functions
Let f(x) = x + 1 and g(x) = x 2. Determine the equation of each
composite function, graph it, and state its domain and range.
a) y = f(g(x))
b) y = g(f (x))
c) y = f(f(x))
d) y = g(g(x))
Solution
a) Determine f(g(x)).
f(g(x)) = f(x 2)
f(g(x)) = (x 2) + 1
f(g(x)) = x 2 + 1
The graph of the composite function y = f (g(x)) is a parabola
that opens upward with vertex at (0, 1), domain of {x | x ∈ R},
and range of {y | y ≥ 1, y ∈ R}.
y
y = x2 + 1
4
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
2
y = x2 + 2x+ 1
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
c) Determine f(f(x)).
f(f(x)) = f(x + 1)
f(f(x)) = (x + 1) + 1
f(f(x)) = x + 2
The graph of the composite function y = f(f (x)) represents a linear
function. The domain and range of the function are both the set of
real numbers.
y
What are the slope and y-intercept of this line?
4
y=x+2
2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
d) Determine g(g(x)).
g(g(x)) = g(x 2)
g(g(x)) = (x 2)2
g(g(x)) = x 4
The graph of the composite function y
y = x4
y = g(g(x)) is a quartic function that 4
opens upward with domain of {x | x ∈ R}
2
and range of {y | y ≥ 0, y ∈ R}.
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
Your Turn
Given f(x) = |x| and g(x) = x + 1, determine the equations of y = f(g(x))
and y = f(f(x)), graph each composite function, and state the domain
and range.
Solution
In this case, the inner function is g(x) and the outer function is f (x).
a) Look for a function that may be common to more than one term
in h(x). The same expression, x - 2, occurs in two terms.
Let g(x) = x - 2. Then, work backward to determine f(x).
h(x) = (x - 2)2 + (x - 2) + 1
f(g(x)) = (g(x))2 + (g(x)) + 1
f(x) = (x)2 + (x) + 1
The two functions are f(x) = x 2 + x + 1 and g(x) = x - 2.
Your Turn
If h(x) = f(g(x)), determine f (x) and g(x).
3 __ 3
h(x) = √ x + __ 3 __
3+ √ x
4π
2 2
3 _
3000
_ 3 = (t _2 ) 3
_
( π )
3000 _32
t= _( π )
t = 96.972…
After approximately 97 min, the volume will be 4000 ft³.
Your Turn
A spherical weather balloon is being blown up. The balloon’s
_
radius, r,
in feet, after t minutes have elapsed is given by r = √t .
a) Express the surface area of the balloon as a function of time, t.
b) After how many minutes will the surface area be 180 ft2?
Key Ideas
6
f(x) = x2 - 3
4
10.2 Products and Quotients of Functions,
pages 488—498
2
6. Consider the functions g(x) = x + 2 and
h(x) = x 2 - 4. Determine the equation
-2 0 2 4 6 8 x
and sketch the graph of each combined
-2
g(x) = -2x + 3 function f(x). Then, state the domain and
range and identify any asymptotes.
b) y a) f(x) = g(x)h(x)
4 h(x)
b) f(x) = _
f(x) = x - 3 g(x)
2
g(x)
c) f(x) = _
h(x)
-2 0 2 4 6 8 x
7. Determine the value of f(-2) for each
-2
combined function in #6.
-4
g(x) = -x + 2
-4 b) x+3 4x
______ ______
c) √x - 4 √x 2 - 4
11 Permutations,
Combinations,
and the Binomial
Theorem
Combinatorics, a branch of discrete mathematics, can
be defined as the art of counting. Famous links to
combinatorics include Pascal’s triangle, the magic square,
the Königsberg bridge problem, Kirkman’s schoolgirl
problem, and myriorama cards. Are you familiar with
any of these?
Key Terms
fundamental counting principle combination
on
factorial binomial theorem
heorem
permutation
We b Link
To find
ind out more about the career of an actuary, go to
www.mcgrawhill.ca/school/learningcentres and follow
the links.
Solution
a) Method 1: List Outcomes and Count the Total
Use a tree diagram and count the outcomes, or list all of the hiring
choices in a table. Let A represent applicant 1, B represent applicant
2, C represent applicant 3, and D represent applicant 4.
Position 1 Position 2 Position 1 Position 2
B A B
A C A C
D
A D
A
B A
B C
D B C
hiring
A B D
C B C A
D C B
A C D
D B
D A
C
D B
D C
Total pathways = 12 12 possibilities
There are 12 possible ways to fill the 2 positions.
(number of choices for position 1) (number of choices for position 2)
If the manager chooses a person for position 1, then there are four
choices. Once position 1 is filled, there are only three choices left
for position 2.
4 3
(number of choices for position 1) (number of choices for position 2)
According to the fundamental counting principle, there are (4)(3) or
12 ways to fill the positions.
(Seat 1) (Seat 2) (Seat 3) (Seat 4) (Seat 5) (Seat 6) (Seat 7)
There is a restriction: a boy must be in each Why do you fill these
end seat. Fill seats 1 and 7 first. two seats first?
If the teacher starts with seat 1, there are three boys to choose. Once
the teacher fills seat 1, there are two choices for seat 7.
3 2
(Seat 1) (Seat 2) (Seat 3) (Seat 4) (Seat 5) (Seat 6) (Seat 7)
Boy Boy
Once the end seats are filled, there are Why do you not need to distinguish
five people (four girls and one boy) between boys and girls for the
second through sixth seats?
to arrange in the seats as shown.
3 5 4 3 2 1 2
(Seat 1) (Seat 2) (Seat 3) (Seat 4) (Seat 5) (Seat 6) (Seat 7)
By the fundamental counting principle, the teacher can arrange the
girls and boys in (3)(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)(2) = 720 ways.
Your Turn
Use any method to solve each problem.
a) How many three-digit numbers can you make using the digits 1, 2, 3,
4, and 5? Repetition of digits is not allowed.
b) How does the application of the fundamental counting principle in
part a) change if repetition of the digits is allowed? Determine how
many three-digit numbers can be formed that include repetitions.
factorial
In Example 1b), the remaining five people (four girls and one boy) can
• for any positive integer
be arranged in (5)(4)(3)(2)(1) ways. This product can be abbreviated as 5!
n, the product of all of
the positive integers and is read as “five factorial.”
up to and including n
Therefore, 5! = (5)(4)(3)(2)(1).
• 4! = (4)(3)(2)(1)
In general, n! = (n)(n - 1)(n - 2)…(3)(2)(1), where n ∈ N.
• 0! is defined as 1
Using permutation notation, 7P3 represents the number of arrangements D i d You K n ow?
of three objects taken from a set of seven objects.
The notation n! was
P = __ 7! introduced in 1808
7 3
(7 - 3)! by Christian Kramp
7! (1760—1826) as a
=_ convenience to the
4!
printer. Until then, n
= 210 had been used.
So, there are 210 ways that the 3 positions can be filled from the
7-member council.
Example 2
Using Factorial Notation
a) Evaluate 9P4 using factorial notation.
b) Show that 100! + 99! = 101(99!) without using technology.
c) Solve for n if nP3 = 60, where n is a natural number. D i d You K n ow?
Your Turn
a) Evaluate 7P2 using factorial notation.
b) Show that 5! - 3! = 19(3!).
c) Solve for n if nP2 = 56.
Example 3
Repeating Objects
a) How many different eight-letter arrangements can you make using the
letters of aardvark? B
b) How many paths can you follow from A to B in a
four by six rectangular grid if you move only up
or to the right?
A
Solution
a) There are eight letters in aardvark. There are 8! ways to arrange eight
letters. But of the eight letters, three are the letter a and two are the
letter r. There are 3! ways to arrange the a’s and 2! ways to arrange the
8!
r’s. The number of different eight-letter arrangements is _ = 3360.
3!2!
b) Each time you travel 1 unit up, it is the same distance no matter
where you are on the grid. Similarly, each horizontal movement is the
same distance to the right. So, using U to represent 1 unit up and R to For every path from A
represent 1 unit to the right, one possible path is UUUURRRRRR. The to B, how many units of
distance must you travel?
problem is to find the number of arrangements of UUUURRRRRR.
10! = 210. How many vertical units
The number of different paths is _ Where did the numbers
must you travel?
4!6! 10, 4, and 6 come from?
Your Turn How many horizontal
a) How many different 5-digit numbers can you make by arranging all of units must you travel?
the digits of 17 171?
b) In how many different ways can you walk from A A
to B in a three by five rectangular grid if you must
move only down or to the right?
B
Solution
a) Since E must be in the middle, there is only 1 choice for that position.
This leaves four people to be arranged in (4)(3)(2)(1) ways.
4 3 1 2 1 What is the restriction?
(Seat 1) (Seat 2) (Seat 3) (Seat 4) (Seat 5)
Middle
There are (4)(3)(1)(2)(1) = 24 ways to arrange the five people with E
seated in the middle.
b) There are 2! ways to arrange A and B together, AB or BA.
Consider A and B together as 1 object. This means that there are 4
objects (C, D, E, and AB) to arrange in 4! = 24 ways.
Then, there are 2!4! = 48 ways to arrange five people if A and B must
be seated together.
c) Method 1: Use Positions When A and B Are Not Together
There are five positions on the bench. A and B are not together when
they are in the following positions:
1st and 3rd 1st and 4th 1st and 5th (6 ways)
2nd and 4th 2nd and 5th 3rd and 5th
For any one of these six arrangements, A and B
(2 ways)
can be interchanged.
The remaining 3 people can always be arranged 3! or 6 ways. (6 ways)
There are (6)(2)(6) = 72 ways where Why is it necessary to multiply
A and B are not seated together. to get the final answer?
Example 5
Using Cases to Determine Permutations
How many different 3-digit even numbers greater than 300 can you make
using the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6? No digits are repeated.
Solution
When determining the number of permutations for a situation in which Why does the solution to
there are restrictions, you must first address the choices with the this example require the
identification of cases?
restrictions.
Case 1: Numbers That Are Even and Start With 3 or 5
Numbers start with 3 or 5, so there are two choices for the first digit.
Numbers are even, so there are three choices for the third digit.
Number of choices Number of choices Number of choices
for first digit for second digit for third digit How do you know
there are four
2 4 3 possible choices for
Number of possibilities = 2(4)(3) the middle digit?
= 24
Case 2: Numbers That Are Even and Start With 4 or 6
Numbers start with 4 or 6, so there are two choices for the first digit.
Numbers are even, so two choices remain for the third digit.
Number of choices Number of choices Number of choices
for first digit for second digit for third digit Why are there only
two choices for the
2 4 2 third digit?
Number of possibilities = 2(4)(2)
= 16
The final answer is the sum of the possibilities from the two cases.
There are 24 + 16, or 40, 3-digit even numbers greater than 300.
Your Turn
How many 4-digit odd numbers can you make using the digits 1 to 7
if the numbers must be less than 6000? No digits are repeated.
c) P
6 6
d) 4P1
me
i ll a
p o su
i. E
tia
m
e re n e c s
sc i
ng
el i
t. P
ro i
tus
ve n s o l l i c i , q
aa
od
ap
ie na
ena t ud ui s i o. n n e c
18. The number of different permutations trist
sit a
iqu
me
t pe
t i s,
llen
ips
um
in ,
est
o rc
i ac
so d
gra
al e
sm
a
Nu
n c
l uc t e aug tes el e vid ssa
us a q .
using all of the letters in a particular set mal
mor
esu
bi t
r i st
liq u
et.
iqu Pelle
ue
. Ve ue n
s ti
bu
eq
l u m e fe l
u
i fe
nd
sap
a
ien
ada es nt e
is given by _ 5! . Pr a e
fe r m s e n t
co n e n t u m o n te
n
fam
es
ac
en
ec
tus ue h
et
sq
ab
so
llic
i
it u
s
din
s ec llu tur ne ita
2!2! tet
ur
eu
. Pr
ism
oin
in
nu
sn
l
ec
d olo
pis
eg
e sta
s
tu
se t
t
n
od la r i nt .
a) Create a set of letters for which this id ne e rd
ve cn
ln eq um
is i ue
.
is true.
b) What English word could have this
number of arrangements of its letters?
19. How many integers from 3000 to 8999, 22. Use your understanding of factorial
inclusive, contain no 7s? notation and the symbol nPr to solve
each equation.
20. Postal codes in Canada consist of three
letters and three digits. Letters and digits a) 3Pr = 3!
alternate, as in the code R7B 5K1. b) 7Pr = 7!
a) How many different postal codes are c) P = 4(n − 1P2)
n 3
possible with this format? d) n(5P3) = 7P5
b) Do you think Canada will run out of 23. Use nPn to show that 0! = 1.
postal codes? Why or why not?
24. Explain why 3P5 gives an error message
D id Yo u Know? when evaluated on a calculator.
25. How many odd numbers of at most
The Canadian postal code system was established in
1971. The first letters of the codes are assigned to three digits can be formed using the
provinces and territories from east to west: digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 without
A = Newfoundland and Labrador repetitions?
… 26. How many even numbers of at least
Y = Yukon Territory
four digits can be formed using
Some provinces have more than one letter, such as the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, and 5 without
H and J for Québec. Some letters, such as I, are not repetitions?
currently used.
27. How many integers between 1 and 1000
do not contain repeated digits?
Create Connections
Extend C1 a) Explain what the notation aPb
29. You have two colours of paint. In how represents. Use examples to support
many different ways can you paint the your explanation.
faces of a cube if each face is painted? b) Which statement best describes the
Painted cubes are considered to be the relationship between b and a? Explain.
same if you can rotate one cube so that it
b>a b=a b<a b≤a b≥a
matches the other one exactly.
C2 Explain why a set of n objects, a of which
are of one type and b of which are of
a second type, can be arranged in _ n!
a!b!
different ways and not in n! ways.
30. Nine students take a walk on four
C3 Simplify.
consecutive days. They always walk in
3!(n + 2)!
rows of three across. Show how to arrange a) __
4!(n - 1)!
the students so that each student walks 7!(r - 1)!
b) __
+ __ 5!r!
only once in a row with any two other
6!(r + 1)! 3!(r + 1)!
students during the four-day time frame.
C4 Create a mathematics career file for this
In other words, no three-across triplets
chapter. Identify one occupation or career
are repeated.
requiring the use of, or connections to,
D id Yo u K n ow ? the mathematics in this section. Write at
least two problems that might be used by
Thomas Kirkman (1806—1895) was born in
someone working in the chosen occupation
England and studied mathematics in Dublin. He
first presented a version of the problem in #30 in or career. Briefly describe how your
1847 in the Cambridge and Dublin Mathematical problems relate to the occupation or career.
Journal. Subsequently, it was published as the
“fifteen schoolgirl problem” in the 1850 Ladies’ and C5 a) What is the value of 9!?
Gentlemen’s Diary. There are many solutions and b) Determine the value of log (9!).
generalizations of the problem.
c) Determine the value of log (10!).
31. If 100! is evaluated, how many zeros are at d) How are the answers to parts b) and c)
the end of the number? Explain how you related? Explain why.
know.
Did Yo u Know ?
In the six-character postal code used in Canada, the first three characters
define a geographical region and the last three characters specify a local
delivery unit.
Did Yo u Know ? The number of ways of choosing three digits from five digits is
C3 = __ 5!
The number of 5
(5 - 3)!3!
combinations of n
items taken r at a =_ 5!
time is equivalent 2!3!
to the number of Explain how to simplify the expression in step 2
(5)(4)
combinations of n = __ to get the expression shown in step 3.
items taken n - r (2)(1)
How many ways are there to choose two digits
at a time. = 10
from five digits? What do you notice?
C = nCn - r
n r
There are ten ways to select three items from a set of five.
Example 1
Combinations and the Fundamental Counting Principle
There are 12 females and
18 males in a grade 12
class. The principal wishes
to meet with a group of
5 students to discuss
graduation.
a) How many selections
are possible?
b) How many selections
are possible if the group
consists of two females
and three males?
c) One of the female
students is named
Brooklyn. How many
five-member selections
consisting of Brooklyn,
one other female, and
three males are possible?
= 142 506
There are 142 506 possible ways of selecting the group of 5 students.
C2 × 18C3 = __ 12! × __ 18! Why are the elements 12C2 and 18C3
12
(12 - 2)!2! (18 - 3)!3! multiplied together?
6 1 3 1
(12)(11)(10!) (18)(17)(16)(15!)
= ___ × ____
(10!)(2)(1) (15!)(3)(2)(1)
1 1 1 1 1
= 66 × 816
= 53 856
There are 53 856 ways to select a group consisting of 2 females and
3 males.
Your Turn
In how many ways can the debating club coach select a team from six
grade 11 students and seven grade 12 students if the team has
a) four members?
b) four members, only one of whom is in grade 11?
b) “At least four” means that Rianna can answer either four questions
or five questions in part B. Solve the problem using two cases.
Case 1: Answering Four Questions in Part B
Your Turn
A bag contains seven black balls and six red balls. In how
many ways can you draw groups of five balls if at least three
must be red?
Solution
__ n!
_
C
n 5 (n - 5)!5!
__ What is the formula for nCr?
a) =
C
n-1 3 (n - 1)!
__ Why is (n - 4)! in the lower denominator?
(n - 4)!3!
= __ (n!
(n - 5)!5!
__
1)! )
)( (n(n--4)!3!
1 1 1
n(n - 1)! (n - 4)(n - 5)!3! Explain why n! can be
= ____ × ____
(n - 5)!(5)(4)(3!) (n - 1)! written as n(n - 1)!.
1 1 1
n(n - 4)
= __
20
b) 2(nC2) = n+1
C3
1
n! (n + 1)!
(
2 __
(n - 2)!2!
1
= __ )
(n - 2)!3!
1 1
(n + 1)!
n! = __
3!
(n + 1)!
3! = __
n!
1
(n + 1)(n!)
6 = __
n!
1
6=n+1
5=n
Your Turn
1 .
a) Express in factorial notation and simplify (n - 1C3)( _
C3
n -2
)
b) Solve for n if 720(nC5) = P.
n+1 5
Key Ideas
The questions in this section involve 7. Identify the cases you could use to solve
permutations or combinations. Always each problem. Do not solve.
determine whether order is important. a) How many numbers less than 1000
can you make using any number of
Practise the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5?
1. Decide whether each of the following is
b) In how many ways can a team be
a combination or a permutation problem.
selected from six grade 11 students
Briefly describe why. You do not need to
and five grade 12 students if the
solve the problem.
five-person team has four members
a) In a traditional Aboriginal welcome from either grade and a spare from
circle, each member shakes hands with grade 11?
each other member twice. If there are
8. Show that 11C3 = 11C8.
eight people in a welcome circle, how
many handshakes occur? 9. a) Evaluate 5C5 to determine the number
b) How many numbers less than 300 can
of ways you can select five objects
you make using the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, from a group of five.
and 5? b) Evaluate 5C0 to determine the number
c) A car dealer has 15 mid-sized cars. In of ways you can select no objects
how many ways can a rental agency from a group of five. Explain why the
purchase 10 of the cars? answer makes sense.
d) A hockey team has 18 players. In how
many ways can the driver select six of Apply
the players to ride in the team van? 10. From a penny, a nickel, a dime, and a
2. Describe the differences between 5P3 and quarter, how many different sums of
C , and then evaluate each one.
5 3
money can be formed consisting of
3. Evaluate. a) three coins?
a) 6P4 b) 7C3 b) at most two coins?
c) C
5 2
d) C
10 7 11. From six females, in how many ways can
4. From ten employees, in how many ways you select
can you a) a group of four females?
a) select a group of four?
b) a group of at least four females?
b) assign four different jobs?
12. Verify the identity nCr − 1 + nCr = Cr.
n+1
5. a) List all of the combinations of
13. At the local drive-in, you can order a
A, B, C, and D taken two at a time.
burger with tomato, lettuce, pickle, hot
b) List all of the permutations of peppers, onion, or cheese. How many
A, B, C, and D taken two at a time. different burgers with any three different
c) How is the number of combinations choices for the extras can you order? Does
related to the number of permutations? this question involve permutations or
6. Solve for n. combinations? Explain.
a) nC1 = 10 b) nC2 = 21
c) Cn - 2 = 6
n
d) n+1
Cn − 1 = 15
a) How many 12-person juries can be George Fagnan grew up in Swan River, Manitoba. He
selected? is a proud member of the Sapotaweyak Cree Nation,
and he currently lives in Brandon, Manitoba. He
b) How many juries containing seven began his art career around the age of 5. He enjoys
women and five men can be selected? traditional native art and other creative activities.
D id Yo u K n ow ?
2. Write the next row for the Pascal’s triangle shown. D i d You K n ow?
3. Some of the patterns in Pascal’s triangle are spatial and relate to
Pascal was not
whole sections in the chart. Create a large Pascal’s triangle with at the first person to
least 20 rows. Mark or use counters to cover all of the multiples of discover the triangle
7 in your 20-row triangle. Then, cover all of the multiples of 5 and of numbers that bears
his name. It was
multiples of 3. What do you conclude? What happens for multiples known in India, Persia,
of even numbers? and China centuries
before. The Chinese
4. Other patterns may appear unexpectedly. Determine the sum of the
called it “Yang Hui’s
numbers in each horizontal row. What pattern did you find? triangle” in honour of
5. Each number in Pascal’s triangle can be written as a combination Yang Hui, who lived
from 1238 to 1298.
using the notation nCr, where n is the number of objects in the set
and r is the number selected. For example, you can express the
third row as
2
C0 C1
2
C2
2
C2 = _5!
5
Note that 5C2 represents the number of combinations of five items
3!2! taken two at a time. In the expansion of (x + y)5, it represents the
(5)(4) coefficient of the term containing x3y 2 and shows the number of
= __
2 selections possible for three x’s and two y’s.
= 10
Solution
a) Method 1: Use Patterns and Pascal’s Triangle
The coefficients for the terms of the
Why is the row number
expansion of (p + q)6 occur in different by one from the
the (6 + 1)th or seventh row of exponent on the binomial?
Pascal’s triangle.
Your Turn
a) What are the coefficients in the expansion of (c + d)5?
b) Do you prefer to use Pascal’s triangle or combinations to determine
the coefficients in a binomial expansion? Why?
c) How many terms are in the expansion of (c + d)5?
d) What is the simplified expression for the second term in the
expansion of (c + d)5 if the terms are written with descending
powers of c?
Did Yo u Know ? The following are some important observations about the
expansion of (x + y)n, where x and y represent the terms of the
In French, the binomial and n ∈ N:
binomial theorem
is referred to as • the expansion contains n + 1 terms
Newton’s binomial
formula (binôme
• the number of objects, k, selected in the combination nCk
de Newton). While can be taken to match the number of factors of the second
Newton was not variable selected; that is, it is the same as the exponent on the
the first to describe
second variable
binomial expansion,
he did develop a • the general term, tk + 1, has the form
formula that can be
used to expand the C (x)n - k(y)k
n k
general case
(x + y)n, n ∈ R.
the same
• the sum of the exponents in any term of the expansion is n
Example 2
Use the Binomial Theorem
a) Use the binomial theorem to expand (2a - 3b)4.
b) What is the third term in the expansion of (4b - 5)6?
5
1
(
c) In the expansion of a2 - _ )
a , which term, in simplified form,
contains a? Determine the value of the term.
Solution
a) Use the binomial theorem to expand (x + y)n, n ∈ N.
(x + y)n = nC0(x)n(y)0 + nC1(x)n - 1(y)1 + nC2(x)n - 2(y)2 +
+ nCn - 1(x)1(y)n - 1 + nCn(x)0(y)n
In this case, (2a - 3b)4 = [2a + (-3b)]4, so, in the binomial expansion,
substitute x = 2a, y = -3b, and n = 4.
(2a - 3b)4
= 4C0(2a)4(-3b)0 + 4C1(2a)3(-3b)1 + 4C2(2a)2(-3b)2 + 4C3(2a)1(-3b)3
+ 4C4(2a)0(-3b)4
= 1(16a4)(1) + 4(8a3)(-3b) + 6(4a2)(9b2) + 4(2a)(-27b3) + 1(1)(81b4)
= 16a4 - 96a3b + 216a2b2 - 216ab3 + 81b4 What pattern occurs in
the signs of the terms?
c) Determine the first few terms of the expanded binomial. Simplify the
variable part of each term to find the pattern.
1
In the binomial expansion, substitute x = a2, y = - _
a , and n = 5.
1 5 1 0 1 1 1 2
(a2 - _ ) 2 5
( )
_ 2 4
( )
_ 2 3 _
a = 5C0(a ) - a + 5C1(a ) - a + 5C2(a ) - a + ( )
1 + C a6 _ 1 +
( )
= 5C0a10 + 5C1(a8) - _
a 5 2 ( )
a2
= 5C0a10 - 5C1a7 + 5C2a4 +
The pattern shows that the exponents for a are decreasing by 3 in each
successive term. The next term will contain a4 - 3 or a1, the term after
that will contain a1 - 3 or a-2, and the last term will contain a-5.
The fourth term contains a1, or a, in its simplest form.
1 3 = 10(a4) - _
1
( )
Its value is 5C3(a2)2 - _
a ( )a3
= -10a
Your Turn
a) How many terms are in the expansion of (2a - 7)8?
b) What is the value of the fourth term in the expansion of (2a - 7)8?
c) Use the binomial theorem to find the first four terms of the expansion
of (3a + 2b)7.
Key Ideas
Pascal’s triangle has many patterns. For example, each row begins and ends with 1.
Each number in the interior of any row is the sum of the two numbers to its left and
right in the row above.
You can use Pascal’s triangle or combinations to determine the coefficients in the
expansion of (x + y)n, where n is a natural number.
You can use the binomial theorem to expand any binomial of the form (x + y)n, n ∈ N.
You can determine any term in the expansion of (x + y)n using patterns without having
to perform the entire expansion. The general term, tk + 1, has the form nCk(x)n - k(y)k.
Practise Apply
1. Some rows from Pascal’s triangle are 8. Explain how Pascal’s triangle is
shown. What is the next row in each case? constructed.
a) 1 3 3 1 1 Row 1
1 1 Row 2
b) 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
1 2 1 Row 3
c) 1 10 45 120 210 252 210 120 45 10 1 1 3 3 1 Row 4
1 4 6 4 1
2. Express each row of Pascal’s triangle 1 5 10 10 5 1
using combinations. Leave each term
in the form nCr. 9. a) Determine the sum of the numbers in
each of the first five rows in Pascal’s
a) 1 2 1
triangle.
b) 1 4 6 4 1
b) What is an expression for the sum
c) 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1 of the numbers in the ninth row of
3. Express each circled term in the given row Pascal’s triangle?
of Pascal’s triangle as a combination. c) What is a formula for the sum of the
a) 1 3 3 1 numbers in the nth row?
b) 1 6 15 20 15 6 1 10. Examine the numbers in each “hockey
c) 1 1 stick” pattern within Pascal’s triangle.
4. How many terms are in the expansion of 1
1 1
each expression?
1 2 1
a) (x - 3y)4 b) (1 + 3t2)7 1 3 3 1
q 1 1 4 6 4
c) (a + 6)
1
10 10 5 5 1
5. Use the binomial theorem to expand. 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
a) (x + y)2 b) (a + 1)3
1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1
c) (1 - p)4 1 9 36 84 126 126 84 36 9 1
1 10 45 120 210 252 210 120 45 10 1
6. Expand and simplify using the binomial
1 11 55 165 330 462 462 330 165 55 11 1
theorem.
a) (a + 3b)3 a) Describe one pattern for the numbers
within each hockey stick.
b) (3a - 2b)5
b) Does your pattern work for all possible
c) (2x - 5)4
hockey sticks? Explain.
7. Determine the simplified value of the
11. Answer the following questions for
specified term.
(x + y)12 without expanding or computing
a) the sixth term of (a + b)9 all of its coefficients.
b) the fourth term of (x - 3y)6 a) How many terms are in the expansion?
c) the seventh term of (1 - 2t)14 b) What is the simplified fourth term in
d) the middle term of (4x + y)4 the expansion?
2 8
e) the second-last term of (3w + 2) c) For what value of r does 12Cr give the
maximum coefficient? What is that
coefficient?
16. a) Draw a tree diagram that depicts Work with a partner. Consider the fifth row
tossing a coin three times. Use in Pascal’s triangle. Each number is related
H to represent a head and T to to the previous number as shown.
represent a tail landing face up. List × 4_1 × 3_2 × 2_3 × 1_4
the arrangements of heads (H) and
1 4 6 4 1
tails (T) by the branches of your tree
diagram. Step 1 What pattern do you see in the
b) Expand (H + T)3 by multiplying the multipliers? Check whether your
factors. In the first step write the pattern works for the sixth row:
factors in full. For example, the first 1 5 10 10 5 1
term will be HHH. You should have Step 2 What pattern exists between the row
eight different terms. Simplify this number and the second element in
arrangement of terms by writing HHH the row?
as H3, and so on. Combine like terms. Step 3 What are the first 2 terms in the
3
c) What does HHH or H represent in 21st row of Pascal’s triangle? What
both part a) and part b)? Explain what are the multipliers for successive
3HHT or 3H2T represents in parts a) terms in row 21?
and b).
Line Segments
Quadrilaterals
22. Five rows of the Leibniz triangle are
Pentagons
Hexagons
Triangles
shown.
Diagram
Points
1
1
_ 1
_
2 2
1
_ 1
_ 1
_
3 6 3
1
_ 1
_ 1
_ 1
_
1
4 12 12 4
1
_ 1
_ 1
_ 1
_ 1
_
5 20 30 20 5 2 1
b) Write the next two rows in the Leibniz b) Show how the numbers in any row of
triangle. the table relate to Pascal’s triangle.
c) Describe at least two patterns in the c) What values would you expect for eight
Leibniz triangle. points on a circle?
25. The real number e is the base of
D id Yo u Know ?
natural logarithms. It appears in certain
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnizz mathematics problems involving growth
lived in Germany from or decay and is part of Stirling’s formula
1646 to 1716. He was
a great mathematician
for approximating factorials. One way to
and philosopher. He has calculate e is shown below.
been described as the 1 +_ 1 +_ 1 +_ 1 +_ 1 +
last universal genius. e=_
0! 1! 2! 3! 4!
He developed calculus
independently of a) Determine the approximate value of e
Sir Isaac Newton and using the first five terms of the series
was very involved in shown.
the invention of
mechanical calculators. b) How does the approximate value of e
change if you use seven terms? eight
23. Show how to expand a trinomial using the terms? What do you conclude?
binomial theorem. Expand and simplify c) What is the value of e on your
(a + b + c)3. calculator?
24. a) Complete a table in your notebook d) Stirling’s approximation can be
similar to the one shown, for one to expressed as
six points. n n √____
n! ≈ _ e( ) 2πn
The table relates the number of points Use Stirling’s approximation to estimate
on the circumference of a circle, the 15!, and compare this result with the
number of possible line segments you true value.
can make by joining any two of the
e) A more accurate approximation uses the
points, and the number of triangles,
following variation of Stirling’s formula:
quadrilaterals, pentagons, or hexagons
n n √____ 1
formed. Make your own diagrams 3, 4, n! ≈ _ e( ) 2πn 1 + _
12n ( )
5, and 6. Do not include values of zero Use the formula from part d) and the
in your table. variation to compare estimates for 50!.
15! ( P )
so must Dina and Eric? c) C3 × 5P2
5
d)
4!11! )
(_ 6 3
c) Anna and Cleo must not sit together?
10. a) How many different sums of money can
5. In how many ways can the letters of you form using one penny, one nickel,
olympic be arranged if one dime, and one quarter?
a) there are no restrictions? b) List all possible sums to confirm your
b) consonants and vowels (o, i, and y) answer from part a).
alternate? 11. Solve for n. Show that each answer is
correct.
c) all vowels are in the middle of each
arrangement? a) nC2 = 28 b) nC3 = 4(nP2)
1
c) f(x) = __ and g(x) = x2; f(g(x))
b) ( _1x - 2x)
x-1 21. Determine the numerical coefficient of the
fourth term of each expansion.
Chapter 11 Permutations, Combinations, and
the Binomial Theorem a) (5x + y)5
8
consists of two main courses, three 22. One row of Pascal’s triangle starts with the
vegetable options, two potato options, two following four terms: 1, 25, 300, 2300, ….
salad choices, and four dessert options.
a) Determine the next term, in
How many different meals are possible?
combination notation.
14. Determine the number of ways to arrange
b) Determine the number of terms in
the letters of the word NUMBER if the
this row.
vowels cannot be together.
c) Write the term 2300 as the sum of two
terms using combination notation.
c) h(x) = _(f)
g (x)
d) h(x) = (f · g)(x)
k(x) = - _
-6 36 108 12 1
c) y x
9 27 3
h(x) = 1
-3 _ h(x): domain
0 0 0 0 2 x
{x | x ≠ 0, x ∈ R},
3 9 27 3 range {y | y ≠ 0, y ∈ R}
6 36 108 12 -2 0 2 x k(x): domain
{x | x ≠ 0, x ∈ R},
-2
k(x) = - 1
_ range {y | y ≠ 0, y ∈ R}
x
-10 -5 0 5 10 x
14. a) x = -4, x = 3 b) x = 4, x = -3
-5 c) x = -8, x = 6 d) x = -2, x = 1.5
15. a) I b) III c) IV d) IV
9. a) horizontally stretched by a factor of _ 1
16. a) y
4
b) horizontally stretched by a factor of 4
_1 2
c) vertically stretched by a factor of g(x)
2 f(x) = |x|
d) vertically stretched by a factor of 4
-2 0 2 4 6 8 x
e) horizontally stretched by a factor of
_1 and x=3
3
reflected in the y-axis
b) y
vertically stretched by a factor of 3 and reflected
f)
in the x-axis 2
10. a) y b) y y = |x| f(x) = |x|
2 2
y = |x| y = 3|x| -2 0 2 x
y = -3|x|
-2
0 2 4 x 0 2 4 x y = -2
y = -|x| y = -3|x|
-2 -2 -4
g(x)
They are both incorrect. It does not matter in
c) -6
which order you proceed.
11. a) d b) Both the functions
-2 0 2 4 t are reflections of C1 Example: When the input values for g(x) are b times
the input values for f(x), the scale factor must be _
d = -1.6t 2 the base function 1
-2 in the t-axis. The b
d = -4.9t 2 object falling on for the same output values. g(x) = f _ 1 (bx) = f (x)
( )
-4 Earth is stretched
b
C2 Examples:
vertically more than a) a vertical stretch or a reflection in the x-axis
-6 the object falling on b) a horizontal stretch or a reflection in the y-axis
the moon. C3 f(x) g(x) Transformation
12. Example: When the graph of y = f (x) is transformed (5, 6) (5, -6) reflection in the x-axis
to the graph of y = f (bx), it undergoes a horizontal (4, 8) (-4, 8) reflection in the y-axis
stretch about the y-axis by a factor of _1 and only the
(2, 3) (2, 12) vertical stretch by a factor of 4
|b|
x-coordinates are affected. When the graph of y = f (x) horizontal stretch by a factor of
_1
(4, -12) (2, -6) 2
is transformed to the graph of y = af (x), it undergoes
and vertical stretch by a factor of
_1
a vertical stretch about the x-axis by a factor of |a| and 2
only the y-coordinates are affected.
Stretch Factor
(x, y) → - _ 1 x + 6, _1y + 2
( )
Reflections
Translation
Translation
Horizontal
Horizontal
2 3
_3
Vertical
Vertical
b) y y = f(x)
4 0 2 4 6 x
3 1
y = _ f _x
4 3 ( ) 2 y= 3
_ f(x)
4 d) y
x
( )
1
y = 3f _ x
3
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 12
-2
8
-4
3 1
y = _ f _ (x - 3) - 4
4 3 ( ) 4
-4
4
-8
-16 -12 -8 -4 0 x
-12
(1
)
2
_
y = - (x + 6) + 6 -4
2
-16
( _1
b) y = - (x + 6) + 6
2
)
y = -3f(x + 4) - 2 2
15. a) (-a, 0), (0,-b) b) (2a, 0), (0, 2b)
f) y
y= 1
_ f -1
2 (
_ (x + 2) - 1
2 ) c) and d) There is not enough information to
1 determine the locations of the new intercepts.
When a transformation involves translations, the
locations of the new intercepts will vary with
-8 -4 0 4 8 12 16 x different base functions.
-1 16. a) A = -2x3 + 18x
_1
b) A = - x3 + 18x
8
c) For (2, 5), the area For (8, 5), the area of
10. a) y = -3f(x - 8) + 10 b) y = -2f(x - 3) + 2
of the rectangle in the rectangle in part b)
c) y = -_
1 f(-2(x + 4)) + 7
part a) is 20 square is 80 square units.
2
11. a) y units. A = -_ 1 x3 + 18x
A = -2x3 + 18x 8
_1
A = -2(2)3 + 18(2) A = - 8 (8)3 + 18(8)
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 x
g(x) = -2f(4(x + 2)) - 2 A = 20 A = 80
-2 17. y = 36(x - 2)2 + 6(x - 2) - 2
18. Example: vertical stretches and horizontal stretches
-4 followed by reflections
C1 Step 1 They are reflections in the axes.
1: y = x + 3, 2: y = -x - 3, 3: y = x - 3
b) y g(x) = -2f(-3x + 6) + 4 Step 2 They are vertical translations coupled with
4
reflections. 1: y = x2 + 1, 2: y = x2 - 1, 3: y = -x2, 4:
y = -x2 - 1
2
C2 a) The cost of making b + 12 bracelets, and it is a
horizontal translation.
0 2 4 6 8 x b) The cost of making b bracelets plus 12 more
dollars, and it is a vertical translation.
c) y c) Triple the cost of making b bracelets, and it is a
vertical stretch.
4 d) The cost of making
_b bracelets, and it is a
2
2 horizontal stretch.
C3 y = 2(x - 3)2 + 1; a vertical stretch by a factor of 2
and a translation of 3 units right and 1 unit up
-2 0 2 4 6 8x C4 a) H is repeated; J is transposed; K is repeated and
g(x) = - 1
_ f(-2(x + 3)) - 2
transposed
-2 3
b) H is in retrograde; J is inverted; K is in retrograde
12. a) A(-11, -2), B(-7, 6), C(-3, 4), D(-1, 5), E(3, -2) and inverted
b) y = -f
_1 (x + 3) + 4
( ) c) H is inverted, repeated, and transposed; J is
2 in retrograde inversion and repeated; K is in
13. a) The graphs are in two locations because the retrograde and transposed
transformations performed to obtain Graph 2 do
not match those in y = |2x - 6| + 2. Gil forgot to 1.4 Inverse of a Relation, pages 51 to 55
factor out the coefficient of the x-term, 2, from
1. a) b)
-6. The horizontal translation should have been
y y
3 units right, not 6 units. 4
b) He should have rewritten the function as
y = f(x)
2
y = |2(x - 3)| + 2. 2
-2 0 2 x
x = f(y) -4 -2 0 2 4x
-2
y = f(x)
-2
-4 x = f(y)
558 MHR • Answers
2. a) y b) y
4 4
2 2
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 x -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
x = f(y)
-2 -2
-4 -4
-6 -6
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
-2
-4
-4
3. a) The graph is a function but the inverse will be a y = f(x)
relation.
-6
b) The graph and its inverse are functions.
c) The graph and its inverse are relations.
4. Examples: The inverse is a function; it passes the vertical
a) {x | x ≥ 0, x ∈ R} or {x | x ≤ 0, x ∈ R} line test.
b) {x | x ≥ -2, x ∈ R} or {x | x ≤ -2, x ∈ R} b) y The inverse
c) {x | x ≥ 4, x ∈ R} or {x | x ≤ 4, x ∈ R} 8 y = f(x) is not a
d) {x | x ≥ -4, x ∈ R} or {x | x ≤ -4, x ∈ R} function;
5. a) f -1(x) = x
_1 _1
b) f -1(x) = - (x - 4)
6 it does not
7 3 pass the
-1
c) f (x) = 3x - 4 -1
d) f (x) = 3x + 15 4 vertical line
_1
e) f -1(x) = - (x - 5) f) f -1(x) = 2x - 6 test.
2 2
6. a) E b) C c) B d) A e) D
7. a) y
10 -2 0 2 4 6 8x
8 -2
6
c) y The inverse is
4 y = f(x) not a function;
6
it does not pass
2 the vertical
4
line test.
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x 2
-2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
function: domain {-2, -1, 0, 1, 2},
-2
range {-2, 1, 4, 7, 10}
inverse: domain {-2, 1, 4, 7, 10},
-4
range {-2, -1, 0, 1, 2}
-4
b) f -1(x) = _
1 (-x + 4)
2
inverse of f(x)
y f (x): -6
f-1(x) = 1
_(-x + 4)
domain {x | x ∈ R},
4 2
range {y | y ∈ R} ______
f(x) = 4 - 2x f -1(x): b) i) y = (x - 2)2 - 2, y = ± √x + 2 + 2
2 domain {x | x ∈ R}, ii) y
range {y | y ∈ R} f(x)
4
-2 0 2 4 x
-2 2
inverse of f(x)
c) f -1(x) = 2x + 12 -4 -2 0 2 4 x
y -2
12 11. Yes, the graphs are reflections of each other in the
line y = x. ______
8 12. a) y = ± √x - 3 restricted domain {x | x ≥ 0, x ∈ R}
f -1(x) = 2x + 12
y y
4
6 6
f(x) = x 2 + 3
-12 -8 -4 0 4 8 12 x f(x) = x 2+ 3, x ≥ 0
4 4
-4
2 y=± x-3 2 f -1(x) = x - 3
f(x) = 1
_x - 6
-8 2
-2 0 2 4 6 x 0 2 4 6 x
-12
-2
___
f(x): domain {x | x ∈ R}, range {y | y ∈ R} b) y = ± √2x restricted domain {x | x ≥ 0, x ∈ R}
f -1(x): domain {x | x ∈ R}, range {y | y ∈ R} y y
1
f(x) = _ x 2
______
d) f -1(x) = - √x - 2
6 2 6 1
y f (x): domain f(x) = _ x 2, x ≥ 0
{x | x ≤ 0, x ∈ R}, 2
4 range 4 4
f(x) = x2 + 2, x ≤ 0 {y-1| y ≥ 2, y ∈ R} 2 2
2 f (x): domain y = ± 2x f -1(x) = 2x
f -1(x) = - x - 2 {x | x ≥ 2, x ∈ R},
-2 0 2 4 x
range -2 0 2 4 x 0 2 4 6 x
{y | y ≤ 0, y ∈ R}
-2 -2
______
e) f -1(x) = √2 - x
y f (x): domain
f -1(x) = 2 - x {x | x ≥ 0, x ∈ R},
2 range
{y | y ≤ 2, y ∈ R}
f -1(x): domain
0 2 4 6 x
f(x) = 2 - x2, x ≥ 0 {x | x ≤ 2, x ∈ R},
-2 range
{y | y ≥ 0, y ∈ R}
__
d) y = ± √x - 1 restricted domain {x | x ≥ -1, x ∈ R} -32 -16 0 16 32 F
y y -16
f(x) = (x + 1)2 C= 5
_ (F - 32)
4 4 9
f(x) = (x + 1)2, x ≥ -1 -32
2 2 17. a) male height = 171.02 cm, female height = 166.44 cm
b) i) male femur = 52.75 cm
-2 0 2 4 x 0 2 4 x ii) female femur = 49.04 cm
f -1(x) = x - 1 18. a) 5
-2 -2 b) y = 2.55x + 36.5; y is finger circumference and x
is ring size
-4 y=± x-1 c) 51.8 mm, 54.35 mm, 59.45 mm
___
e) y = ± √-x + 3 restricted domain {x | x ≥ 3, x ∈ R} 19. Examples:
a) i) 3 ≤ x ≤ 6 ii) -2 ≤ x ≤ 3
y y
y y
4 4 6 f(x), -2 ≤ x ≤ 3
y = ± -x + 3 f-1(x) = -x + 3 f -1(x) 4
2 2 4
2
f(x) = -(x - 3)2 f(x) = -(x - 3)2, x ≥ 3 2
-2 0 2 4 x -2 0 2 4 x
-2 0 2 4 x
-2 -2 0 2 4 6 x f -1(x)
-2
f(x), 3 ≤ x ≤ 6
______
f) y = ± √x + 2 + 1 restricted domain b) i) 4 ≤ x ≤ 8 ii) -10 ≤ x ≤ -6
{x | x ≥ 1, x ∈ R} y y
y y f -1(x) 4
8
f(x) = (x - 1) - 2 2 f(x), -10 ≤ x ≤ -6
4 f (x) = x + 2 + 1
-1
4
4 -8 -4 0 4x
2 2 -4
0 4 8 x f -1(x)
-8
-2 0 2 4 x -2 0 2 4 x f(x), 4 ≤ x ≤ 8
-2 -2 __
y=± x+2+1 f(x) = (x - 1)2 - 2, x ≥ 1 20. a)17 b) √3 c) 10
21. a)(6, 10) b) (8, 23) c) (-8, -9)
13. a) inverses b) inverses c) not inverses C1 a)Subtract 12 and divide by 6.
d) inverses e) not inverses b)Add 1, take the positive and negative square root,
14. Examples: subtract 3.
a) x ≥ 0 or x≤0 b) x ≥ 0 or x ≤ 0 C2 a) y b) Example: The graph
c) x ≥ 3 or x≤3 d) x ≥ -2 or x ≤ -2 f(x) = -x + 3 of the original
4 -1
15. a)
_3 b) 0 c)
_5 d)
_1 f (x) = -x + 3 linear function is
2 2 2 perpendicular to
2 y = x, thus after a
reflection the graph
-2 0 2 4 x of the inverse is
the same.
-2
( )
1. a) b) -5 1 -1 y = 1
y y y = 2f _ x _ f(3x )
2 2
4 2
-2
2 _1 .
y = f(x) + 3 -4 -2 0 2 x 10. They are both horizontal stretches by a factor of
4
-2 The difference is in the horizontal translation, the
-2 0 2 4x h(x) = f(x + 1) first being 1 unit left and the second being
_1 unit left.
c) 4
y 11. g(x) = f (2(x - 5)) - 2
-2 0 2 4 6 x 12. a) y
-2 y= 1_ f (-(x + 2)) y = f(x)
y = f(x - 2) - 1 2 8
2 b) c)
y y
y = 3f(2x + 4) + 1
-4 -2 0 2 4 x 4 12
y = f(x)
f(-x): domain {x | x ∈ R}, range {y | y ≥ 1, y ∈ R} 2 8
(0, 10) y = -f(2(x - 3)) + 2 y = f(x)
4
b) y y = -f(x)
-f (x): domain
0 2 4 6x
{x | -1 ≤ x ≤ 5, x ∈ R},
2 range {y | 0 ≤ y ≤ 3, y ∈ R} -2
0 2 4 6 x
(5, 0), (-1, 0)
0 2 4 x
-2
y = f(x)
x
(-7, 3)
-9 (
_, 2
2 )
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 2
(-3, 1) -5
2
_, 0
( )
10. a) y b) To transform it point -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 x
by point, switch the
4
domain x | x ≤ - _
position of the x- and 5, x ∈ R ,
the y-coordinate. { 2 }
2 c) (-1, -1) range {y | y ≥ 0, y ∈ R}
2. a) a = 7 → vertical stretch by a factor of 7
-2 0 2 x h = 9 → horizontal translation 9 units right
domain {x | x ≥ 9, x ∈ R}, range {y | y ≥ 0, y ∈ R}
-2 b) b = -1 → reflected in y-axis
k = 8 → vertical translation up 8 units
_1 (x - 2) domain {x | x ≤ 0, x ∈ R}, range {y | y ≥ 8, y ∈ R}
11. y = c) a = -1 → reflected in x-axis
5
12. y = 3f ( - _
1 (x - 2)
) b=_ 1 → horizontal stretch factor of 5
2 5
13. a) It is a translation of 2 units left and 7 units down. domain {x | x ≥ 0, x ∈ R}, range {y | y ≤ 0, y ∈ R}
b) g(x) = |x + 2| - 7 c) (-2, -7) d) a=_ 1 → vertical stretch factor of _1
3 3
d) No. Invariant points are points that remain
h = -6 → horizontal translation 6 units left
unchanged after a transformation.
k = -4 → vertical translation 4 units down
14. a) f(x) = x2
domain {x | x ≥ -6, x ∈ R},
b) g(x) = _
1 f (x); a vertical stretch by a factor of _
1 range {y | y ≥ -4, y ∈ R}
4 4 B b) A c) D
3. a) ___ d) C
g(x) = f _1 x ; a horizontal stretch by a factor of 2 ______
c)
2 ( ) 4. a) y = 4 √x + 6 b) y = √8x - 5
c) V(x) = _
1 √x __
2
1000
e) The Penrose system gives larger nations votes based
on population but also provides an opportunity for -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
smaller nations to provide influence.
18. Answers will vary. ______
When 4 - x < 0 then √4 - ______
b) x is undefined;
19. a) y The positive when 0 < 4 - x < 1 then ______ √4 - x > 4 - x; when
domain of ______
f -1(x) = x2, x ≥ 0 4 - x > 1 then 4 - x > √4 - x ; 4 - x = √4 - x
6 the inverse is when y = 0 and y = 1______
the same as
4 c) The function f (x) = √4 - x is undefined
the range of
when 4 - x < 0, therefore the domain is
the original
2 {x | x ≤ 4, x ∈ R} whereas the function
f(x) = x function.
f (x) = 4 ____
- x has a domain of {x | x ∈ R}.
Since √f (x) is undefined when f(x) < 0, the range
____
0 2 4 6 8 x of √f (x) is {f (x) | f (x) ≥ 0, f (x) ∈ R}, whereas the
range of f (x) = 4 - x is {f (x) | f (x) ∈ R}.
b) i) g -1(x) = x2 + 5, x ≤ 0 5. a) y For y = x - 2,
ii) h-1(x) = -(x - 3)2, x ≥ 3 y=x-2 domain {x | x ∈ R},
_1 (x + 6) 4
iii) j -1(x) = 2
+_ 7 , x ≥ -6 range {y | ______
y ∈ R};
2 2 for y = √x - 2 ,
20. Vertical stretch by a factor of
_
16 . Horizontal stretch 2 domain
25
by a factor of _7 . Reflect in both the x and y axes. y= x-2 {x | x ≥ 2, x ∈ R},
72 0 2 4 6 x range
Horizontal translation of 3 units left. Vertical {y | y ≥ 0, y ∈ R}.
translation of 4 units down. ______
C1 The parameters b and h affect the domain. For________ The domains differ since √x - 2______
is undefined
__ when x < 2. The range of y = √x - 2 is y ≥ 0,
example, y = √x has domain x ≥ 0 but y = √2(x - 3)
has domain x ≥ 3. The parameters a and k affect when x - 2 ≥ 0.
__
the range. For example, y = √x has range y ≥ 0 but
__
y = √x - 4 has range y ≥ -4.
Answers • MHR 565
_______
b) y For y = 2x + 6, 7. a) Since y = √x2 - 25 is undefined when
y = 2x + 6 domain {x | x ∈ R}, x2 - 25 < 0, the domain changes from {x | x ∈ R}
6 range _______
{y | y ∈ R}. For to {x | x ≤ -5 and x ≥ 5, x ∈ R} and the range
y = √2x + 6 , changes from {y | y ≥ -25, y ∈ R} to
4 domain {y | y ≥ 0, y ______
∈ R}.
y = 2x + 6 {x | x ≥ -3, x ∈ R}, b) Since y = √x2 + 3 is undefined when
2 range x2 + 3 < 0, the range changes __from
{y | y ≥ 0, y ∈ R}.
_______ {y | y ≥ 3, y ∈ R} to {y | y ≥ √3 , y ∈ R}.
_________
4 x y = 2x + 6 is
√
-2 0 2 c) Since y = √32 - 2x2 is undefined when
undefined when 32 - 2x2 < 0, the domain changes from
2x + 6 < 0, therefore {x | x ∈ R} to {x | -4 ≤ x ≤ 4, x ∈ R} and the
x ≥ -3 and y ≥ 0. range changes___from {y | y ≤ 32, y ∈ R} to __
c) y y = -x + 9 {y | 0 ≤ y ≤ √32 , y ∈ R} or {y | 0 ≤ y ≤ 4 √2 , y ∈ R}.
_________
4 d) Since y = √5x2 + 50 is undefined when
y = -x + 9 5x2 + 50 < 0, the range changes___from
2 {y | y ≥ 50,__y ∈ R} to {y | y ≥ √50 , y ∈ R} or
{y | y ≥ 5 √2 , y ∈ R}.
8. a) b)
0 2 4 6 8 x y y
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
For y = -0.1x - 5, domain__________
{x | x ∈ R},
range {y | y ∈ R}; for y = √-0.1x - 5 ,
9. a) and b)
domain {x | x ≤ -50, x ∈ R}, __________
i) For y = x2 + 4,
range {y | y ≥ 0, y ∈ R}. y = √-0.1x - 5 is
domain
undefined when -0.1x - 5 < 0, therefore
{x | x ∈ R},
x ≤ -50 and y ≥ 0.
range
6. a) For y = x2 - 9, domain {x | x ∈ R},
{y | y ≥ 4, y ∈ R}
range {y | y______
≥ -9, y ∈ R}.
For y = √x2 - 9 ,
domain {x | x ≤ -3 and ______
x ≥ 3, x ∈ R}, range ii) For y = x2 - 4,
{y | y ≥ 0, y ∈ R}. y = √x2 - 9 is undefined when domain
x2 - 9 < 0, therefore x ≤ -3 and x ≥ 3 and y ≥ 0. {x | x ∈ R},
b) For y = 2 - x2, domain {x | x ∈ R},______ range
range {y | y ≤ 2,__y ∈ R}. For 2 {y | y ≥ -4, y ∈ R}
__ y = 2 - x ,
√
domain {x | - √2 ≤ __ x ≤ √2 , x ∈ R}, ______
range {y | 0 ≤ y ≤ √2 , y ∈ R}. y = √2 - x2 is__ iii) For y = -x2 + 4,
2
undefined __ when 2 - x < __ 0, therefore x ≤ 2 and
√ domain
x ≥ - √2 and 0 ≤ y ≤ √2 . {x | x ∈ R},
c) For y = x2 + 6, domain {x | x ∈ R}, range
range {y | y______
≥ 6, y ∈ R}. {y | y ≤ 4, y ∈ R}
For y = √x2 + 6__, domain {x | x ∈ R},
______
range {y | y ≥ √6 , y ∈ R}. y = √x2 + 6 is
iv) For y = -x2 - 4,
undefined when x2 + 6 < 0, therefore x ∈ R and
__ domain
y ≥ √6 . {x | x ∈ R},
d) For y = 0.5x2 + 3, domain {x | x ∈ R},
range
range {y | y_________
≥ 3, y ∈ R}.
{y | y ≤ -4, y ∈ R}.
For y = √0.5x2 + __ 3 , domain {x |_________
x ∈ R},
range {y | y ≥ √3 , y ∈ R}. y = √0.5x2 + 3 is
undefined when __0.5x2 + 3 < 0, therefore
x ∈ R and y ≥ √3 .
x=_
2 7 , x = -1
6. a)
y = (x - 1)2 - 4 2 ___ ___
x = 8, x = -2, x ≤ - _ or x ≥ _
√14 √14
b)
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x ___2 ___2
_ ≤x≤_
√13 √13
-2 c) x = 1.8, x = -1, -
__ 2 __ 2
-4
y = (x - 1)2 - 4 d) x = 0, x = 2,
__
-3 √2
≤x≤_
3 √2
2 2
7. a) x ≈ -2.725, x ≤ 8 b) no real roots, x ≥ 7
b) The graph of y = (x - 1)2 - 4 is a quadratic
function with a vertex of (1, -4), y-intercept of
-3, and x-intercepts of -1 and 3. It is above the
x-axis when x > 3 and x < -1.
___________
The graph of y = √(x - 1)2 - 4 has the same
x-intercepts but no y-intercept. The graph only
exists when x > 3 and x < -1. ___
c) x = 3, x ≥ _
√33
d) x = 2, x ≥ 2 or x ≤ -2
2.3 Solving Radical Equations Graphically, pages 96 to 98 ___3
or x ≤ - _
√33
1. a) B b) A c) D d) C 3
2. a) x=9 b) y
(9, 0)
-4 0 4 8 12 x
-2
y= x+7-4
-4
8. a) a ≈ 13.10 b) a ≈ -2.25
The roots of the equation are the same as the
c)
x-intercept on the graph.
3. a) 24.714 b) -117.273
10
(-25, 0) (25, 0)
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 d c) x ≈ 8.781
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 x
-1
13. a) x = 46 b) __ ____
c) The root of the 8. y = 4 √x or y = √16x
equation and 9. For y = 7 - x → domain {x | x ∈ R},
______
the x value of range {y | y ∈ R}. Since y = √7 - x is the square
the x-intercept root of the y-values for the function y______
= 7 - x,
are the same. then the domain and ranges of y = √7 - x will
differ. Since 7 - ______
x < 0 when x > 7, then the
domain ______
of y = √7 - x will be {x | x ≤ 7, x ∈ R} and
since √7 - x indicates
______ positive values only, then the
range of y = √7 - x is {y | y ≥ 0, y ∈ R}.
= ______
-(-9) ± √(-9)2 - 4(1)(15)
Step 1 Plot invariant points at the intersection of
2(1)
≈ 2.2 or 6.8 y = f (x) and functions y = 0 and y = 1.
__________
By checking, 2.2 is an extraneous root, therefore x ≈ 6.8. Step 2 Plot points at √max value
_____________________________
and √perfect square value of y = f (x)
Step 3 Join all points with a smooth curve, remember
____
that the graph of y = √f (x) is above the original graph
for the interval 0 ≤ y ≤ 1. Note that for the interval
____
where f (x) < 0, the function y = √f (x) is undefined
x ≈ 6.8 and has no graph.
________ __ _________
13. a) Given the general equation y = a √b(x - h) + k 16. a) y = ( √5 ) √-(x - 5)
to describe transformations, b = 255 → indicating b) domain {x | 0 ≤ x ≤ 5, x ∈ R},
a horizontal stretch by a factor of _1 . To sketch range {y | 0 ≤ y ≤ 5, y ∈ R}
_____ 255 Domain: x cannot be negative nor greater than half
the graph of S = √255d , graph the function the diameter of the base, or 5. Range: y cannot be
S = √d and apply a horizontal stretch of _
__
1 , negative nor greater than the height of the roof,
__ 255
every point on the graph of S = √d will become or 5.
_ c) The height of the roof
( d ,S .
255 ) 2 m from the centre
b) d ≈ 39 m is about 4.58 m.
S
S = 100 (39, 100) The skid
100 mark of the
vehicle will be
S = 255d approximately
50 39 m.
Chapter 3 Polynomial Functions
3.1 Characteristics of Polynomial Functions,
0 10 20 30 40 d pages 114 to 117
1. a)
x___
2
+ 10x - 24
= x + 12
x-2 3.3 The Factor Theorem, pages 133 to 135
b) x≠2 c) (x - 2)(x + 12)
d) Multiplying the statement in part c) yields 1. a) x-1 b) x + 3 c) x - 4 d) x - a
x2 + 10x - 24. 2. a) Yes b) No c) No d) Yes
2. a)
_____
3x 4
- 4x3 - 6x2 + 17x - 8 e) Yes f) No
x+1 3. a) No b) No c) No d) No
= 3x3 - 7x2 + x + 16 - __ 24
e) Yes f) No
x+1
b) x ≠ -1 4. a) ±1, ±2, ±4, ±8 b) ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6, ±9, ±18
c) (x + 1)(3x3 - 7x2 + x + 16) - 24 c) ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6, ±8, ±12, ±24
d) Expanding the statement in part c) yields d) ±1, ±2, ±4 e) ±1, ±3, ±5, ±15
3x 4 - 4x3 - 6x2 + 17x - 8. f) ±1, ±2, ±4
3. a) Q(x) = x2 + 4x + 1 b) Q(x) = x2 + 4x + 1 5. a) (x - 1)(x - 2)(x - 3) b) (x - 1)(x + 1)(x + 2)
c) Q(w) = 2w2 - 3w + 4 d) Q(m) = 9m2 + 3m + 6 c) (v - 4)(v + 4)(v + 1)
e) Q(t) = t3 + 5t2 - 8t + 7 d) (x + 4)(x + 2)(x - 3)(x + 1)
f) Q(y) = 2y 3 + 6y 2 + 15y + 45 e) (k - 1)(k - 2)(k + 3)(k + 2)(k + 1)
-24 -6
f(x) = –x4 – 2x3 + 3x 2 + 4x - 4
-32
(0, -36) c) y = x3 - x2 = x2(x - 1): 0 and 1,
-40 y = (x - 2)3 - (x - 2)2 = (x - 2)2 (x - 3): 2 and 3
g(x) = (x – 1)(x + 2)2(x + 3)2
-16
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
-2
12. a) a = 2 vertical stretch by a factor of 2, b = -4 y = f(x - 3) - 2
horizontal stretch by _1 and reflection in the -4
4
y-axis, h = 1 translation of 1 unit right,
k = 3 translation of 3 units up -6
b)
Parameter
Transformation Value Equation
horizontal stretch/
-4 y = (-4x)3
reflection in y-axis
vertical stretch/
2 y = 2(-4x)3
reflection in x-axis
translation right 1 y = 2(-4(x - 1))3
translation up 3 y = 2(-4(x - 1))3 + 3
13. a)
___
x 4
+ 3x + 4
= x3 - x2 + x + 2 + __2 ; P(-1) = 2
c) d) x+1 x+1
x____
= x2 + 2x - 5 + __
3
y y + 5x2 + x - 9 6 ; P(-3) = 6
b)
x+3 x+3
y = f(3x + 6) y = 3f(-x)
6 16 14. ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6; P(1) = 0, P(-1) = -16, P(2) = -4,
P(-2) = 0, P(3) = 0, P(-3) = 96, P(6) = 600,
4 8 P(-6) = 1764
15. a) (x + 5)(x - 1)(x - 4) b) (x - 3)(x + 4)(x + 2)
2 c) -(x - 2)2(x + 2)2
-2 0 2 4 6x
16. a) f(x) x-intercepts:
-8 -3, 2, and 3;
-4 -2 0 x
-4 -2 0 2 4 x y-intercept:
-2 -18
-8
-4
-16
2. y + 4 = f(x - 3)
3. a) translation of 1 unit left and 5 units down -24
b) vertical stretch by a factor of 3, reflection in the
f(x) = -x3 + 2x2 + 9x - 18
x-axis, and translation of 2 units right
c) reflection in the y-axis and translation of b) g(x) x-intercepts:
1 unit right and 3 units up -1 and 2,
6 y-intercept:
4. a) (9, 10) b) (6, -18) c) (-2, 9) g(x) = x4 - 2x3- 3x2 + 4x + 4
5. a)
_4
x-intercepts: - and 2, y-intercept: -3 4
4
3
b) x-intercepts: -4 and 6, y-intercept: 6
2
6. a) Yes b) y y = x - 4 (x ≥ 4)
c) Example: No;
restrict domain of 2 x
-2 0 2 4 6
y = |x| + 4 to
{x | x ≥ 0, x ∈ R}. 0 2 4 6 x 17. a) (x + 4) and (x - 3) b) 4.5 m by 7.5 m by 0.5 m
-2 18. y = 3(-(x - 5))3
e) 90° = _
π f) 21° = _
7π
-8 -4 0 4 8 x 2 60
y y 7π
__
π
_ 60
d) for part a): domain {x | x ∈ R}, 2
range {y | y ≥ -9, y ∈ R}; for part b): 90° 21°
domain {x | x ≥ -9, x ∈ R}, range {y | y ∈ R}; for 0 x
part c): domain {x | x ≤ -3 or x ≥ 3, x ∈ R}, 0 x
range {y | y ≥ 0, y ∈ R}
14. Quadrant II: reflection in the y-axis, y = f (-x);
3. a)
_π or 1.05 b)
_
5π or 2.62
quadrant III: reflection in the y-axis and then the 3 6
x-axis, y = -f(-x); quadrant IV: reflection in the c) -_ 3π or -4.71 d)
_
2π
or 1.26
2 5
x-axis, y = -f(x)
15. a) Mary should have subtracted 4 from both sides e) -_ 37π or -0.26 f) 3π or 9.42
450
in step 1. She also incorrectly squared the 4. a) 30° b) 120°
expression on the right side in step 2. The correct c) −67.5° d) −450°
solution______
follows: _
180° or 57.3° _
495°
2x = √x + 1 + 4 e)
π f) π or 157.6°
______
Step 1: (2x - 4)2 = ( √x + 1 )2 5. a)
_
360° or 51.429° b)
__
1260° or 96.923°
Step 2: 4x2 - 16x + 16 = x + 1 7 13
Step 3: 4x2 - 17x + 15 = 0 _
120° or 38.197° __
3294°
c)
π d)
5π or 209.703°
Step 4: (4x - 5)(x - 3) = 0
e)
-1105.2° or -351.796° f) __
__ -3600°
or −1145.916°
Step 5: 4x - 5 = 0 or x - 3 = 0 π π
Step 6: x = _ 5 6. a) quadrant I b) quadrant II
x=3
4
Step 7: A check determines that x = 3 is the y y
solution.
b) Yes, the point of intersection of the two graphs
1
will yield the possible solution, x = 3. 0 x
16. c = -3; P(x) = (x + 3)(x + 2)(x - 1)2 0 x
-225°
17. a) ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6
b) P(x) = (x - 3)(x + 2)(x + 1) c) quadrant II d) quadrant IV
c) x-intercepts: -2, -1 and 3; y-intercept: -6 y y
d) -2 ≤ x ≤ -1 and x ≥ 3 17π 650°
___
6
0 x
Chapter 4 Trigonometry and the
0 x
Unit Circle
4.1 Angles and Angle Measure, pages 175 to 179
e) quadrant III f) quadrant IV
1. a) clockwise b) counterclockwise y y
c) clockwise d) counterclockwise
0 x
0 x
- 2π
__ -42°
3
3 _π 30°
( 2 2 _
- ___ , 1
3 3 )
__
6 6
180° π 0 0° (1, 0) (1, 0)
0 x
7π
__ 11π
__ 0 x 0 x
6 __
4π 5π 6 330°
210° 3π __
3 __ 3
2
240°
270°
300°
(12
13 13 )
5
__ , - __
__
__ __ __
1. a) 2
x + y = 16 2
b) x + y = 9 2 2 e) (-_ √
2
2 _
,
√
2 )
2
f) (_22 , _22 )
√ √
c) x2 + y 2 = 144 d) x2 + y 2 = 6.76
g) (1, 0) h) (0, 1)
2. a) No; - _
3 2
( ) ( )
+ _
1 2
_
5
= ≠1
__ __
-_, _ (-_12 , _
( ) 2 )
4 4 8 √3 1 3
√
__ 2 i) j)
2 2
No; _ + _( ) () 7 2=_
√5 27 ≠ 1
b)
8 8 32 5. a)
_3π b) 0 c)
_π d)
_
3π
2 4 4
Yes; - _ 5 2+ _ 12 2 = 1 _π _ _ _
c) ( ) ( )
13 13 e)
3
f)
5π
3
g)
5π
6
h)
7π
6
Yes; _4 2 + -_ 3 2=1 _5π
d)
5 ( ) ( ) 5
i)
4
j) π
__ 2
_
5π
and - _ 7π
Yes; - _ + _
( ) ( ) -1 2 = 1
√3 6.
e) 6 6
2 2
__ 2 7. a) y
Yes; _ + _( ) () 3 2=1
( )
√7
f)
4
___ 4 __ ( )
π
_ 1 3
_ __
P 3 = 2, 3
y=_ _
√15 √5
3. a) b) x = -
4 3
(1, 0)
y
( 1 15
_ , ___
4 4 ) ( 5 _
- __ , 2 )
y
0 x
3 3
0
(1, 0)
x 0
(1, 0)
x
4π
__
( )1
_ __
(
3
P 3 = -2, - 2 )
If θ = _
π then θ + π = _π + π or _
4π since
3 __ 3 3 __
P _π = _ 1, _
( ) ( and P _
) 4π = - _1 , -_
( ) ( )
√3 √3
3 2 2 3 2 2
___ __ b) y
c) y = -_
√15
8
d) x= _
2 √6
7
3π
__
( )
P 4 = -2, 2
__
(
2 __ 2
)
y y
(1, 0)
0 x
0
(1, 0)
x 0
(1, 0)
x
( )
7π
__ 2 __
__ 2
P 4 = 2 ,- 2 ( )
If θ = _
3π then θ + π = _ 3π + π or _
( )
7π since
2 6 5
( ) , -_
___ 4 4 4 __
15
-7
_ , - ___ __ __ __
7 7
P _
√2 _
3π = - _
( ) ( and P _
7π = _
) , -_
( ) ( )
√2 √2 √2
8 8 ,
4 2 2 4 2 2
) = (_2 , -_21 )
√3 _ 3 √ 1 - (0.807)2
answer is y = √__________
= -_, ( 1
2 2 = √0.348 751
P (_
5π
3 ) __
P
_
5π
3 (
+
_π
2 ) P( _
5π _
3
- )
π
2
x- and y-values
change places and c) x = 0.9664
≈ 0.590 551
_π
= (_12 , -_23 ) √ =P
6__ ( ) =P (_
7π
6 ) __
take signs of new
quadrant
11. b)
c)
All denominators are 2.
The numerators of the x-coordinates decrease
_
√3 _
( ) = -_, -_
__ __ __
=
2 2
,
1
2(
√3 1
2 ) from √3 , √2 , √1 = 1, the numerators
__ __ of
__ the
y-coordinates increase from √1 , √2 , √3 . The
Diagrams: x-coordinates are moving closer to the y-axis
Steps 1–3 y and therefore decrease in value, whereas the
π
( )
P _ = (0, 1)
2 y-coordinates are moving further away from the
x-axis and therefore increase ______
in value.
d) x2 + y 2 = 1 then x = √1 - y 2 and
Since ______
P(0) = (1, 0) y = √1 - x2 , all solutions involve taking square
0 x roots.
12. a) −2π ≤ θ < 4π represents three rotations around
the unit circle and includes three coterminal
( )
π = (0, -1) angles for each point on the unit circle.
P -_ 1, _
__
If P(θ) = - _
( , then θ = - _
)
2 √3 4π when −2π ≤ θ
b)
2 2 3
≤ 0, θ = _ 2π when 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π, and θ = _
y 8π when
( )
6
3 1
5π = - __
P __
2 2
,_ ( ) ()
π
3 (
1 3
P _ = _ , __
2 2 ) 2π ≤ θ < 4π.
3 3
( )
P -π
3 1
_ = __
6 2
, -_
2 ( ) (0, 1) represents the
terminal point
of an angular
(-1, 0) θ (1, 0) rotation on the
0 unit circle.
y x
()
π 3 1
(
P _ = __ , _
6 )
( )
2 2
-1 2 2
_ , - ___ (0, -1)
3 3
__
0 x
P θ+_ π = _ , -_( )
2 √2 1
b) quadrant III c) (
2 3) 3
( )
P __
6 2
3 -1
7π = - __ , _
2 ( ) ( )
5π = 1
P __
3 2 (2
3
_ , - __
) d) P θ - ( _π = - _
2 ) ( 3
__
2 √2 _
, 1
3 )
14. y π units is the
(0, 1) perimeter of half of a
Step 4 π units unit circle since
y a = r θ = (1)π =
Pθ+π
2(
_ = (-b, a)
) P(θ) = (a, b)
(-1, 0) π square units (1, 0) π units. π square
units is the area of a
0 x
unit circle since
A = πr 2 = π(1)2
0 x
= π square units.
(0, -1)
(
P θ +π
_ +π
2 2
_ = (-a, -b)
) (
P θ+π _+π
_+π _ = (b, -a)
2 2 2 )
P(x, y) C
1 (-1, 0) A(1, 0)
y 0 x
0 x x
C3 a) y x2 + y 2 = r 2
From the diagram: opposite side = y,
adjacent side = x and hypotenuse = 1. r
Since sin θ = ___ then sin θ = _ = y or
opposite y
hypotenuse 1 0 x
y = sin θ. Similarly, cos θ = ___ , so
adjacent
hypotenuse
cos θ = _ x = x or x = cos θ. Therefore any point on
1
the unit circle can be represented by the coordinates
(cos θ, sin θ).
_
√2
__
_1__ or _
__
√3 _√2
__
10. a)
_
7π , _
11π b) -
3π , _
_ π, _
5π
1. a) b) c) - 6 6 4 4 4
2 √3 3 2 y
__ y
d) √3 e) -2 f) -2 __
g) undefined h) -1 i)
_1__ or _
√3
__ __ √3 3
_
√3 _
√3 __
7π
θ = __
5π
θ = __
θ=π
j) k) - l) √2
2 2 4 _
6 4
2. a) 0.68 b) −2.75 c) 1.04
0 x 0 x
d) −1.00 e) −0.96 f) 1.37 3π
θ = -__
g) 0.78 h) 0.71 i) 0.53 θ =11π
__ 4
j) −0.97 k) −3.44 l) undefined
6
3. a) I or IV b) II or IV c) III or IV
d) II e) II f) I
4. a) sin 250° = −sin 70° b) tan 290° = −tan 70° c) −60°, 60° d) −360°, −180°, 0°, 180°
c) sec 135° = −sec 45° d) cos 4 = -cos (4 − π) y y
e) csc 3 = csc (π - 3) f) cot 4.95 = cot (4.95 - π)
5. a) y 1.03, −5.25
(3, 5) θ = -360°
4 θ = 180°
θ = 60°
θ = 0°
2 0 x 0 x
θ = -5.25 θ = -60°
θ = 1.03 θ = -180°
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
-2 -1 0 1 2 x
θ = -2.68 θ =1.14 θ =1.77
-1
(-2, -1) 0
θ=-1.14 x 0 x
θ=-1.37
c) y 2.55, −3.73
(-3, 2)
2
θ = 2.55
d)
_2 , _
√5
( ) 21. a) θ =
_π
3 3 __ 2
318°
-_ 2 , -_ b) θ = 108.435°, 180°, 288.435°, 360°
0
e)
3
√5
3 ( ) c) θ = 70.529°, 120°, 240°, and 289.471°
x _ π, _
2π ,- _ π, _
2π
d) θ = -
3 3 3 3
22. Examples:
_π
P(θ) = __
__
5 -2
3 (
, _
3 ) a) 0 ≤ θ < 2π
c) –720° ≤ θ < 0°
b) –2π ≤ θ <
2
d) –270° ≤ θ < 450°
12. sin θ =
_2 √2 __
, tan θ = 2 2 , sec θ = 3,
√
x=_ 7π + 2πn, n ∈ I and x = _
3 __ __ 11π + 2πn, n ∈ I
csc θ = _ 3 __ or _ , cot θ = _ 1 __ or _
3 √2 √2 23. a)
6 6
2 √2 4 __ 2 √2 4 b) x = 90° + (360°)n, n ∈ I and x = (180°)n, n ∈ I
13. a) 1 b) -
_√2
c) √3
__
c) x = 120° + (360°)n, n ∈ I and
__ 2 __
d) -
_
2 √3
e) 0 f) -
_
2 √3 x = 240° + (360°)n, n ∈ I
3 3 d) x =
_π + πn, n ∈ I and x = _π + πn, n ∈ I
14. a) θ = −5.71, −3.71, b) θ = −96.14°, 83.86°, 4 3
0.57, and 2.57 263.86°
Chapter 4 Practice Test, pages 218 to 219
y y
1. D 2. C 3. A 4. B 5. B
6. a) 4668.5° or 81.5
θ = 2.57 θ = 263.86° θ= 83.86° b) 92.6 Yes; a smaller tire requires more rotations
θ= 0.57 to travel the same distance so it will experience
0 x 0 x greater tire wear.
θ = -5.71 θ = -3.71 θ= -96.14° 7. a) x2 + y 2 = 1 ___
b) i) y = ±
_
√13
5
c) θ = −2.45, 2.45
y
d) θ = −186.04°, 6.04°
y
y
(2___
5
3 ,y
)
2
___3 1
y
5
θ = 2.45
θ = 6.04° 0 x
y
0 x 0 x 1
θ = -2.45 θ = -186.04°
(2___
5
3
, -y)
-4
0 π
_ π 3π
__ x
2 2 0 π
_ π 3π
__ x
-0.5
2 2
-4
_π or 60° -2
c) 3π or 540° d)
3
y y y = cos 6x
y = sin 2
_x 1 Property Points on the Graph of y = -3 sin x
1 3
maximum (-90°, 3), (270°, 3)
0 π
_ π
_ π
_ x minimum (-270°, -3), (90°, -3)
0 π 2π 3π x 6 3 2 (-360°, 0), (-180°, 0), (0°, 0),
-1 x-intercepts
(180°, 0), (360°, 0)
-1
y-intercept (0, 0)
6. a) A b) D c) C d) B period 360°
7. a) Amplitude is 3; stretched vertically by a factor of range {y | -3 ≤ y ≤ 3, y ∈ R}
3 about the x-axis.
c) y
b) Amplitude is 5; stretched vertically by a factor of
0.5 y =1
_ sin x
5 about the x-axis and reflected in the x-axis. 2
c) Amplitude is 0.15; stretched vertically by a factor
of 0.15 about the x-axis.
d) Amplitude is _ 2 ; stretched vertically by a factor -180° 0 180° 360° x
_
2 3
of about the x-axis and reflected in the x-axis.
3 -0.5
8. a) Period is 180°; stretched horizontally by a factor
of _
1 about the y-axis.
2 Property Points on the Graph of y =
_1 sin x
b) Period is 120°; stretched horizontally by a factor 2
of _
1 about the y-axis and reflected in the y-axis. maximum (-270°, 0.5), (90°, 0.5)
3
c) Period is 1440°; stretched horizontally by a factor minimum (-90°, -0.5), (270°, -0.5)
of 4 about the y-axis. (-360°, 0), (-180°, 0), (0°, 0),
x-intercepts
d) Period is 540°; stretched horizontally by a factor (180°, 0), (360°, 0)
of _
3 about the y-axis. y-intercept (0, 0)
2 period 360°
9. a) Amplitude is 2; period is 360° or 2π.
range {y | -0.5 ≤ y ≤ 0.5, y ∈ R}
b) Amplitude is 4; period is 180° or π.
c) Amplitude is _ 5 ; period is 540° or 3π. d) y
3
d) Amplitude is 3; period is 720° or 4π. 0.5
10. a) Graph A: Amplitude is 2 and period is 4π. Graph
B: Amplitude is 0.5 and period is π.
-180° 0 180° 360° x
b) Graph A: y = 2 sin _ 1 x; Graph B: y = 0.5 cos 2x
2 -0.5
c) Graph A starts at 0, so the sine function is the
y = -3
_ cos x
obvious choice. Graph B starts at 1, so the cosine 4
function is the obvious choice.
Points on the Graph of y = - _ cos x
3
11. a) y = 2 cos x y Property
4
2
maximum (-180°, 0.75), (180°, 0.75)
(-360°, -0.75), (0°, -0.75),
-180° 0 180° 360° x minimum
(360°, -0.75)
-2 x-intercepts (-270°, 0), (-90°, 0), (90°, 0), (270°, 0)
y-intercept (0, -0.75)
period 360°
range {y | -0.75 ≤ y ≤ 0.75, y ∈ R}
-1.5
__ __ __ __ __ -π - π
- 3π _ 0 π
_ π __ 2π x
3π
7π , _ 5π , _ , _
π, _ , _
9π , _
18. a) (-_4
, -_
2 ) ( 4
2 √
2 ) (4 2 ) ( 4
2 2 √
2 )
2
;
√ √ 2 2 2 2
The parts of the graph below the x-axis have been
Find the__ points of intersection of y = sin θ and reflected across the x-axis.
y = _.
√2
b) y = |sin x| y
2 __ __ __ __ 1
_( , _ , -_ π, _
)( , _
11π , _ , _
13π , _
)( )( )
11π √3 √3 √3 √3
b) - ;
6 2 6 2 6 2 6 2
Find the__ points of intersection of y = cos θ and __ -π - π
- 3π _ 0 π
_ π __ 2π x
3π
y = _. 2 2 2 2
√3
2 The parts of the graph below the x-axis have been
19. y = sin θ y reflected across the x-axis.
1
5.2 Transformations of Sinusoidal Functions,
pages 250 to 255
__ -π - π
-2π - 3π _ 0 π
_ π __ 2π θ
3π
2 2 2 2
-1 1. a) y The phase shift
y = cos θ 4 is 50° right.
a) The graphs have the same maximum and
The vertical
minimum values, the same period, and the same 2 displacement is
domain and range. y = sin (x - 50°) + 3
3 units up.
b) The graphs have different x- and y-intercepts.
c) A horizontal translation could make them the 0 180° x
same graph.
20. 12 b) y y = sin (x + π) The phase shift
_
2π 1 is π units left.
21. a) b) 12
3 There is no vertical
22. 0.9 displacement.
a) Example:_____
The graph b) 0 π
_ π 3π
__ x
23.
2 2
of y = √sin x will -1
contain the portions
of the graph of
y = sin x that lie on
or above the x-axis.
592 MHR • Answers
c) y The phase shift d) y y = 4 cos (x + 15°) + 3 The phase shift is
8 (
y = sin x + 2π
__ + 5
3 ) is _
2π units left. 8 15° left. The vertical
3 displacement is
4 The vertical 4 3 units up.
displacement is
5 units up.
0 π
_ π 3π
__ x 0 180° x
2 2
d) y The phase shift is e) y y = 4 cos (x - π) + 4 The phase shift
50° left. The vertical 8 π units right.
0 180° x The vertical
displacement is
4 displacement is
-4 10 units down.
4 units up.
y = 2 sin (x + 50°) - 10
-8 0 π
_ π 3π
__ x
2 2
-12 f) y The phase shift is
_π units right.
e) y The phase shift is 8 12
x 5° left. The vertical The vertical
0 60°
displacement is 4 displacement is
-2 3 units down. (
y = 3 cos 2x - π
_ +7
6 ) 7 units up.
-4
y = -3 sin (6x + 30°) - 3 0 π
_ __ x
3π
π
2 2
-6 3. a) i) {y | 2 ≤ y ≤ 8, y ∈ R}
ii) {y | -5 ≤ y ≤ -1, y ∈ R}
f) y The phase shift
iii) {y | 2.5 ≤ y ≤ 5.5, y ∈ R}
0 π 2π 3π x is _
π units right.
_1 ≤y≤_ 17 , y ∈ R
4
The vertical
{
iv) y |
12 12 }
-4 _ x-π
y = 3 sin 1
2 4 (
_ - 10
) displacement is
b) Take the vertical displacement and add and
subtract the amplitude to it. The region in
-8 10 units down.
between these points is the range.
4. a) D b) C c) B d) A e) E
-12 5. a) D b) B c) C d) A
2. a) y The phase shift 6. a) y = 4 sin 2 x - _
( π -6
)
is 30° right. 2
12 The vertical b) y = 0.5 sin _ 1 x+_
( π +1
)
2 6
y = cos (x - 30°) + 12 displacement is
8 12 units up. c) y=_ 3 sin _1x - 5
4 2
4 7. a) a = 3, b = _
1 , c = -2, d = 3; y = 3 cos _
1 (x + 2) + 3
2 2
x
_1
b) a = , b = 4, c = 3, d = -5;
0 180° 2
y=_ 1 cos 4(x - 3) - 5
b) y The phase shift 2
1
y = cos x - π
_
3( ) is _
π units right.
3
_3 _1 _π
c) a = - , b = , c = , d = -1;
2 3 4
There is no vertical
y = -_ 3 cos _
1 x-_ π -1
displacement. 2 3 ( 4 )
0 π
_ π 3π
__ x 8. red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet
2 2 9. b
-1 10. a) Stewart is correct. He remembered to factor the
c) y The phase shift expression in brackets first.
is _
16 5π units left. b)
8 (
y = cos x + 5π
__ + 16
6 ) 6
The vertical
displacement is
16 units up.
0 π
_ π 3π
__ x
2 2
11. a) {y | -1 ≤ y ≤ 5, y ∈ R} b) {y | -6 ≤ y ≤ 0, y ∈ R}
c) {y | -13 ≤ y ≤ -7, y ∈ R}
d) {y | 5 ≤ y ≤ 11, y ∈ R}
__ - π
-π - 3π _ 0 π
_ 2π
__ π 4π
__ x
2 3 3 3 3
-1
c) The graph of the cosine function
y shifted _ π units right is equivalent to the
b)
(
y = sin x + π
_
4 ) 2
graph of the sine function.
1
18. phase shift of _π units left
2
19. a) i) Phase shift is 30° right; period is 360°;
__ -π - π π x
- 3π _ 0 _ π 3π
__ 2π
x-intercepts are at 120° and 300°.
2 2 2 2
-1 ii) Maximums occur at (30°, 3) and (390°, 3);
minimum occurs at (210°, -3).
c) y = sin x + 3 y _π units right; period is π;
4 b) i) Phase shift is
4
x-intercepts are at _
π and π
2 2
ii) Maximums occur at ( _π , 3 and _
) 5π , 3 ;
( )
4 4
__ -π - π π x minimum occurs at _ ( 3π , -3 .
)
- 3π _ 0 _ π 3π
__ 2π 4
2 2 2 2
20. y = 50 cos _ π (x - 9240) + 5050
d) y 2640
21. The graphs are equivalent.
__ -π - π π x
- 3π _ 0 _ π 3π
__ 2π
2 2 2 2
-2
-4
y = sin x - 4
13. a = 9, d = -4
22. y = 4 sin 4(x + π)
14. a) i) 3 ii) 2π
23. a) b) approximately 26.5°
iii)
_π units right iv) none c) day 171 or June 21
4
v) domain {x | x ∈ R}, range {y | -3 ≤ y ≤ 3, y ∈ R}
vi) The maximum value of 3 occurs at x =
_
3π .
4
vii) The minimum value of -3 occurs at x = _7π .
4
b) i) 2 ii) 2π 24. a) 4s b) 15 cycles per minute
iii)
_π units right iv) 2 units down
c)
2
v) domain {x | x ∈ R}, range {y | -4 ≤ y ≤ 0, y ∈ R}
vi) The maximum value of 0 occurs at x =
_π .
2
vii) The minimum value of -4 occurs at x =
_
3π .
2
c) i) 2 ii) π The air flow velocity is 0 L/s. This corresponds
d)
iii)
_π units right iv) 1 unit up to when the lungs are either completely full or
4
v) domain {x | x ∈ R}, range {y | -1 ≤ y ≤ 3, y ∈ R}
completely empty.
e) The air flow velocity is -1.237 L/s. This
vi) The maximum value of 3 occurs at
corresponds to part of a cycle when the lungs are
x=_ π and x = _ 3π .
blowing out air.
2 2
vii) The minimum value of -1 occurs at 25. a) b) The amplitude is 2.
x = 0, x = π, and x = 2π. The period is 20π.
15. a) y= 2 sin x - 1 b) y = 3 sin 2x + 1
c) y= 2 sin 4 x - (_
π +2 )
4
16. a) y= 2 cos 2 x - (_
π +1 )
4
_
π _
3π _π
b) y= (
2 cos x +
2
-1 ) c) y = cos (x - π) + 1 26. a) i) 120° ii)
4
iii) π iv)
4
b) Example: When graphed, a cosine function is
ahead of the graph of a sine function by 90°. So,
adding 90° to the phase shift in part a) works.
5.
_
tan θ
=_
1 ; tan θ = _
sin θ b) Example: The tangent
sin θ cos θ cos θ function has zeros
6. a) slope =
_y at the same x-values
x
b) Since y is equal to sin θ and x is equal to cos θ,
where zeros occur on
the sine function.
then tan θ = _
y
x.
c) slope =
_sin θ d) tan θ =
_y C3 Example: A circular or periodic function repeats its
cos θ x
7. a) tan θ =
_y b) tan θ =
_sin θ values over a specific period. In the case of y = tan x,
x cos θ the period is π. So, the equation tan (x + π) = tan x is
c) sin θ and cos θ are equal to y and x, respectively. true for all x in the domain of tan x.
8. a) θ tan θ b) The value of
tan θ increases to 5.4 Equations and Graphs of Trigonometric Functions,
89.5° 114.59 pages 275 to 281
infinity.
89.9° 572.96
1. a) x = 0, π, 2π b) x = πn where n is an integer
89.999° 57 295.78
_
c) x = 0, ,
π _
2π , π, _
4π ,_
5π , 2π
89.999 999° 57 295 779.51 3 3 3 3
c) θ tan θ The value of 2. Examples:
tan θ approaches a) 1.25, 4.5
90.5° -114.59
negative infinity. b) -3, -1.9, 0.1, 1.2, 3.2, 4.1, 6.3, 7.2
90.01° -5729.58
3. Examples: -50°, -10°, 130°, 170°, 310°, 350°
90.001° -57 295.78
90.000 001° -57 295 779.51
b)
c)
Arctic Fox Lemming
Maximum Population 1500 15 000
Month 6 18
Minimum Population 500 5000
Month 18 6
d) Example: The maximum for the predator occurs
at a minimum for the prey and vice versa. The
predators population depends on the prey, so
every time the lemming’s population changes the
arctic fox population changes in accordance.
15. a) Maximum is 7.5 Sun widths; minimum is 1 Sun 23. a) y = 1.2 sin _π t, where t represents the time, in
width. 2
seconds, and y represents the distance for a turn,
b) 24 h
c) y = -3.25 sin
_π x + 4.25, where x represents the in metres, from the midline
12 b) y = 1.2 sin
_
2π t; The period increases.
time, in hours, and y represents the number of 5
Sun widths C1 Examples:
16. a) b) 1.6 °C a) Use a sine function as a model when the curve
or data begins at or near the intersection of the
vertical axis and the sinusoidal axis.
b) Use a cosine function as a model when the curve
or data has a maximum or minimum near or at the
vertical axis.
C2 Example:
c) y = -18.1 cos _π (x - 1) + 1.6, where x represents
a)—b) The parameter b has the greatest influence on
6
the time, in months, and y represents the average the graph of the function. It changes the period
monthly temperature, in degrees Celsius, for of the function. Parameters c and d change the
Winnipeg, Manitoba location of the curve, but not the shape. Parameter
d) e) about 2.5 months a changes the maximum and minimum values.
C3 Examples:
a) y = -0.85 sin
_
2π x + 0.85, where x represents the
5.2
height of the door, in metres, and y represents the
width of the door, in metres
b) y
17. a) T = -4.5 cos _
π t + 38.5 b) 36.25 °C Door Width (m) 1.5
30
18. a) y
1.0
60
Height (cm)
0.5
40
b) y = 10 sin _
2π (t + 0.45) + 50, where t represents 1. a) y = sin x y
3
the time, in seconds, and y represents the height 1
of the mass, in centimetres, above the floor
c) 43.3 cm d) 0.0847 s -180° 0 180° 360° x
19. a) h = -10 cos _ π t + 12, where t represents the
30 -1
time, in seconds, and h represents the height of a
passenger, in metres, above the ground x-intercepts: -360°, -180°, 0°, 180°, 360°
b) 15.1 m b) y-intercept: 0
c) approximately 21.1 s, 38.9 s c) domain {x | x ∈ R},
h = 7 sin _ 2π (t + 1.75) + 15 or range {y | -1 ≤ y ≤ 1, y ∈ R}, period is 2π
20. a)
5 d) y = 1
h = 7 cos _ 2π (t + 0.5) + 15, where t represents the 2. a) y = cos x y
5 1
time, in seconds, and h represents the height of
the tip of the blade, in metres, above the ground
b) 20.66 m c) 4.078 s
-180° 0 180° 360° x
21. a) y = -9.7 cos _ π (t - 26) + 13.9, where t
183 -1
represents the time, in days, and y represents the
average daily maximum temperature, in degrees x-intercepts: -270°, -90°, 90°, 270°
Celsius b) y-intercept: 1
b) 18.6 °C c) 88 days
Amplitude is _ 1 ; period is _
12π or 432°. 1
c)
3 5
Amplitude is 5; period is _ 4π or 240°. 9. a) They both have periods of π.
d)
3 b) f (x) has a phase shift of _
π units right;
5. a) Compared to the graph of y = sin x, the graph of 2
y = sin 2x completes two cycles in 0° ≤ x ≤ 360° g(x) has a phase shift of _π units right
4
and the graph of y = 2 sin x has an amplitude of 2.
c) π units right d)
_π units right
b) Compared to the graph of y = sin x, the graph b
of y = -sin x is reflected in the x-axis and the 10. a) y = 3 sin 2(x - 45°) + 1, y = -3 cos 2x + 1
graph of y = sin (-x) is reflected in the y-axis. b) y = 2 sin 2x - 1, y = 2 cos 2(x - 45°) - 1
The graphs of y = -sin x and y = sin (-x) are c) y = 2 sin 2 x - _
( π - 1, y = -2 cos 2x - 1
)
the same. 4
c) Compared to the graph of y = cos x, the graph of d) y = 3 sin _ 1 x-_
( π + 1, y = 3 cos _
) 1 x-_
( 3π + 1
)
2 2 2 2
y = -cos x is reflected in the x-axis and the graph
of y = cos (-x) is reflected in the y-axis. The 11. a) y = 4 sin 2 x - _
( π -5
)
3
graph of y = cos (-x) is the same as y = cos x. _ _
_
12 x b)
1
y = cos 1 x+_
( π +1
)
6. a) y = 3 cos 2x b) y = 4 cos 2 2 6
5
_
1 _
1 _
3 c)
_
2 _
2
y = sin x - 5
c) y = cos x d) y = cos 12x 3 3
2 2 4
7. a) y = 8 sin 2x b) y = 0.4 sin 6x
12. a) y y = 2 cos (x - 45°) + 3
c) y=_ 3 sin _1x d) y = 2 sin 3x 4
2 2
8. a) Amplitude is 2; period is _ 2π ; phase shift is
2
3
_π units right; vertical displacement is 8 units down
2
y -180° 0 180° 360° x
__ - π
-π - 3π _ 0 π
_ 2π
__ π 4π
__ x domain {x | x ∈ R}, range {y | 1 ≤ y ≤ 5, y ∈ R},
2 3 3 3 3 maximum value is 5, minimum value is 1, no
-4
x-intercepts, y-intercept of approximately 4.41
-8
(
b) y
(
y = 4 sin 2 x - π
_ +1
)
y = 2 cos 3 x - π
_ -8
2 ) 4
3
4
x ≈ 1.33 + 8n radians and
x ≈ 6.67 + 8n radians, where n is an integer
__ -π - π
-3π _ 0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π θ
d)
2 2 2 2
-4
y = tan θ y
4
x ≈ 3.59° + (360°)n and
x ≈ 86.41° + (360°)n, where n is an integer
-180° 0 180° 360° θ 21. a) b) 9.4 h
-4
= __ __
c) The resultant graph csc x = sin x cos x
is a cosine function 2 cos x 1 + cos x
= ___ = _____
reflected over the 1 (sin x cos x)(1 - cos x)
x-axis and the period 2 sin x cos x (1 + cos x)(1 - cos x)
becomes π. = __ 1
= _____
sin x cos x - sin x cos2 x
sin 2x sin2 x
= csc 2x
d) f(x) = -cos 2x. Using trigonometric identities, = Right Side = ___
cos x - cos 2
x
sin x
sin2 x - cos2 x = 1 - cos2 x - cos2 x.
= 1__- cos x
= 1 - 2 cos2 x tan x
= -cos 2x = Right Side
c) Left Side =
___
sin x + tan x
6.3 Proving Identities, pages 314 to 315 1 + cos x
__
cos x+1 = _sin x + _
( sin x
)
cos x ÷ (1 + cos x)
1. a) sin x b) 1
6
= ____ × __
sin x cos x + sin x
c)
__
sin x d) sec x - 4 csc x
( cos x ) 1
1 + cos x
cos x + 1
= ___ ( × __
)
sin x(1 + cos x) 1
2. a) cos x + cos x tan2 x = cos x + __ sin2 x
cos x
cos x 1 + cos x
=_sin x
= cos x + __
__ 2
cos x sin2 x cos x
cos x
_ 1
= cos x Right Side = __
sin 2x
2 cos2 x
= sec x ___
= 2 sin x cos x
___
sin2
______
x - cos2 x = (sin x - cos x)(sin x + cos x) 2 cos2 x
b)
sin x + cos x sin x + cos x _
= cos xx
sin
= sin x - cos x
c)
____
sin x cos x - sin x = ____
sin x cos x - sin x Left Side = Right Side
cos2 x - 1 - sin2 x
11. a) Left Side =
__
sin 2x + __
cos 2x
= ____
- sin x(1 - cos x) cos x sin x
- sin2 x ___
= 2 sin x cos x + 1___
- 2 sin2 x
= 1__- cos x cos x sin x
sin x = 2 sin x + csc x - 2 sin x
d)
____ 1 - sin2 x = _____
(1 - sin x)(1 + sin x) = csc x
1 + 2 sin x - 3 sin2 x (1 - sin x)(1 + 3 sin x) = Right Side
= ___
1 + sin x
1 + 3 sin x
3. a)
__
sin x+1
b)
__
-2 tan x
cos x cos x
c) csc x d) 2 cot2 x
= _______
(2 sin x cos x)(2(2 cos2 x - 1) - 1) radical functions always give a positive answer, so
2(2 cos2 x - 1)2 + 2 cos2 x - 2 the equation is not an identity.
= ________(2 sin x cos x)(4 cos2 x - 3) d) An identity is always true whereas an equation is
2(4 cos4 x - 4 cos2 x + 1) + 2 cos2 x - 2 true for certain values or a restricted domain.
= ______
(2 sin x cos x)(4 cos2 x - 3)
8 cos4 x - 6 cos2 x 6.4 Solving Trigonometric Equations Using Identities,
pages 320 to 321
= ______
(2 sin x cos x)(4 cos2 x - 3)
0, _
π , π, _ 0, _π , π, _
2 cos2 x(4 cos2 x - 3) 5π 5π
1. a) b)
= 2___
sin x cos x 4 4 3 3
2 cos2 x c)
_
3π d)
_π , _
5π , _
3π
= tan x 2 6 6 2
= Left Side 2. a) 0°, 120°, 240° b) 270°
c) no solution d) 0°, 120°, 180°, 300°
(
2 tan θ ) angle is rotated through _
π , its terminal arm is in
2
= 2 cot 2θ
quadrant IV and its coordinates are switched and
= Right Side
the signs adjusted.
θ= _ π n, n ∈ I __
2 ( ) d)
_
1
(, _
√3
)
; when the given quadrant III angle
9. Theo’s Formula = I0 cos2 θ 2 2
is rotated through -π, its terminal arm is in
= I0 - I0 sin2 θ
quadrant I and its coordinates are the same but
I0
= I0 - __ the signs adjusted.
csc2 θ
= Sany’s Formula
4 -2π -3π
__ -π - π
_ 0 θ
θ
2 2
-2
-12 -8 -4 0 4x
b) sin θ = _4 , cos θ = - _
3 , tan θ = - _4, 19. a) h(x) = -25 cos _ 2π x + 26 b) x = 3.0 min
5 5 3 11
csc θ = _5 , sec θ = - _
5 , cot θ = - _3 20. a) θ≠_ π + πn, n ∈ I, tan2 θ
4 3 4 2
c) θ = 126.87° + (360°)n, n ∈ I b) x≠ _( ) π n, n ∈ I, sec2 x
π, _ 7π , _ __ 2
-_5π , - _ 11π __ __
- __ __ or - __
10. a) b) -30°, 30° √3 - 1 √6 - √2
6 6 6 6 21. a)
c)
_
3π , _
7π __
2 √2 __
4
__
4 4
b)
__
√3 - 1
__ or __
√6 - √2
11. a) θ=_ 3π + 2πn, n ∈ I; _ 5π + 2πn, n ∈ I 2 √2 4
4 4
_
3π _ 1
θ=_ _π + πn, n ∈ I
π + 2πn, n ∈ I 22. a) cos = - __ b) sin 90° = 1
b) c) θ = 4 √2
2 2
_
7π __
θ = 0, _π , π, _ _2π , _
5π , 2π 4π c) tan = √3
12. a) b) θ = 3
4 4 3 3
13. a) θ = 27°, 153°, 207°, 333° 23. a) Both sides have the same value for A = 30°.
b) Left Side = sin2 A + cos2 A + tan2 A
b) θ = 90°, 199°, 341°
= 1 + tan2 A
14. y = 3 sin
_1 (x + _π ) = sec2 A
2 4
= Right Side
15. a) amplitude 3, y
4 y = 3 cos 2θ 24. a) It could be an identity as the graphs look
period 180°,
the same.
phase shift 0,
vertical displacement 0 2
0 180° 360° θ
-2
b) Left Side = __
1 + tan x
b) amplitude 2, y sec x
period 120°, y = -2 sin (3θ + 60°) = _ 1 +_ tan x
phase shift 20° left, 2 sec x sec x
vertical displacement 0 = cos x + _
sin x ÷ _
cos x
1
cos x
0 200° θ = cos x + sin x
= Right Side
-2
__
cos 2θ
amplitude _ 1, 25. Right Side =
c)
2 y 1 + sin 2θ
period 2π,
0 π 2π 3π θ = ______ cos2 θ - sin2 θ
phase shift cos2 θ + sin2 θ + 2 sin θ cos θ
π units left, -2 1 ______
(cos θ - sin θ)(cos θ + sin θ)
y = — cos (θ + π) - 4 =
vertical displacement 2 (cos θ + sin θ)(cos θ + sin θ)
4 units down -4 ___
cos θ - sin θ
=
cos θ + sin θ
= Left Side
26. a) x=_
5π + πn, n ∈ I, x = _
π + πn, n ∈ I
6 6
-4 0 2 4 x
b) -4 ≤ y ≤ 2 d) y domain {x | x ∈ R},
()
x
c) amplitude 3, period 720°, phase shift 60° left, k(x) = 3
_ range {y | y > 0, y ∈ R},
2 4 y-intercept 1, function
vertical displacement 1 unit down
d) x ≈ -21°, 261° decreasing, horizontal
18. a) b) g(θ) = sin 2θ x asymptote y = 0
-2 0 2
c) f (θ) = 2 cot θ sin2 θ
___
= 2 cos θ sin2 θ 6. a) c > 1; number of bacteria increases over time
sin θ b) 0 < c < 1; amount of actinium-225 decreases
= 2 cos θ sin θ over time
= sin 2θ c) 0 < c < 1; amount of light decreases with depth
= g(θ) d) c > 1; number of insects increases over time
19. a) It is true: both c) Left Side 7. a) The function
sides have the = tan x + _ 1 N
Number of People
tan x N = 2t is
same value. 12
= __
tan2 x + 1 exponential since
N = 2t
x≠_
Infected
b)
πn , n ∈ I tan x the base is greater
2
= __
sec2 x 8 than zero and the
tan x variable t is an
= sec x _ 1 _
cos x
( )( ) 4 exponent.
cos x sin x
=_ sec x
sin x 0 2 4 6 t
= Right Side Time (days)
20. a) 6.838 m b) 12.37 h c) 3.017 m
b) i) 1 person ii) 2 people
iii) 16 people iv) 1024 people
1 P(t) = 0.95t
0.5
2 4 0 6 8 t
Time (years) c) The results are similar, but the continuous
domain {t | t ≥ 0, t ∈ R} and compounding function gives a shorter doubling
range {P | 0 < P ≤ 100, P ∈ R} period by approximately 0.3 years.
9. a) L = 0.9d C1 a)
b) L
Percent of Light
1
L = 0.9d
(decimal)
0.5
b)
2 4 0 6 8 d
Depth (10-m increments) Feature f(x) = 3x g(x) = x3 h(x) = 3x
c) domain {d | d ≥ 0, d ∈ R} and domain {x | x ∈ R} {x | x ∈ R} {x | x ∈ R}
range {L | 0 < L ≤ 1, L ∈ R} range {y | y ∈ R} {y | y ∈ R} {y | y > 0, y ∈ R}
d) 76.8%
x-intercept 0, x-intercept 0, no x-intercept,
10. a) Let P represent the percent, as a decimal, intercepts
y-intercept 0 y-intercept 0 y-intercept 1
of U-235 remaining. Let t represent time, in equations of
700-million-year intervals. P(t) = _1 t none none y=0
2 ( ) asymptotes
c)Example: All three functions have the same
b) P
Remaining (kg)
Mass of U-235
()
t key features in common.
0.5 P(t) = 1
_
d) Example: The function h(x) is the only function
2
with an asymptote, which restricts its range and
results in no x-intercept.
0 2 4 6 8 t C2 a) b) y
Time (700-million-year intervals) x f(x)
16
c) 2.1 × 109 years 0 1
d) No, the sample of U-235 will never decay to 0 kg, 1 -2 8
since the graph of P(t) = _
1 t has a horizontal
( ) 2 4
2
3 -8 x
asymptote at P = 0. 0 2 4
11. a) b) 64 years 4 16
-8
c) No; since the 5 -32
amount invested c) No, the points do not -16
triples, it does not form a smooth curve. The
matter what initial locations of the points -24
investment is made. alternate between above
d) graph: 40 years; rule of 72: 41 years the x-axis and below the -32
12. 19.9 years x-axis.
y= 1
the square root of a negative number. _ (4)-(x - 3) + 2 {x | x ∈ R},
f(x) = (-2)x f (x) = (-2)x 10 2 range
f _ = (-2)2 f _
1 _
1
5 = (-2)_52 {y | y > 2, y ∈ R},
2( ) 2 ( ) 8 horizontal
f _
1 = √___
( ) -2 f _ 5 = √_____
( ) (-2)5 asymptote y = 2,
2 2 6 y-intercept 34
e) Example: Exponential functions with positive
bases result in smooth curves. 4
1. a) C b) D c) A d) B
0 2 4 6x
2. a) D b) A c) B d) C
3. a) a = 2: vertical stretch by a factor of 2; b = 1: no
6. a) i), ii) a = 2: vertical stretch by a factor of 2;
horizontal stretch; h = 0: no horizontal translation;
b = 1: no horizontal stretch; h = 0: no horizontal
k = -4: vertical translation of 4 units down
translation; k = 4: vertical translation of 4 units up
b) a = 1: no vertical stretch; b = 1: no horizontal
iii) y iv) domain {x | x ∈ R},
stretch; h = 2: horizontal translation of 2 units
y = 2(3)x + 4 range {y | y > 4, y ∈ R},
right; k = 3: vertical translation of 3 units up 6 horizontal asymptote
c) a = -4: vertical stretch by a factor of 4 and a
y = 4, y-intercept 6
reflection in the x-axis; b = 1: no horizontal 4
stretch; h = -5: horizontal translation of 5 units
left; k = 0: no vertical translation 2
d) a = 1: no vertical stretch; b = 3: horizontal stretch
by a factor of _ 1 ; h = 1: horizontal translation of
x
3 -4 -2 0
1 unit right; k = 0: no vertical translation
e) a = -_ 1 : vertical stretch by a factor of _1 and a b) i), ii) a = -1: reflection in the x-axis; b = 1:
2 2
reflection in the x-axis; b = 2: horizontal stretch no horizontal stretch; h = 3: horizontal
by a factor of _ 1 ; h = 4: horizontal translation of translation of 3 units right; k = 2: vertical
2 translation of 2 units up
4 units right; k = 3: vertical translation of 3 units up iii) iv) domain
m
f) a = -1: reflection in the x-axis; b = 2: horizontal {r | r ∈ R},
stretch by a factor of _ 1 ; h = 1: horizontal translation 2 range
2
of 1 unit right; k = 0: no vertical translation {m | m < 2, m ∈ R},
2 4 r horizontal
g) a = 1.5: vertical stretch by a factor of 1.5; 0
b=_ 1 : horizontal stretch by a factor of 2; h = 4: asymptote m = 2,
m-intercept _
2 -2 15 ,
horizontal translation of 4 units right; k = - _ 5: 8
2
vertical translation of _ units down
5 -4 r-intercept 4
2 m(r) = -(2)r - 3 + 2
4. a) C: reflection in the x-axis, a < 0 and 0 < c < 1,
and vertical translation of 2 units up, k = 2 c) i), ii) a =
_1 : vertical stretch by a factor of _1 ;
b) A: horizontal translation of 1 unit right, h = 1, 3 3
b = 1: no horizontal stretch;
and vertical translation of 2 units down, k = -2
h = -1: horizontal translation of 1 unit left;
c) D: reflection in the x-axis, a < 0 and c > 1, and
k = 1: vertical translation of 1 unit up
vertical translation of 2 units up, k = 2
d) B: horizontal translation of 2 units right, h = 2,
iii) y
and vertical translation of 1 unit up, k = 1 y= 1_ (4)x + 1 + 1
3 4
5. a) a=_ 1 : vertical stretch by a factor of _1;
2 2
b = -1: reflection in the y-axis; h = 3: horizontal 2
translation of 3 units right 3; k = 2: vertical
translation of 2 units up -4 -2 0 x
b) _1
y = (4) -x _1
y = (4) -(x - 3)
+2
y = 4x y = 4–x 2 2
iv) domain {x | x ∈ R}, range {y | y > 1, y ∈ R},
(-2, _1 )
16 (2, _1 )
16 (2, _1 )
32 (5, _
65
)
32 horizontal asymptote y = 1, y-intercept _ 7
3
_1 _1 and
(-1, _41 ) (1, _41 ) (1, _81 ) (4, _
17
8 )
d) i), ii) a = - : vertical stretch by a factor of
2 2
a reflection in the x-axis; b = _
1 : horizontal
(0, 1) (0, 1) (0, _21 ) (3, _25 ) 4
stretch by a factor of 4; h = 0: no horizontal
(1, 4) (-1, 4) (-1,2) (2, 4) translation; k = -3: vertical translation of
(2, 16) (-2, 16) (-2, 8) (1, 10) 3 units down
()
_s
_ 1
1 _ 4
n(s) = - 2 3 -3 80
-6
h
_
60 M(h) = 100(0.79)3
iv) domain {s | s ∈ R}, range {n | n < -3, n ∈ R},
horizontal asymptote n = -3, n-intercept - _ 7 40
2
7. a) horizontal translation of 2 units right and vertical
20
translation of 1 unit up; y = _ 1 x-2 + 1
( )
2
b) reflection in the x-axis, vertical stretch by a factor 0 10 20 30 40 h
of 0.5, and horizontal translation of 3 units right; Time (h)
y = -0.5(5)x - 3 c) The M-intercept represents the drug dose taken.
c) reflection in the x-axis, horizontal stretch by a d) domain {h | h ≥ 0, h ∈ R},
factor of _
1 , and vertical translation of 1 unit up;
range {M | 0 < M ≤ 100, M ∈ R}
3
y=- _ 1 3x + 1 10. a) a = 75: vertical stretch by a factor of 75;
( )
4 b=_ 1 : horizontal stretch by a factor of 5;
d) vertical stretch by a factor of 2, reflection in 5
h = 0: no horizontal translation;
the y-axis, horizontal stretch by a factor of 3,
k = 20: vertical translation of 20 units up
horizontal translation of 1 unit right, and vertical b) T
-_
1 (x - 1)
translation of 5 units down; y = 2(4) 3 -5
40
2
20
x
-2 0
2()
2 1 x4
f(x) = _
0 40 80 120 160 t
b) y Map all points (x, y) Time (min)
on the graph of f(x) c) 29.1 °C d) final temperature of the coffee
2 f(x) = 5x _1 x
to (x + 3, -0.5y). 11. a) P = 5000(1.2)2
b) a = 5000: vertical stretch by a factor of 5000;
-2 0 2 4 x b=_ 1 : horizontal stretch by a factor of 2
2
-2 c) approximately
y = -0.5(5)x - 3 11 357 bacteria
()
x
1
_ on the graph of f(x)
2 f(x) = 4 to _1 x, -y + 1 .
( 3 )
P = 100 _
1 _ t
-2 0 2 4 x 12. a)
2
5730
( )
b) approximately
-2
y=- 1 ()
3x
_ +1 13 305 years old
4
((_14 ) )
_2 -2 2
3. a) 42 b) 43 c) 43 d) 43 162 =
m=_
7
162 = _
4. a) x=3 b) x = -2 c) w=3 d) 1 -4
4
4 ( )
5. a) x = -3 b) x = -4 c) y=_
11 d) k = 9 C2 a) 162x = 8x - 3 b) Step 1: Express the bases on
4
6. a) 10.2 b) 11.5 c) -2.8 d) 18.9 (24)2x = (23)x - 3 both sides as powers of 2.
7. a) 58.71 b) -1.66 c) -5.38 d) -8 28x = 23x - 9 Step 2: Apply the power of a
e) 2.71 f) 14.43 g) -3.24 h) -1.88 8x = 3x - 9 power law.
8. a) R b) approximately 5.6 °C 5x = -9 Step 3: Equate the exponents.
x = -_ 9 Step 4: Isolate the term
Relative Spoilage Rate
c) approximately 643
800 5 containing x.
d) approximately 13.0 °C
Step 5: Solve for x.
600
Chapter 7 Review, pages 366 to 367
400
T
1. a) B b) D c) A d) C
_
R = 100(2.7)8 2. a) y
200 x y
__
-2 11.1 12
__
-1 3.3
y = 0.3x
0 10 20T
Temperature (°C) 0 1 8
9. 3 h 1 0.3
10. 4 years
4
2 0.09
11. a) A = 1000(1.02)n b) $1372.79 c) 9 years
x
( _2 ) _
_
12. a) C =
1 t
5.3 b)
1 of the original amount -2 0 2
32
c) 47.7 years b) domain {x | x ∈ R}, range {y | y > 0, y ∈ R},
13. a) A = 500(1.033)n b) $691.79 y-intercept 1, function decreasing, horizontal
c) approximately 17 years asymptote y = 0
14. $5796.65 _1 x
( )
x > -_3 3. y =
15. a) i) x > 2 ii) 4
2 4. a) Since the interest rate is 3.25% per year, each
b) i) Since the graph of year the investment grows by a factor of 103.25%,
y = 23x is greater which, written as a decimal, is 1.0325.
than (above) b) $1.38 c) 21.7 years
the graph of 5. a) a = -2: vertical stretch by a factor of 2 and
y = 4x + 1 when reflection in the x-axis; b = 3: horizontal stretch
by a factor of _
x > 2, the solution 1 ; h = 1: horizontal translation of
is x > 2. 3
ii) Since the graph 1 unit right; k = 2: vertical translation of 2 units up
of y = 81x is less b)
than (below) the Transformation Parameter Value Function Equation
graph of y = 272x + 1 horizontal stretch b=3 y = 43x
when x > - _ 3 , the
vertical stretch a = -2 y = -2(4)x
2
solution is x > - _ 3. translation left/right h=1 y = (4)x - 1
2
translation up/down k=2 y = 4x + 2
Concentration
Hydrogen Ion
y y
y = -3 2
1
_ 4(x - 2)
-1 () 1
(mol/L)
y = 4(5)-2(x + 4) + 1
4
6 x 1
( )
P
0 2 4 H(P) = __
0.5 10
2 -2
-4 0 2 4 6 P
-4 -2 0 2 x
pH
b) 1.0 × 10-7 [H+]
8. a) a = 190: vertical stretch by a factor of 190; c) 1.0 × 10-7 to 2.5 × 10-8 [H+]
b=_ 1 : horizontal stretch by a factor of 10 13. 4.5 years
10
14. 9.97 years
b)
4 3
1. B 2. C 3. B 4. A 5. D {x | x > 0, x ∈ R},
range {y | y ∈ R},
6. a) y = 5x + 3 + 2 b) y = -0.5(2)x - 1 - 4 2
1
()
x
7. a) b) y= _ x-intercept 1,
3 no y-intercept,
y y
0 2 4 x vertical asymptote
6 x=0
-4 -2 0 2 x
2. a) log12 144 = 2 b) log8 2 =
_1
4 -2 3
c) log10 0.000 01 = -5 d) log7 (y + 3) = 2x
_2
2 -4 3. a) 52 = 25 b) 83 = 4
3
()
x-1
_
y= 1
_ (3)x + 2 y = -2 2 -2 c) 106 = 1 000 000 d) 11y = x + 3
2 -6 _1
x 4. a) 3 b) 0 c) d) -3
-2 0 2 3
5. a = 4; b = 5
c) 6. a) x > 1 b) 0 < x < 1 c) x = 1
y
d) Example: x = 9
7. a) 0 raised to any non-zero power is 0.
-6 -4 -2 0 x
b) 1 raised to any power is 1.
-2 c) Exponential functions with a negative base are
y = 32(x + 3) - 4 not continuous.
-4
=_+_
log q log q 14. 30 years
= __
log q2
log p log p log p 15. approximately 9550 years
16. 8 days
= __
2 log q
= __
2 log q
17. 34.0 m
log p log p
18. x = 4.5, y = 0.5
Left Side = Right Side
19. a) The first line is not true.
d) Left Side = log _1 p
q b) To go from line 4 to line 5, you are dividing by
logq p a negative quantity, so the inequality sign must
= __ change direction.
logq q-1 20. a) x = 100 b) x =
_1 , 100 c) x = 1, 100
= -logq p 100
21. a) x = 16 b) x = 9
= logq _1
p 22. x = -5, 2, 4
C1 a) log 8 + log 2x = log 512
= Right Side
C1 a) Stretch vertically about the x-axis by a factor of 3.
x log 2 = log 512 - log 8
b) Stretch vertically about the x-axis by a factor of 5
x log 2 = log 64
and translate 2 units left. x=6
b) She could have divided by 8 as the first step.
c) Reflect in the x-axis.
c) Answers will vary.
d) Reflect in the x-axis, stretch vertically about the
x-axis by a factor of _1 , and translate 6 units right. C2 12
2 C3 14
C2 -1
C3 a) log 2 b) 15 log 2 C4 a) x = ,
_π _7π b) x =
_π
4 4 2
C4 Answers will vary. C5 Answers will vary.
8.4 Logarithmic and Exponential Equations, Chapter 8 Review, pages 416 to 418
pages 412 to 415
1. a) y b) i) domain
1. a) 1000 b) 14 c) 3 d) 108 y = log0.2 x {x | x > 0, x ∈ R},
2. a) 1.61 b) 10.38 c) 4.13 d) 0.94 15 range
3. No, since log3 (x - 8) and log3 (x - 6) are not defined {y | y ∈ R}
when x = 5. 10 ii) x-intercept 1
4. a) x = 0 is extraneous. iii) no y-intercept
b) Both roots are extraneous. 5 iv) vertical
y = 0.2x
c) x = -6 is extraneous. asymptote
d) x = 1 is extraneous. x x=0
-2 0 2 4
5. a) x=8 b) x = 25 c) x = 96 d) x=9 c) y = log0.2 x
2. c = 4
3. 24 = 16 and 25 = 32, so the answer must be between
4 and 5.
Answers • MHR 615
4. a) 25 b) -2 c) 3.5 d) 16 e) 0.01 Cumulative Review, Chapters 7—8, pages 422 to 423
5. 40 times as great
1. a) 1x y b) The two functions
6. a) y b) a = -1, b = 2, c = 4, y=_ y = 4x
h = 0, k = -5 4 have the same domain,
150 x ∈ R; the same
0 2 4 x
range, y > 0; the same
-2 100 y-intercept, 1; and
y = -log4 2x - 5
the same horizontal
-4 50 asymptote, y = 0.
-6 -2 0 2 x
7. y = log2 4x
8. a) Reflect in the x-axis, stretch horizontally about c) y = 4x is a increasing function: as x increases,
the y-axis by a factor of _ 1 , and translate 12 units the corresponding values of y also increase.
right and 2 units up.
3 y=_ 1x is a decreasing function: as x increases,
4
b) Reflect in the y-axis, stretch vertically about the the corresponding values of y decrease.
x-axis by a factor of _1 , and translate 6 units right 2. a) B b) D c) A d) C
4 3. a) 1000 b) 3 h c) 256 000 d) 21 h
and 7 units down.
9. a) x = -8 4. a) a vertical stretch by a factor of 2 about the x-axis,
b) domain {x | x > -8, x ∈ R}, range {y | y ∈ R} a horizontal translation of 4 units left, and a
c) y-intercept 15 d) x-intercept -7.75 vertical translation of 1 unit up
10. a) Transform by stretching the graph horizontally b) y c) The domain remains the
about the y-axis by a factor of 440 and stretching same: x ∈ R; the range
160 changes from y > 0 to
vertically about the x-axis by a factor of 12. g(x) = 2(3) + 1
x+4
c) y-intercept 8 d) -4
_
124 _
13
125 b) loga 3x 6 , x > 0 c) log (x + 1), x > 1
11. a) no solution b) x = 6 c) x = -2, 4 d) log2 32x, x ∈ R
12. a) 1.46 b) 21.09 17. In the last step, Zack incorrectly factored the
13. 33 years quadratic equation; x = -5 and 13.
14. 875 times as great 18. a) 0.53 b) 9 c) 3 d) 2
15. She should not be worried: adding another 19. a) E = 1010 J and E = 1011.4 J
refrigerator will only increase the decibels to 48 dB. b) approximately 25.1 times
16. 4.8 h 20. 54.25 years
17. 2029
0 2 4 x -4 -2 0 2 x
-2
d) Base function y
14. a) -7 b) 2
y=_ 1 ; vertical
4 1 1
y = __ y = _____2
15. a) domain {x | x > 2, x ∈ R}, range {y | y ∈ R}, x2
asymptote x = 2 asymptote x = 4, x2 (x - 4)
b) y = 101 - x + 2 c) 12 horizontal 2
16. a)
_1 , 4 b) 7
asymptote y = 0
3
0 2 4 6 x
17. Giovanni multiplied the base by 2, which is
not correct. The second line should be 3x = 4.
Giovanni also incorrectly applied the quotient law 3. a) Apply a vertical y
of logarithms in the sixth line. This line should be stretch by a factor of
deleted. This leads to the solution x = 1.26. 6, and then a 4
translation of 1 unit
18. 5.0 2
left to the graph of
19. a) P(t) = 6(1.013t), where t is the number of years
since 2000 y=_ 1
x.
b)year 2040 domain -8 -4 0 4 x
20. 12 deposits {x | x ≠ -1, x ∈ R}, -2
range
6
{y | y ≠ 0, y ∈ R}, y = _____ -4
Chapter 9 Rational Functions no x-intercept, x+1
y-intercept 6,
9.1 Exploring Rational Functions Using Transformations,
horizontal
pages 442 to 445
asymptote y = 0, vertical asymptote x = -1
1. a) Since the graph has a vertical asymptote at b) Apply a vertical y
x = -1, it has been translated 1 unit left; stretch by a factor of
B(x) = __ 2 . 4, and then a 4
x+1 y= 4 _ +1
translation of 1 unit x
b) Since the graph has a horizontal asymptote at
up to the graph of 2
y=_
y = -1, it has been translated 1 unit down; 1.
A(x) = _2
x - 1.
x
domain -8 -4 0 4 x
c) Since the graph has a horizontal asymptote at {x | x ≠ 0, x ∈ R},
y = 1, it has been translated 1 unit up; -2
range
D(x) = _2
x + 1.
{y | y ≠ 1, y ∈ R},
x-intercept -4, no
Since the graph has a vertical asymptote at x = 1,
d)
y-intercept, horizontal asymptote y = 1, vertical
it has been translated 1 unit right;
C(x) = __ 2 . asymptote x = 0
x-1
2. a) Base function y = ;
_1 y
x
vertical asymptote
2 y= 1 _
x = -2, x
horizontal
asymptote y = 0 -4 -2 0 2 x
1
_____
-2 y =
x+2
-2 0 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
c) The graph shows that the more years you run the
machine, the less the average cost per year is.
domain {x | x ≠ 2, x ∈ R}, range {y | y ≠ -3, y ∈ R} One of the machines is cheaper to run for a short
c) No, there are many functions with different values amount of time, while the other is cheaper if you
of a for which the asymptotes are the same. run it for a longer period of time.
10. a) When factoring the 3 out of the numerator, Mira d) If Hanna wants to run the machine for more than
forgot to change the sign of the 21. 7.5 years, she should choose the second model.
y = ____
-3x + 21 - 21 + 2 Otherwise, she is better off with the first one.
x-7
17. a) I =
__ 12
y = ___
-3(x - 7) - 19 x + 15
x-7 b) Domain {x | 0 ≤ x ≤ 100, x ∈ R}; the graph does
y = __-19 - 3 not have a vertical asymptote for this domain.
x-7
c) A setting of 45 Ω is
b) She could try sample points without technology.
needed for 0.2 A.
With technology, she could check if the
asymptotes are the same.
11. a) y = __-2 + _ 1
x+2 2
b) y
d) In this case, there would be an asymptote at x = 0.
4
-2 18. a) y =
__
4x + 20
, y = __
5x + 10
y = _____ + 1
_ x x
2 x+2 2
-4 -2 0 2 x
-2
12. x-intercept _
5 , y-intercept b) The graph shows that for a longer rental the
3 average price goes down.
_
5
- , horizontal asymptote
3 c) No. For rentals of less than 10 h, the second store
y = 1.5, vertical asymptote is cheaper. For any rental over 10 h, the first store
x = -1.5 is cheaper.
19. a) v =
__
100t + 80
t+2
13. As p increases, N decreases, and vice versa. This b)
shows that as the average price of a home increases,
the number of buyers looking for a house decreases.
14. a) l =
_
24 b) As the width increases,
w
the length decreases
to maintain the same
area. c) Horizontal asymptote y = 100; the horizontal
asymptote demonstrates that the average speed
gets closer and closer to 100 km/h but never
reaches it. Vertical asymptote t = -2; the vertical
asymptote does not mean anything in this context,
15. a) y=_
4000
x since time cannot be negative.
b) c) If 4000 students d) 4 h after the construction zone
contribute, they e) Example: Showing the average speed is a good
will only need to indication of your fuel economy.
donate $1 each to 20. y =
__
-4x - 4
reach their goal. x-6
21. a) y =
__
-x - 3 b) y =
__
5(x - 4)
x-1 x-6
-16 -12 -8 -4 0 4 8 12 x
-2 -4
h(x) = ____________ ___
x-4
x2 + 12x + 36 6. The graph of A(x) = has a vertical
(x - 4)(x - 1)
-4
asymptote at x = 1, a point of discontinuity at 4, _
( ) 1 ,
3
For f(x) = _
1: and no x-intercept; Graph 3.
The graph of B(x) = ___
x2 (x + 4)(x + 1)
• Non-permissible value: x = 0
has no vertical
x2 + 1
• Behaviour near non-permissible value: As x asymptotes or points of discontinuity and x-intercepts
approaches 0, |y| becomes very large. of -4 and -1; Graph 1.
• End behaviour: As |x| becomes very large, y The graph of C(x) = ___ x-1 has vertical
approaches 0. (x - 2)(x + 2)
• Domain {x | x ≠ 0, x ∈ R}, range {y | y > 0, y ∈ R}
asymptotes at x = ±2, no points of discontinuity, and
• Asymptotes: x = 0, y = 0
an x-intercept of 1; Graph 2.
b) As the percent of
For g(x) = __ 6 7. a)
+ 2: the spill cleaned
(x - 3)2
• Non-permissible value: x = 3 up approaches 100,
• Behaviour near non-permissible value: As x the cost approaches
approaches 3, |y| becomes very large. infinity.
• End behaviour: As |x| becomes very large, y
approaches 2. c) No, since there is a vertical asymptote at p = 100.
• Domain {x | x ≠ 3, x ∈ R}, range {y | y > 2, y ∈ R}
• Asymptotes: x = 3, y = 2
-8
c) As the boat’s speed approaches 4 km/h, the time
it takes for a round trip approaches infinity. The
b) domain {x | x ≠ -4, x ∈ R}, water flows at 4 km/h. If the boat’s speed is less,
range {y | y ≠ -3, y ∈ R}, horizontal the boat will never make the return trip, which is
asymptote y = -3, vertical asymptote x = -4, why there is an asymptote at x = 4.
x-intercept -6, y-intercept - _
9 d) approximately 27.25 km/h
2
9. x ≈ -2.47, x ≈ -0.73
10. a) y Chapter 10 Function Operations
6 10.1 Sums and Differences of Functions,
pages 483 to 487
4
1. a) h(x) = |x - 3| + 4 b) h(x) = 2x - 3
2 x2 - 2x - 8 c) h(x) = 2x2 + 3x + 2 d) h(x) = x2 + 5x + 4
y = __________ 2. a) h(x) = 5x + 2 b) h(x) = -3x2 - 4x + 9
x-4
c) h(x) = -x2 - 3x + 12 d) h(x) = cos x - 4
-4 -2 0 2 4 x 3. a) h(x) = x2 - 6x + 1; h(2) = -7
-2 b) m(x) = -x2 - 6x + 1; m(1) = -6
c) p(x) = x2 + 6x -______
1; p(1) = 6
4. a) y = 3x2 + 2 + √______
x + 4 ; domain {x | x ≥ -4, x ∈ R}
b) As x approaches 4, the function approaches 6. b) y = 4x______
- 2 - √x + 4 ; domain {x | x ≥ -4, x ∈ R}
c) y = √x + 4 - 4x + 2; domain {x | x ≥ -4, x ∈ R}
d) y = 3x2 + 4x; domain {x | x ∈ R}
-4
e) $540
14. a) b)
6. a) 8 b) 6 c) 7 y y
d) not in the domain g(x) = 3 sin x h(x) = (f + g)(x)
7. a) B b) C c) A 2 4
f(x) = sin x
8. a) y
y = (g - f)(x) f(x) 2
0 π
_ π 3π
__ x f(x) = sin x
4
2 2
-2
y = (f + g)(x) 0 π
_ π 3π
__ x
2
2 2
-2
g(x) = 3 sin x
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 x
-4
-2
g(x)
-4 c) 4 cm
y = (f - g)(x) 15. a) b) The maxima
and minima are
b) y y = (f + g)(x) located at the same
x-coordinates.
8
y = (g - f)(x) This will result
f(x) in destructive
4
interference.
g(x) c)
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
-4
-8
y = (f - g)(x)
16. a) b)
9. a) y = 3x2 + 11x + 1 b) y = 3x2 - 3x + 3 V V VAC(t) + VDC(t)
c) y = 3x2 + 3x + 1 d) y = 3x2 -______
11x + 3 VDC(t) = 15
10. a) g(x) = x2 b) g(x) = √x + 7 10 20
c) g(x) = -3x + 1 d) g(x) = 3x2 ______
-x-4
11. a) g(x) = x2 - 1 b) g(x) = - √x - 4 10
0 2 4 6t
c) g(x) = 8x - 9 d) g(x) = 2x2 - 11x - 6
-10
VAC(t) = 10 sin t 0 2 4 6t
-6 -4 -2 0 2 x
-2
19. a) d = 200 - t
b) h(t) = 200 - t + 0.75 sin 1.26t
c) b) y
f(x)
4
f(x)
___
2 h(x) = g(x)
-6 -4 -2 0 2 x
20. Example: Replace all x with -x and then simplify.
If the new function is equal to the original, then it -2
is even. If it is the negative of the original, then it is
odd. Answers may vary. g(x) -4
21. The graph shows the sum of an exponential function
and a constant function.
22. a) f(x): domain {x | x ∈ R}, range {y | y ≥ -9, y ∈ R}; 4. a) h(x) = x3 + 7x2 + 16x + 12
g(x): domain {x | x ≠ 0, x ∈ R}, y
range {y | y ≠ 0, y ∈ R}
_1 4
b) h(x) = x2 - 9 +
x
c) Example: The domain and range of f(x) are 2
different from the domain and range of h(x).
f(x) = x + 5x + 6
2
The domain and range of g(x) are the same as
that of h(x). -6 -4 -2 0 2 x
C1 a) Yes, addition is commutative. -2
b) No, subtraction is not commutative. g(x) = x + 2
h(x) = x3 + 7x2 + 16x + 12
C2 a) y 3 = x3 + 4 -4
b) domain {x | x ∈ R}, range {y | y ∈ R}
C3 Example:
Step 1: The graph exhibits domain {x | x ∈ R}, range {y | y ∈ R}
sinusoidal features b) h(x) = x3 - 3x2 - 9x + 27
in its shape and h(x) = x3 - 3x2 - 9x + 27y
the fact that it is
30
periodic.
24
Step 2: The graph exhibits exponential features in that it
is decreasing and approaching 0 with asymptote y = 0. 18
Step 3: h = cos 0.35t
Step 4: h = 100(0.5)0.05t 12
Step 5: h = (100 cos 0.35t)((0.5)0.05t)
Step 6: 15.5 m 6
2
10. a) domain
{x | x ≠ (2n - 1) _
π,
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 x 2
x2 + 5x + 6 n ∈ I, x ∈ R},
h(x) = __________ -2
range {y | y ∈ R}
x +2 g(x) = x + 2
4 11. a) y= _
f (x)
b) y = f(x)f (x)
g(x)
c) The graphs of y =
_
sin x
cos x and y = tan x appear to
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
be the same. The graphs of y = 1 - cos2 x and
-4 y = sin2 x appear to be the same.
f(x) = x - 3
12. a) Both graphs are
-8 g(x) = x 2 - 9 increasing over time.
However, the graph
of P(t) increases more
domain {x | x ≠ ±3, x ∈ R}, rapidly and overtakes
range y | y ≠ 0, _
{ 1, y ∈ R
} the graph of F(t).
6
c) h(x) = __x , x ≠ -1, 0 b) Yes; negative values
x+1
of t should not be
1
_____ y considered.
h(x) = x + 1 4 1
1
_ g(x) = _
x
x
2
c) t=0
d) In approximately 11.6 years, there will be less
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 x
than 1 unit of food per fish; determine the point
-2 of intersection for the graphs of y = _ and y = 1.
F(t)
1
f(x) = _____ P(t)
x+1 13. a)
-4
7. a) g(x) = 2x - 5 b) g(x) = 5x + 1
8. Christine is right. Ron forgot to replace all x’s with
the other function in the first step.
9. Yes. k(j(x)) = j(k(x)) = x6; using the power law:
15. a) b) Yes
2(3) = 6 and 3(2) = 6.
10. No. s(t(x)) = x2 -__________
6x + 10 and t(s(x)) = x2 - 2.
11. a) W(C(t)) = 3 √100 + 35t
b) domain {t | t ≥ 0, t ∈ R}, range {W | W ≥ 30, W ∈ W}
12. a) s(p) = 0.75p b) t(s) = 1.05s
c) t(s(p)) = 0.7875p; $70.87
13. a) g(d) = 0.06d b) c(g) = 1.23g
16. The price_______
per tonne decreases. c) c(g(d)) = 0.0738d; $14.76
17. A = 4x √r 2 - x2 d) d(c) = 13.55c; 542 km
C1 Yes; multiplication is commutative. Examples 14. a) 3x2 - 21 b) 3x2 - 7
may vary. c) 3x2 - 42x + 147 d) 9x2 - 42x + 49
C2 Example: Multiplication generally increases the 15. a) h(θ(t)) = 20 sin _
πt + 22
range and domain, although this is not always true. 15
Quotients generally produce asymptotes and points of b)
discontinuity, although this is not always true.
C3 a) A(x) = 4x2 - 12x + 9
b) domain
{x | x ≥ 1.5, x ∈ R},
range
{A | A ≥ 0, A ∈ R} The period of the combined functions is much
greater. _t
16. a) C(P(t)) = 14.375(2)10 + 53.12
h(x) = x + 4, x ≠ _
3 ; this represents the height of b) approximately 17.1 years
c)
2 17. a) f (x) = 2x - 1, g(x) = x2
the box. __2 , g(x) = x2
d) domain b) f (x) =
3-x
{x | x > 1.5, x ∈ R}, c) f (x) = |x|, g(x) = x2 - 4x + 5
range 18. a) g(f (x)) =
__1 - x = __ 1-x =_ 1
{h | h > 5.5, h ∈ R} 1-1+x x g(x)
b) f (g(x)) = 1 -
__x = __ 1 - 2x ≠ _ 1
1-x 1-x f (x)
No, they are not the same.
__ m0 _
2__ m
10.3 Composite Functions, pages 507 to 509 19. a) m = _______ b)
_
t6 √3 0
1. a) 3 b) 0 c) 2 d) -1
√
1- 2
c
20.
_1
a) The functions f (x) = 5x + 10 and g(x) = x - 2
2. a) 2 b) 2 c) -4 d) -5 5
3. a) 10 b) -8 c) -2 d) 28 are inverses of each other since f (g(x)) = x and
4. a) f(g(a)) = 3a2 + 1 b) g (f (a)) = 9a2 + 24a + 15 g(f (x)) = x.
c) f(g(x)) = 3x2 + 1 d) g (f (x)) = 9x2 + 24x + 15 b) The functions f (x) =
__
x - 1 and g(x) = 2x + 1 are
2
e) f(f(x)) = 9x + 16 f) g (g(x)) = x4 - 2x2 inverses of each other since f (g(x)) = x and
g(f (x)) = x.
-6
domain {x | x ∈ R},
range y = x + 2x - 6
2
-6
f(x) = x 2 - x - 6 -2 0 2 x
b) i) 4 ii) -4 iii) 4
range y | y ≠ - _
{ 1 , 0, y ∈ R
}
8 14. T = 0.05t + 20
9. a) y = -x2 - 7x - 12 15. a) d(x) = 0.75x; c(x) = x - 10
y = -x 2 - 7x - 12 y
domain b) c(d(x)) = 0.75x - 10; this represents using the
{x | x ∈ R}, coupon after the discount.
-6 -4 -2 0 x range c) d(c(x)) = 0.75x - 7.5; this represents applying the
{y | y ≤ 0.25, y ∈ R} coupon before the discount.
-2 d) Using the coupon after the discount results in a
lower price of $290.
-4
Chapter 10 Practice Test, pages 512 to 513
y = __ , x ≠ -4
x+3 1. B 2. D 3. A 4. C 5. A
-x - 4 6. a) h(x) = sin x + 2x2 b) h(x) = sin x - 2x2
h(x) = _
y domain sin x , x ≠ 0
c) h(x) = 2x2 sin x d)
x +3 {x | x ≠ -4, x ∈ R}, 2x2
y = _____ 2 7.
-x - 4 range g(x) f(x) (f + g)(x) (f ◦ g)(x)
______
{y | y ≠ -1, y ∈ R} a) x-8 √x
__
√x
__
+x-8 √x - 8
-6 -4 -2 0 x b) x+3 4x 5x + 3 4x + 12
______ ______ ______
-2 c) x2 √x - 4 √x - 4 + x2 √x2 - 4
d) _1 _1 _2 x
x x x
b) 3 2
y = x + 14x + 60x + 72
8. y =
___
1 , x ≠ -_
3 , -1
y domain {x | x ∈ R}, 2x2 + 5x + 3 2
range {y | y ∈ R} domain x | x ≠ - _
{3 , -1, x ∈ R
}
4 2
9. a) b)
y f y
-6 -4 -2 0 x
8
f(x)
g(x)
()
y = _ (x)
g 8
f(x)
g(x)
-4
6 6
-8
4 4
-12
y = x3 + 14x2 + 60x + 72
2 2
y = (f - g)(x)
-2 0 2 4 x -2 0 2 4 x
31. 24 zeros; Determine how many factors of 5 there are =___ 11! =___ 11!
(11 - 3)!3! (11 - 8)!8!
in 100!. Each multiple of 5 has one factor of 5 except
25, 50, 75, and 100, which have two factors of 5. So, =_11! =_
11!
8!3! 3!8!
there are 24 factors of 5 in 100!. There are more than Left Side = Right Side
enough factors of 2 to match up with the 5s to make 9. a) C5 = 1
5
factors of 10, so there are 24 zeros. b) C0 = 1; there is only one way to choose 5 objects
5
32. a) EDACB or BCADE b) 2 from a group of 5 objects and only one way to
c) None. Since F only knows A, then F must stand choose 0 objects from a group of 5 objects.
next to A. However, in both arrangements from 10. a) 4 b) 10
part a), A must stand between C and D, but F does 11. a) 15 b) 22
not know either C or D and therefore cannot stand 12. Left Side
next to either of them. Therefore, no possible = nCr - 1 + nCr
= ____ + __
arrangement satisfies the conditions. n! n!
C1 a) aPb =
__ a! is the formula for calculating the (n - (r - 1))!(r - 1)! (n - r)!r!
(a - b)!
number of ways that b objects can be selected from a = ____ n! + __ n!
(n - r + 1)!(r - 1)! (n - r)!r!
group of a objects, if order is important; for example,
= _______
[n!(n - r)!r!] + [n!(n - r + 1)!(r - 1)!]
if you have a group of 20 students and you want to
choose a team of 3 arranged from tallest to shortest. (n - r + 1)!(r - 1)!(n - r)!r!
b) b ≤ a = _________
n!(n - r)!r(r - 1)! + n!(n - r + 1)(n - r)!(r - 1)!
C2 By the fundamental counting principle, if the n (n - r + 1)!(r - 1)!(n - r)!r!
= _______
objects are distinct, they can be arranged in n! ways. n!(n - r)!(r - 1)![r + (n - r + 1)]
However, if a of the objects are the same and b of the (n - r + 1)!(r - 1)!(n - r)!r!
1 1
remaining objects are the same, then the number of
_____
(n - rr)!(r
n!(n )!(r - 1)
)! )! + 1)
1)!(n
different arrangements is reduced to _ n! to eliminate =
(n - r + 1)(r
(r - 1)
1)!(n
)!(n - rr)!r!
)!
)!
a!b! 1 1
duplicates.
= ___
n!(n + 1)
C3 a)
___
(n + 2)(n + 1)n
b)
__
7 + 20r (n - r + 1)!r!
= ___
4 r(r + 1) (n + 1)!
C5 a) 362 880 b) 5.559 763… c) 6.559 763 (n - r + 1)!r!
d) Example: The answer to part c) is 1 more than the Right Side = n + 1Cr
answer to part b). This is because 10! = 10(9!) and
= ___
(n + 1)!
log 10! = log 10 + log 9! = 1 + log 9!. (n + 1 - r)!r!
11.2 Combinations, pages 534 to 536 Left Side = Right Side
1. a) Combination, because the order that you shake 13. 20 different burgers; this is a combination because
hands is not important. the order the ingredients is put on the burger is not
b) Permutation, because the order of digits is important. important.
(n - r)!r! 3. a)
_3! b)
_6! c)
_1!
2!1! 3!3! 0!1!
Right Side = nCn – r 4. a) 5 b) 8 c) q + 1
= ____ n!
5. a) 1x2 + 2xy + 1y 2 b) 1a3 + 3a2 + 3a + 1
(n-(n - r))!(n - r)!
c) 1 - 4p + 6p2 - 4p3 + 1p4
= ____ n!
6. a) 1a3 + 9a2b + 27ab2 + 27b3
(n - n + r)!(n - r)!
b) 243a5 - 810a4b + 1080a3b2 - 720a2b2 + 240ab4
= __ n!
- 32b5
r!(n - r)!
Left Side = Right Side c) 16x4 - 160x3 + 600x2 - 1000x + 625
17. a) 125 970 b) 44 352 c) 1945 7. a) 126a4b5 b) -540x3y 3 c) 192 192t6
2 2 2
18. a) 2 598 960 b) 211 926 c) 388 700 d) 96x y e) 3072w
19. a) 525 b) 576 8. All outside numbers of Pascal’s triangle are 1’s; the
20. a)
__40! b) 116 280
middle values are determined by adding the two
20!20! numbers to the left and right in the row above.
21. a)
__52! × __39! × __ 26! × _ 13! 9. a) 1, 2, 4, 8, 16
39!13! 26!13! 13!13! 0!13! b) 28 or 256
b)
___ 52! = __52! c) 5.364… × 1028 c) 2n - 1, where n is the row number
13!13!13!13! (13!)4
10. a) The sum of the numbers on the handle equals the
22. 90
number on the blade of each hockey stick.
23. a) 36 b) 1296
b) No; the hockey stick handle must begin with
24. a) 5C2 = 10, 10 ÷ 3 = 3 Remainder 1. 15C6 = 5005,
1 from the outside of the triangle and move
and 5005 ÷ 3 = 1668 Remainder 1.
diagonally down the triangle with each value
b) yes, remainder 3 c) 7; 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
being in a different row. The number of the blade
d) Example: First, I would try a few more cases to
must be diagonally below the last number on the
try to find a counterexample. Since the statement
handle of the hockey stick.
seems to be true, I would write a computer
11. a) 13 b) 220x9y3 c) r = 6, 12C6 = 924
program to test many cases in an organized way. 4
12. a) (x + y) b) (1 - y)5
C1 No. The order of the numbers matters, so a
13. a) No. While 110 = 1, 111 = 11, 112 = 121,
combination lock would be better called a
113 = 1331, and 114 = 14 641, this pattern only
permutations lock.
works for the first five rows of Pascal’s triangle.
C2 a) aCb =
__ a! is the formula for calculating b) m represents the row number minus 1, m ≤ 4.
(a - b)!b!
the number of ways that b objects can be 14. a) (x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3,
selected from a group of a objects, if order is not (x - y)3 = x3 - 3x2y + 3xy2 - y3; the signs for
important; for example, if you have a group of the second and fourth terms are negative in the
20 students and you want to choose a team of any expansion of (x - y)3
3 people. b) (x + y)3 + (x - y)3
b) a ≥ b c) b ≥ 0 = x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3 + x3 - 3x2y + 3xy2 - y3
C3 Example: Assuming that the rooms are the same = 2x3 + 6xy2
and so any patient can be assigned to any of the = 2x(x2 + 3y2)
six rooms, this is a combinations situation. Beth is
correct.
Line Segments
Quadrilaterals
c) The answer is the sum of the terms of the sixth
Pentagons
row of Pascal’s triangle.
Hexagons
Triangles
16. a) H HHH
Points
H T HHT
H
H HTH Diagram
T T HTT
H THH
H T THT 1
T H TTH
T T TTT
b) HHH + HHT + HTH + HTT + THH + THT +
TTH + TTT 2 1
= H3 + 3H2T + 3HT2 + T3
c) H3 represents the first term of the expansion of
(H + T)3 and 3H2T represents the second term of
3 3 1
the expansion of (H + T)3.
17. a)
_a3 + 6 _a2 + 12 _
( ) () a + 8 or _ a3 + _6a2 + _12a + 8
b3 b2 b b3 b2 b
b)
_a4 - 4 _a4 + 6 _
( ) ( ) ( ) a4 - 4 _ a4 + a4
4 6 4 1
b4 b3 b2 b
= a4 _1 -_ 4 +_ 6 -_ 4 +1
( b4 b 3 ) b2
b
c) 1 - 3x +
_
15 x2 - _ 5 x3 + _15 x4 - _3 x5 + _1 x6
4 2 16 16 64 5 10 10 5 1
d) 16x8 - 32x5 + 24x2 - 8x -1 + x -4
18. a) 5670a4b12 b) the fourth term; it is -120x11
19. a) 126 720 b) the fifth term; its value is 495
20. m = 3y 6 15 20 15 6 1
21. Examples:
Step 1: The numerators start with the second value, 4,
b) The numbers are values from row 1 to row 6 of
and decrease by ones, while the denominators start at
Pascal’s triangle with the exception of the first
1 and increase by ones to 4.
term.
For the sixth row:
c) The numbers will be values from the 8th row of
1 × 5 = 5, 5 × _ 4 = 10, 10 × _ 3 = 10, 10 × _2 = 5,
Pascal’s triangle with the exception of the first
2 3 4
_
1
5 × = 1. term: 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1.
5 25. a) 2.7083…
Step 2: The second element in the row is equal to the b) The value of e becomes more precise for the 7th
row number minus 1. and 8th terms. The more terms used, the more
Step 3: The first 2 terms in the 21st row are 1 and 20. accurate the approximation.
×_ 20 ; × _
19 , × _ 18 , and so on to × _ 3,×_ 2,×_ 1
c) Example: 2.718 281 828
1 2 3 18 19 20
22. a) Each entry is the sum of the two values in the row d) 15! = _ 15 15 √_______
( )e 2π(15) ≈ 1.300 × 1012;
below and slightly to the left and the right. on a calculator 15! ≈ 1.3077 × 1012
b)
_1 _ 1 _ 1 _ 1 _ 1 _ 1 e) Using the formula from part d),
6 30 60 60 30 6
_1 _ 1 _ 1 _ 1 _1 _
1 _ 1 50! = _ 50 50 √_______
( )e 2π(50)
7 42 105 140 105 42 7
≈ 3.036 344 594 × 1064;
c) Examples: Outside values are the reciprocal of
using the formula from part e),
the row number. The product of two consecutive
outside row values gives the value of the second 50! = _
( )e 2π(50) 1 + __
50 50 √_______
( 1
)
12(50)
term in the lower row.
≈ 3.041 405 168 × 1064; using a calculator
50! = 3.041 409 32 × 1064, so the formula
in part e) seems to give a more accurate
approximation.
c) domain {x | x ≠ 1, x ∈ R},
range {y | y ≠ 3, y ∈ R}, x-intercept _
1, 8. a) h(x) = __
x+1
, x ≠ -2, 2; k(x) = __
x - 2 , x ≠ -2, -1
3 x-2 x+1
y-intercept 1, horizontal asymptote y = 3, y
vertical asymptote x = 1
2. a) 4
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
-2
b) domain {x | x ≠ -1, x ∈ R}, x2 + 3x + 2 x2 - 4
h(x) = __________ k(x) = __________
range {y | y ≠ 3, y ∈ R}, x-intercept _4, x2 - 4 -4 x2 + 3x + 2
3
y-intercept -4, horizontal asymptote y = 3,
vertical asymptote x = -1
The graph of y = __ x2 - 3x has a vertical asymptote b) The two functions have different domains but the
3. a)
x2 - 9 same range; h(x): domain {x | x ≠ -2, 2, x ∈ R},
at x = -3, a point of discontinuity at (3, 0.5), and an range {y | y ≠ 1, y ∈ R}, k(x): domain
x-intercept of 0; C. {x | x ≠ -2, -1, x ∈ R}, range {y | y ≠ 1, y ∈ R}
b) The graph of y = __ x2 - 1 has no vertical asymptote, 9. y y = (f + g)(x)
x+1
a point of discontinuity at (-1, -2), and an 4
x-intercept of 1; A. f(x)
h(x) = x + 2 + x - 2 b)
4
2
f(x) = x + 2
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
c) The graph of ( f ◦ g)(x) = (x - 3)3 is a translation
-2 of 3 units right of the graph of f(x). The graph of
k(x) = x + 2 - x + 2
g(x) = x - 2 (g ◦ f )(x) = x3 - 3 is a translation of 3 units down
-4 of the graph of f(x).
12. a) f (g(x)) = x; domain {x | x ∈ R}
c) f(x): domain {x | x ≥ -2, x ∈ R}, b) g(f (x)) = csc x; domain {x | x ≠ πn, n ∈ I, x ∈ R}
range {y | y ≥ 0, y ∈ R} __1 ; domain {x | x ≠ ±1, x ∈ R}
g(x): domain {x | x ∈ R}, range {y | y ∈ R} c) f (g(x)) = 2
x -1
h(x): domain {x | x ≥ -2, x ∈ R}, 13. 96 meals
range {y | y ≥ -4, y ∈ R} 14. 480 ways
k(x): domain {x | x ≥ -2, x ∈ R}, 15. 55
range {y | y ≤ 4.25, y ∈ R} 16. 525 ways
1. D 2. B 3. A 4. B 5. B 6. D 7. C c) y y = __
1 - x2
x-1
3, _
1 g(x)
8. ( ) 2
7
9. 0, 3.73, 0.27 10. 600x2y4 11. -1 ()
f
y = _ (x)
g
12. a) vertical stretch by a factor of 2 and translation of -4 -2 0 2 4 x
1 unit left and 3 units down
b) x = -1 and y = -3 -2
f(x)
c) as x approaches -1, |y| becomes very large
13. a) -4
G
general form An expression containing
parameters that can be given specific values
to generate any answer that satisfies the
given information or situation; represents all
possible cases.
base 0.5
R 230°
0 x
radian One radian is the measure of the 50°
central angle subtended in a circle by an arc
equal in length to the radius of the circle.
2π = 360° = 1 full rotation (or revolution).
reflection A transformation where each
B
point of the original graph has an image
r r point resulting from a reflection in a line.
1 A reflection may result in a change of
0 A
r
orientation of a graph while preserving
its shape.
remainder theorem When a polynomial in x,
radical Consists of a root symbol, an index,
P(x), is divided by x - a, the remainder is P(a).
and a radicand.
__
It can be rational (for __
example, √4 ) or irrational (for example, √2 ). root(s) of an equation The solution(s) to an
index
equation.
radical
n
√x
radicand S
radical equation An equation with radicals secant ratio The reciprocal of the cosine ratio,
that have variables in the radicands. abbreviated sec. For P(θ) = (x, y) on the unit
radical function A function that involves a circle, sec θ = _
1.
x
If cos θ = _
1 , then sec θ = _
radical with a variable in the radicand. 2 or 2.
___ 3
______ 2 1
For example, y = √3x and y = 4 √5 + x
are radical functions. sine ratio For P(θ) = (x, y) on the unit circle,
sin θ = _ = y.
y
range The set of all possible values for 1
the dependent variable as the independent
variable takes on all possible values of the
domain.
U
unit circle A circle with radius 1 unit. A
square____
root of a function The function circle of radius 1 unit with centre at the
y = √f(x) is the square root of the function
____ origin on the Cartesian plane is known as
y = f (x). The function y = √f(x) is only the unit circle.
defined for f (x) ≥ 0.
stretch A transformation in which the distance V
of each x-coordinate or y-coordinate from vertical asymptote For reciprocal
the line of reflection is multiplied by some functions, vertical asymptotes occur at the
scale factor. Scale factors between 0 and 1 non-permissible values of the function.
result in the point moving closer to the line of The line x = a is a vertical asymptote if
reflection; scale factors greater than 1 result in the curve approaches the line more and
the point moving farther away from the line more closely as x approaches a, and the
of reflection. values of the function increase or decrease
synthetic division A method of performing without bound as x approaches a.
polynomial long division involving a binomial vertical displacement The vertical
divisor that uses only the coefficients of the translation of the graph of a periodic
terms and fewer calculations. function.
T Z
tangent ratio For P(θ) = (x, y) on the unit zero(s) of a function The value(s) of x
circle, tan θ = _
y
x. for which f (x) = 0. These values of x are
related to the x-intercept(s) of the graph
transformation A change made to a figure
of a function f (x).
or a relation such that the figure or the
graph of the relation is shifted or changed in
shape. Examples are translations, reflections,
and stretches.
translation A slide transformation that
results in a shift of the original figure without
changing its shape. Vertical and horizontal
translations are types of transformations
with equations of the forms y - k = f (x) and
y = f (x - h), respectively. A translated graph
is congruent to the original graph.
trigonometric equation An equation involving
trigonometric ratios.