2.

8 Potential
 Mechanical work
 In physics, mechanical work is the amount of
energy transferred by a force.
 Like energy, it is a scalar quantity.

 Its SI unit: joules 焦耳 (J) = Newton  meter.

F Fl

Ft F

If force is constant: W  Fl l  ( F cos )l  F  l

If force is not constant: W   F  l , W  l F  dl



1
 Electric potential
B

dl
Et
E

+q En

Fig. 2.9 Illustrating electric potential

Fig. 2.9 shows an arbitrary path between two points A and B

in an electric field E .
 If there is a point charge +q in the electric field E , the
2
 electric force on +q is: F  q E .
 If the electric force moves the charge +q from A to B, the
electric field will do mechanical work:
A
B B

A
 
WA B   F  dl   q E  dl  q  E  dl
B

A (2.29)
 The definition of electric potential difference
The electric potential difference VAB between the points A
and B is defined as: if the electric force moves a unit positive
charge from A to B, the electric filed will do the work VAB.
 V AB  A E  dl (volts) (2.30)
B

 The definition of electric potential

The electric potential at point A is defined as the electric

3
potential difference between the point A and a reference
point:
VA   E  dl
Reference point

The potential is a relative quantity; it depends on where

you choose the reference point.

Please describe the definition of the electric potential

difference VAB.

If move a unit positive charge from A to B, the electric field

will do the work VAB.
4
 Find the potential difference between two points A and B
due to a charge qi as shown in Fig. 2.10.

Fig. 2.10 Potential due to a point charge

Solution:
Consider a contour on path from A to B.
From equation (2.30), the potential difference between
points A and B due to a charge qi is
5
 B
E
dl
dri dri
90o

A
ri ri
0o

ar
qi qi

VAB   E  dl
B

Now B

VAB  
qi qi
E  Ear  a  dl
B
a
,
  
4 0 ri 2 r A 4 0 ri 2 r
rBi
A
ar  dl  ( dl ) cos90     (dl ) sin   dri
rAi
qi
6
  1 1 

q i dri qi
 V AB     
rBi

r Ai 4 0 ri 2 4 0  rAi rBi  (2.31)

If the reference point is at infinity, then the potential at A due
to charge qi is
 1 1

qi dri qi qi 1
VA    
 


rAi 4 0 ri 2
4 0  rAi   4 0 rAi
qi
VA 
4 0 rAi (2.32)
The potential at B (the reference point is at infinity) due to
charge qi is
 1 1

qi dri qi qi 1
 VB      


rBi 4 0 ri 2 4 0  rBi   4 0 rBi

7
 qi
VB 
4 0 rBi

qi  1 1
VAB      VA  VB
4 0  rAi rBi 

It explains that the potential difference between A and B

VAB  VA  VB   E  dl is independent of the actual path
B

taken.

 Findthe potential difference between two points A and B

due to a number of charges as shown in the following
Figure.

8
 B
q3
q2 qn
qi
A
q1

Summing the contribution from all the charges:

VA   VB  
n
qi n
qi
i 1 4 0 rAi , i 1 4 0 rBi (2.33)
the potential difference between A and B:
V AB  V A  VB  
qi  1 1 
  
n

i 1 4 0  rAi rBi  (2.34)

Note:
 If the electric field E points in the direction from A to B,
9
VA is higher than VB.

Because: if the electric field E points in the

direction from A to B, E and dl have the same
direction:  E  dl  0 , then
B

VAB  VA  VB   E  dl  0  VA  VB
B

10
 The electric potential for other charge distributions:

If the reference point is at infinity, we have

L

1
1. Line charge L per unit length: VA 
4 0 L r
dl

S

1
2. Surface charge s per unit area:
VA  dS
4 0 S r
V

1
3. Volume charge V per unit volume:
VA  d (Vol )
4 0 vol
r

r  distance from the elemental charge to point A.

11
 Equipotential surface
On the equipotential surface, the values of electric
potentials are the same.

Prove that the direction E is always at right angle with

equipotential surface (that is normal to equipotential surface)
Prove:

Choose any two points A and B, which are on the same

equipotential surface, calculate VAB by integrating along the
12
equipotential surface:
VAB  VA  VB   E  dl   Et dl  0
B B

A A

That means Et = 0, E only has the component E n .

Example: The equipotential surface of the point charges +Q
and –Q:

13
2.9 Potential gradient

 Because V and E describe the same electric field, they

have internal relationship.

 According to V A  V A  VReference point   E  dl ,

Reference point

from E, we can calculate V.

 From V, how to calculate E ?*

E   grad V  V
Using above equation, we can obtain the electric field E by
evaluating the gradient of the potential function V.
14
Prove:

dl E -lines
P an E

V V+ V
Equipotential surfaces
Fig. 2.11 Electric flux lines and equipotential surfaces
(Note: an is unit normal vector)
As shown in Fig. 2.11, the solid lines denote the electric flux
lines and the broken lines denote equipotential surfaces.
According to : V  (V  V )  V  the point with V EV dl  the point with V E  dl ,
the point with V the point with V  V

15
because l is a very small increment, the change in potential
between equipotential surfaces V and V + V is
V    E  dl   E  l
the point with V  V 
the point with V

V   E  l   E cosl   El l


where E  E cos is the component of

l E along l ’s
direction.
Choose the direction of step l so that coincides with E , i.e.


16
cos = 1:
V
V   El or E
l
We can see that E ’s direction (normal to the equipotential
V
surface) is that l reaches the maximum (because l is
shortest). That is:
V dV
E an   an
l max dl max
(2.35)

17
 dl E -lines
P an E

V V+dV
Equipotential surfaces
The above relationship can be written as:
dV
 an  gradV
dl max
,  E   grad V  V (2.36)

18
 Example: The electric field in two infinitely large parallel
plates

The surface charge density on plate 1 is +S and on plate 2 is

-S. Apply Gauss’s theorem,
S
E ax

Suppose the reference point of electric potential is on the
plate 2, calculate V12:
19
  S  S  S
V12   E  dl     a x   dl a x    
0
a x   dx a x  d
point 2 0

point 1 d
   d
   

2 1

V=0 V=V12

The two parallel plates form a capacitor.

The capacitance is defined as d
x

Q
C
x=0

V coulombs/volt (or F, Farad)

where Q is the electric charge on one plate; V is the potential
difference between the two plates.

The capacitance between two parallel plates:

20
 Q  S S S
C   S
V  C
S
d d d


21
 Example: Equipotential surfaces and field lines

V V
El  
l  l  
El

1. The direction of field line is the direction of electric field

E.
2. The density or closeness of E-lines gives indication on the
electric field strength.
3. Between two adjacent equipotential surfaces, the potential
22
 difference is the same.
4. E-lines are always at right angles with equipotential
surface (that is normal to equipotential surface).

More examples:

(Image method)
23
Conceptual Questions:

Base your answers to the following questions on the

equation: E = - V / l.

1. If the potential in a region of space is constant, is the

electric field necessarily zero in the region? (Yes.)

2. If the electric field is zero in a region of space, must

V be zero between points in that region? (Yes.)

3. If E is zero in a region of space, must the potential V

be zero at all points in that region, too? (No.)
24
 Metals are equipotential surfaces in electrostatic field

In electrostatic field, there are no any moving charges.

In conductors: V = constant, V = 0, E = - V / l = 0

25
Lighting electric field:

2.10 Maxwell’s second equation

 Maxwell’s second equation in integral form

Consider the loop formed between points A and B in Fig.
2.12.

26
 Fig. 2.12 Illustrating Maxwell’s second equation
We already know that the potential difference is independent
of the path taken.
Because, VAB = VA  VB , VBA = VB  VA
therefore, VAB = VBA, or VAB + VBA = 0,7
V AB   E  dl   E  dl V BA   E  dl   E  dl
B A

A 2 B 1

i.e. V AB  V BA  2E  dl  1 E  dl  l E  dl  0 (2.37)

Now we have:
27
  l
E  dl  0 (2.38)
Eqn. (2.38) is Maxwell’s second equation in integral form.
An electric field is said to be conservative.

 Maxwell’s second equation in differential form* (proof

not required)
 E  0 (2.39)

Eqn. (2.39) is Maxwell’s second equation in differential

form.

28
 The following expressions have the same meaning:
 E
l
 dl  0

  E  0

 The potential difference is independent of the path taken.

 An electric field is a conservative field.

What is the physical meaning of  E  dl

l
 0 ?

What is the physical meaning of  E  0 ?

29
2.11 Potential energy of a system of point charges
Suppose the reference point is at infinity.
 The energy needed to establish a point charge Q
 At the beginning, q = 0, v=0
 At the end, q = Q, v = V
 For simplicity, we increase the charge linearly: q = mQ,
v = mV
where m increases from 0 to 1.
 To increase the charge dq, the work needed from the
outside of the system is:
dW = v dq = mV d (mQ)
 The total work to increase the charge to Q is:

W   mVd ( mQ )  QV  mdm  QV
1 1
W  QV
. This is:
1 1

0 0 2 2 (self energy)
30
 The energy needed to establish two point charges Q1, Q2
Refer to Fig. 2.13. We wish to find the work done in
establishing charges Q1, Q2 at positions 1 and 2 (and in this
order).

Fig. 2.13 Potential energy of system of point charges

 Let Vij denote the potential at point i
due to charge at point j.
 Work done in establishing Q1
31
 1
W1  Q1V11 (self energy) (2.40)
2
 Work done in establishing Q2, in small increments
1
W2  Q2V22  Q2V21 (2.41)
2
self energy mutual energy
V21 : the potential at point 2 produced by the charge at point 1.
 Q1   Q2 

Q2V21  Q2    Q1    Q1V12
 But 
 4 0 r12   4 0 r21  (2.42)
1 1 1
Therefore W2  Q2V22  Q2V21  Q1V12 (2.43)
2 2 2
 Let WE = total work done, then:
1 1 1 1
WE  W1  W2  Q1V11  Q2V22  Q2V21  Q1V12
2 2 2 2
32
 1 1 1 1
 Q1 (V11  V12 )  Q2 (V21  V22 )  Q1V1  Q2V2
2 2 2 2 (2.44)
where V1 and V2 are the potentials at points 1 and 2.
WE  Q1V1  Q2V2 
1
or 2 (2.45)
 Extending to n charges:
WE 
1
Q1V1  Q2V2  Q3V3  ...  QnVn  J (2.46)
2

 When there is a distribution of charge V (x,y,z) which is

function of position in the volume considered, total stored
energy is given by
WE   V V d (vol )
1
2 vol (2.47)
33