Alum Sludge Thickening and Disposal

Hubert L Nielsen, Keith E. Cams, and John N. DeBoice

It has been customary for water-treatment plants using chemicals in the
water-treatment process to discharge waste sludge into a nearby natural
water course. This practice is coming under increasing criticism from
both the public and water-quality agencies and is now becoming subject
to regulation. This article describes pilot work subsequent to the receipt
of specific discharge requirements set by the Regional Water Quality
Control Bd.
The East Bay Munic. Utility Dist.
serves approximately 1.1 million peo
ple in the East Bay area. Its service
area totals 277 sq mi. The district
operates three full-treatment plants
and three direct-filtration plants.
These plants produce an annual aver
age of 210 mgd, with a record con
sumption of 376 mgd in Jul. 1972.
The total capacity is approximately
480 mgd.
In Jun. 1971 the East Bay Munic.
Utility Dist. was informed that
the San Francisco Bay Regional
Water Quality Control Bd. had set
specific waste-discharge requirements
for the district's Sobrante Filter Plant
(see Table 1). To meet these require
ments it was necessary to remove es
sentially all suspended solids from
any water discharged and to reduce
the volume. A comprehensive pilot
field investigation was immediately
authorized and undertaken to develop
a system capable of meeting the
Regional Water Quality Control
Bd.'s requirements in the most
economical and ecologically accepta
ble manner.
Objectives of Pilot Study
The four basic objectives of the pi
lot study were as follows:
1. To determine the quantities and
qualities of the waste streams that
were to be treated
2. To determine the most effective
method of reclaiming filter backwash
water
3. To determine the most effective
method of dewatering and ultimate
disposal of waste alum sludge
4. To develop and design a com
plete process that would meet or ex
ceed the standards set by the Region
al Water Quality Control Bd.
JUNE 1973
duced. All of these wastewaters are
periodically discharged into nearby
San Pablo Creek. The quantities of
filter wash water and basin sludge
produced by the plant are given in
Table 2.
During discharge of these waste-
Plant Description waters, the creek waters become dis
The Sobrante Filter Plant receives colored, and a fan-shaped area of tur
its raw-water supply from San Pablo bid water can be observed that ex
Reservoir, a 13.3-bil gal-capacity tends out into San Francisco Bay near
raw-water storage reservoir situated in the terminus of the creek. The natu
the hills along the eastern side of the ral creek flow is negligible for a por
San Francisco Bay area. Approx tion of the year, except for the dis
imately 85 per cent of the San Pablo charges from the treatment plant and
Reservoir water storage is from the some small runoff from residential ir
high Sierra-Mokelumne River water rigation. Prior to the construction of
shed above Pardee Reservoir, near the Sobrante Plant the creek waters in
Jackson, Calif. The water is conveyed dry seasons were slow flowing and
to San Pablo Reservoir via a system often stagnant. Foul odors were pro
of closed aqueducts. The remaining duced by decaying lawn trimmings,
15 per cent of storage is local runoff prunings, and miscellaneous refuse,
from the reservoir's 23-sq mi water all of which had been placed there by
shed. This watershed is mainly oak adjoining property owners. One of
woodland with residential subdivi the major environmental goals in the
sions and light commercial activities development of a proper waste-
along an inflowing tributary to the handling system was to provide a
reservoir. The water taken from the year-round flow to the creek in order
reservoir is generally of high quality, to avoid the recurrence of the envi
with turbidities normally in the range ronmentally degrading conditions just
of 2-10 Jtu. During winter periods of described. It was determined, there
high local rainfall and runoff, the tur fore, that in the operation of the So
bidity may go up to 150 Jtu. This brante reclamation facility, a constant
water is treated with liquid alum with minimum creek flow should be
conventional chlorination, coagula provided.
tion, flocculation, sedimentation, and Literature
rapid sand filtration. The water is
chlorinated and adjusted to calcium In order to provide a foundation
carbonate saturation with lime after for the sludge dewatering pilot study,
filtration and prior to storage and dis an extensive literature review was un
tribution. dertaken. The most comprehensive
reviewed related to the
Sobrante Filter Plant has a present investigation
problem of water-treatmen t-wastes
nominal-rated capacity of 40 mgd,
with an overload capacity of 60 mgd.
Provisions have been made for future A paper presented at the California Sect.
expansion to an ultimate nominal ca Meeting on Nov. 2, 1972, by Hubert L.
Nielsen (Active Member, AWWA), sr. san.
pacity of 160 mgd, with an overload engr., East Bay Munic. Utility Dist.
capacity of 240 mgd. (Utility Member, AWWA), Oakland, Calif.;
Alum sludge is collected in the sed Keith E. Cams (Active Member, AWWA),
imentation basins. Filter-backwash asst. san. engr., East Bay Munic. Utility
water and occasional calcium car Dist.; andAWWA), John N. DeBoice (Student
student, San. Engrg.
bonate sludges obtained from clean Member,
Dept., Univ of California, Berkeley, Calif.
ings of the clearwell are also pro
H.L NIELSEN ETAL. 385
 TABLE 1 agram is shown in Fig. 1.
Discharge Requirements* After May, 1974
Pilot Study
Parameter Requirement
The first step of the pilot study was
Settleable solids ml/l/hr 1 maximum
With zero flow in creek, discharge not to exceed 50 Jtu.
to determine the total quantity of sol
Turbidity Jtu
Receiving Water Incremental ids requiring disposal. The solids
Background Increase quantity was made up of suspended
< 50 5, maximum solids in the raw water and the alum
50-100 10, maximum
>100 10 per cent of background (maximum) added to flocculate and settle these
MPN Waste effluent cannot cause more than a tenfold MPN increase over solids. Filter-plant records indicated
the concentration in the creek that receives the discharge.
Dissolved oxygen mg/l 2.0 minimum in receiving creek the alum dosages that had been used
Dissolved sulflde mg/l 0.1 maximum in receiving creek for the raw-water turbidities encoun
In addition to these quantitative discharge requirements, the waste discharges shall not cause tered during the 7-yr period that the
1. Floating, suspended, or deposited macroscopic particulate matter or foam in waters of the state plant has been in operation. Determi
at any place
2. Alteration of apparent color beyond present natural background levels in waters of the state nations had not been made, nor did
at any place plant records indicate the mass of sol
3. Bottom deposits at any place
4. Aquatic growths at any place ids actually removed from the water.
5. Visible, floating, suspended, or deposited oil or other products of petroleum origin in waters It was necessary, therefore, to develop
of the state at any place.
empirical relationships between the
parameters of record (plant-flow tur
TABLE 2A bidities of raw, settled, filtered, and
Waste Processing Quantities* finished water and alum dosages) and
to estimate the solids removed by the
Design Maximum plant in the treatment process. This
(For 80-mgd
Parameter 1974 Average Flows Nominal Plant) was approached by determining mass
Flow balance mgd balances throughout the entire plant
Sedimentation basin
Sludge underflow 0.1 0.4
as well as various segments of the
Supernatant from cleaning 0.2 1.6 plant (such as the sedimentation ba
Filter washing 0.3 3.5 sins). Direct measurement of dry sol
Total 0.6 5.5
Recycled to plant 0.2 5.5 ids in filter backwashes and sedi
Discharged to creek 0.4 5.5
Solids balance Ib/day mentation basin cleanings were also
Sedimentation basin underflow made. The results of this work are
(sludge = 1 per cent dry solids) 4,500 35,600
Wash water settled underflow shown in Table 2A. The empirical re
(sludge = 0.1 per cent dry solids) 1,300 3,500 lationships developed are given in
Total sludge production: dewatered sludge Table 4. It should be noted that these
to landfill (sludge = 16 per cent dry
solids) 5,800 — 3,880 gpd 39, 100 = 26, 100 gpd relationships were determined from
Miscellaneous data: average plant rate 22 mgd in 1972; average solids production = 260 Ib field and laboratory data for a specific
dry solids per mil gal raw water; solids unit weight = 70 Ib/cu ft at 16 per cent dry solids. plant and may not be applicable to
any other plant. The ratio of suspend
ed solids to turbidity must be deter
TABLE 2B mined individually for each plant un
Dry Sludge Composition per cent der consideration.
>
From the literature survey it was
Parameter Summer Winter determined that the successful oper
Hydrated aluminum oxide ation of any mechanical-dewatering
2 [Al (OH)a 1.25(H:O)] = AljO» 5.5(H2O) 40 15
Other inorganic inerts (mostly silicates) 35 70 process requires careful and adequate
Organics (total volatile solids) 25 15
sludge conditioning. Therefore, an ex
tensive series of tests was conducted
to select an organic polymer that
would provide optimum sludge condi-
disposal was produced by the sludge dewatering and disposal. Table
AWWA Research Foundation. 1 This 3 lists the specific types of alum TABLE 3
study reported on many of the sludge processes that have been Alum Sludge Processing Methods
presently utilized methods of dewater- studied and indicates the reference
Process Reference No.
ing and disposing of all water treat sources of the process. From the liter
Gravity thickening 1, 5, 6
ment wastes, including aluminum hy ature review and because of the fact Discharge to sewers 1, 2, 3
droxide sludges produced by using that the location and size of the So- Lagoons
Sand drying beds
1, 2, 7, 8
6, 7, 9
alum as a primary coagulant. Not brante Filter Plant eliminated on-site Wedge wire nitration 10
much additional work on the general land disposal by ponding, it appeared Freezing 1, 2, 11, 12
Alum recovery 4, 13, 14, 15, 16
subject of treatment-plant-wastewater that the most effective process would Vacuum nitration , 6, 9, 15
disposal has been carried out since Pressure filtration , 10, 17
involve gravity thickening of the Centrifugation , 3, 4, 18
the AWWA report was published. sludge followed by mechanical de- Polyelectrolyte conditioning , 19, 20
Heat and pressure conditioning , 21
Some recent reviews have been pub watering and truck hauling to a Land fill , 2, 3, 6, 7
lished2-4 dealing solely with alum- landfill site. A general process di Wash water reclamation 1, 4, 7, 15

386 WATER TECHNOLOGY/QUALITY JOURNAL AWWA

tioning. Approximately twenty organ
ic polymers were tested in the labora Ch orine
and Alurn
tory using Buchner funnel and leaf
tests. It was determined that nonionic, Reservoir
f
^ L_
Sedimentation
^——— ... L ^^,
Filtration
. ,
Chlorine
and i ; mD
high-molecular-weight polymers were Raw Water i
1

more effective than anionic or cationic 1 . - .- ymy f

i
Treated
polymers as dewatering aids for this 1 R ecy :led Wash Water ———*—^ Water

sludge. A few pilot-scale tests were

then made using a basket centrifuge.
r —— ni
to System

Diversion •
f Clarifier- Thickener 1 Clarifier-Surge Tank
Four polymers were selected from Chlorine • ^ * «S — — _t——
Filter
Backwash
these tests for use in subsequent pilot I ^

work. ^/^/ . ^- 1
X NV U««««^.^<^~!J ~
Sludge conditioning methods such 1 f '* /^ 1 Polymer
Polymer N^
as heat and pressure, homogenization,
freezing, and lime treatment were in t

vestigated in the field but rejected as 1 Recycle Liquor to

I Clarifier -Thickener
ineffective or too expensive. i
Field tests confirmed that nonionic Polymer —Hbfe _^ Mechanical
Dewatering _^
polymers are the most economical de-
watering aids. Anionic polymers were
somewhat effective, and cationic poly 1 ^^^^_^^^^ Dewatered Solids
* To Landfill
Discharge to Creek Legend;
mers showed little or no effectiveness. — ^ —— Supernatant

It should be noted that each individu • Sludge

al sludge should be examined by
means of similar procedures in order
to select an appropriate polymer. No
two sludges dewater precisely alike
since they contain differing propor
tions of aluminum hydroxide, organic
matter, and silicates. It should be
noted that as the proportion of alumi
num hydroxide in the sludge is re
duced, sludge dewatering improves
markedly. This occurs when raw-
water turbidities are increased due to
high winter runoff. As the percentage
of aluminum hydroxide in the sludge
decreases, greater settling rates occur
and higher settled-sludge concentra
tions are achieved. The relationship
of changes in raw-water characteris
tics and resulting sludge characteris
tics should be investigated in the de
velopment of data for any sludge-
disposal-system design.
Mechanical Thickeners
After the selection of an appropri
ate polymer, arrangements were made
for pilot-testing the following four
types of equipment:
1. Solid bowl scroll centrifuge*
2. Pressure filterf
3. Imperforate basket centrifuge t
4. Rotary drum vacuum filter§
Scroll centrifuge. Based on the test
data, the solid bowl scroll centrifuge
was selected as the best mechanical-
dewatering device for alum sludge at
Sharpies.
tBeloit-Passavant.
tDeLaval and Sharpies.
§Ametek.
- — • — • Filter-Plant
Product Water
Fig. 1. Alum Sludge Dewatering System
TABLE 4
Empirical Relationships Between Measured Parameters and Solids Quantities
Sedimentation basin sludge:
Alum dosage in mg/1 X 2.75 = Ib solids precipitated
mil gal flow
Raw water turbidity in Jtu X 8.34 = Ib solids precipitated
mil gal flow
S = Average solids to filters = 26 Ib solids/mil gal flow (summer)
= 60 Ib solids/mil gal flow (winter)
From those relationships:
Sedimentation basin sludge = (alum X 2.75) + (turbidity X 8.34) S
Total sludge = (alum X 2.75) + (turbidity X 8.34)
Total values for any period are obtained by multiplying by the flow through the plant
this plant. The major advantage of cal end to allow solids discharge. The
this type of centrifuge is that the opposite end of the bowl has effluent
sludge can be fed over a wide range ports of varying distance from the im-
of rates by adjusting the polymer perforate bowl wall, thus allowing
dose. A nonionic polymer** was used different "pond depths" for liquid dis
for pilot testing, A dosage of 3 Ib of charge.
polymer/T (T=ton of dry sludge sol Inside the imperforate bowl is a
ids) was required at nominal centri screw conveyor that rotates at a slight
fuge solids loading rates. This poly differential speed relative to the bowl.
mer costs approximately $1.90/lb. This screw conveyor moves the thick
The dry-solids loading rate to the ened solids to the conical end of the
centrifuge may be increased by a fac bowl for discharge from the centri
tor of 3 by doubling the nominal poly fuge.
mer dosage. This flexibility of load For sludges conditioned with an
ing rates allowed the selection of organic polymer a very short sedi
smaller, more economical machines mentation time in the centrifuge (less
sized to handle the nominal loads ex than 1 min) is required for solids
pected but capable of meeting the thickening.
peak winter conditions by using high The variables that affect solids
er polymer dosages. recovery and cake concentration for
the scroll centrifuge are the centrifu
The scroll centrifuge is basically a
gal acceleration produced by the
rotating cylindrical bowl with a coni- bowl's rotational speed, the shape of
* American Cyanamid 985-N. the bowl, the pond depth, the pitch of

JUNE 1973 H. L. NIELSEN ET AL. 387

 by weight of Al (OH), (1.25 H,O). solids and solids recov
ery. A polymer
This is probably the highest percent overdose will merely produce a slight
age of hydrated aluminum oxide that ly drier cake and
possibly greater
will ever be experienced at this plant. solids recovery. Solid
s recoveries of
For percentages of A1(OH) 3 (1.25 greater than 95 per cent
are expected
/ Scroll Centrifuge Parameters
Model P600
H2O) in the range of 20-25 per cent with proper polymer
by weight, the sludge is expected to The relatively clear supe
cond itioning.
Pond Depth 1.7 in. rnata nt from
Pitch 2 in. dewater much more readily, thereby the centrifuge will be
Dia. X Length 6 in. X 14 in. recycled to the
Symbol Feed Rate-gprr G Force Cake
- % ARPM
achieving a higher dry-solids content clarifier-thickener.
o
+
2.5 1.040 11.0 12 in the centrifuge product. It was de A second sludge characteristic that
2.6 2,100 15.5 18
2.7 3.200 15.5
termined by lab test that 1.25 H2O is of interest is its dewa
18 tering proper
(Feed Solids =2.3-2.4%) molecules per molecule of A1(OH)3 ties as a function of
bowl speed. The
12345
6 remain in the sludge after drying at G-force data plotted
for the scroll il
Polyelectrolyte Dose - Ib/ton dry feed
solids 103C. This number appeared to be lustrate two important
Fig. 2. G-Force Study fairly constant over a wide range of dewatering improves points. Sludge
markedly be
alum dosages. The sludge is expected tween 1,040 G and
2,100 G, and
to dewater to 22-26 per cent dry sol sludge dewatering is bette
(Feed Solids =2.3-2.4%) ids when the raw-water turbidity is than at 3,200 G. The r at 2,100 G
plot in Fig. 2
above 35 Jtu. A polymer dose of shows that the same
cake solids were
from 3 to 4 Ib/T will be required to achieved at both G
levels; however,
achieve these higher solids concentra about 0.3 Ib/T more polymer was re
tions. quired at 3,200 G to achie
More recent tests performed at same solids recovery as was ve the
achieved
V Santa Clara County's Rinconada Wa
Scroll Cenrrifuge Parameters
Model P600
at 2,10 0 G.
Force 2,100G ter Treatment Plant22 using the same The annual operating cost (includ
Pond Depth 1.7 in.
Pitch 2-in.
scrol l centrifuge as was used at So- ing machine capital recov
Dia. X Length 6 in. X 14
in. brante Filter Plant and the same non- scroll centrifuge alter ery) for the
Symbol Feed Rate— gpm native is shown
o 1.10
Cake - % ARPM ionic polymer produced solids con in Table 5. It should be noted that if
12.8 4
+ 2.60 14.2- 15.0 4 centrations of approximately 30 per an 8 per cent inter
A
4.35 12.3- 16.2 est rate had been
18 cent dry solids with a polymer dose of used in this table
12345 , the scroll centrifuge
about 1.5 Ib/T. The raw-water tur would be sligh
Polyelectrolyte Dose - Ib/ton dry feed tly more economical
solids bidity entering the Rinconada plant than the pressure
Fig. 3. Feed-Rate Study filter ($96,790/yr
was approximately 35 Jtu. The scroll for the scroll
centrifuge vs. $97,-
centrifuge was operated at about 2,- 470/yr for the press
ure filter). This
the screw conveyor, and the differen 100 G (1 G is exerted on an object fact is of importanc
e to designers who
tial speed between the screw conveyor sitting on the surface of the earth) do not have low interest money avail
and the bowl. and solids recoveries of above 95 per able for construct
cent. ion purposes.
Test results. The scroll centrifuge Pulse-jet drying system. If truck
tests were conducted on the alum Two interesting sludge properties hauling to local bay-
were area commercial
sludge that had the highest percentage noted during the scroll centri landfills remains open as a disposal
of aluminum hydroxide ever encoun fuge studies at Sobrante Filter Plant. alternative for this
reclamation facili
First, the solids recovery curves were ty, it may prov
tered at the plant. Two extremely low e desirable to dry the
runoff years in a row produced record very steep with polymer treatment. sludge to 90 per cent dry solids and
low turbidities in San Pablo Reser Polymer doses up to 2 Ib/T had al haul the dry material to a
voir. When the raw-water turbidity most no effect on solids recovery and fill. A system* has been local land
piloted on
entering the filter plant is low, the then recoveries would jump to ap 51 types of waste including sewage
sludge is more difficult to dewater due proximately 90 per cent with the ad sludge for the Los Angeles County
to a high aluminum hydroxide con ditio n of only 1 Ib/T more polymer. Sani tation Dist. These tests indicate
centration in the sludge. Sludge con This property may be typical of other that sludge can
be dried with this sys
centrations of 16 per cent dry solids alum sludges due to the nature of the tem using approximately 1,400
were achieved at nominal loading aluminum hydroxide sludge. This Btu/lb of water removed.
rates with polymer doses of 3-4.5 effect was also apparent in the tests at The major components of the dry
Ib/T. The raw-water turbidity was the Rinconada Treatment Plant. A ing system include (1) a pulse-jet dry
approximately 4 Jtu during the scroll density meter will be installed on the er in which sonic wave energy input
tests at the filter plant in Nov. 1971. feed to the centrifuge to monitor the reduces the drying time by an order
Figures 2 and 3 illustrate the re feed solids to the centrifuge from the of magnitude over conventional spray
sponse of the centrifuge to polymer clarifier-thickener (Fig. 4). A fairly dryers; (2) a heater-blower package
dose and solids loading rate. As can constant solids concentration is that converts fuel to heat energy for
ex drying, broad-band sonic energy for
be seen from these plots, a wide range pected from the clarifier-
thickener. drying,
of operating parameters is available The tests at Sobrante and hot airflow for moving
with this unit. The data plotted on ever, that indic ate, how gases through the system; (3) a cy
sludge dewatering is quite clone
these graphs were obtained on a sensi separator for separating soils
sludge containing about 40 per cent tive to polymer dose. A polymer
underdose will markedly reduce cake
Pulsar Systems, Inc.
388 WATER TECHNOLOGY/QUALITY
JOURNAL AWWA
z
m
to
VI
to

Fig. 4. Reproduction of General Flow Diagram and -Hydraulic Profile of Sobrante Filter Plant Reclamation Facility
 TABLE 5 environmental considerations, then a
Economic Analysis of Machines and Operating Parameters drying system will be recommended
for installation at the reclamation fa
Scroll Pressure Basket Vacuum
Parameters Centrifuge Filter Centrifuge Filter cility.
SoUds loadings (dry basis)*
Selection of the scroll centrifuge.
Nominal The scroll centrifuge was chosen as
9,500 34,000 9,500 10,000
Per unit
Total 19,000 19,000 19,000 19,000 the preferred mechanical thickener
Overload (overload conditions for this application. Table 7 indicates
= 60,000 lb/day) per unit 34,000 68,000 22,000 20,000
Total 68,000 68,000 66,000 60,000 that there are several advantages to
Machine requirement the scroll centrifuge over the other
Machine size 28 gpm 64 in. X 81 chambers 120-gal bowl 416 sq ft
Assumed equipment life yr 20 30 20 25 types of machines tested.
VS 2 2
Number for nominal load
Number for overload
2
2 1 3 3
First, it has a greater flexibility of
Solids output operations. This machine will produce
Nominal a wide range of cake solids concentra
Solids by weight per cent 16 30 15 15
Gpd of wet cake 12,700 10,600 13,500 13,500 tions while handling a very high sol
Overload
Solids by weight per cent 16 20 10 10 ids loading.
Gpd of wet cake 45,400 35,300 73,700 73,700 Second, the likelihood exists that a
Polyelectrolyte dose lb/Ti
Nominal load 3.0 4.0 4.5 1.5 liquid sludge may be required from
Overload 8.0 4.0 5.0 2.0 the facility at some future date. The
Initial machine costs $
Machine cost (each) 40,000 400,000 45,000 38,000 clarifier-thickener will produce
Total for overload 80,000 400,000 135,000 104,000 sludge-solids concentrations in the
Annual cost (for 1,700 T/yr) $
Machine capital recovery at range of 3-6 per cent dry solids by
5 per cent 6,420 26,020 10,830 7,380
Operation and maintenance weight. By making an economic
nominal 4,800 4,000 1,500 3,000 comparison similar to Table 5, it can
Power nominal 3,850 1,190 3,210 10,900
Polyelectrolyte cost be determined that it will be con
Nominal (1,200 T/yr) 6,840 9,100 10,300 3,420 siderably less expensive to thicken
Overload (500 T/yr) 7,600 3,800 4,750 1,900
Disposal at $5/cu ydt 56,100 34,400 68,700 68,700 the clarifier-thickener effluent to
Labor (including benefits and 11-12 per cent dry solids for liquid
overhead) based on Vi man-
day/day 9,450 9,450 9,450 9,450 hauling than to haul the sludge di
Total annual cost 95,060 87,960 108,740 104,750
Unit cost $/T 56 52 64 62 rectly from the clarifier-thickener.
•All solids loadings units are lb/day.
The scroll centrifuge proved to be the
tT = ton of dry sludge solids. best of the mechanical thickeners
tUncompacted unit weight In truck haul assumed = 70 Ib/cu ft. tested for producing a liquid sludge.
The third advantage to the scroll
from moisture-laden gases; and (4) an ing system makes it quite attractive centrifuge alternative is its low total
air scrubber for removing fine parti for use in combination with the scroll cost and low initial capital invest
cles from the gas stream. centrifuge. A comparison of the total ment. At an interest rate of 5 per
The entire system can be housed in annual costs in Table 6 with the total cent, the scroll centrifuge is slightly
a structure 20 ft wide, 15 ft high, and annual cost for the pressure filter more expensive than the pressure
40 ft long. shows the drying method to be more filter. At an interest rate of 8 per cent,
Table 6 lists the economic review economical than the pressure-filter the two alternatives are about equal.
of the combined system of scroll cen- operation. Comparison of the unit Use of the pulse-jet drying system in
trifuging with pulse-jet drying. It cost of $52/T for the filter-press al series with the scroll centrifuge indi
should be noted that all energy costs ternative with a unit cost of $51/T cates the likelihood of reducing the
are included in this table. for the scroll centrifuge operated in costs of the scroll centrifuge scheme
The electrical costs shown are for conjunction with the pulse-jet dryer to below those of the pressure-filter
stirring of the sludge in the pulse-jet points up the fact that this is an method.
dryer, which eliminates scorching and economic alternative for sludge dis Last, the scroll centrifuge is expect
burning and reduces drying energy posal at this facility. The frequency ed to operate with very little surveil
requirements and some other small of truck hauling through the sur lance. Of the four types of mechani
energy requirements. The manufac rounding residential neighborhood cal thickeners tested, only the solid
turer states that the total Btu require would be about one half that of the bowl basket centrifuge had a lower
ment can be lowered to 1,000-1,200 pressure filter with the pulse-jet dry surveillance requirement.
Btu/lb H2O removed by recovery of ing system. Pressure filter. The pressure filter
heat lost in the stack gases. A pulse-jet pilot drying unit will be was the most economical of the four
The unit operates at temperatures tested at the reclamation facility soon mechanical thickeners piloted. Table
in the range of 180-240F and pro after it goes into operation early in 5 indicates that the pressure filter is
duces no visible plume of steam un 1974. A pilot unit is available* that slightly more economical to operate
der normal operating conditions. can dry all the sludge produced by than the scroll centrifuge.
Steam can be observed coming from the reclamation facility under nomi The literature review1 ' 10' 17 indi
the unit on foggy or rainy days when nal loading conditions. If these tests cated that the pressure-filter method
the relative humidity in the air is near are successful in terms of cost and is being successfully used in Europe.
100 percent. The Chattahoochee Water Treatment
The economy of the pulse-jet dry •Pulsar Systems, Inc. Plant in Atlanta, Ga., is the only
390 WATER TECHNOLOGY/QUALITY JOURNAL AWWA
plant in operation in the US using
pressure filters to thicken alum
sludge. This plant is using pressure
filters* and approximately 10-15 per
cent Ca(OH) 2 by weight to condition
alum sludge for pressure filtering. Ap
proximately twelve other plants across
the country are under design by this
corporation using the pressure-filter
method for thickening alum sludge.
The Chattahoochee installation is
completely automated and has been
operating successfully with pressure
filters since May 1972. The pressure
filters at this installation are remote
controlled from the filter-plant opera
tions building.
The pressure filter consists basical
ly of a number of plates or trays
mounted on a rigid steel frame.
Sludge is pumped into these plates
and subjected to high pressure. After
1-2 hr of pressure filtration through
media mounted on the plates, a dry
cake is discharged from the bottom of
the unit and conveyed to a storage
hopper for truck overhaul. A 64-in.-
diameter filterf with 81 chambers
(expandable to 100) was chosen as
the preferred unit for Sobrante Filter
Plant. Each chamber has a cake ca
pacity of 2.4 cu ft.
Pilot pressure-filter tests were con
ducted with a 24-in.-diameter filter
with four chambers. Cake thickness
averaged approximately 1 in. Each
chamber had a capacity of about 0.25
cu ft.
Table 8 lists the data obtained on
four runs with the pressure filter. The
data listed in this table show the
pressure filter to be a feasible method
of sludge dewatering; however, more
data must be obtained for the pres
sure filter over a wide range of poly
mer dosages and cycle times.
A diatomaceous earth precoat of
5-8 lb/100 ft2 of filter area is need
ed to facilitate discharge of the cake
and to prevent binding of the filter
material. The nonionic polymer de-
watered the sludge more economically
than lime.
If the level of performance listed in
Table 8 is duplicated or exceeded by
later testing, the pressure filter may
replace the scroll centrifuge in future
reclamation facility designs by the
district.
There were four basic reasons why
the pressure filter was not selected for
•Beloit-Passavant.
tBeloit-Passavant Series 6400.
JUNE 1973
mechanical thickening at Sobrante TABLE 6
Filter Plant. - Economics of Drying With Scroll
First, there is the possibility of a Centrifuging*—$ / y r
more economical drying method
Pulse-jet
being available. The pulse-jet drying Annual Costs Scroll Drying
method has proved successful in tests (for 1,700 T/yr) Centrifuge System
on other types of wastes. If these re Equipment capital
recovery at 5 per cent 6,420 12,040
sults are repeated on alum sludge, it Operation and
will be more economical to dewater maintenance 4,800 6,000
Power: natural gas
with the scroll centrifuge and the for drying 13,600
pulse-jet drying system than to use Power: electricity 3,850 1,000
Polyelectrolyte cost 14,440
pressure filtration alone. Labor 7,450 2,000
Disposal to landfill 15,250
A second reason for selecting the Total annual cost 86,850
scroll centrifuge over the pressure Unit cost J/Tt 51
filter stems from the possibility that a Miscellaneous data: scroll centrifuges (2)
liquid sludge may be required as a cost: $80,000 (20-yr life); pulse-jet drying sys
tem cost: $150,000 (20-yr life); dryer capacity:
product from the reclamation facility. 2,000 Ib water, removed per hour; natural gas
cost: $0.65/10 Btu; removal energy: 1,400 Btu/
One of the disposal alternatives open Ib water removed; 1,450 T/yr solids treated by
for Sobrante Filter Plant is to trans dryer to 90 per cent dry solids (1,400 cu yd);
250 T/yr solids trucked at 16 per cent dry solids
port liquid alum sludge from the re (1,650 cu yd); disposal cost: $5/cu yd.
clamation facility by tank truck to the tT =r ton of dry sludge solids.
district's pollution-control plant.
TABLE 7
There the liquid sludge mass would
be mixed with digested sewage sludge Ranking Chart*
and transported by barge and railcar Scroll Basket
to the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta Cen Pressure Cen Vacuum
Parameter trifuge Filter trifuge Filter
area for land disposal. The scroll cen
trifuge produces a liquid sludge with Total costf 2 1 4 3
Flexibility of
relative ease and economy, whereas operation
(wide range
the economy of the pressure filter dis of solids
appears when a liquid sludge is re concentrations] 1 2 3 4
Overload
quired. capabilities 1 2 4 3
The third reason for rejecting the Surveillance
requirement 2 3 1 4
pressure filter was a combination of Machine life 4 1 3 2
the sparcity of data collected in the Abrasive sludge
handling 4 3 2 1
field work and the late time at which Initial capital
costs 1 4 2 3
the data were obtained. At the com Production of
pletion of pilot testing with the pres uniform sludge 1 3 4 2
sure filter, design of the reclamation Lower number indicates more desirable.
facility was already initiated based on |See Table 5.
a scroll-centrifuge system. Potential
savings for the pressure-filter method eluding field pilot study at other
water-treatment plants in the US fac
were not high enough to justify
changing the basic design to accom ing restrictions on alum sludge dis
posal.
modate the pressure filter.
Fourth, the Sobrante installation Basket centrifuge. The basket cen
trifuge was initially considered for pi
will be unmanned most of the time
and as yet the long-term reliability of lot study for the following reasons:
the automation system for the pres 1. The literature review indicated
sure filter has not been fully estab that it is a reliable type of machine
lished. It is suspected that the pres that will operate with very little sur
sure filter requires more routine sur veillance. The reclamation facility
veillance than the scroll centrifuge. If will not be regularly manned and
the good experience of the Chatta therefore it is essential that the
hoochee installation is repeated in mechanical thickener operate virtually
other locations, the pressure filter will unattended.
become increasingly attractive as an 2. The effect of abrasives is mini
alternative to centrifuging. mal in the basket unit. (The abrasive
The apparent economy of the pres properties of the sludge were not
sure filter must be emphasized. For evaluated; however, there are some
many plants this method of sludge abrasives in the sludge both from set
thickening is probably the most tled filter wash water and sedimenta
economical. The pressure filter should tion basin underflow.) Provision was
be given serious consideration, in- made in the design for adding a cy-
H. L. NIELSEN ETAL. 391
 TABLE 8
Pilot Pressure Filter Operation
Run No. Date Feed Solids %
1 1/19/72 4.8(8.1)*
2 1/19/72 4.7
3 1/20/72 2.3
4 1/22/72 3.6
'After lime addition.
tT = ton of dry sludge solids.
JLime treatment [= 75% Ca(OH)s],
clone separator just prior to centrifu-
gation of abrasives are a problem.
3. Lab tests indicated that the bas
ket-unit principle was feasible for de-
watering Sobrante Filter Plant's alum
sludge.
Both the solid-bowl basket and the
perforate-bowl basket centrifuge were
tested at Sobrante Filter Plant. Per
forate-bowl basket tests were totally
unsuccessful and were soon aban
doned due to the inability to keep
sludge from pulling through the per
forated-bowl wall.
The basket centrifuge consists pri-
marily of a rotating cylindrical drum
into which sludge is fed for dewater-
ing. The basket is filled with sludge at
a low bowl speed and then the bowl
speed is raised to its normal operating
speed. Settling accelerations in the
range of 1,200-1,300 G were used in
the tests at Sobrante Filter Plant.
Under nominal loading conditions,
solids concentrations of 15 per cent
were achieved with a polymer dose of
4.5 Ib/T and a cycle time of approx
imately 20 min. Two 48-in. basket
machines with a bowl capacity of 120
gal each were required to meet nomi
nal loading conditions and three ma
chines to meet overload conditions.
The solid-bowl basket unit did not
perform satisfactorily under high-
solids loadings. A cake concentration
of only 10 per cent was possible with
polymer doses of 4.5-6.0 Ib/T. Cy
cle times were excessive to achieve a
cake solids above 12 per cent dry
solids. Cycle times were so high under
overload conditions that seven 48-in.
basket units would be required to
produce a cake with 15 per cent dry
solids. Solids recovery was above 90
per cent under both nominal and
overload conditions.
Table 5 indicates that the basket
centrifuge is slightly more expensive
than the scroll centrifuge under nomi
nal loading conditions; however,
when the overload conditions are in
cluded, the scroll is clearly the more
392 WATER TECHNOLOGY/QUALITY
Polymer
Total Cycle Treatment Dry Solids
Time mtn Ibm in Cake %
105 1,500* 40.5
120 4.0 26.5
105 4.5 28.3
320 5.5 34.4
economical of the two.
The primary reason for rejection of
the basket centrifuge for this partic
ular application was its inability to
handle high-solids loadings. Not only
is it uneconomical to truck sludge at
10 per cent dry solids (see Table 5),
but it is also desirable to minimize the
number of trucks passing through the
residential neighborhood surrounding
the reclamation facility.
Vacuum filter. Polymer treatment
met with limited success with the vac
uum-filter method. Almost constant
surveillance of polymer dose and belt
speed was necessary to achieve proper
operation of the filter and the produc
tion of a firm cake. The variables in
volved in the operation of the vacuum
filter are the type of conditioning giv
en to the sludge, solids loading to the
unit, drum rotational speed, the
vacuum used inside the drum, and the
type of filter belt used on the drum.
Leaf tests were run in the laborato
ry to determine the best type of belt
to use on the unit and the amount of
polymer needed for proper condition
ing of the sludge. Based on these tests
two belt types were tested in the field.
The first belt was a monofilament
polypropylene weave with an air per
meability of 350 cfm/sq ft at Vi-in.
water pressure. This belt passed solids
badly and was rejected after three
trial runs.
The second belt tried was a multi-
filament polyester weave with an air
permeability of 35 cfm/sq ft at
V2~m. water pressure. Twenty-eight
runs were made using this belt vary
ing the solids loading, drum speed,
and polymer dose. The vacuum was
held in the range of 15-20 in. of
mercury. Solids loadings of up to 5 Ib
dry solids/sq ft/hr were achieved,
yielding cake solids of approximately
9 per cent at these higher loading
rates using polymer dosages of ap
proximately 4 Ib/T. Cake solids of
15 per cent were achieved using poly
mer dosages of 1.5-2.5 Ib/T with
dry solids loadings of approximately
1 Ib/sq ft/hr. On all 28 runs it was
necessary to watch the process varia
bles very closely to avoid complete
failure of the filtering operation. Fre
quent filter breakthroughs were ob
served. The extreme sensitivity of the
unit to these variables led to the
rejection of the vacuum filter as an
alternative.
Tests were conducted at Rich
mond, Calif., using the porteous
heat-pressure process followed by
vacuum filtration. Heat treatment to
temperature in the range of 175-
190F produced about the same
solids loadings as did temperatures in
the range of 240-260F. It was con
cluded from this field work that pres
sure treatment at temperatures above
the boiling point of the sludge was
unnecessary. Loadings of up to 2
Ib/sq ft/hr and 16 per cent dry sol
ids were achieved with the heat treat
ment to approximately 190F; howev
er, loadings of 1 Ib/sq ft/hr were
considered more realistic for design
purposes due to filter variability.
The heat process produced a some
what more manageable sludge than
did polymer treatment. However,
heating of the sludge created an odor
problem. A further problem with the
heat process was the amber-colored
filtrate produced by the vacuum filter.
Based on the marginal performance
of the heat-treated sludge on the vac
uum filter, the Porteous process was
given no further consideration as an
alternative at Sobrante Filter Plant.
The use of a diatomaceous-earth
(DE) precoat produced the driest
cake (20 per cent dry solids); how
ever, DE-precoat costs were found to
be extremely high. Mass loadings
were quite low with this method
(0.1-0.2 Ib of dry solids/sq ft/hr).
Using the DE-precoat vacuum-filter
method proved to be much more ex
pensive than using polymer alone.
Solids mass loadings were so low that
a much larger filter area would be
needed for the precoat technique.
There were two reasons for the re
jection of the vacuum filter. First was
its extreme variability of operation. A
polymer overdose produced no cake
at all and an underdose produced a
very wet cake with correspondingly
low solids loadings. As was previously
mentioned, the fact that the recla
mation facility will be unmanned
most of the time means that the
mechanical thickener must be capable
of operation with little surveillance.
JOURNAL AWWA
Table 7 shows that the vacuum filter
required the highest surveillance of
the four mechanical thickeners tested.
The second reason for rejection of
this method was cost (see Table 5).
Effluent quality. Settling studies
were conducted using a model sedi
mentation basin of about 19 sq ft. It
was determined from these studies
that solids underflow from the full-
scale clarifier-thickener would vary
from 3 to 6 per cent dry solids by
weight. Table 9 lists an analysis for a
1 per cent solids solution. The "Basin
Waste (Composite)" values represent
the composite quality of the sedimen
tation-basin wastes that are presently
discharged to the creek.
A very low ratio of BOD to COD
was found for this sludge. It is sus
pected that this is due to pollen and
other lignins in the sludge. These ma
terials are extremely slow to degrade.
Algae present in the sludge also ex
erted a low BOD.
Table 10 lists the range of effluent
qualities expected from the clarifier-
thickener.
An environmental impact state
ment for the Sobrante reclamation
facility was prepared by an indepen
dent consultant. This statement was
approved without modification by the
county board of directors.
The effluent will be chlorinated
prior to discharge to the creek. The
effluent is expected to meet all of the
Regional Water Quality Control
Bd. creek discharge requirements
listed in Table 1. The discharge from
the clarifier-thickener is expected to
have a beneficial effect on the creek
and will prevent the stagnant condi
tions described earlier.
Polymer sludges. Two potable-
grade, high-molecular-weight cationic
polymers have been tested at So
brante Filter Plant that will coagulate
and settle the raw water more
economically than alum alone a"t tur
bidities above 20 Jtu. The use of
polyelectrolytes is expected to reduce
alum use by at least 50 per cent for
raw-water turbidities below 20 Jtu.
It is likely that organic polymers
will drastically reduce alum usage at
Sobrante Filter Plant over the next
few years. As the percentage of
aluminum hydroxide in the sludge is
lowered, the sludge dewaters more
readily, requires less- polymer, and
reaches a higher dry-solids content.
The Sobrante reclamation facility
was designed to handle polymer-
TABLE 9
Quality of Present Discharge
Alum Sludge
Parameter 1%
Total solids mg/l 10,000
Total volatile solids mg/l 3,000
Total sulfide mg/l <0.1
Total dissolved sulfide mg/l <0.1
COD mg/l 2,300
(BOD) 5 mg/l 100
MPN/100 ml 2,300
Turbidity range Jtu
Average turbidity Jtu
NFS — Nonfilterable solids.
TABLE 10
Estimated Quality of Process Waters
Clarifier/Thickener
Discharge to
Parameter Creek
Turbidity range Jtu 5-15
Settleable solids mg/l <0.1
Dissolved sulfide mg/l <0.1
DO— mg/l 5 8
BOD m«/l < 5
MPN/100 ml < 2
produced sludges with the same ease
as the aluminum hydroxide sludge.
The substitution of organic polymers
for conventional inorganic coagulants
should be considered in the final re
clamation-facility design if possible.
Alum recovery. For plants using
alum where organic polymers are not
effective as primary coagulants, an
aluminum recovery system may be of
interest. In the discussion of polymer
sludges it was stated that a combina
tion of alum and polymer is more
economical than alum alone for
treating raw water at Sobrante Filter
Plant. It is likely that this will be the
case for most water-treatment plants.
Alum recovery has been practiced
in the US13 and Japan,15 but in both
cases the aluminum-recovery process
was somewhat cumbersome and pro
duced some operating difficulties.
A study was conducted at South
Tahoelfi on the recovery and reuse of
coagulant from treated sewage. This
study concluded that "It appears that
this method (sulfuric acid recovery) is
not applicable where phosphate re
moval is desired. However, it can be
used in situations where phosphate
removal is of no concern."
Acid recovery of aluminum could
cause buildup of color or other dis
solved chemicals, but these effects
were deemed to be insignificant at
Tampa.13 The effect of dissolved color
in the recovered aluminum solution
should be evaluated for each case in
dividually as well as the effect of oth
er chemicals that might build up in
Basin Waste f Wash Water
(Composite) (Composite)
1,700 145 (NFS)*
510 50 (NFS)
< 0.1 < 0.1
< 0.1 < 0.1
400 30
20 5
400 200
250-2,000 50-100
1,000 60
Recycled Creek Quality
to Plant Summer Winter
10-15 10-15 30-750
<0.5
<0.1 <0.1 <0.1
5-10 8-10
< 5
the plant-treated water effluent due to
the aluminum recovery process.
Titration of small quantities of
sludge from Sobrante Filter Plant
with sulfuric acid has shown that the
aluminum could be economically
recovered at this plant. An advantage
of the alum recovery process is that
acidified sludge dewaters at a faster
rate since the aluminum hydroxide
floe has been dissolved. The final
volume for disposal is lower due to
the recovery of this aluminum hy
droxide portion.
Aluminum recovery was not in
cluded in the Sobrante design due to
the likelihood of substitution of or
ganic polymers for alum as the pri
mary coagulant in future years.
Control system. The reclamation
facility will be remote controlled from
the filter plant. Valve and pump se
quences will be actuated by the plant
operator via telemetry control located
on a control panel adjacent to the
exisiting electrical panel in the filter
plant's control center. The control se
quences will be designed to handle
routine filter washes and basin clean
ings from the filter plant. There will
be certain "fail-safes" in the system to
prevent accidental overflow of the
storage facilities or incorrect routing
of wastewater. A small-scale, lighted
schematic of the reclamation facility
and the filter plant will allow the
filter-plant operator to determine
readily the status of all major valves
and pumps in the system. There will
be various audible and visual alarms.

JUNE 1973 H. L. NIELSEN ET AL. 393

 Disposal alternatives. The most TABLE 11
economical solution for final disposal Project Construction Cost*—$
of the sludge is to truck a relatively
dry sludge (greater than 15 per cent Cost Amount
dry solids) to a local sanitary landfill. Construction cost (actual bid) 1,437,600
Overhead 129,000
The cost of disposal in this manner Materials purchased by district 223,000
Overhead 11,200
was found to be $5/cu yd. Of this Deferred work
total, approximately $4/cu yd is allo Labor 62,000
Materials purchased by district 139,000
cated for trucking and $l/cu yd for Overhead 14,000
disposal. The possibility of trucking Inspection (direct labor)
Engineering (design, architectural, and foundation) (includes overhead) 208,930
101,300
dry sludge to local district watershed Overhead 119,295
lands is also being investigated. Total Cost 2,445,325
Disposal of alum sludge on land The total annual costs from Table 5, excluding capital recovery on the mechanical thickeners,
was investigated in a consulting study must be added to the above costs to compute the total project cost.
for Marin Munic. Water Dist.'s
Son Tempe Plant.23 In this study the Conclusion Plant. Jour Inst. Water Engrs., 21:367
landfill properties of the sludge were (1967).
evaluated. It was concluded from this The solid-bowl scroll centrifuge 11. DOE, P. W.; BENN, D.; & BAYS, L. R.
study that the toxicity of the runoff provided the most flexible alternative Sludge Concentration by Freezing.
Water and Sew Works, 112:401
from dried sludge is negligible. Once for sludge disposal at Sobrante Filter
Plant. Figure 4 illustrates the piping (1965).
the sludge has been dried, it will not 12. FARRELL, J. B.; SMITH, J. E., JR.;
rewet or break down into colloidal for the various facilities. The design DEAN, R. B.; GROSSMAN, E., Ill; &
particles. It cracks and assumes the flows for the various waste streams GRANT, O. L. Natural Freezing for
appearance of freeze-dried coffee are also depicted on this drawing. As Dewatering of Aluminum Hydroxide
can be seen, sedimentation-basin Sludges, Jour. AWWA, 62:12:787
when placed under water. This study (Dec. 1970).
also concluded that sludge deposits sludge will be handled separately 13. ROBERTS, J. MORAN & RODDY, C. P.
can be "a particularly desirable ma from wash water. Wash water will be Recovery and Reuse of Alum Sludge
terial for use in rocky spoil areas, handled in a batch manner, with re at Tampa. Jour. AWWA, 52:7:857
excavation sites or other similar areas cycle pumps actuated by a float 14. ISAAC, (Jul. 1960).
P. C. G. & VALIDI, I. The Re
where land reclamation is desired." switch,
Land disposal in a local sanitary covery of Alum Sludge. Proc. Soc.
In the event that alum sludge dis Water Treatment and Examination,
posal is prohibited in future years at landfill of sludge at 16 per cent dry 10:91 (1961).
loeal landfill sites, it will be necessary solids or greater was more economical 15. FUJITA, HIRONARU. Tokyo's Asaka
Purification Plant. Water and Sew.
to transport sludge north to the than disposal of liquid sludge. Works, 114:73 (1967).
Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta area. References 16. GULP, G. & SLECHTA, A. Recovery
Table 5 indicates a trucking and 1. AWWA Research Foundation Re and Reuse of Coagulant from Treated
disposal cost of $33/T for disposal port. Disposal of Wastes from Water Sewage. Final Report, USPHS Grant
of a sludge at 16 per cent dry solids Treatment Plants." Jour. AWWA, 85-01 (Feb. 1966).
61:10:541 (Oct. 1969); 61:11:619 17. THOMAS, C. M. The Use of Filter
at a local landfill. Similar calculations (Nov. 1969); 61:12:681 (Dec. 1969); Presses for the Dewatering of Sludges.
indicate a disposal cost of $41/T for 62:1:63 (Jan. 1970). Jour. WPCF, 43:93 (Jan. 1971).
barging of alum sludge at 12 per cent 2. BISHOP, S. L. Methods for Treating 18. KEITH, F. W. & LITTLE, T. H. Cen
dry solids to the delta area. Wastes from Water Treatment Plants. trifuges in Water and Waste Treat
Jour. NEWWA (Mar. 1971). ment. Chem. Eng. Progress, 65:77
To accomplish disposal in the delta 3. KRASAUSKAS, J. W. Review of Sludge (Nov. 1969).
it would be necessary to produce a Disposal Practices. Jour. AWWA, 19. BUGG, H. M., ET AL. Polyelectrolyte
liquid sludge at the reclamation facili 61:5:225 (May 1969). Conditioning of Alum Sludges. Jour.
ty. As was mentioned previously, this 4. ALBRECHT, A. E. Disposal of Alum AWWA, 62:12:792 (Dec. 1970).
liquid sludge would be transported in Sludges. Jour. AWWA, 64:1:46 (Jan. 20. GAUNTLETT, R. B. An Assessment of
1972). the Role of Polyelectrolytes in the
a tank truck to the district's water 5. YOUNG, E. F. Water Treatment Plant De-Watering of Alum Clarification
pollution control plant and mixed Sludge Disposal Practices in United Sludges, with an Evaluation of Poly-
with digested sewage sludge. This Kingdom. Jour. AWWA, 60:6:717 electrolytes of Different Types. Water
mixture would then be transported by (Jun. 1968). Research Assn. Technical Paper TP.
6. O'BRIEN & GERE. Waste Alum Sludge 46 (1965).
barge or railcar to the final disposal
Characteristics & Treatment. N.Y. 21. PALIN, A. T. Treatment and Disposal
area where the sludge would be used State Dept. of Health, Research Rept. of Alum Sludge. Proc. Soc. Water
in conjunction with other solid-waste No. 15 (1966). Treatment and Examination, 3:131
material for land reclamation. 7. PROUDFIT, D. P. Selection of Disposal (1954).
Project construction cost. The proj Methods for Water Treatment Plant 22. KYTE, K. D., Dewatering Alum Sludge
Wastes. Jour. AWWA, 60:6:674 (Jun. at Santa Clara County's Rinconada
ect construction cost (see Table 11) (1968).
is about $2.45 million. Deferred work Water Treatment Plant. Technical
8. HALL, H. R. Disposal of Wash Water Dept. Rept., Pennwalt Corp., File No.
includes the installation of the poly from Purification Plants. Jour.
AWWA, 721-KBK-18 (M. 1972).
mer-feed system, the mechanical 39:12:1219 (Dec. 1947).
thickeners, and the electrical control 9. McCoLGAN, R. Water Treatment Plant 23. Kennedy Engrs. Report on Sludge
Wastes Disposal. Report to AWWA Disposal From the Bon Tempe Water
system. These were separated out of Research Foundation (Nov. 11, 1970). Treatment Plant. Consultant's study
the initial contract to allow more 10. SANKEV, K. A. The Problem of Sludge for Marin Munic. Water Dist. (Jun.
flexibility in choice of equipment. Disposal at the Arnfield Treatment 1971).

394 WATER TECHNOLOGY/QUALITY JOURNAL AWWA