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A radar detects the presence of objects and locates their position in space
by transmitting electromagnetic energy and observing the returned echo.
A pulse radar transmits a relatively short burst of electromagnetic energy,
after which the receiver is turned on to listen for the echo. The echo not
only indicates that a target is present, but the time that elapses between the
transmission of the pulse and the reception of its echo is a measure of the
distance to the target. Separation of the echo signal from the transmitted
signal is made on the basis of differences in time.
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The received echo-signal power is considerably smaller than the transmitter
power (as low as 10−18 times the transmitter power - or sometimes even less).
Separate antennas for transmission and reception help isolate the weak echo
from the strong leakage signal, but this isolation is usually not sufficient.
A feasible technique for separating the received signal from the transmitted
signal, when there is relative motion between radar and target, is based on
recognizing the change in the echo-signal frequency caused by what is known
as the doppler effect.
It is well known in the field of optics and acoustics that if there is relative
motion between the source of a signal and the observer of the signal, along
the line joining the two, then an apparent shift in frequency will result. This
is the doppler effect and is the basis of CW (Continuous Wave) radars.
2R
n= (3.1)
λ
2R 4πR
φ= .2π = (3.2)
λ λ
When the target is in motion, both R and φ are changing. Now a change
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Figure 3.1: The doppler effect
dφ 4π dR 4πVr
Wd = 2πfd = = . = (3.3)
dt λ dt λ
2Vr 2Vr fo
fd = = (3.4)
λ c
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Where,
Vr = relative velocity of the target with respect to the radar along the
line-of-sight.
For a stationary radar and a moving target the relative velocity may be
written as
Vr = V cos θ (3.5)
where, V is the target speed and θ is the angle made by the target velocity
vector with the LOS. When θ = 0, the doppler frequency is a maximum.
The doppler frequency is zero when the trajectory is perpendicular to the
π
radar-target line-of-sight (that is, θ = 2
= 90o ). Also note that the doppler
frequency shift positive for an approaching target (that is, Vr is considered
to be positive) and negative for a receding target (that is, Vr is considered
to be negative).
(a) What is the doppler frequency shift recorded by the radar in aircraft
A?
(c) What should be the flight direction of aircraft B for the doppler fre-
quency shift to be zero?
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ANSWER
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that the frequency of the received signal is more than the frequency of the
transmitted signal.
(c) The doppler frequency shift will be zero when the relative velocity vr
is zero. This can happen when
θ = ±57.970 . (3.9)
Thus, the change in frequency between the transmitted signal and the
received signal allows the received signal to be separated from the trans-
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mitted signal. Apart from this, the CW radar also provides a measurement
of relative velocity which may be used to distinguish moving targets from
stationary objects and clutter.
1 + Vr /c
f ∗ = f0 . (3.10)
1 − Vr /c
(4πf0 R)/c
(3.12)
(1 − Vr /c)
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is intercepted by the target and is scattered. some of it in the direction of
the radar, where it is collected by the receiving antenna. If the target is in
motion with a velocity Vr relative to the radar, the received signal frequency
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dyned in the detector (mixer) with a portion of the transmitted signal f0 to
produce a doppler beat note of frequency fd . However, the sign of fd is lost
in this process.
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3.3 ISOLATION BETWEEN TRANSMITTER
AND RECEIVER
A single antenna serves the purpose of both transmission and reception in the
simple CW radar described above. Though, in principle, a single antenna is
sufficient as the necessary isolation is obtained by the separation in frequency
(as a result of doppler effect), in practice there is considerable transmitter
leakage. But this leakage is beneficial too since it supplies the reference fre-
quency necessary for the detection of the doppler frequency shift. Otherwise
a sample of the transmitted signal must be made available at the receiver.
However, there are two reasons why the amount of transmitter leakage power
should be kept at a low value.
• The maximum power the receiver input circuitry can withstand, with-
out being physically damaged or having its sensitivity reduced, is quite
low.
• The transmitter noise which enters the receiver from the transmitter
reduces receiver sensitivity.
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the minimum detectable signal were 10−13 watt, the transmitter noise must
be at least 110 dB below the transmitted carrier.
Et = Eo cos wo t
Er = K1 E0 cos [(wo + wd )t + φ]
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Figure 3.3: Transmitted and received signal frequency
The sign of the doppler frequency, and therefore the direction of target
motion, may be found by splitting the received signal into two channels as
shown in Fig.3.4.
EA = K2 E0 cos(±wd t + φ)
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Figure 3.4: Determination of the sign of the Doppler frequency
π
The channel B has 2
phase delay introduced in the reference signal. The
output of the channel B mixer is,
π
EB = K2 E0 cos(±wd t + φ + ) (3.13)
2
If the target is approaching (positive doppler),the outputs from the two chan-
nels are,
EA = K2 E0 cos(wd t + φ) (3.14)
π
EB = K2 E0 cos(wd t + φ + ) (3.15)
2
on the other hand, if the target is receding (negative doppler),
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π
EB (−) = K2 E0 cos(wd t + φ + ) (3.17)
2
the sign of wd and the direction of the target’s motion may be determined
according to whether the output of channel B leads or lags the output of
channel A. One method of determining the relative phase relationship be-
tween the two channels is to apply the outputs of the two channels to a
synchronous two-phase motor. The direction of the motor’s rotation is an
indication of the direction of the target’s motion.
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