28.1 Introduction In a power-generating station power is carried from the generator to the power ransfomer, to the unit auxiliary transformer (UAT) or to the unit auxiliary switchgear ay illustrated in Figure 13.21 through solid conductors (HT bus systems). This is due to large capacity of the generators (upto 1000 MW). The transmission of such large amounts of power over long distances is then through overheud lines or underground cables. Similarly, for a distribution system of 3.3, 6.6 or HL AV and even higher such as 33 oF 66 KV, feeding large commercial or industrial loads, the distribution of power on the LT side (Figure 28.1) may be through cables or solid conductors (LT bus systems). depending upon the size of the transformer, The HT side of the transformer may also be connected through cables or the HT bus system as illustrated, For moderate ratings. say. up to 600/800 A. cables are preferred, while for higher ratings, (1000 A and above) the practice is to opt for solid conductors (LT bus systems). oon the grounds of cost, appearance. safely ease of handling and maintenance. For larger ratings, more cables may become unwieldy and difficult t6 maintain and may present-problems in locating faults, The conductors used are generally of aluminium, though sometimes the use psaut | “| (Q niewo.ats wv (> transformer Bus duct 11 kY breaker for eolation and protection of wanstorer and imtereoanecting cables Figure 28.1 Application of a bus system Carrying power through metal-enclosed bus systems 28/859 of vopper may be more appropriate in highly corrosive In humid and corrosive vonditions. aluminium erodes fuster than copper. These solid or hollow conductors connect the supply side to the receiving end and se called bus ducts. They may be of the open type. such as are used to feed a very high current al very iow voltage. ‘A smelter unit is one such application, But normally they are housed in st sheet metal enclosure. See Figures, 28.214) and 28.3310). Our main concern here will be dealing with large to very large currents, rather than voltages. Currents are more difficult 10 handle than voltages due to mutual induction between the conductors and between the conductor and the enclosure, Here we briefly diseuss the lypes of metal-enclosed bus systems and their design parameters, o select the correct size and type of aluminium, or copper sections and the bus enclosure for a required current nating and voltage system. More emphasis is given to aluminium conductors rather than copper more commonly used on grounds of cost. 28.2 Types of metal-enclosed bus systems ‘A bus system ean be one of the following types. upon its application: lopendin, Non-segreyated Segregate Isolated phase Rising mains (vertical bus systems) Overhead bus (horizontal bus system: 28.2.1 A non-segregated phase bus system. In this construction all the bus phases are housed in one metallic enclosure, with adequate spacings between them and the enclosure but without any barriers between the phases (Figure 28.2(a. Application Being simple. it is the most widely used construction for alll types of LT systems, Nominal current ratings The preferred current ratings may follow series R-10) of TEC 60059 and as discussed in Section 13.4,1(4). They may increase 10 6000 A or so, depending upon the application as when required 1 connect large LT alternator or the LT side of a large transformer to its switchgear. The preferred short-time ratings may be one of those indicated in Table 1.3.7. 28.2.2 A segregated phase bus system In this construction all the phases are housed int one metallic enclosure as earlier, but with « metallic barrier between each phase. as illustrated in Figure 28.2(b). The28/860 Industrial Power Engineering and Applications Handbook Enclosure “ Busbars ‘Busba: supporting insulators Figure 28.2(a) Low ratiag LT bus duct Lh af 7 \ 7 Non-magnetic of ‘magnolc enclosure as the enclosure) Bartiors (same metal (Clamps (same metal as he enclosure) Figure 28.2(6) A segregated phase bus system metallic barriers provide the required magnetic shielding and isolate the busbars magnetically from each other, rather like an isolated phase bus system (IPB). For more details see Section 31.2. The enclosure can be of MS or aluminium and the barriers can be of the same metal as the enclosure. The purpose of providing a metallic barrier is not only to shroud the phases against short-circuits but also to reduce the effect of proximity of one phase on the other by arresting the electric field produced by the current- carrying conductors within the barrier itself. Tt now operates like an enclosure with an interleaving arrangement (Section 28.8.4) balancing the fields produced by the conductors to a great extent and also allowing only a moderate field in the space, as in an IPB system (Section 31.2). The enclosure losses with such an arrangement may fallin the range of 60-65% of conductors in case and 30-35% in aluminium enclosures for all voltage systems 3.3-11 kV and current ratings above 3000 and up to 6000 A or so. Only aluminium enclosures should be preferred to minimize losses and enclosure heating. The effect of proximity is now almost nullified as is an imbalance in the phase reactances. An unbalance in the reactance is otherwise responsible for a voltage unbalance beween the three phases as discussed in Section 28.8.2 and enhance the electrodynamic forces that may lead to a phase-o-phase fault at higher rated currents, Application They are generally used for higher ratings, 2000 A and, above, on all voltage systems. They are, however, preferred fon an HT rather than an LT system for reasons of cost, such as between a unit auxiliary transformer (UAT) and its switchgears and a station transformer and its switch- gears as in a power-generating station and shown in Figure 13.21 Note FFor such ratings, enclosure of non-mageetic material alone is recommended die #0 igh iron losses in a magnetic material Nominal current ratings ‘These will depend upon the application. The preferred ratings may follow series R-10 of IEC 60059, as described in Section 13.4.1(4). They may increase to 6000 A or so depending upon the application.28.2.3 An isolated phase bus (IPB) system ‘The design criteria and construction details of this system. are (otally different from those of a non-isolated phase bus system. This type of enclosure is therefore dealt separately in Chapter 32 28.2.4 A rising mains (vertical bus system) For power distribution in a multi-storey building This is another form of a bus system and is used in Glasswoot ire } ‘roa! barror Figia coupting straight through joint sMomMc ‘suppons Floor slab Floor ekness — ‘Thrust pad and stoppers of ubber—|| || | or similar material Flexible coupling _ ‘expansion joint x Beas (@) Front view with cover removed ‘Outgoing tap-of plugin box | (1G distribution board (08) to caler for each floor {UC plugin box || to feed the bus Incoming swt fuse MCCB box ef Carrying power through metal-enclosed bus systems 28/861 vertical formation to supply individual floors of a high- rise building (Figures 28.3 (a) and (b)). This is much neater arrangement than using cables and running innumerous lengths to each floor which may not only be unwieldy but also more cumbersome to terminate. Such a system is the normal practice to distribute power in a high-riser. It rises from the bottom of the building and runs to the top floor. To save on cost, the ratings may be in a decreasing order after every three or four floors, as after every floor the load for that floor will be reduced. To upper floors 1 mounting clamps Rising mains Bus conductor High riser wall on which the bus system runs Ccabte box —_| 1 Incoming abi STKE or Figure 28.3 Side view () Rising on wat! Rising mains mounting arrangement28/862 Industrial Power Engineering and Applications Handbook DB with MCCB Typical OB wilh HCC fuses Figure 28.3(c) The rating can be grouped for three or four floors together, depending upon the total load and the number of floors, ‘A smaller rating of, say, 200-400 A need not be further stepped for it may not be of any economic benefit. Special features of a rising mains 1 They are manufactured in small standard lengths, say, 1,8-2.5 m, and are then joined together at site to fit into the layout 2. Wherever the rising mains crosses through a floor of the building, fireproof barriers are provided as shown in Figure 28.3(b) to contain the spread of fire to other floors 3 On each floor an opening is provided in the rising mains to receive a plug-in box (Figure 28.3(b)) to off the outgoing connections and to meet the load requirement of that floor. The plug-in box can normally be plugged in or withdrawn from the live bus without requiring a shutdown. 4. To take up the vertical dynamic load of busbars and to prevent them from sliding down, two sets of thrust pads are generally provided on the busbars in each standard length of the rising mains, as illustrated in Figure 28.3(a), 5. Flexible expansion joints of aluminium or copper are essential after every three or four standard lengths (say, alter every 7.5-10 m) to absorb the expansion of busbars on load, 28.2. Unlike a high riser, now the overhead bus system runs. horizontally, below the ceiling at a convenient height, as shown in Figure 28.4(c) to distribute power to light and small load points. A large tool room or a machine shop are installations that would otherwise require a distribution system, for short distances, to meet the needs of various, load points and make power distribution unwieldy and cumbersome. Moreover, it would also mean running many cables under the floor to feed each load point, In an ‘overhead busbar system, the power can be tapped from any number of points to supply the load points just below it through a plug-in box similar to that used on a rising mains. The floor can now be left free from cables and trenches. An overhead bus (ho1 -ontal bus system) 28.3 Design parameters and service conditions for a metal-enclosed bus system 28.3.1 Design parameters A bus system would be des parameters, ned 10 fulfil the following Rating A bus system, like a switchgear assembly, would be assigned the following ratings: cd voltage: the same as that assigned to the associated switehgear (Section 13.4.1(1)) * Rated frequency: the same as that assigned to the associated switchgear (Section 13.4.1(2)) * Rated insulation level (i) Power frequency voltage withstand 323.2 (ii) Impulse voltage withstand — for bus systems of 2.4 KV and above see Section 32.3.3 * Continuous maximum rating (CMR) and permissible temperature rise: this is the maximum rm.s, current that the bus system can carry continuously without exceeding temperature rise limits, as shown in Table 32.3. The preterred current ratings of the bus system would follow series R-10 of IEC 60059, as shown in Section 13.4.1(4) # Rated short-time current rating: this is the same as for the system to which it is connected, and as assigned to the associated switchgear (Section 13.4.1(5)). The effects of a short-circuit on an electrical system are discussed below. * Rated momentary peak value of the fault current: the same as assigned to the associated switchgear as in Tables 13.11 or 28.1, See also Section 13.4.1(7). © Duration of fault: the same as assigned to the associated switchgear (Section 13.4.1(6). see SectionCCantying power through metal-enciosed bus systems 28/663 Plugged in postion Installation of overhead bus system with tap-off boxes in a large assembly \Witnaraw postion Figure 28.4(a) Plug-in tap-olf box Figure 28.4(¢) Figure 28.4(b) An overnead bus system shown with tap off boxes (Courtesy: GE Power)28/864 Industial Power Engineering and Applications Handbook ‘Table 28.1 Momentary peak (maximum rm.s.) current ratings, asymmetical, or switchgear and metal-enciosed bus systems, C: Nominal voltage Rated currens (1) AV.) a kar 06 1600 18 06 3000 100 06 44000 to 6000 130 416-138 1200 10 3000 191078 144 1200 to 20 000 - 1200 te 20.000 38 DMS (i) These values are based for a system, pertaining to series Il and a frequency of 60 Ha. (0 For systems pertaining o Series 1 and a frequency of $0 Hz, values furnished in Section 13.4.1 Non-segregared phase system Segregated phase system ka ha’ Isolated phase system 6010 190 ‘To match with the rating of the connected 600 190 ), would apply The peak value is a function of fault level Section 13.4.1(7), Table 13.1]. Which in tura, is «function of size and impedance ofthe Feeding soutee, such as transformer of a generator, Section 134. 1(5), Table 13.7. The values prescried in the above table are thus based on these parameters 28.4 Short-circuit effects (To determine the minimum size of current-carrying, conductors and decide on the mounting arrangement) A short-circuit results in an excessive current due to low impedance of the faulty circuit between the source of supply and the fault. This excessive current causes excessive heat (ee [2 -R) in the current-carrying con- ductors and generates electromagnetic effects (clecttic field) and electrodynamic forces of attraction and repulsion between the conductors and their mounting structure These forces are distributed uniformly over the length of conductors and cause shearing forces due to the cantilever effect as well as compressive and tensile stresses on the mounting structure. The effect of a short-circuit therefore requires these two very vital factors (thermal effects and electrodynamic forces) to be taken into account while designing the size of the current-carrying conductors and their mounting structure, The latter will include mechanical supports, type of insulators and type of hardware, besides, the tongitudinal distance between the supports and the gap between phase-to-phase conductors. The electrodynamie forces may exist for only three or four eycles (Section 13.4.1(7)), but the mechanical system, must be designed for these forces. On the other hand, th main current-carrying system is designed for the symmetrical fault current, fe (Table 13.7) for one or three seconds aecording to the system design, For more details refer to Section 13.5, The fault level, which is a function of the size of the feeding transformer, is generally considered (o last for ‘only one second, as discussed in Section 13.4.1(5). unless the system requirements are more stringent. This duration, ‘of one second on fault may cause such a temperature rise (not the electrodynamic forces), that unless adequate care is taken in selecting the size of the current-carrying conductors, they may melt or soften to a vulnerable ievel before the fault is interrupted by the protective devices. Nore ‘When the citeuit is protected through HIRC fuses or built-in short ent limiting interrupting devive the cut-off time may be extremely low, of the order of less than one quart of ‘cycle, Le, < 0,008 second (fora 50 Hz system) (Section 13.5.1) ‘depending upon the size und the characteristics of the fuses oF the interrupting device and the intensity of the fault current. Any level of fault for such a system would be of litle consequence, 3s the interrupting device would isolate the circuit long before the fault ‘current reaches its first peak. This is hea the Fault is downstream ‘of the protective device. Refer to Example 28.1 below, Example 28.1 Since the heating offect = 12. -t therefore heating effect of a 50 kA fault current for 0.005 second « 50° x 0.005, compared to the heating effect of an equivalent fauit current i. for 1 second, ie. « 2-1 or i = 50? x 0.005 50 x 0.005 oF 3.5 kA only Thus to design a system protected through HRC fuses oo a cutrent limiting device for a higher fault level than nevessary will only lead to overprotection and the extra cost ofthe current-carrying system, switching equipment and power cables, An individual device or component and its connecting links in such cases may therefore be designed for a size commensurate to its Current rating See also Section 13.5.1 Below we discuss the thermal effects and the electto- dynamic forces which may develop during a fault to decide on the correct size ofthe conductor and its suppor- ting system. 28.4.1 Thermal effects With normal imeerrupting devices the fault current would last for only a few cycles (maximum up to one or three seconds, depending upon the system design), This time is t00 short (0 allow heat dissipation from the conductor through radiation or convection. The total heat generated on a Fault will thus be absorbed by the conductor itself,The size of the conductor therefore should be sueh that ts temperature rise during « fault will maintain its end temperature below the level where the metal of the conductor will start o sofien. Aluminium, the most widely ised metal for power cables, overhead transmission and aistribution lines or the LT and HTT switchgear assembly and bus duct applications. starts softening at a temperature of around 180-200°C. As a rule of thumb, on a fault a safe temperature rise of 100°C above the allowable end temperature of 85°C or 90°C of the conductor during, nonmal service. ie, up to 185-190°C during a fault condition, is considered safe and taken as the basis to determine the size oF the conductor, The welded* portion, such civ at the flexible joints, should also be safe up to this temperature, Tin or lead solder starts softening. at around this temperature and should not be used for this, purpose. IL is advisable to use brass soldering where high-injection pressing is not possible. Welding of edges. is essential to seal off flexible ends, To determine the minimum size of conductor for required fault level, /., to account tor the thermal effects only one ean use the following formula to determine the minimum size of conductor for any fault level: ak (ta) 5 =i (Ge) ner kD) where @, = temperature rise «in °C) J = symmetrical fault current rms, Gin Amps) = cross-sectional se of the conductor (in mm?) femperture covtficient of resistance at 20°CP°C, which ay in Table 30,1 is 0.00403 for pure aluminium and 0.00363 for aluminium alloys and 0,00393 for pure copper = operating temperature of the conductor at whieh the fault occurs (in SC) 1.166 for aluminium and 0.52 for copper duration of fault (in seconds) Kk ' Example 28.2 Determine the minimum conductor size for a fault lev 50 KA for one second for an aluminium conductor. ‘Assuming the temperature rise to be 100°C and the initia! temperature of the conductor at the instant of the fault 85°C then of 1.166 (50.000 )” son = 1266 (9202). ogozo 05) «1 4.166 , (50.000 )* or 100 Hise (S2080) sass or A= 99000, 7565 3S 6256 mm? for pur lui oe 5178 mm for alloy alo tessumng vz = 000960 ling Helen ol pee bs sa wih use at welding rook Carrying power through metalenciosed bus systems 28/865 ‘The standard size of aluminium flat nearest to this is 50.8 mm x 12.7 mm or (2° » "%y") or any other equivalent flat size (Tables 30.4 or 30.5). This formula is also drawn in the form of curves as shown in Figure 28.5, 1/4 v1.(/, in kA) versus final temperature, From these curves the minimum conductor size can be easily found for any fault level, for both aluminium and copper conductors and Forany «lesired end temperature. As in the above case 1.166 hey 2 1166 (Fe) cr aanss woo = Hee (EY as or bs Ge 1 A= \TT66R MISS x10 = 0.0799 UL. is in KAY Generalizing. X x17 = 0,079 for an operating temperature at 85°C and temperature at 185°C a (28.2) Therefore, for the same parameters as in Example 28.2 so 70799 A small difference. ifany, between this and that calculated above may be due to approximation and interpolation only This minimum conductor size will take account of the heating effects only during the fault. irrespective of the current rating of the conductor, The required conductor size may be more than this, depending upon the continuous current it has to carry, as discussed later x VE= 625.8 mm? Example 28.3 If the conductor 1s of copper then, assuming the same parameters, oe, (50000) 5,9 gos «08» tea = 22 ($0000) 4 008008) o A = 416 mm? Copper is one two thirds the size of aluminium for the same parameters and the melting point of eopper at almost 1083°C (Table 30.1) is approximately 1.5 times that of aluminium at 660°C. These melting points are also located on the nomograms in Figure 28.6. Refer to nomograms (a) and (b) for aluminium and (¢) for copper conductors The same area can also be obtained from the copper curves of Figure 28.5. Assuming the same end temperature at 185°C. then corresponding to the ope 85°C. wing curve of vi = 0.12 (28.3) A and for the same parameters ay in Exaniple 28.3,28/866 Industrial Power Engineering and Applications Handbook ge ee 88 esc Ital temperature —m 700 4c 2c ‘Copper ‘hg = Symmetrical ims value of fault current in ka, i — Cross sectional area of conductor iq rm 1 = Duration 0 aul seconds 2015 o2i7 ozs Figure 28.5 Determining the minimum size of conductor for a required fault level °83 88 feo g8 e822 hee ff ei oe 50 Ovi = 0.12 or A= 416.7 mm? Almost the same size is also determined through the use of nomograms drawn on subsidiary nomogram (c) and the main nomogram (4) Note In-case of copper also, the end temperature is considered at 185°C only. Although this metal can sustain much higher temperature than ths. without any adverse change i is mechanical properties, merely as a consideration to Table 32.3, and 10 safeguard other components, insulations and welded parts etc, used in the same Nomograms Figure 28.6(a)~(d) have also been drawn basext on equation (28.1). From these nomograms the minimum conductor size can be extrapolated that would be necessary to sustain a given fault level. The results of these nomograms are also the same as those approxi om the earlier two methods except for the ation and the interpolation. Example 28.4 Assume the same parameters as in Example 28.2. Procedure * Locate the initial temperature (85°C) and the final temperature (185°C) on the subsidiary nomogram (b). Draw a straight line between these points to oblain the heating function H. Transfer the value of the heating function H to the H scale cn the main nomogram (4) Locate time ¢ as one second on the T scale. » Locate the current to be carried, I, aS 50.000 A on the ke scale. Draw a straight line through the points on the T and oe scales to intersect the turning axis X. Draw a staight line through the points on the H scale and ‘on the turning axis X. The point where the line intersects Con the A scale will determine the conductor area required, Jn our case itis 1 squre inch or 645 mm.Carrying power through metal-enclosed bus systems 28/867 ‘nial temperature (°C)——= 20 oso ' 4; - Metng grt : [00 ‘ih i C tat dt Mtg pot 80 ® L toe e001! oy VE | [SL ag 48 $ moe i i p 400 i 3 q 4 : wo = 4% Jaw jt) Eb 20 4 4 4 50 100—4 5 - 20: ot Lao 8 sil Heating function unit of 10 amg? sec. cnx?’ —> ting point ~ (lique) a Goa 500) § 400 ged 01 3 - 100 —| map EM ch a a5 100 | 2» ° (a) Subsidiary nomogram for electrolytic grade aluminium INDAL ism "INDAL-0 508 WP “000 soo — 200 1 L won t Meng point — r ‘iui 700—| L oting point 1083 — 150 (sale) 1000 i. 300 200 gr 700 gC 00 | : soo 8 § oo a 200 }% 300-4 s 4é 4 a FS} _200— 150 yo L 100 2 20 (6) Subsidiary nomogram for 100% (ACS copper Figure 28.6 Use of nomograms (0) Subsidiary nomogram for electrobtic grade aluminium eating function unt of 10 amg? sec. cm =werbowou ueyy (p)9°e2 N61 es 1 ail oe OL “me cot —=-= 00008 aoa os > bo00e ° soo 0000001 Soot 00'000's 0001 o .00'0001 888 S00 s 000 000'005 . oe. noe vo oF 001 000) fgg ee 6] @esuow Foo oF oe oes, Sango" — “OB 08 ‘oor St so { 9080 Oe fF a F008 ~ a Os: or coro. g : so 3 g oot 9 3 3) ; os 8 Lowe? a 3 3 B soot og & 2 ow : coo 3 2 w 8 g a S g & t z 3 Wor. g or L- 00! S00 2 8 05 1000 00) on28.4.2 Electrodynamic effects The short-circuit current is generally unsymmetrical and contains a d.c. component, Z4., as discussed in Section 13.4.1(7). The d.c. component, although it lasts for only three or four cycles, creates & sub-transient condition and causes excessive electrodynamic forces between the current-carrying conductors. The mounting structure, busbar supports and the fasteners are subjected to these Forces. This force is greatest a he instant of fault initiation and is represented by the first major loop of the fault current, as noted in Table 13.11. Although this force is only momentary, it may cause permanent damage to these components and must be considered when designing the current-carrying system and its mounting structure. The maximum force in flat busbars may be expressed by 16-22 104 N/m (28.4) imated maximum dynamic force that may develop in a single- of a three-phase system on a fault. This will vary with the number of current-carrying conductors and their configuration but for ease of applica- tion and for brevity only the maximum force that will develop in any configuration is considered in the above equation. It will make only a marginal difference to the calculations, but it will be on the safe side. For more details refer to the further reading at the end of the chapter. -m. value of the symmetrical fault current in amperes hee Factor of asymmetry = sin Table 13.1, representing the momen- tary peak value of the fault current. This, factor is considered in the numerical factor 16 used in the above equation, pace factor, which is I for circular con- ductors. For rectangular conductors it can be found from the space factor graph (Figure 28.7) corresponding to where ab 5 centre spacing between two phases in mm (Figure 28.8) pace occupied by the conductors of one phase in mm, and +b = width of the conductors in mm. a For application of the above equation, refer to Example 28.12. 28.5 Service conditions ‘The performance of a bus system can be affected by the following service conditions: 1 Ambient temperature Carrying power through metal-enclosed bus systems 28/869, 2 Altitude 3. Atmospheric conditions and 4 Excessive vibrations and seismic effects 28.5.1 Ambient temperature The ratings as provided in Tables 30.2, 30.4 and 30.5 and others refer to an ambient temperature, with a peak of 40°C and an average of 35°C over a period of 24 hours. The end temperature for aluminium is considered safe at 85-90°C, at which the metal does not deteriorate (oxidize) or change its properties (mechanical strength) over a long period of operation. Figure 28.9 shows the effect of higher operating temperatures on the mechanical strength of aluminium metal. The oxidation and mechanical strength are two vital factors that need be bome in mind when selecting busbar size to ensure its adequacy during long hours of continuous operation. Table 28.2 lists the permissible operating temperatures of the various parts of a bus system. For higher ambient temperatures, current capacity should be suitably reduced to maintain the same end temperature during continuous operation. Refer to Tables, 28.3(a) and (b), recommending the derating factors for a higher ambient temperature or a lower temperature for the same end temperature of 85° or 90°C respectively. For intermediate ambient temperatures, see Figure 28.10. Table 28.2 Operating temperature of a bus system Maximum operating temperature ‘Maximum (het spor) temperature Fim as in IEEE-C-37-20° + Bus conductor with plain connection joints 70°C. + Bus conductor with silver plated or ‘welded contact surfaces los tosure Accessible part 80°C + Non-accessible part Hoc ‘+ Termination at cables with plain connections 70°C ‘© Termination at cables with asc silver-surfaced or equivalent connections “Or as specified by the user. Nowe For temperatures above 100°C it ix recommended 10 use epoxy insulators/supports, which can continuously operate up to 125°C. SMCIFRP (fibreglass reinforced plastic) insulatordsupports may ot withstand 105°C. Operating temperatures of bus conductors ‘Aluminium and copper conductors start oxidizing at about 90°C. The oxides of aluminit:m (Al,O) and copper (CuO) are poor conductors of electricity. They may adversely affect bus conductors, particularly at joints, and reduce their current-carrying capacity over time, and lead to their overheating, even to an eventual failure, Universal practice therefore js to restrict the operating temperature128/870 Industrial Power Engineering and Applications Handbook 14 ‘Space factor k= are Figure 28.7 Space factor for rectangular conducto 9s (Courtesy: The Copper Development Association) ‘Table 28.3. Derating factors on account of higher ambient temperature or restricted temperature rise (8) Operating temperature 4S°C Permissible bar Dorating factor temperature rise °C | Ambient temperature °C 30 35 1.05 35 50 10 40 45 094s 45 40 088 30 35 osis 55 30 025 Notes [These data are drawn in the shape of s graph in Figure 28.10. (b) Operating temperature 90°C Ambient Derating factor temperature °C Permissible bar temperature rise °C 8 35 40 50 45 45 50 40 35 35 oo 3% ‘Aoterendiate values can be obtained by2 2 S> 2a or 2b whichever is more, Figure 28.8 Placement of busbars to mininize the effect of proximity 30 ft» Bt 175°C 2B i of 7 4 100 Heating period (secontis) —» 10000 Figure 28.9 Curves showing the tensile strength of Indal DSOSWP at higher temperatures Qu 6s 4 4 50 65 Qs © 4% % 8 6 ‘Ambien temperature (C) —»- @ For maximum operating temperature 85°C @ For maximum operating temperature 90°C Figure 28.10 Derating factors for diferent ambient and ‘maximum operating temperatures. Carrying power through metal-enclosed bus systems 26/871 of the bus conductors to 85-90°C for all ratings, at least in the medium range, say, up to 3200 A. Silver oxide (Agx0) is a good conductor of electricity and can also be used for welding joints. It can seal the inside sarfaces from the atmosphere and can also prevent the contact surfaces from oxidation. Ifthe joints are silver plated or welded, the bus system can be made suitable to, operate at higher temperatures. In aluminium conductors, for instance, they can be operated up to an optimum temperature of 125°C, until aluminium begins to lose its mechanical strength (Figure 28.9). Similarly, copper conductors can operate at still higher temperatures. The entire bus system can now be operated at much higher temperatures than given in Table 28.2. However, operation at such high temperatures may impose many other constraints, such as high temperature in the vicinity which may endanger the operating personnel. It may even become a source of fire hazard Such a high temperature may also damage components mounted inside the enclosure, which may not be able to sustain such high temperatures. It may also cause limitations on gaskets and other hardware of the bus system to operate at such high temperatures continuously Accordingly, (he maximum operating temperature of a bus system aluminium or copper with silver-plated or welded joints is also permitted up to 105°C only. The enclosure temperature is still restricted to 80°C, oF up to 110°C at locations that are safe and inaccessible to a human body (Table 28,2) 28.5.2 Altitude The standard altitude for a metal enclosed bus system will remain the same as for a switchgear assembly (Section 13.4.2). Higher altitudes would require similar deratings in dielectric strength and the current ratings as for a switchgear assembly (Table 13.12), wouki apply. To achieve the same level of dielectric strength, the insulation of the bus system may be improved by increasing the clearances and ereepage distances to ground and between phases, as noted in Tables 28.4 and 28.5. To achieve the same value of continsous current, the size of the current carrying conductors may be increased sufficient to take care of the derating Note I1'is also possible to derive almost the same value of derating by reducing the allowable temperature increase by 19% for every 300 m rise in altitude above the prescribed level Clearances and creepage distances ‘The clearances and ereepage distances for open and enclosed indoor-type air-insulated busbars, as suggested by BS 159, are given in Tables 28.4 and 28.5 respectively. These values are considered for an altitude of up to 2000 m for LT and 1000 m for HT systenis. For higher altitudes to achieve the same level of dielectric strength, the values of clearances and creepage distances, as given in Tables 28.4 and 28.5, may be increased by at least 1% for every 100 m rise in28/872 Industrial Power Engineering and Applications Handbook Table 28.4 Clearances for encased, indoor air insulated busbars Minimum clearance between phases in aie Rated voltage Minimum clearance ti ground in ais WV (rms) mam mn Up 0415 19 06 19 33 31 66 co mT 7 is 6s 2 24 u 356 Table 28.5 Creepage distances for enclosed indoor air Insulated busbars as in BS 159, Rat d voltage Mininum ereepage distance 10 ground Mininum ercepage distance berween phases AVerms) in iron inair woals 19 be as 33 si $6 2 Minimum 50% mote 3 152 2 203 8 305 Noses 1U The above figures are only indicative, and may be considered as 1 minimum for a bus system that is dry and free from dust or any containination, which may influence and reduce the effective croepage aver time. These creepages may be increased for damp sity oF contaminated locations. 2. For clarification and more details refer to BS 159 Common to both tables | The above clearances and creepage distances are for altitudes of up to 2000 m for LT and 1000 m for HT systems 2 Forhigher altitudes than ths, these distances should be inereaved by at Teast 1%, for every 100 m rise in atiude 3. Voltages higher than above, are not applicable in case of bus 28.8.3 Atmospheric conditions ‘The same conditions would apply as for a switchgear assembly (Section 13.4.2). Unlike a controlgear or a switchgear assembly, a bus system may be required to be partly located outdoors. This is true for most installations, as the switchyard is normally located outdoors as is the feeding transformer. while, the switchgears are located indoors, to which the bus system is connected In such conditions, itis important that adequate care is taken to construct the bus enclosure to weather the ovidoor conditions such as by providing a canopy on the top and special paint treatment on the outdoor part. It is also recommended to seal off the indoor from the outdoor part to prevent the effect of rainwater, dust and temperature and other weather conditions on the indoor part. This can be achieved by providing seal-off bushings, one on cach phase and neutral, wherever the bus enclosure passes, through a wail. The bushings may be of SMC/DMC/ ERP or porcelain for LT and epoxy compound for HT. systems. They may be fitted at the crossovers so that the indoor bus is scaled off from the outdoor one. The bus conductors will pass through the bushings. The HT bus conductors may be moulded with the epoxy bushings, as, iNlustrated in Figure 28.1 1(b), similar to bar primary CTs (Figure 15.14) to make the joint airtight. In LT a simpler ‘method is found by providing glass woo! in the part that passes through the wall as illustrated in Figure 28.11(a). 28.5.4 Excessive rations and seismic effects These will require a more robust enclosure, similar to a switchgear assembly, For details refer to Section 13.4.2, 28.6 Other design considerations * Size of enclosure * Voltage drop © Skin and proximity effects 28.6.1 Size of enclosure The enclosure of the bus system provides the cooling surface for heat dissipation. Its size has an important bearing on tie temperature rise of conductors and, consequeniiy their current-carrying capacity. The enclo- sure effect and the ventilating conditions of the surroun- dings in which the enclosure is installed should thus be considered when designing a bus system. The ratio of the area of the current-carrying conductors to the area of the enclosure will provide the basis to determine the heat dissipation effect, Table 28.6 suggests the approximate dissipation factors that can be considered as likely deratings for a bus system under different conditions See also Example 28.12 28.6.2 Voltage drop The voltage drop across a bus system should be as low as possible and generally within 1-29 of the rated voltage. This criterion will generally be applicable to a high- current LT system. On HT and low LT current-carrying systems, this drop may be quite low. The length of a bus, system, itt most of applications, may not be long enough to cause a voltage drop, IZ. t0 be taken into consideration. Ii may be the connection from the incoming transformer to the main receiving switchgear or the busbars of the main switchgear assembly itself. Applications requiring extra-long current-carrying conductors, however, may have large impedance and may cause high voltage drops, of the order of 35% und even more. When so, they may affect the stability of the system as well as the performance of the connected load. This is illustrated in Example 28.9. To ascertain the voltage drop in such cases it is, essential to determine the actual values of the conductor's, own resistance, reactance and the impedance under actus! operating conditions. It may be noted that reactance is,Carrying power through metal-enciosed bus systems 28/873 [TT —_ wat Phase segregation (ts case of sogragates ‘bus system) ‘Section Xx Outdoor x ____ Seah-OFF busting Epoxy) _ sea.ort vusnng [77 season rooting pte : crane e ZZ] . — | (a) For LT systems Figure 28.11 the main cause of a high voltage drop. Skin and proximity effects play a vital role in affecting the resistance and reactance of such systems, We discuss these aspects briefly below. 28.6.3 Skin and proxi carrying conductor effects on a current- In ade. system the current distribution through the cross section of a current-carrying conductor is uniform as it consists of only the resistance. th an ac. system the inductive effect caused by the ind cic field causes skin and proximity ellects. These elfects play a complex role in determining the current distribution through the cross-section of a conductor, In an ac. system, the inductance of a conductor varies with the depth of the ‘conductor due to the skin effect. This inductance is further affected by the presence of another current-carrying conductor in the vicinity (the proximity effect). Thus, the impedance and the current distribution (density) through the cross-section of the conductor vary. Both these factors on an ac. system tend to increase theetiective = LS Wall frame assembly with Seal-OFF bushing (0) For HT systems Busbar Insulator Slicagel eather (pea x Elevation Wall frame assembly with seal-OFF bushing stance and the impedance ofthe conductor, and cause higher J: Rx loss, ania higher voltage drop f,.»Z. and reduce’ its current-carrying capacity. An a.c. system is thus more complex than a .c. system and requires tar more care when designing it for a particular requirement While these phenomena may be of little relevance for a Jow-current system. they assume significance at higher currents and form an essential parameter 10 design a high current-carrying system say. 1600 A and above. ‘These phenomena are discussed briefly below. 28.7 Skin effect ‘A current-carrying conductor produces an field around it which induces a back emf. and causes an inductive effect, This e.m.f. is produced in the conductor by its own electric field cutting the conductor. itis more dense at the centre and becomes less at the surface, The conductor thus has a higher inductance at the centre than al the surface. and causes an uneven distribution of eurrent31.1 An isolated phase bus (IPB) system In this construction the conductors of each phase are housed in a separate non-magnetic metallic enclosure to ixolate them completely from each other with the following advantaj | teliminates phase-to-phase faults, 2 {eliminates the proximity effect (extra forces and heating) by providing » magnetic shielding to the Supporting and metallic structures in the vicinity 3 It reduces the proximity effects between the main current-carrying conductors of the adjacent phases to almost zero due to magnetic shielding, on the one hand. and large centre spacing. on the other. 4 I¢provides complete protection for operating personnel trom high touch or step voltages (for details on contact voltages, see Section 22.9) across the enclosure and the metallic structures caused by parasitic (electro: magnetic) currents. 5. The bus system is are easy to handle. bend and install This is used for HT systems of very lange ratings. Since itis a more expensive arrangement it is normally prelerred only for critical installations such as a power generating station, where it has to carry large t0 very large currents due to high ratings of the gen Ina thermal power plant itis used between the unit (G) and the generator transformer (GT) and the nit auxiliary transformers (UATS) as well as sometimes between the UAT and the unit HT switchgear as illustrated in Figure 13.21 (redrawn in Figure 31.1 for more clarity). A typical layout of such a bus system in a thermal power citing units. nerating “Te smten yaro on & | he ve oe J outdoor === von Unit auxiiary | wanslormer-1 war) (Power nouse wat +, speech, (Power nouse area ‘chamber Hot breaker indoor E HT br ? instalation ssi CO Generator j 56K Figure 91.1 \seaigat If {An isolated phase bus system 31/929, plant is illustrated in Figure 31.2¢a) and «by. It may comprise the following sections 3d Main run and auxiliary feed lines | From generator phase terminals 10 the lower voltag side of the GT. This section may partly be indoors, connecting the generator inside the turbine room and partly outdoors. connecting the GT in the transformer yard. 2A generator neutral bus to form the genertor star point 3 Tap-olfs with tee joints from the main run to the two UATs. 4 Sometimes from UAT secondaries t the unit HT switchgears. 5 Ifthe GT is made of three. single-phase transformers, aan interconnecting IPB will be required to form the delta as illustrated in Figure 31.2(b) 31.1.2 Instrumentation and protection connections ince an IPB forms un important integral part of « power: generating station, with it are aysociated a number of metering and protective devices such as CTs. VTs and generator grounding system, Below we identifiy inter- Connections that may be required to conneet these CTs and VTs while installing an IPB system, I Removable links for easy mounting and maintenance of CTs for metering and protection. ypically as Follows. For each phase in the main lines between the generator and the GT, © 1 CT for metering ~ (Sh three phase two wind Tap-off (2 ing wanstormer (UAT) | & commecion Th vat uta tae phase wo wind 5 inking (© Tratansiomer wih ON >) UAT 2) toad tap changer (GT) | Unit bus duct (© — cui Bus duct passing | so _ (2 HT breaker Nos kV VIB 6 kV 1 Application of an IPB