Bulletin 1724E-300

Page 699

CHAPTER 17
COMMUNICATIONS

17.1 INTRODUCTION

Since substations are part of large interconnected power systems, methods of voice and data transmission
among the various system parts are necessary to maintain satisfactory operation and control.
Communication systems are used in protective relaying schemes to initiate tripping control schemes of
power circuit breakers; in supervisory control systems to operate remote equipment, for transmission of
data indicating equipment status and system conditions, and for voice communications for system
operation and maintenance.

Table 17-1 matches the various substation communication applications with their appropriate
communication methods.

Table 17-1:
Substation Communication Methods vs. Applications
METHODS
Power Line Carrier

Satellite (VSAT)
Fiber Optics
APPLICATIONS
Audio Tone

Microwave

Relaying Wire Line

SCADA / Automation
Voice
Telemetering

17.2 APPLICATIONS

17.2.1 Relaying

Many relay schemes now in use require information to be exchanged among all the terminals on a
transmission line to effect high-speed tripping over 100 percent of the line. Since these terminals are
often many miles apart, some form of two-way communication channel has to be established between
them. The information to be transferred is relatively simple two-state data in most cases and can utilize
the more basic forms of modulation.

17.2.2 SCADA
Most utilities have a centralized energy control center from which the electric power system is remotely
operated. It is usually expected that circuit breakers and tap changers will be monitored and controlled,
generation monitored and controlled, capacitor banks may be monitored and controlled, alarms reset, and
miscellaneous other on/off-type functions effected over distances ranging from a mile or less to hundreds
of miles.
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The energy control center receives various types of data from the power system. This data includes
breaker status, tap changer position, amps, volts, watts, VARs, and other quantities, both digital and
analog. Again, the data travels over distances ranging from a few miles to several hundred.

In most modern energy control centers, the remote data monitoring and system control functions for
substation applications are performed by a SCADA system. These systems consist of a central host
computer system at the energy control center, referred to as a master station, and RTUs located in the
substations. There is a trend toward increasing intelligence at the substation level (see Chapter 14,
Substation Automation) where the traditional RTU is being replaced with IEDs in a LAN arrangement.
Regardless of the level of intelligence resident at the substation level, some form of real-time
communication is required between the master station and the RTU or remote electronics.

17.2.3 Telemetering

In some instances where a computer-based SCADA system is not available or justified, it is desirable to
transmit discrete power system data from the substation to the energy control system in an analog format.
For example, analog quantities such as amps, volts, watts, or VARs may be required to drive a remote
readout or chart recorder. Likewise, discrete system status values such as breaker position may be
required to drive a remote annunciator. In these cases a communication method is required that can
directly accommodate analog signals that may include scaled milliampere or voltage, or frequency-shift
audio.

17.2.4 Voice

Power system operation and maintenance require the use of voice communication for daily operation and
functioning of the power network. Voice communications are required between fixed points of operation
and for mobile maintenance crews. The transmission of voice signals may take place via cable, radio, or
the power system itself. The transmission facilities may make use of either leased systems or
cooperative-owned facilities.

17.3 METHODS

17.3.1 Power Line Carrier

Power line carrier, one of the more common communication means found in power systems in the past, is
now being displaced in many applications with fiber optics. But power line carrier may still be used for
relaying and voice applications, and lower speed data.

Carrier signal frequencies range from 30 kHz to 500 kHz and are coupled directly to the power line
through a coupling capacitor, a device that frequently doubles as a relaying and/or metering potential
source. The signals are transmitted at a relatively low power level, 100 watts or less, typically 10 watts,
and hence do not radiate appreciably from the power line. They have to be received in a similar way
through a coupling capacitor connected to a carrier receiver at the other end of the line. See Figure 17-1.

To confine the carrier signal as nearly as possible to one line section and to keep the signal from being
effectively shorted through the high capacitance of the station bus and connected transformers, line traps
are installed on the station side of the coupling capacitor to block the carrier signal.
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Figure 17-1: Typical Carrier System

Line traps are generally simple parallel L-C resonant circuits with the inductance in series with the
coupled phase of the line. This inductance is rated to match the BIL, through current capability and short-
circuit withstand capability of any other major equipment on the line, and so is physically large.

17.3.1.1 Tuning Elements: Besides the line trap and coupling capacitor, there are several other
components involved in tuning and matching the transmitter output to the power system.

17.3.1.1.1 Line Tuner Unit (LTU): The coupling capacitor provides the path for the carrier signal to
reach the power line itself. Since there are capacitive and inductive elements in the coupling capacitor
and in the power system, a tuning network has to be provided to match the transmitter output impedance
to the impedance seen at the coupling capacitor input. This device, the line tuner, comes in several
different configurations, depending on the tuning method selected. In addition, the line tuner assembly
contains protective elements such as a gap with capacitor and a grounding switch. The assembly may be
mounted in the coupling capacitor base or in a separate weatherproof cabinet.

17.3.1.1.2 Hybrid: A hybrid is a special transformer used to combine carrier transmitter and receiver
inputs and outputs in such a way that transmitters and receivers may be connected to the same line tuner
without mutual interference. A hybrid has one output and two inputs and is bi-directional so that the
output may be connected to the line tuner and the inputs to a combination of transmitters and receivers
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without the receiver input being overloaded when the transmitter operates. Hybrids may be stacked; that
is, one of the two inputs may be connected to another hybrid output resulting in three isolated inputs to
the same line tuner. A limitation to this connection is that each hybrid reduces the power level by 3dB.
Thus, two stacked hybrids result in only one quarter of the transmitter power reaching the line tuner from
each hybrid terminal.

17.3.1.1.3 L/C Units: Various combinations of series and parallel connected capacitors and inductors
are available for use with special tuning schemes or as additional tuning elements in the line tuner
package. In general, the manufacturer’s recommendations should be followed in applying these units.

17.3.1.2 Tuning Methods: There are three basic methods of tuning carrier transmitters and receivers
to the power line.

17.3.1.2.1 Single-Frequency Resonant Tuning: A single-frequency resonant-tuned installation utilizes

a combination of inductances and capacitances in the line trap and line tuner resulting in a combination
frequency response that exhibits a single sharp peak centered about the selected frequency. Adjustment is
available in both the trap and tuner, but both have to be ordered by specifying a range of frequencies
according to the manufacturer’s catalog data. Single-frequency resonant tuning is used less frequently as
the available carrier spectrum becomes more crowded and it becomes more common to have several
frequencies for multiple uses on a single line. Single-frequency tuning results in the lowest transmission
losses, but is least flexible from the standpoint of subsequent additional carrier frequencies for control,
telemetering, and relaying. Figure 17-2 shows a typical graph of the frequency response for a single-

Figure 17-2: Single-Frequency Resonant Tuning

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frequency resonant tuned installation.

17.3.1.2.2 Double-Frequency Resonant Tuning: This coupling method is identical to single-frequency

tuning except that there are two closely spaced sharp peaks in the frequency response. The losses are
somewhat greater, but the availability of two frequencies can compensate for this small disadvantage. In
addition, it is possible to use as many as four frequencies if they are selected so that none is more than the
manufacturer’s tolerance away from a peak. This is done by using hybrids on each of the two
frequencies. Figure 17-3 shows a graph of a typical double-frequency resonant-tuned system.

Figure 17-3: Double-Frequency Resonant Tuning

17.3.1.2.3 Wideband Tuning: The frequency response of a wideband tuning package is a relatively
low peak spanning a wide range of frequencies. The obvious advantage is that a number of frequencies
may be fed through the same line tuner.

A disadvantage is greater attenuation in the tuning package through more leakage to the bus side and
higher impedance in the tuning package. The wideband line tuner is a simple high-pass filter, and series
L/C units are frequently used to separate the various transmitter–receiver combinations. Hybrids should
still be used to separate transmitters and receivers. Wideband tuning is becoming more popular in spite of
the increased losses because of the need to put more functions on a line as relaying schemes become more
elaborate and remote control and data functions are added. Figure 17-4 shows a graph of a typical
wideband-tuned system.

17.3.1.3 Modulation Types

17.3.1.3.1 On/Off: This simplest form of putting information on the carrier wave is only used with
directional comparison or phase comparison blocking relaying. As its name implies, the carrier
transmitter is normally de-energized. When it is keyed, it simply sends an unmodulated carrier that the
receiver interprets as a blocking signal. Voice modulators are usually added so that the transmitter carrier
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Figure 17-4: Wideband Tuning

can be modulated and thus provide an extra emergency or voice communication channel. Since a received
signal in such a relay scheme does not result in a trip or attempted trip, it is perfectly safe to voice
modulate the carrier.

The chief disadvantage of on/off carrier is its quiescent nature. The carrier is off most of the time and, if
a component fails during this period, there will be no indication of the failure until the scheme is called on
to operate. If it has to block for an external fault at that time, a false trip can occur. Many utilities avoid
this situation by applying a carrier checkback scheme. This scheme periodically initiates a characteristic
series of carrier bursts from one end of the line. The other end recognizes the test transmission pattern
and responds similarly. Receipt of this response at the initiating end verifies the system can transmit and
receive data.

17.3.1.3.2 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): This modulation method finds widespread use in most
relaying, control and data transmission schemes. An unmodulated carrier is sent continuously and is
termed the “guard” or “space” signal. When a trip or data signal is desired, the guard or space signal is
shifted up or down by a small percentage and the shifted signal is termed the “trip” or “mark” signal. In
general, relaying literature uses the trip and guard nomenclature, while mark and space will be found in
most data and control literature. Trip and guard signals are separated by very accurate filters on the
inputs of the receiver.

The advantage of this scheme, particularly for relaying, is the channel monitor capability provided by the
continuous transmission. If, at any time, the guard signal disappears without an immediate trip signal, the
channel is presumed to have failed and an alarm can be energized. Additional channel security can be
obtained by biasing the receiver discriminator to the guard side. A white noise burst, therefore, will
produce a small net guard output that can be overcome by a transmitted trip signal even during the noise
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burst. This feature makes it possible to drive an FSK carrier signal through an arcing fault on the
protected section.

17.3.1.3.3 Single Sideband (SSB): This modulation type is used extensively in other countries where
its multi-channel capability is important because of the lack of a reliable and extensive telephone network
such as exists in this country. In those areas, power systems have to provide their own basic voice
communications, and the power system itself is an excellent medium. Here, however, SSB carrier has
found little use primarily because of its high cost.

Basically, the carrier signal is modulated with voice or data signals, resulting in the transmission of the
carrier plus two sidebands containing the carrier plus the modulation frequency and the carrier minus the
modulation frequency, which is conventional. Since all the desired information is in each sideband, the
carrier and either sideband can be eliminated resulting in a suppressed carrier, single-sideband signal
having one-half the bandwidth of a transmission. It is then possible to transmit two voice channels in the
bandwidth formerly occupied by one voice channel.

Sophisticated equipment is available whereby, with a system of subcarrier frequencies, many channels in
multiples of two can be transmitted.

17.3.1.4 Power Line Carrier Reference: The application of power line carrier is a complex subject
requiring more space than is available in this bulletin. For a more thorough review of power line carrier
application and design, see the following:

1. “GE Protection and Controls Relaying Communication Channels Application Guide,”

GET-8034.

2. Pulsar Technologies, Inc., “Power Line Carrier Channel & Application Considerations for
Transmission Line Relaying,” Pulsar Document No. C045-P0597.

17.3.2 Audio Tone

Audio tone equipment operates in the frequency range from 1000 Hz to about 3000 Hz. Frequency shift
keying is the only modulation type available; voice modulation cannot be used.

Audio tone is used primarily as a short-distance medium over wire lines. FSK modulation provides
ample security, and, in most cases for most telephone applications, reliability is also high. Additional
security is available in the form of broadband noise detection and frequency translation detection.

Broadband noise detection is simply a wideband receiver with no corresponding transmitter. If this
receiver output exceeds a certain level, a noise alarm is actuated and all channels squelched off.
Frequency translation detection utilizes a single unmodulated channel. If the output from this receiver
drops, the translation alarm is actuated. This feature is most commonly used with microwave or other
multi-channel configurations where a problem in the multiplex equipment can cause frequency shifts.

Audio tone always requires another communication transmission medium to carry the audio (wire line,
microwave, optical fiber, power line carrier, or shield wire).
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17.3.3 Carrier or Audio Tone on Shield Wire

The chief distinction of this method is the medium rather than the equipment. Transmitters and receivers
are the same as those employed in other carrier and audio tone systems. However, in this scheme they are
coupled to insulated transmission line shield wires. EHV shield wires are sometimes insulated to reduce
losses from induced circulating currents. The usual insulation level is 15 kV, with gaps on the insulators
to conduct lightning strokes to ground.

The coupling is usually between two such insulated shield wires through a special coupler containing
matching networks, capacitors, protective gaps, and an insulating transformer. This equipment is required
to protect the communications equipment from the high energy levels present on such shield wires during
lightning strokes.

In general, this method is not used for protective relaying because of the uncertainty of successful
communication during lightning strikes. It has found more application for data and voice
communications as a low-cost alternative in those cases where the decision to insulate the shield wires
had already been made on the basis of inductive loss prevention.

17.3.4 Microwave

Microwave systems have been used extensively on power systems in the past few decades as the
requirements for dedicated voice and data communications increase. Because of the high cost of the RF
equipment and antenna towers, microwave is generally used where there is a requirement for a large
number of channels between two points. Transmission is line of sight only, necessitating intermediate
repeater stations for long paths. The cost per channel is relatively low as long as most of the available
channels are used and the path length is not excessive.

Microwave systems presently employed use transmission frequencies of 960 MHz and higher, which
accounts for the high channel capacity and line-of-sight transmission. There is relative freedom from
many forms of interference, but path fading and other forms of distortion can be problems. Most
microwave systems require a license from the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to operate.

17.3.4.1 Analog vs. Digital Microwave: Both analog and digital microwave systems are in use
today. Analog microwave systems accept audio input signals that are frequency multiplexed together to
form an analog baseband signal that is then used to frequency modulate the higher frequency microwave
carrier. Digital signals have to be converted to analog through the use of modems before they can be
transmitted on an analog microwave system, which results in an inefficient use of the bandwidth. Analog
microwave systems are available in capacities from as few as one to as many as 600 channels.

The increasing emphasis on data transmission is driving users toward increasing utilization of digital
microwave. The majority of new microwave systems installed today are digital. Unlike analog
microwave, digital microwave employs a digital time-division-multiplexed (TDM) baseband that is used
to digitally modulate the microwave carrier. Analog (voice or audio) information is converted to a data
stream using pulse-code modulation (PCM) and then fed into the microwave TDM baseband. Data
signals ranging from low-speed asynchronous (1200 bits per second) to high-speed synchronous
(56 kilobits/second, 1.5 megabits/second, and higher) can be inserted directly onto the TDM baseband
without any intermediate modulation as would be required in an analog system. In this way, data is
handled much more efficiently than in the analog scheme, and voice is handled equally well. This results
in digital microwave systems having a lower per channel cost than analog. Digital microwave systems
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are available in capacities from as few as one to as many as 2016 channels. Figure 17-5 shows a 6 GHZ
digital microwave radio and antenna mounted on a substation box structure.

Figure 17-5: 6 GHz Microwave Terminal Mounted on Substation Box Structure

Power utilities typically purchase microwave radios in a monitored “hot-standby” configuration for added
reliability. Hot-standby means that each radio contains two transmitters and two receivers, one set for
primary and one set for backup, with monitoring and switching circuitry that automatically switches to the
backup unit in the event the primary unit fails. For protective relaying on high-voltage transmission lines,
it is common to use a microwave system in parallel with power line carrier for maximum security.

17.3.4.2 Multiple Address Systems: MAS are specialized microwave radio systems that are
designed specifically for SCADA systems. MAS operate in the 900 to 960 MHz band and can employ
analog or digital modulation technology. Each MAS provides a single channel of communications that is
shared among four or more remote sites. The radio channel essentially behaves like a party line, so only
one site can access the channel at any given time. Therefore, MAS is best suited to SCADA
communications where a host computer sequentially polls remote terminal units using a master–slave
protocol. This technology is widely used by electric utilities for substation SCADA communications in
cases where other non-SCADA voice, data, and relaying applications are not needed. MAS is not suitable
for telephone or protective relaying applications. Figure 17-6 shows a typical MAS installation on a rural
substation control house.
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Figure 17-6: MAS Microwave Antenna on Substation Control House

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17.3.5 Optical Fiber

Optical fiber has become the communications technology of choice for most electric utility substation
communications. Optical fiber offers the advantages of immunity to electrical sources of interference and
noise, and extremely large information-carrying capacity. (The information-carrying capacity of optical
fiber is far greater than that required in a typical substation.)

17.3.5.1 Fiber-Optic Cables: Fiber-optic cables are available in a variety of configurations including
aerial and underground cables. Two of the most popular types of cable used by electric utilities are
optical ground wire (OPGW) and all-dielectric self-supported (ADSS) cables. In the case of OPGW,
optical fibers (numbering typically from 6 to 48 fibers) are placed inside a specialized conductor that
serves as both a fiber-optic communications facility and a ground wire or shield wire. Since the shield
wire is typically installed on the top of the transmission line towers above the energized line, ground
clearance problems that often prevent the installation of a communications cable beneath the energized
line (i.e., underbuild) are avoided. Also, for newly constructed lines, the incremental costs of a
conventional shield wire (a cost that is avoided with OPGW) can be deducted from the costs of the
OPGW, increasing the economic feasibility of the OPGW installation. Special suspension and
termination hardware is required for the OPGW conductors. Figure 17-7 shows a typical OPGW splice
mounted on an A-frame transmission structure.

ADSS cable finds its widest application by electric utilities on low-voltage distribution and
subtransmission poles (69 kV or less), but can be also used on high-voltage transmission lines where
clearances will allow. ADSS cables are self-supported, requiring no supporting messenger. The cables
are all-dielectric (containing no metals) so they can be safely installed in the supply space on electric
utility poles by properly trained line personnel, and they can be routed directly into an electrical
substation from outside the substation ground mat without introducing a ground potential rise hazard.
These cables can contain as few as 4 or as many as 216 fibers and can be manufactured for unsupported
spans of up to several thousand feet.

Other cable types that are commonly used include aerial/duct cable (all-dielectric or steel-reinforced) and
rodent-resistant cables for direct burial.

17.3.5.2 Fiber-Optic Technology: Fiber-optic transmission systems are primarily digital, utilizing
TDM technology as is also used with digital microwave (see Section 17.3.4.1, Analog vs. Digital
Microwave). Optical transceivers are available in capacities ranging from as few as one channel to many
thousands. Fiber-optic transmission equipment from some manufacturers has been designed specifically
for substation applications, supporting voice, data, and protective relaying functions. These specialized
substation multiplexers are typically available at capacities of DS1 (1.544 megabits per second or up to 24
voice channels), SONET OC-1 (51.84 megabits per second or up to 672 voice channels), and SONET
OC-3 (155.520 megabits per second or up to 2016 voice channels). These systems include advanced
features such as embedded network surveillance, control, and management software, and fault-tolerant
rings. Figure 17-8 shows fiber-optic multiplexers installed in a substation for telephone, SCADA, and
pilot-wire relaying applications.

Another specialized application for optical fiber in substation communications is GPR isolation of
metallic wire communications circuits. Because GPR can occur in electrical substations during short
circuits on the electrical power system, metallic facilities such as telephone lines that enter the substation
from outside the ground grid has to be electrically isolated from the substation ground influence. Since
optical fibers do not conduct electricity, fiber-optic entrance links can be used to electrically isolate these
metallic circuits in lieu of the more insulating transformers and mutual drainage reactors that have
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Figure 17-7: OPGW Splice on Deadend Structure Figure 17-8: Fiber-Optic Multiplexers (Above)
in Substation and Fiber-Optic Patch Panel (Below)
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been traditionally used for this purpose. Special fiber-optic isolators are commercially available for this
purpose.

17.3.6 Wire Lines

Wire lines leased from the telephone company are used in many cases for routine voice and data traffic.
Wire lines entering substations for the purpose of communications, control, and protective relaying
require special attention for high-voltage protection. These circuits may be used in the event of a power
system fault; therefore, operation during these periods is crucial to personnel safety, equipment damage
protection, and service reliability. The use of high-voltage protection aims to minimize the impact of
GPR and induced voltages. Varying methods of protection are being used today. IEEE Std. 487-1992
states, “Readers of this standard should evaluate all alternative procedures, methods, voltage limits, and
equipment characteristics for their own use.” Section 6.0, Protection Apparatus, describes broad
characteristics and application techniques of the current equipment in use today. The most common
equipment used in wire-line protection ranges from carbon blocks, spark gaps, and gas-filled and solid-
state protectors to the more advanced relays, filters, neutralizing transformers and reactors, isolating
transformers, and the more recent use of optical couplers.

Section 8.0 of IEEE Std. 487-1992, Protection Theory and Philosophy, covers the different design and
philosophical approaches the telecommunications protection engineer and the power protective relaying
engineer may take in protecting telecommunications equipment. Section 8.2 of the standard covers
design requirements for wire-line facilities serving power stations. Information on many factors is needed
to properly design a protection scheme. A few of these conditions are:

1. Total available single-phase-to-ground fault current and its distribution, maximum GPR (rms),
X/R ratio, fault-produced longitudinal induction, lightning exposure
2. Power station ground grid impedance to remote earth and grid area
3. The extent of the GPR zone of influence
4. Whether the transmission parameters and service performance objectives are compatible with
the available or proposed facilities
5. Anticipated future changes in any of the above data
6. Whether lightning protection is required

Utilizing IEEE Std. 487-1992 is highly recommended for properly designing a protection system scheme.
The system designs and protection concepts contained in this standard have been mutually agreed to by
the power and telephone industries.

Wire lines entering substation premises have to have special protection against induced currents and rise
in station ground potential.

17.3.6.1 Voice and Data Channels: These circuits may use carbon blocks or similar devices that will
remove the circuit from service when they operate.

Voice traffic in most areas can be handled over wire lines since occasional interruptions can be tolerated
in voice and data transmission. Relaying can be performed over wire lines only if the responsible
telephone company can be relied on to provide circuits that are adequately protected against the effects of
nearby power system disturbances.

17.3.6.2 Relaying Channels: These circuits have to remain in service during and after a power
system fault. For audio tone circuits, fiber-optic isolators, high-voltage insulating transformers, gas tubes
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with mutual drainage reactors, and possibly neutralizing transformers may be required. Pilot-wire circuits
require neutralizing transformers whenever dc monitoring is used.

17.3.7 Satellite Communications

17.3.7.1 VSAT: Very small aperture terminals (VSATs) have been widely and successfully used for
SCADA master station-to-RTU communications. VSAT networks optimized for SCADA are offered by
network providers that sell the fixed transceiver equipment to the end user and then lease satellite airtime
(space segment) on a monthly basis. Monthly charges are based on the amount of data that is actually
transmitted by each VSAT. SCADA VSATs are most commonly used by electric utilities and pipeline
companies that have to communicate with RTUs over very large areas where leased telephone line and
private communication network costs are prohibitive. Electric cooperatives are probably the largest users
of satellite communications in the electric utility industry today.

Since the VSAT space segment is leased, and therefore entails recurring monthly costs, VSATs are
generally regarded as an alternative to leased telephone lines. VSATs do offer certain advantages over
leased lines, insofar as they are not prone to outage resulting from wind, ice, or lightning. Since VSATs
are wireless, they do not require high-voltage isolation as do leased telephone lines entering substations.
VSATs can experience path outages during extremely heavy rainfall. VSATs also suffer outages around
the spring and fall equinoxes, although these times are predictable and total equinox outage time is
generally only 1 to 2 hours per year.

VSAT network vendors also offer advanced network management services that are not available for
leased telephone lines. Since all signals pass through the vendor’s hub facility, the vendor can carefully
monitor channel performance and make maintenance adjustments when necessary.

Each message transmission between a master station and an RTU has to make two round trips to the
geostationary satellite via the vendor’s hub. Since each round trip requires at least 0.239 seconds to
complete, the space segment delay for a single message is approximately 0.5 seconds. For this reason,
inefficient SCADA master station-to-RTU communication protocols can result in the introduction of
considerable communications delays.

VSATs should only be employed for data applications such as SCADA, and where relatively long time
delays can be tolerated. VSATs are not considered suitable for voice or protective relaying applications.

In the early 1990s the Rural Electric Research (RER) Program of the National Rural Electric Cooperative
Association (NRECA) initiated a project with the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) to develop a
cost-effective Utility Communications Architecture-compliant satellite technology for rural utility
substations.

The project was developed by Nova-Net Communications, Inc., now an ICG Wireless Services Company.
The results of this project are documented in the final report of Project 91-10, “Bi-Directional Satellite
Communications Technology for Rural Utility Substations.”

Figure 17-9 shows a typical Nova-Net VSAT installation in a rural substation.

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Figure 17-9: VSAT Installed in Electric Substation. Courtesy of Nova Net, Inc.