Outcomes of Perceived Discrimination among Hispanic Employees: Is Diversity Management

a Luxury or a Necessity?
Author(s): Juan I. Sanchez and Petra Brock
Source: The Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 39, No. 3 (Jun., 1996), pp. 704-719
Published by: Academy of Management
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/256660
Accessed: 06-04-2018 07:57 UTC

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 RESEARCH NOTES

? Academy of Management Journal

1996, Vol. 39, No. 3, 704-719.

OUTCOMES OF PERCEIVED DISCRIMINATION AMONG

HISPANIC EMPLOYEES: IS DIVERSITY MANAGEMENT A
LUXURY OR A NECESSITY?

JUAN I. SANCHEZ
PETRA BROCK
Florida International University

Perceived discrimination is hypothesized to influence employee out-

comes above and beyond other work stressors. Data from 139 Hispanic
employees of multiple organizations supported this prediction. In addi-
tion, growing up in the United States, membership in the most numerous
Hispanic subgroup, salary, and work experience moderated the effect of
perceived discrimination on three employee outcomes-organizational
commitment, job satisfaction, and work tension.

The rising preoccupation with managing cultural diversity (Adl

Cox, 1990, 1993; Jackson & Associates, 1992) is understandable
current work force trends. In the United States, approximately 45
net additions to the work force in the 1990s will be members
normally defined as ethnic minorities (Johnston, 1991).
Apparently, the proliferation of management and training progr
cerned with cultural diversity has not been matched by parallel th
or research development in organizational behavior (Alderfer &
1988; Cox, 1991; Cox & Nkomo, 1990). Critics of programs aimed
awareness of cultural differences have questioned their impact on
line, as empirical evidence of the benefits associated with such pro
scant (Cox, 1993: 24-27). The eradication of bias and prejudice is
goals of diversity management programs. One of the benefits of t
grams may be a less stressful workplace, because survey data in
ethnic minorities see prejudice as an important stressor (Kassch
This study was undertaken for a twofold purpose. First, we att
to gather evidence that perceived discrimination has incremental e
employee outcomes above and beyond the effects of other stressor
we examined the coping resources that may interact with perceive
nation to reduce its effects on employee outcomes. Following recen
sions of these terms (Jex, Beehr, & Roberts, 1992), we defined stressors as
job or organizational conditions, whereas employee outcomes were defined
as individuals' reactions to these conditions. We preferred the term "em-

704

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1996 Sanchez and Brock 705

ployee outcome" to the term "strain" because of our interest in constr

like job satisfaction and organizational commitment, which do not shar
meaning work stress researchers assign to the word strain.
Because we were concerned with the various consequences of per
discrimination, we selected three employee outcomes representing dist
types of work-related attitudinal reactions and feelings: organizational
mitment, job satisfaction, and work tension. It should be noted that w
organizational commitment and job satisfaction represent attitudin
comes, work tension is closer to a health-related outcome. Role ambiguit
role conflict were the stressors selected as controls; these are variables no
rectly related to ethnicity whose relations with employee outcomes have
widely documented (Fisher & Gitelson, 1983; Jackson & Schuler, 1985).
Taking advantage of our location in an area densely populated by H
ics, we focused on the growing Hispanic segment of the labor force (Gaer
Dovidio, 1986). Hispanics are playing a leading role in ongoing demograp
shifts. Representing 7.6 percent of those employed in 1990, Hispan
expected to become the largest ethnic minority in the United States an
comprise 10 percent of the country's employees by the year 2000 (Full
1989; Johnston & Packer, 1987). Judging by the numerous reports of w
place discrimination aimed at Hispanics (e.g., Greve, 1994; Swoboda,
perceived discrimination may be widespread among Hispanic emplo
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Incremental Effects of Perceived Discrimination on Employ

Although theoretical models of work stress have included t
demographic variables on employee outcomes (e.g., Ivancevic
1980: 168-176), few studies have examined the effects of ethni
ity status (Bhagat & McQuaid, 1982; Cervantes, 1992; Ford
Lovato, & Khoo, 1994). In addition, prior research has focused o
lates of self-reported ethnicity while ignoring the process
stressors associated with ethnicity influence employee outcom
virtually no data are available concerning whether or not ethn
stressors have effects on employee outcomes that go above and
of stressors affecting all employees.
According to social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1985),
sify themselves and others into social categories whose con
by prototypical characteristics drawn from the category mem
als who perceive that they are treated unfavorably because
bership in a social category would experience feelings of in
personal conflict (see Phinney [1990] for a review). Thus, perce
nation represents an individual's perception that selective an
treatment is occurring because of the individual's ethnic group
(Mirage, 1994). Because a sense of belonging to a culturally
distinct ethnic group triggers this perception, perceived discr
be considered a culturally relevant stressor (Cervantes, 1992). H
turally distinct individuals are not exempt from the well-docum
of stressors affecting all employees, like role ambiguity an

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706 Academy of Management Journal June

(Fisher & Gitelson, 1983; Jackson & Schuler, 1985) and, therefore, perceived
discrimination will act as an incremental source of stress among these em-
ployees. Hence,
Hypothesis 1: Perceived discrimination will adversely con-
tribute to employee outcomes, going above and beyond
other work stressors such as role conflict and ambiguity.
In our view, focusing on perceived discrimination rather than on actual
discriminatory practices is worthwhile and consistent with theories posit-
ing cognitive appraisal of stressors as key to understanding their effects
(Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Schaubroek, Ganster, & Fox, 1992). For instance,
it is perceived discrimination that causes equal employment opportunity
grievances and related litigation expenses.

Perceived Discrimination and Coping Resources

In several models of work stress, moderators of the relationship between

work stressors and employee outcomes are proposed (House, 1974; Osipow &
Spokane, 1984). These moderators function as coping resources because they
contribute to lower levels of strain for a given level of stressor (Osipow &
Davis, 1988). That is, individuals with coping resources would not experi-
ence increasing levels of strain when they face increasing work stressors.
There is empirical evidence concerning numerous variables that moderate,
or "buffer," the impact of work stressors on employee outcomes (Beehr,
1985; Fusilier, Ganster, & Mayes, 1987; Houston, Cates, & Kelly, 1992; Jex &
Gudanowski, 1992; Pierce, Gardner, Dunham, & Cummings, 1993; Sullivan &
Bhagat, 1992). In contrast, the resources needed to cope with cultural
stressors like perceived discrimination remain virtually unexamined. To
identify the potential moderators of perceived discrimination, we reviewed
streams of research on acculturation, social support, and careers.
Acculturation is defined as the process of ethnic minorities' integration
into the host or mainstream culture (Mendoza, 1989). Research on accultura-
tion suggests that familiarity with a host culture may protect an individ-
ual from the effects of perceived discrimination (LaFromboise, Coleman, &
Gerton, 1993; Mendoza, 1989; Phinney, 1990; Sanchez & Fernandez, 1993).
Indeed, acculturation reduces feelings of inadequacy caused by perceived
discrimination because acculturated individuals perceive themselves as
members of both their ethnic group and the mainstream (LaFromboise et al.,
1993). Acculturation progresses as a function of the length of exposure to
the host culture, and it is facilitated by contact with this culture early in
life (Marin, Sabogal, VanOss-Marin, Otero-Sabogal, & Perez-Stable, 1987;
Szapocznik, Scopetta, Kurtines, & Aranalde, 1978). Thus,
Hypothesis 2: Growing up in the United States will moder-
ate the effects of perceived discrimination on employee
outcomes: perceived discrimination will affect outcomes
for employees who grew up in the United States less than

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1996 Sanchez and Brock 707

outcomes for those who grew up outside of the United

States.

Social support often moderates the effects of work stressors (Cohen &
Wills, 1985; George, Reed, Ballard, Colin, & Fielding, 1993; Kirmeyer &
Dougherty, 1988). Researchers have suggested that the buffering effects of
social support should be most effective when the source of support is relevant
to the stressor being experienced (Beehr, King, & King, 1990; Cohen & Wills,
1985; Ganster, Fusilier, & Mayes, 1986). Attributions of differential treatment
to one's ethnicity are the stressor considered here. Interaction with ethnic
peers should provide an adequate match to this stressor because such interac-
tion reinforces a sense that being culturally different is all right. In Dad
County, Florida, individuals of Cuban origin encounter an extended an
potentially more effective social network than Hispanics from other back-
grounds. Enhanced opportunities to interact with and receive support from
their subgroup should strengthen feelings of adequacy among those of Cuba
origin. Hence,
Hypothesis 3: Having an extended social network, defined
by membership in the most numerous Hispanic subgroup,
will buffer the effects of perceived discrimination on em-
ployee outcomes.
The extended network associated with membership in the most numer-
ous Cuban subgroup should buffer the effects of perceived discriminatio
among Dade County residents. However, in communities where Hispanic
subgroups other than Cubans dominate, membership in the dominant sub
group should provide a better support network and hence help buffer th
impact of perceived discrimination. Ethnicity researchers warn about lump-
ing all Hispanic subgroups (e.g., Cubans, Mexicans, Puerto Ricans) under the
label "Hispanic" (Marin & Marin, 1991). Indeed, not distinguishing among
subgroups prevents examination of meaningful intergroup differences like
those concerning the effectiveness of support networks.
Westman (1992) suggested that organizations provide their managers
with resources such as authority, prestige, pay, and power that enable them
to cope appropriately. Perceived control, defined as the ability to contro
important outcomes by influencing events and others, has been found
to moderate the relationship between work stressors and job satisfactio
(Tetrick & LaRocco, 1987). The advantages associated with high rank or high
pay (e.g., decision latitude) should also facilitate coping with perceived
discrimination. Hence,

Hypothesis 4: The effects of perceived discrimination on

employee outcomes will be moderated by salary level: per-
ceived discrimination will affect those with high salaries
less than those with low salaries.

Age moderates the effects of job stressors on life satisfaction, with old
employees seemingly less affected by job stressors than younger ones (May

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708 Academy of Management Journal June

Barton, & Ganster, 1991). Employees appear to gain satisfaction from areas
other than work at the stabilization and maintenance stages of their careers
(Rosenbaum, 1979). Research on career stages suggests that experienced indi-
viduals have learned to deal with the most challenging aspects of their jobs
and to secure their positions within a company (Slocum & Cron, 1985). In
a similar vein, being the recipients of discrimination for a prolonged period
should teach individuals to cope with this work stressor. Thus,
Hypothesis 5: Job experience will moderate the effects of
perceived discrimination on employee outcomes: experi-
enced employees will be less affected byperceived discrim-
ination than novices.

METHODS

Sample and Procedures

Six teams of four to five survey administrators were formed
seniors. A doctoral student supervised each team. Survey setting
malls and offices of the driver's license bureau) that had previou
representative samples of area Hispanics in research on jury s
intentionally selected and assigned to teams (Moran, Cutler, & De
Survey teams reported that, depending on location, 30 to 6
the individuals asked to participate declined. All teams had
individuals who were fluent in Spanish, and all team members
in English. Of a total of 263 surveys collected, 152 were from
Hispanic individuals. After we had discarded incomplete res
respondents remained. Respondents were assured that their resp
be anonymous and used only for research purposes. Approx
minutes were required to complete the instrument. The survey p
approximately four weeks. The occupations with the most numer
bents were real estate agent, salesperson, secretary, and store m
Surveys were written in either Spanish or English and respon
the version they preferred. The Spanish version was chosen b
of the respondents. Because usages differ across Spanish-speaking
we had a panel of four bilingual individuals from four distin
backgrounds-Chilean, Cuban, Puerto Rican, and Spaniard
Spanish translations, instructing them to use Spanish that cou
stood regardless of an individual's national origin. We then comp
translations (Brislin, 1970) until we achieved consensus on a Spanish
version.
The target population was employed Hispanics in Dade County, Florida.
The population of Dade County, which encompasses the Miami metropolitan
area, is 44 percent Hispanic. This type of large, urban concentration is
typical example of the distribution of Hispanics in the United States. A to
of 139 employed respondents who endorsed "Hispanic" as their ethnici
were included in the analyses. This sample size provided adequate statistical
power for detecting even small effect sizes, given the number of predicto

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1996 Sanchez and Brock 709

employed in the regression analyses (Cohen, 1992). The respondents' me

salary was between $15,000 and $20,000. Women comprised 59.6 perc
the sample. The median age range was between 30 and 39. Cuban-Ameri
comprised 60 percent of the respondents, and 41 percent were born ou
of the United States. A point-by-point comparison of sample and popul
demographics obtained from the CD-ROM version of the 1990 U.S.
Data suggested that our sample was fairly representative of the Hi
population of Dade County despite its having more divorced indivi
more individuals whose parents were born outside of the United St
slightly lower median age, and a higher education level.1
Measures

Items for each scale were added to form a single score. Scale a
ranged from "I strongly disagree" (1) to "I strongly agree" (5). Role c
(e.g., "I receive incompatible requests from two or more people")
ambiguity (e.g., "I know exactly what is expected of me") were m
with House and Rizzo's scales (1972). Perceived discrimination was
with 10 items selected from a 24-item scale measuring acculturative s
and perceived discrimination (Mena, Padilla & Maldonado, 1987). Th
"at work" were added to all items because of our focus on work discrimina-
tion. Initially, 14 of the 24 items were independently selected by at l
three of four doctoral students as capturing perceived discrimination in wo
settings. A faculty member and a reviewer of this manuscript later exami
the relevance of these 14 items to the construct of perceived discriminati
We kept the 10 items selected by both of these judges (working separately
in the scale (Cronbach's a = .87; see the Appendix for the items).2 Supp
for this scale's unidimensionality was suggested by (1) the screeplot of eig
values obtained from a factor analysis (4.85, 0.94, and 0.88 for the fir
second, and third root, respectively), (2) a parallel analysis (Lautenschlager
1989) indicating that the eigenvalues for roots other than the first one w
the result of essentially random variation, (3) factor loadings of at least .4
for all items, and (4) a confirmatory factor analysis posing a single underly
trait conducted via LISREL VI (Joreskog & Sorbom, 1985; ,35 = 82.49, p
.01, GFI = .91). Organizational commitment was indexed with a 9-item scal
from Cook and Wall (1980; an example is "I am proud to be able to t
people who it is I work for"). Job satisfaction was measured with the 3-it
scale employed in the Michigan Organizational Assessment Questionna
(Cammann, Fichman, Jenkins, & Klesh, 1979; e.g., "All in all, I am satisfie
with my job"). Work tension was assessed with a 7-item scale from Ho
and Rizzo (1972; e.g., "I work under a great deal of tension"). Information
gender, ethnic subgroup, number of dependents, age, and other demograp
indicators was gathered at the end of the survey. An item indicating wheth

1 The point-by-point comparison is available from the senior author.

2 The Spanish version of the scale is available from the senior author.

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710 Academy of Management Journal June

a respondent grew up in the United States had the following endpoints: "I
grew up only outside the continental U.S." (1) and "I grew up only in the
continental U.S." (5). Salary level was gauged with an item ranging from
"less than $15,000" (1) to "more than $50,000" (5). Job experience ranged
from "less than 2 years" (1) to "more than 20 years" (5).
RESULTS

Incremental Effects of Perceived Discrimination on Employee Ou

Table 1 presents descriptive statistics and internal consistency re
ties for each variable. Zero-order correlations (Table 2) indicated
ceived discrimination was related in the expected direction to th
employee outcomes considered here. To evaluate whether these as
held above and beyond associations with other stressors and thus
pothesis 1, we computed hierarchical regression analyses. Table
the results.
Gender (a dummy-coded variable) and number of dependents were con-
trolled for in the first step of the hierarchical regression analyses. These
control variables represented potential confounds because (1) Hispanic
women may perceive discrimination as occurring because of gender as op-
posed to ethnicity and (2) Hispanics tend to have large families, so they may
be subject to more work stressors (e.g., work-family conflict) than members
of other groups. Role ambiguity and role conflict accounted for a statistically
reliable portion of the variance in employee outcomes at step 2 (as indicated
by the F-change tests). When perceived discrimination was entered at step
3, a significant increase in R2 emerged across all employee outcomes.
Perceived Discrimination and Coping Resources
Each potential moderator of the perceived discrimination-employee
outcome relationship was separately entered at step 4, followed by cross-

TABLE 1

Descriptive Statistics and Reliabilitiesa

Possible Actual
Variable Mean s.d. a Range Range
1. Women 0.60 0.49 0-1 0-1

2. Number of dependents 1.88 1.21 1-5 1-5

3. Role ambiguity 19.85 3.76 .72 5-25 8-25
4. Role conflict 22.47 7.29 .82 8-40 8-38
5. Organizational commitment 32.47 6.37 .83 9-45 15-45
6. Job satisfaction 11.63 3.25 .83 3-15 3-15
7. Work tension 19.01 6.73 .83 7-35 7-35
8. Perceived discrimination 18.92 7.69 .87 10-50 10-48
9. Grew up in U.S. 3.34 1.47 1-5 1-5
10. Cuban 0.61 0.49 0-1 0-1
11. Salary 2.52 1.20 1-5 1-5
12. Job experience 2.05 1.16 1-5 1-5

aN= 139.

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 TABLE 2
Pearson Zero-Order Correlationsa

Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1. Woman
2. Number of dependents -.16
3. Role ambiguity -.15 .13
4. Role conflict .06 -.16 .34**
5. Organizational commitment -.11 .15
6. Job satisfaction -.18 .16 -.51** -.31** .66**
7. Work tension .07 -.13 .34** .52** -.30**
8. Perceived discrimination .05 .11 .20* .34** -.25* -
9. Grew up in U.S. .03 -.15 .25* -.04 -.02 -.14 .02
10. Cuban .04 .17 -.01 -.21* .14 .07 -.05 -.
11. Salary -.18 .39** -.19 -.20* .32** .27** -.04
12. Job experience -.12 .25* -.24* -.01 .25* .15 .08
a N = 139.
p < .05
** p < .01

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712 Academy of Management Journal June

TABLE 3

Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysesa

Adjusted
Step Predictorb AF df R2 R2 A2R2 f
Dependent variable:
Organizational commitment
1 Number of dependents 2.38 2, 136 .03 .02 .03 .13
Woman -.10
2 Role conflict 33.08** 2, 134 .35 .33 .33 -.16*

Role ambiguity -.50**

3 Perceived discrimination 3.52* 1, 133 .37 .35 .02 -.15*

4 Grew up in U.S. 1.60 1, 132 .37 .34 .01 .09

5 PD x GU 4.33* 1, 131 .39 .36 .02 .46*

4 Cuban 1.29 1, 132 .37 .34 .01 -.08

5 PD X Cuban 0.10 1, 131 .37 .33 .00 .06

4 Salary 9.08** 1, 132 .40 .38 .03 .23**

5 PD X salary 0.53 1, 131 .41 .38 .01 .17

4 Job experience 5.87* 1, 132 .40 .36 .03 .18*

5 PD x JE 4.64* 1, 131 .42 .38 .02 .49*

Job satisfaction
1 Number of dependents 3.94* 2, 136 .05 .04 .05 .13
Woman -.17*
2 Role conflict 23.46** 2, 134 .30 .28 .25 -.14

Role ambiguity -.44**

3 Perceived discrimination 4.90* 1, 133 .32 .30 .02 -.17*

4 Grew up in U.S. 0.88 1, 132 .33 .30 .00 -.07

5 PD X GU 1.51 1, 131 .34 .30 .01 -.28

4 Cuban 0.01 1, 132 .32 .29 .00 .01

5 PD X Cuban 0.77 1, 131 .32 .29 .00 .17

4 Salary 3.86* 1, 132 .34 .31 .02 .18*

5 PD X salary 6.74** 1, 131 .37 .34 .03 .66**

4 Job experience 0.77 1, 132 .33 .30 .00 .07

5 PD x JE 2.57 1, 131 .34 .31 .01 .39

Work tension
1 Number of dependents 0.93 2, 136 .02 .00 .02 -.12
Women .07
2 Role conflict 29.41** 2, 134 .31 .29 .29 .47**
Role ambiguity .17*
3 Perceived discrimination 7.41** 1, 133 .35 .32 .04 .21**
4 Grew up in U.S. 0.16 1, 132 .35 .32 .00 .03
5 PD X GU 1.25 1, 131 .36 .32 .01 -.25
4 Cuban 0.80 1, 132 .35 .32 .00 .07
5 PD x Cuban 5.64** 1, 131 .38 .35 .03 -.45**
4 Salary 9.99** 1, 132 .39 .37 .04 .24**
5 PD X salary 7.94** 1, 131 .43 .40 .04 -.68**
4 Job experience 3.87* 1, 132 .37 .34 .02 .15*
5 PD x JE 1.05 1, 131 .37 .34 .00 -.24

a Steps 4 and 5 were repeated for each p

b PD = perceived discrimination; GU = g
* p < .05
**p < .01

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1996 Sanchez and Brock 713

products or interactions among perceived discrimination and the corre

ing moderator at step 5 (Table 3). We thus repeated steps 4 and 5 four
one for each potential moderator. A separate examination of moderator
preferred because (1) the subjects-to-variables ratio in our sample d
allow a reliable test of each moderator with the other moderators held con-
stant (Cohen, 1992) and (2) potential moderators were not completely inde-
pendent, making their relative contributions difficult to disentangle (Waine
1976). We also computed omnibus regressions by entering all potential mod
erators at step 4 and all potential interactions at step 5. The results are no
reported here because they were practically identical to those obtained
the separate regression analyses. The results of the omnibus regressio
however, ruled out Type I error as an alternative explanation for the inter
tion effects.
An inspection of the F-tests associated with the change in R2 due to the
interactions provided partial support for the remaining hypotheses: the ex-
tent to which a person grew up in the United States moderated the association
between perceived discrimination and organizational commitment (Hypoth-
esis 2); a Cuban background (a dummy-coded variable) moderated the rela-
tionship between perceived discrimination and work tension (Hypothesis
3); salary moderated the association between perceived discrimination and
both job satisfaction and work tension (Hypothesis 4); and job experience
moderated the relationship between perceived discrimination and organiza-
tional commitment (Hypothesis 5). Plots of the separate regression lines
(Aiken & West, 1993) confirmed that interactions followed the expected
direction: growing up in the United States buffered the effects of perceived
discrimination on organizational commitment as predicted in Hypothesis 2
(see the sample plot of regression lines in Figure 1), membership in the
demographically dominant Cuban subgroup buffered the effects of perceived
discrimination on work tension (Hypothesis 3), a high salary buffered the
effects of perceived discrimination on both job satisfaction and work tension
(Hypothesis 4), and job experience moderated the effects of perceived dis-
crimination on organizational commitment (Hypothesis 5).
To evaluate the threat of common method variance, which may be exacer-
bated by the cross-sectional design employed here (Salancik & Pfeffer, 1978;
Spector, 1987), we employed a confirmatory factor-analytic approach to
Herman's one-factor test (McFarlin & Sweeney, 1992). Using LISREL VI
and entering all self-report scales of stressors and employee outcomes, we
calculated a one-factor model showing poor goodness of fit (X2 = 47.99,
p < .05, GFI = .76).
DISCUSSION

The central hypothesis of the present study is that a cultu

work stressor, perceived discrimination, contributes to employ
above and beyond other work stressors. Analyses of increment
perceived discrimination on organizational commitment, jo
and work tension supported this hypothesis. In addition, we p

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714 Academy of Management Journal June

FIGURE 1

Comparison of Respondents Who Grew Up in the United States and

1-

\ -

Organizational -
Commitment -

o '

-1 -

I I I I I I I I I I I
l llGrew up in U.S.
-1 0 1
_ -1 0 1 Grew up outside
Perceived DiscriminationGrew up o

growing up in the United States, having a Cuban backgroun

high salary, and having job experience would buffer the effect
discrimination on employee outcomes. Each moderator interact
ceived discrimination to affect at least one of the employee
sidered.
Our results should alert managers to the peril of employees' attributing
differences in treatment to their ethnicity. Management decisions and com-
munications with employees should be carefully shaped to prevent percep-
tions of differential treatment. Because perceived discrimination has incre-
mental effects on outcomes that have been linked to behaviors like quitting
(Hom, Caranikas-Walker, Prussia, & Griffeth, 1992), it may be an apt criterion
for evaluating the success of diversity management programs.
The interactions suggested resources that may enhance people's ability
to cope with perceived discrimination. Hispanics who grew up in the United
States, who were members of the most numerous ethnic subgroup, and who
had high pay and job experience appeared the least affected by this work
stressor. The inconsistent buffering effects across all outcomes found here
were in line with past research (Cohen & Wills, 1985; Osipow & Davis, 1988).
Partial explanation for the inconsistency might be (1) our sample's offering
insufficient statistical power to detect small interactions between continuous
variables (according to Aiken and West, 1993, upwards of 400 cases are
sometimes needed) and (2) the different natures of the employee outcomes
assessed. The match between the content of buffers and outcomes might
explain these inconsistent effects. For instance, moderation of primarily

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1996 Sanchez and Brock 715

organizational outcomes like organizational commitment may be most l

when work-related buffers (e.g., job experience) are present, whereas m
ating effects on health-related outcomes like work tension might b
achieved by extra-work buffers like support from one's ethnic subgro
Even though Dade County probably provides a typical example
large, urban, U.S. concentration of Hispanics, generalization of our
to other settings should proceed cautiously. For instance, our sample se
slightly younger and better educated than the target population. Altho
less-privileged Hispanics may perceive higher levels of discrimination t
the ones detected here, some low-income workers, such as those em
in agriculture, may perceive even less dicrimination because of their li
contact with outsiders. In fact, our results might underestimate the ef
of perceived discrimination because role conflict and role ambiguity, w
effects were partialed out, may be confounded with perceived discrimi
(one's assigned role may be influenced by one's ethnicity). By contrast,
results may overestimate some buffer effects. Support from one's
subgroup, for example, may be of less value where the subgroup is
well settled as the dominant subgroup is in Dade County.
The threat of common method variance was curtailed by the result
the one-factor test and by the demographic nature of the moderators,
are less prone to percept-percept inflation than attitudes or psycho
states (Crampton & Wagner, 1994). However, reverse causality paths
not be ruled out by the cross-sectional design. Longitudinal and experim
research is needed to draw causal inferences.
The incremental and adverse effects of perceived discrimination on
ployee outcomes underscore the need to account for stressors asso
with employee ethnicity, which have remained virtually ignored in the
stress literature. Our findings reveal the central role of perceived discrim
tion in the process of work stress through which ethnicity influences
ployee outcomes. Continued research on the managerial practices and or
zational climates that determine perceived discrimination should se
inform the design and implementation of diversity management progra
intended to prevent this work stressor.
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APPENDIX
Perceived Discrimination Scalea

1. At work, I feel uncomfortable when others make jokes or negative commentari

people of my ethnic background.
2. At work, I sometimes feel that my ethnicity is a limitation.
3. At work, many people have stereotypes about my culture or ethnic group and tr
if they were true.

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1996 Sanchez and Brock 719

4. At work, people think I

5. At work, I sometimes f
my ethnic origin.
6. At work, it bothers m
7. At work, I do not get en
8. My accent is a limitatio
9. At work, I feel that oth
10. At work, people look d

a Responses ranged from

Juan I. Sanchez is an assoc

sity. He received his Ph.
University of South Flori
analysis in high-perform
Petra Brock is a research associate at Behavioral Science Research in Miami. She
received her master's degree in industrial/organizational psychology from Florida Int
national University. Her interests include the psychometric evaluation of litigation t
and attitudinal research in organizations.

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