4.

0 Cells
You need to be able to use your knowledge of the structure of cells and the function of the
organelles to interpret electronmicrographs of cells. In particular the epithelial cells lining the
small intestine. These are cells which are specialised for absorbing the products of digestion. They
will therefore have a large surface area provided by the microvilli and due to the need for active
transport across their cell membranes they will contain a large number of mitochondria providing
them with ATP. Epithelial cells also secrete enzymes and other proteins. This means that they will
have a large and visible endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus to allow protein production and
secretion.

Below is a list of the most important organelles that you are required to know about. It is worth
you using textbooks and perhaps even other websites such as www.cellsalive.com to look at
actual images of different types of cells and their organelles.

Nucleus

 Contains DNA
 DNA arranged into long thin threads known as chromosomes
 In most cells the chromosomes are arranged in homologous pairs
 Surrounded by nuclear envelope
 This has pores to allow communication between the nucleus and cytoplasm
Plasma Membrane

 Sea of phospholipids - arranged as a bilayer

 Intrinsic and extrinsic proteins float within the phospholipids
 Selectively permeable barrier - controls movement of substances between the internal
and external environments

Microvilli

 Adaptation of cells to increase surface area for absorption or secretion

 Found on epithelium of the small intestine

Lysosomes

 Formed by the golgi apparatus

 Contain digestive enzymes - proteases and lipases
 Important to protect the cell from the effect of these enzymes before they are released at
the cell surface membrane or into a phagocytic vesicle

Mitochondria

 1µm in diameter and 7µm in length

 Mostly protein, but also contains some lipid, DNA and RNA
  Power house of the cell
 Energy is stored in high energy phosphate bonds of ATP
 Mitochondria convert energy from the breakdown of glucose into adenosine
triphosphate (ATP)
 Responsible for aerobic respiration
 Metabolic activity of a cell is related to the number of cristae (larger surface area) and
mitochondria
 Cells with a high metabolic activity (e.g. heart muscle) have many well developed
mitochondria

Ribosomes

 20-30nm in size
 Small organelles often attached to the ER but also found in the cytoplasm
 Large (protein) and small (rRNA) subunits form the functional ribosome
o Subunits bind with mRNA in the cytoplasm
o This starts translation of mRNA for protein synthesis (assembly of amino acids
into proteins)
 Free ribosomes make proteins used in the cytoplasm. Responsible for proteins that
o go into solution in cytoplasm or
o form important cytoplasmic, structural elements
 Ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) are made in nucleus of cell

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

 Rough ER
o Have ribosomes attached to the cytosolic side of their membrane
o Found in cells that are making proteins for export (enzymes, hormones, structural
proteins, antibodies)
o Thus, involved in protein synthesis
o Modifies proteins by the addition of carbohydrates, removal of signal sequences
o Phospholipid synthesis and assembly of polypeptides
 Smooth ER
o Have no ribosomes attached and often appear more tubular than the rough ER
o Necessary for steroid synthesis, metabolism and detoxification, lipid synthesis
o Numerous in the liver
Golgi Apparatus

 Stack of flattened sacs surrounded by membrane

 Receives protein-filled vesicles from the rough ER (fuse with Golgi membrane)
 Uses enzymes to modify these proteins (e.g. add a sugar chain, making glycoprotein)
 Adds directions for destination of protein package - vesicles that leave Golgi apparatus
move to different locations in cell or proceed to plasma membrane for secretion
 Involved in processing, packaging, and secretion
 Other vesicles that leave Golgi apparatus are lysosomes

Techniques used in Cell Biology

 Microscopy
o Magnification → increases the size of an object
o Resolution/resolving power → ability to distinguish between adjacent points
 Calculating magnification
o X = size of picture (measure the size of the diagram in the question)
o Y = size of object in real life (often given in exam question)
o Make sure Y has the same unit as X!
 If X = mm and Y = μm
 Convert mm to μm = X * 1000
o Magnification = Xμm / Yμm