Appetite 64 (2013) 20–31

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Appetite
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/appet

Research report

Survey into the seafood consumption preferences and patterns

in the portuguese population. Gender and regional variability q
Carlos Cardoso ⇑, Helena Lourenço, Sara Costa, Susana Gonçalves, Maria Leonor Nunes
Unit of Upgrading of Fishery and Aquaculture Products (U-VPPA), Portuguese Institute for the Sea and Atmosphere (IPMA), Avenida de Brasília, 1449-006 Lisbon, Portugal

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: With the purpose of achieving a deeper knowledge of one of the most important seafood markets in Eur-
Received 29 August 2012 ope, a survey into the seafood consumption preferences and patterns in the Portuguese population was
Received in revised form 14 December 2012 carried out. A thorough, comprehensive, and simple questionnaire was developed. Consumers were asked
Accepted 18 December 2012
to state their preferences towards fish products, their consumption frequencies, the average meal portion,
Available online 11 January 2013
and the usual culinary treatments. Respondents provided personal data: gender, age, geographical loca-
tion, education level, weight, height, and health condition. This paper presents the first part of the study’s
Keywords:
results, focusing mainly on the gender and regional variables. Portuguese consumers prefer wild to cul-
Seafood
Consumption survey
tured fish as well as fat to lean fish. Chilled fish is preferred over frozen, salted/dried, canned, and smoked
Consumer preferences fish, being the latter the least preferred. Soaked cod, hake, and canned tuna are the most eaten seafood
Consumption frequencies products. Men prefer to a greater extent wild and smoked fish. Men consume more cephalopods and sar-
Gender dine and women eat more frequently hake, pink cusk-eel, and redfish. Coastal populations prefer wild
Geographical location fish. Algarve (southern Portugal) consumers exhibit a stronger tendency to wild and whole fish and con-
sume more sardine and sole. Madeira archipelago consumers are particularly fond of black scabbard fish.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction and seafood products makes them an essential component of a

Seafood, particularly fish, is a nutrient-rich food source that is
widely available (IOM, 2007), being their consumption recom-
mended due to several nutritional benefits (ISSFAL, 2004). In gen-
eral, dietary recommendations advise weekly consumption of one
to two portions of fat fish (ISSFAL, 2004). In fact, fish and other
seafood products are a good source of high quality protein, low
in saturated fat, and rich in many micronutrients (like selenium
and some vitamins). They are also a good source of long chain poly-
unsaturated omega-3, particularly eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and
docosahexaenoic (DHA) fatty acids (Nunes, Bandarra, Oliveira,
Batista, & Calhau, 2006). In the past years, research has implicated
seafood, particularly its contribution of EPA and DHA, in various
health benefits associated to the developing foetus and infants,
and also to adults, including those at the decreased risk of cardio-
vascular disease (IOM, 2007). So, the high nutritional quality of fish
q
Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the project ‘‘GOODFISH’’, Ref.
PTDC/SAU-ESA/103825/2008 funded by ‘‘Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia’’
(FCT). The authors thank Dr. Isabel Castanheira, Dr. Narcisa Bandarra, Dr. Cláudia
Afonso, Eng. Irineu Batista, and Dr. Maria Fernanda Martins for their help in the
elaboration and dissemination of the survey.
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ccardoso@ipma.pt (C. Cardoso).
healthy diet (IOM, 2007).
Portugal is the European Union country with higher average an-
nual per capita seafood consumption, about 56 kg (FAO, 2009), cor-
responding to a 160 g meal of seafood per day. Moreover, with an
Exclusive Economic Zone exceeding 1,700,000 km2 and 942 km
coast line, the fishery and the consumption of fish products are
of extreme importance. Therefore, a deeper knowledge of the pref-
erences and patterns of seafood consumption by the Portuguese
population as well as an assessment of the underlying dynamics
is warranted. In order to achieve such knowledge, detailed con-
sumer surveys (down to the species level) are of paramount impor-
tance. In their absence, any probabilistic assessment of the risks
and benefits of seafood consumption by any given population re-
quires to assume hypothetical distributions (Cardoso, Bandarra,
Lourenço, Afonso, & Nunes, 2010).
Indeed, such surveys have been carried out in several other
countries, such as, Spain (FROM, 2011), France (CREDOC-AFFSA-DGAL,
1999) or the U.S.A. (Ruffle, Burmaster, Anderson, & Gordon, 2006),
and used for the assessment of the risks and benefits associated to
seafood consumption (Tressou, Crépet, Bertail, Feinberg, & Leblanc,
2004). For instance, in the United States, using more complete data
on the overall consumption of all fish by the general population
(from a survey conducted by the National Marine Fisheries
Service), strong log-normal fits were found and applied to other
countries and circumstances (Cardoso et al., 2010). Hence, these

0195-6663/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2012.12.022
 C. Cardoso et al. / Appetite 64 (2013) 20–31
surveys are invaluable tools for a more accurate assessment of the
health impact of food consumption.
However, the reliability of any survey depends strongly on the
development and design of the questionnaire (Birgisdottir, Kiely,
Martinez, & Thorsdottir, 2008; Myrland, Trondsen, Johnston, &
Lund, 2000). Thus, it is very important to prepare a balanced ques-
tionnaire based on scientific literature and previous experience
and to adjust the questions to targeted population. Indeed, there
has been much research into consumers’ motives and barriers to
seafood consumption. Particularly, efforts have been directed to
study the relationship between seafood consumption and attitudes
(Letarte, Dubé, & Troche, 1997), the impact of consumer
involvement (Olsen, 2003), lifestyle (Myrland et al., 2000), socio-
demographic aspects (Myrland et al., 2000; Olsen, 2003; Verbeke
& Vackier, 2005), health and diet beliefs (Trondsen, Braaten, Lund,
& Eggen, 2004a; Verbeke, Sioen, Pieniak, Van Camp, & De Henauw,
2005), and convenience (Olsen, 2003).
This paper presents the first part of the survey’s results, focus-
ing on the gender and regional variables. In fact, other studies
(FROM, 2011) have shown that seafood consumption preferences
and patterns may strongly vary as a function of the geographical
location of consumers. For instance, in Spain, overall seafood con-
sumption was almost twice as high in Cantabria (northern Spain,
near Bay of Biscay) than in Murcia (southern Spain, near Mediter-
ranean Sea) (FROM, 2011). This regional variation in seafood con-
sumption is more probable in large countries or wherever there
are strong latitudinal or coast-inland clines. On the other hand,
gender also matters (FROM, 2011). In this study, conducted in
Spain, there was higher proportion of men than women avoiding
consumption of horse mackerel, octopus, and hake. The relation-
ship of women with food purchase and preparation was tradition-
ally different from that of men, though industrialization,
urbanization, and the entry of women into the labour force have
greatly changed that reality in most developed countries (Jensen,
2006).
Therefore, the objective of this paper is twofold: to present and
analyze the results of the performed survey into the seafood pref-
erences and patterns in the Portuguese population with emphasis
on gender and regional variability and to debate the main difficul-
ties and the drawbacks and advantages associated to the develop-
ment and dissemination of the questionnaire, the collection of the
answers, and their statistical treatment.
Materials and methods
Elaboration of the questionnaire
The questionnaire was conceived as a thorough assessment of
the seafood preferences and consumption patterns of individual
consumers among the Portuguese population. The experience of
previous questionnaires on consumption patterns and frequencies
of particular seafood products, such as black scabbard fish, crabs,
and bivalves was used for the creation of a template. However,
the wider purpose of the novel questionnaire required that prefer-
ence questions were formulated with reference to fish in general.
Regarding consumption frequencies, a higher levels option than
in previous questionnaires had to be considered, since Portugal is
a large consumer of some fish products, such as, soaked cod and
hake (Cardoso et al., 2010). The culinary treatments part was also
extended because for fish in general there are more culinary possi-
bilities. The meal quantities and the personal features (age, gender,
and education level) parts were maintained. Accordingly, five dif-
ferent parts were included: general seafood preferences; consump-
tion frequencies of representative fish species; mean seafood meal
amounts; usual culinary treatments; and personal traits of the
21
respondents. The questionnaire was anonymous in order to guar-
antee a higher level of participation and honesty. Moreover, a com-
promise had to be reached between thoroughness and simplicity
and shortness. Hence, the number of questions was forcefully lim-
ited, thereby requiring a pondered choice of the questions and of
the wording. For this reason, each question was debated by a mul-
tidisciplinary team composed of nutritionists, marketing and sur-
vey specialists, representatives of commercial companies,
statisticians, and people experienced in the seafood sector. Fur-
thermore, the attained preliminary questionnaire was sent to a
group of twenty individuals outside the expert group with the pur-
pose of assaying the clarity, simplicity, and appropriateness of the
various questions. During this process, several alterations were
introduced, but the overall architecture of five sections (A–E) was
kept in the final form of the questionnaire (Table 1). Besides the
general preference questions of section A, in sections B–D, detailed
information was asked for a set of 23 fish products (21 in section D,
since culinary treatments were redundant for canned tuna and
canned sardine).
These fish products were chosen on the basis of consumption
importance in Portugal. Consumption data was estimated from to-
tal catches in Portuguese waters (data from Portuguese National
Statistics Institute, Instituto Nacional de Estatística, INE) and trade
data (data from EUROSTAT) (EUROSTAT, 2012; INE, 2011). For this
preliminary estimation of consumption, import values were added
to capture volumes and export values were subtracted. These esti-
mates were also used in the selection of the consumption fre-
quency options from section B (ranging from never to 5–7 meals
per week). Contrary to the other sections, section D about the culi-
nary treatments contained questions, for which multiple options
were not mutually exclusive. This was due to the different treat-
ments (boiling, frying, grilling, roasting or raw) that could be ap-
plied to some seafood. Finally, in section E, age, gender,
geographical location, education level, weight, height, and health
condition were asked. These seven personal traits represent an
extension from the initial set of three and were chosen on the basis
of the multiple consultations within the multidisciplinary team,
thus encompassing very general aspects, sociological concerns,
and a public health perspective.
Conduction of the survey
The next step after the formulation of the questionnaire was to
choose an adequate medium for the conduction of the survey. In
order to reach a large universe and different geographical regions
of the country, a web online medium was the natural option. Pre-
vious successful experience among research team members with
the Google DocsÓ 2012 Google led to the utilization of this share-
ware. The Google DocsÓ allows for simple writing procedures in
order to make the questionnaire available in the internet. After-
wards, it is only necessary to divulge through electronic mailing
lists and other means the respective web link address (https://doc-
s.google.com/spreadsheet/viewform?formkey=dDdBNVlwazBDaU
5xaElVamNnUVVGd2c6MA) among potential respondents.
The divulgation message that was sent asked receivers to fur-
ther disseminate the web link to other persons in their respective
electronic mailing lists. Those receivers willing to participate in the
survey had only to click on the web link and the survey welcome
page would be immediately accessible. The different sections of
the questionnaire were distributed into different web pages whose
access was sequential. Besides, respondents could only proceed to
the next section/page after answering to all questions in the previ-
ous section/page. This programming detail ensured that no unan-
swered questions were left behind. The only exception was
section D, where questions could be left unanswered, since it
was illogical and error-inducing to ask those consumers that did
22 C. Cardoso et al. / Appetite 64 (2013) 20–31

not consume some fish products about the culinary treatments ap-
plied to those same products. The filling of the whole questionnaire
took about 10 min, an information given to respondents, which
deemed it a reasonable amount of time. Respondents were given
the personal contact of two members of the team in order to solve
any difficulties and address any complaints related to the access to
the questionnaire and/or its understanding. In this way, it was pos-
sible to successfully carry out a national seafood consumption sur-
vey that started on the 27th December 2011 and lasted six months
until 27th June 2012, being 90% of the answers received in the first
month.
Data analysis
The data collected during the consumption survey was auto-
matically stored in a Google DocsÓ spreadsheet, which presented
a line with several fields for each respondent. The first field in-
formed the date and time when the respective questionnaire was
filled (no identification about the respondent was available, since
this survey ensured anonymity) and the remaining fields contained
the various answers. In order to thoroughly analyze the data, this
spreadsheet was converted to an ExcelÓ sheet. Overall statistical
results were calculated, for instance, the gender distribution of
the total universe of the respondents. Furthermore, a system of dy-
namic ExcelÓ tables was used. This enabled among other examples
to know the gender distribution of those respondents that dislike
frozen fish (section A). Despite of the advantages of this general
treatment of the data, a more careful analysis of each filled ques-
tionnaire was also performed. In particular, the congruence be-
tween sections B–D was scrutinized, since it could happen that
respondents that answered not to consume certain fish products
in section B could contradict this in section C by choosing a meal

Table 1
Elaborated questionnaire (five sections, A–E) on the general seafood preferences and consumption patterns of the Portuguese consumers.
 C. Cardoso et al. / Appetite 64 (2013) 20–31
quantity other than none or in section D by selecting a culinary
treatment for those products. As a criterion, for maximal reliability
of the survey, any such contradiction entailed the elimination of
the whole questionnaire of that respondent. The remaining ques-
tionnaires were considered valid.
Statistical analysis
Factorial analysis of variance (general linear model, one-dimen-
sional ANOVA) was carried out using the STATISTICAÓ software
(StatSoft, Inc., Tulsa, USA), version 6.1, 2003. This methodology en-
abled to analyze the overall distribution of respondents (as a func-
tion of gender, region, age, education level, etc.) as well as the
consumption preferences and frequencies affected by the indepen-
dent variables. The difference of means between pairs was resolved
by using confidence intervals in a Tukey HSD test. Level of signifi-
cance was set for p < 0.05.
23
Results and discussion
General survey results
Quality of the survey
The survey into the seafood consumption preferences and pat-
terns in the Portuguese population was successfully carried out,
thereby yielding a total of 1083 valid filled questionnaires. There
were some deviations in the age (only 2.2% of individuals older
than 65 years), gender (64% women), and education level (more
than 80% with higher education) distributions, which can be, at
least, partially ascribed to the difficulties of the elderly and less
educated in the use of internet resources (Table 2). This total num-
ber of answers was analyzed and characterized. The validity of the
survey is affected by the aforementioned deviations, particularly
where they are larger, too few elderly and too many respondents
with higher education (INE, 2008). Indeed, these deviations are
24 C. Cardoso et al. / Appetite 64 (2013) 20–31

Table 2 the next decades. Regarding consumption preferences and fre-

Gender, age and education level of survey respondents and Portuguese population quencies (sections A and B), results are shown in Table 3A and B.
(INE, 2008).
The results related to sections C and D, meal quantities and culi-
Parameters Survey respondents (%) Portuguese population (%) nary treatments, will be presented in another paper as the second
Gender part of this study. The last section will be divided into the two parts
Female 64a 52b in accordance to the partition between the gender and regional fac-
Male 36a 48b tors and the remaining variables.
Age
<25 years 13a 25b
25–45 years 54a 31b Seafood consumption preferences – wild vs farmed fish
45–65 years 31a 27a Concerning seafood consumption preferences, the universe of
>65 years 2a 17b
respondents clearly prefer wild to farmed fish, 62.9% vs 29.3% for
Education level
like much answers. Nonetheless, the portion of consumers abhor-
Primary 1a 60b
Secondary 16a 21a
ring cultured fish is low (3.2%). These results are reinforced by
Higher (college) 83a 19b the relatively high consumption frequency of gilthead sea bream
(44.1% eat one to four monthly meals and 7.9% never eat) and other
Values within a row with different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).
farmed fish species. It must be remarked that this species and other
typically farmed fish species were put together in a group explic-
itly referred to as aquaculture fish in the questionnaire. In a study
much connected with the difficulties of less educated and older conducted in the UK on consumer choices as a function of seafood
people in accessing and using the computer and the internet. labelling (Jaffry, Pickering, Ghulam, Whitmarsh, & Wattage, 2004),
Despite these drawbacks, this survey results are very important be- it was found that the information about farm origin had some im-
cause no such general survey has ever been done in Portugal. pact. But, this effect was weaker than that of labels mentioning
Moreover, the deviations point to future trends, since the educa- sustainability of the fishery. However, this survey of 600 British
tion level of the general population as well as the internet access households was conducted prior to the raised media profile of
has been growing—already surpassing a quarter of the population the accumulation of toxins in the flesh of farmed salmon, such that
(Orviska & Hudson, 2009)—and is expected to keep increasing over the response of British consumers may differ today from that at the

Table 3
General results (%) for Sections A and B of the survey into the seafood consumption preferences and patterns in the Portuguese population.

Utterly dislike (%) Dislike (%) Indifferent (%) Like (%) Like much (%)
A – Consumption preferences
Wild fish 0.6a 4.2a 2.9a 29.5a 62.9b
Farmed fish 3.2a 12.3b 5.4a 49.8b 29.3a
Lean fish 1.0a 9.8b 9.4b 48.4b 31.4a
Fat fish 0.8a 2.7a 3.0a 36.2a 57.3b
Fresh fish 0.4a 0.6a 1.8a 14.2a 83.1b
Frozen fish 2.2a 12.2b 13.4bc 61.0d 11.2a
Smoked fish 19.3c 24.4c 18.8c 26.1b 11.4a
Salted/dried fish 11.4b 15.1bc 12.9b 44.0c 16.6a
Canned fish 6.1a 19.2c 13.8bc 49.4c 11.5a
Whole fish 1.3a 4.1a 10.2a 35.4a 49.0b
Fish steaks 0.6a 3.1a 7.6a 53.2b 35.5a
Fish fillets 1.1a 6.0a 9.9a 48.9b 34.1a
Never (%) <1 meal/month (%) 1–4 meal/month (%) 2–4 meal/week (%) 5–7 meal/week (%)
B – Consumption frequency
Squid 9.0a 53.6c 35.3c 1.8a 0.4a
Octopus 10.0a 56.0c 31.8bc 1.8a 0.5a
Cuttlefish 20.8b 54.9c 22.7b 1.1a 0.5a
Shrimp 7.9a 57.7c 30.5bc 3.6a 0.3a
Edible crab 34.6c 59.6c 4.9a 0.5a 0.5a
Common mussel 40.0cd 52.1c 6.7a 0.9a 0.3a
Grooved carpet shell 21.7b 63.4c 13.4ab 0.9a 0.6a
Cod (soaked) 2.8a 13.8a 62.6d 18.8c 2.0a
Gilthead sea bream 7.9a 37.1b 44.1cd 10.2b 0.6a
Sea bass 13.9ab 41.9bc 36.8c 6.6a 0.7a
Salmon 12.4ab 30.3ab 45.7cd 10.2b 1.4a
Panga 74.5f 16.3a 7.3a 1.4a 0.6a
Hake 9.9a 25.4ab 45.1cd 18.1c 1.6a
Pink cusk-eel 37.0c 35.1b 22.8b 4.9a 0.2a
Redfish 44.0d 36.5b 15.7ab 3.5a 0.3a
Black scabbard fish 32.9cd 44.0bc 19.6b 3.1a 0.5a
Perch 54.7de 30.5ab 12.7ab 1.6a 0.6a
Sole 35.2c 47.4bc 14.5ab 2.6a 0.4a
Sardine 16.7ab 42.4bc 32.0bc 7.4a 1.5a
Horse mackerel 14.1ab 42.7bc 32.9bc 9.0ab 1.4a
Chub mackerel 58.5e 29.5ab 9.3a 2.4a 0.3a
Canned tuna 5.5a 27.9ab 45.8cd 17.5c 3.3a
Canned sardine 43.9d 33.4b 17.1ab 4.5a 1.1a

For each preference alternatives (wild vs farmed fish; lean vs fat fish; fresh fish and others; whole fish and others), values within a column with different letters are
significantly different (p < 0.05).
 C. Cardoso et al. / Appetite 64 (2013) 20–31
time of the survey (2001). In fact, a Belgian study has shown that
despite indications that wild fish are more susceptible to heavy
metal contamination due to higher exposure to contaminants in
the seas, consumers deemed wild salmon healthier to eat than
farmed salmon (Verbeke, Frewer, Scholderer, & De Brabander,
2007). In Spain—geographically nearer to Portugal—, it was re-
cently reported that the dichotomy wild-farmed was influential
alongside to storage conditions and purchasing price upon con-
sumer decision making (Claret et al., 2012). But, the importance
of this variable was smaller than that of the country of origin. In
a Spanish survey similar to that carried out in this study, a similar
conclusion was reached (FROM, 2011).
Seafood consumption preferences – fat vs lean fish
Surveyed Portuguese consumers also display a higher prefer-
ence for fat fish than for lean fish (57.3% vs 31.4%). This preference
is only partially supported by the frequency results, given the high
number of soaked cod and hake meals—20.8% and 19.7% consume
more than two weekly meals, respectively—in comparison to fatty
fish species, such as, salmon or horse mackerel—11.6% and 10.4%,
respectively. Hence, that result may be ascribed to a positive image
of fish fat, namely, x3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (McManus,
Merga, & Newton, 2011). In a Norwegian survey (Trondsen,
Scholderer, Lund, & Eggen, 2003), it was also reported a higher con-
sumption of lean fish (cod, haddock, etc.) than fat fish (salmon,
trout, mackerel, etc.) meals, 4.96 vs 2.46 monthly servings.
According to these authors, this result was brought about by the
fact that lean fish has traditionally been cheaper than salmon in
the Norwegian market. Indeed, consumption of fat fish has in-
creased while market prices have fallen. Other studies on fish con-
sumption in different countries, for instance, in France (Bemrah,
Sirot, Leblanc, & Volatier, 2009) have reached similar results.
Seafood consumption preferences – presentation
Regarding seafood presentations, chilled (fresh) fish is much
more liked (83.1%) than frozen (11.2%), smoked (11.4%), salted/
dried (which encompasses various salted and dried fish with spe-
cial importance of cod) (16.6%), and canned fish (11.5%). On the
other extreme of the scale, smoked fish is particularly disliked,
19.3% of the respondents utterly dislike it. Among remaining
categories, frozen fish (72.2% like it, sum of the like and like much
categories, Table 3A) seems to attain higher acceptance than
canned (60.9%, like + like much) and salted/dried fish (60.6%
like + like much). With the exception of these latter options, the
consumption frequency answers cannot corroborate these results,
since many seafood products are stored frozen as well as chilled.
The high number of consumers eating more than one monthly
soaked cod serving (83.4%), sold in Portugal as salted and dried fish
and afterwards soaked at home or sold already soaked (industrial
desalting of the salted and dried cod), and more than one monthly
canned tuna meal (66.6%) match stated preferences. Only canned
sardine consumption frequency values depart from canned fish
preferences, given that 77.3% individuals reported a consumption
level below one monthly serving. While soaked cod is an idiosyn-
cratic Portuguese preference, for the other forms an international
comparison is possible. This comparison shows that, for instance,
in the neighbouring country, Spain, consumption frequency seems
to follow Portuguese preferences, chilled > frozen > canned prod-
ucts and smoked products (FROM, 2011). Indeed, another Spanish
study reported that fresh sea fish was preferred compared with
frozen sea fish (Claret et al., 2012). Despite having augmented
during the last decades, frozen fish consumption is currently still
below that of chilled fish (MARM., 2010). This may be ascribed to
consumers’ interest for products with a low level of processing
(Cleveland, Montville, Nes, & Chikindas, 2001). The level of han-
dling and processing involved in the production and retailing of
25
food, probably suggests loss of the original and natural character-
istics of the product. Hence, the longer the distance between the
fisherman and the consumer, the higher the uncertainty in terms
of safety (Nygård & Storstad, 1998), quality, nutritional value,
and naturalness (Claret et al., 2012). The development of existing
and new technologies to accelerate freezing process has contrib-
uted to a higher quality of frozen fish (LeBail, Chevalier, Mussa, &
Ghoul, 2002). However, some changes in the taste, odour, texture,
and colour of fish can occur during freezing, frozen storage, and
thawing (Sveinsdottir et al., 2009), particularly when these pro-
cesses are not performed appropriately.
Seafood consumption preferences – whole fish vs fish steaks vs fish
fillets
Portuguese consumers like whole fish products much more
than fish steaks or fish fillets, 49.0% vs 35.5% and 34.1%, respec-
tively. This cannot be easily correlated to consumption levels of
the various fish products, since many products can be sold whole
or portioned. However, it may reflect consumption of species like
sardine and mackerel, which are mostly served whole in line with
culinary conventions (sardine fillets are not a suitable product for
grilling) and the preference for fresh quality (whole fish protects
the flesh, which is exposed for microorganism degradation after fil-
leting without proper packaging or other protection). This whole
fish preference was also found in other survey studies (Wang, Jian,
Weisong, Zetian, & Xiaoshuan, 2009). The primary processed prod-
ucts, such as whole or headed/gutted frozen, were more popular
than deep processed products, such as fillets or fish balls. As previ-
ously mentioned, consumers choose products with a lower level of
processing (Cleveland et al., 2001).
Consumption frequency
With respect to consumption frequency (section B) results,
soaked cod, hake, and canned tuna are the staple fish products in
Portugal, with approximately 20% of the respondents ascribing
them frequencies equal to or above two weekly meals. Gilthead
sea bream and salmon, also present relatively high consumption
levels, thereby demonstrating the significant penetration of farmed
fish products in the Portuguese diet. This is much more remarkable
for salmon, which did not belong traditionally to the fish products
eaten in the country.
On the other hand, traditional Portuguese fish products, such as,
sardine and horse mackerel—small pelagic fish abundant in Portu-
guese territorial waters—, seem to have lost some importance
though keeping a prominent role (ca. 10% acknowledge consuming
these products two or more times per week). These results are
reinforced by the high fractions of the sampled population con-
suming soaked cod, hake, canned tuna, sea bream, salmon, sardine,
and horse mackerel, at least, once per week: soaked cod, 62.6%,
hake, 45.1%, canned tuna, 45.8%, sea bream, 44.1%, salmon, 45.7%,
sardine, 32.0%, and horse mackerel, 32.9%. On the other extreme
of the consumption levels, panga, chub mackerel, perch, redfish,
canned sardine, and common mussel are much less consumed,
with respectively 74.5%, 58.5%, 54.7%, 44.0%, 43.9%, and 40.0% of
the participants in the survey declaring never to consume them.
The remaining 10 products (squid, octopus, cuttlefish, shrimp, edi-
ble crab, grooved carpet shell, pink cusk-eel, black scabbard fish,
sole, and sea bass) have intermediate consumption levels. The
cephalopods (squid, octopus, and cuttlefish) are predominantly ea-
ten less than once per month. The same applies to shrimp and edi-
ble crab as well as to grooved carpet shell, which is never or
seldom (<1 meal/month) consumed by 21.7% and 63.4% of the
respondents, respectively. Moreover, while pink cusk-eel, black
scabbard fish, and sole have relatively low consumption patterns,
sea bass is nearer to the group of staple fish products, because
26 C. Cardoso et al. / Appetite 64 (2013) 20–31
40% of the sampled population ascribe it more than a monthly
serving.
This data show that consumption frequency levels do not fit ni-
cely into the categories previously defined, such as, farmed vs wild
or fat vs lean fish. In these major groups and for canned products, it
is possible to find products with high and low frequencies. More-
over, the survey results broadly agree with the apparent consump-
tion estimates made on the basis of statistical information
(Cardoso et al., 2010). The only main divergence is the larger
importance ascribed by surveyed persons to gilthead sea bream
and salmon. It is possible that the above mentioned sampling dis-
tortions toward younger and more educated people may partially
explain the divergence, since these two species are relatively novel
in the Portuguese market and, as such, less prone to be adopted
into the consumption habits of elderly consumers. Price has obvi-
ously some effect upon the consumption frequencies. It deters con-
sumers from eating expensive products such as cod and favours
cheaper ones like sardine. However, consumption choices by the
Portuguese people are strongly affected by tradition. Soaked cod
is the most consumed product despite costing twice or more as
much as other products, since it is a Portuguese staple food. Half
a century ago, it was very abundant and cheap and considered a
poor’s fish. More recently, the overexploitation of this resource
and the barring of Portuguese fishing vessels to The Newfoundland
banks led to a great price increase, which affected its consumption
but did not ousted it from the top Portuguese foods ranking.
Any international comparison of consumption frequencies is
thwarted by the differences in the specific seafood diets between
countries, even neighbouring ones, such Portugal and Spain
(Cardoso et al., 2010). Although Spanish consumers also frequently
eat hake and canned tuna, their cod and horse mackerel consump-
tion (FROM, 2011) is lower than the Portuguese. The cod case high-
lights the paramount importance of historical and geographical
differences between the two countries, despite some new products
as salmon seem to have already encroached in the Portuguese mar-
ket during the last decades (Guillotreau, 2004).
Gender variability
Gender variability and seafood consumption preferences and
frequencies
The performed survey results were also subjected to a deeper
statistical analysis, which addressed the dependence of the seafood
Fig. 1. Wild seafood preference as a function of gender and geographical area (coastal distance and region). For each variable (gender, coastal proximity, and region), bars
with different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).
consumption preferences and frequencies on relevant personal fac-
tors, such as, gender or geographical location.
Regarding gender, despite some sampling deviation (64% wo-
men) with respect to the male/female proportion in the Portuguese
population, 52% women (INE, 2008), the number of respondent
males was high enough and well distributed geographically to be
representative. First and foremost, men prefer wild fish to a higher
degree than women (69.5% vs 59.2% like it very much) (Fig. 1). On
the other hand, men dislike frozen fish more than women (Fig. 2).
Concerning smoked fish, men display a more favourable attitude
than women, for instance, 15.1% male respondents stated that they
like it very much while only 9.2% females were of the same opin-
ion. A higher male preference for salted and dried as well as canned
fish was also measured. At a more specific level, there are also dif-
ferences between consumption frequencies. Men consume more
cephalopods, particularly octopus, than women (Fig. 3). Another
interesting difference is the higher consumption frequency of hake,
pink cusk-eel, and redfish exhibited by the feminine population
(Fig. 4). Indeed, 23.9% women eat, at least, two weekly hake
servings, which compares with 12.1% among men. This same con-
sumption level is also consistently higher among women for pink
cusk-eel and redfish, 6.8% vs 2.1% and 4.7% vs 2.1%, respectively.
Contrastingly, men consume more frequently sardine than women
(Fig. 5). In fact, whereas 37.3% women eat sardine more than once
each month, 47.2% men declared to be in this frequency segment.
For other questionnaire items, no difference was found.
Gender variability and its importance
These gender differences may be ascribed to cultural factors.
Namely, women prepare more often their own meals while men
eat in restaurants. Despite the growing participation of women in
the labour force (Jensen, 2006), the relationship of women with
food purchase and preparation has been historically different from
that of men. This proximity between women and kitchen may ex-
plain a higher acceptance of frozen fish products. On the other
hand, smoked fish are considered delicatessen in Portugal, typi-
cally listed in the menus of some restaurants, but seldom among
the fish products sold as delicacies in supermarkets. In addition,
sardines are traditionally eaten in restaurants and outdoors, ‘sar-
dinhada’, where male participation is higher. Many women abhor
preparing sardines because they are typically grilled and such culi-
nary treatment generates much smoke and unpleasant smell, very
inconvenient for indoor cooking. Women are also more sensitive to
health issues than men (Fagerli & Wandel, 1999), which may ex-
 C. Cardoso et al. / Appetite 64 (2013) 20–31 27

Fig. 2. Fresh, frozen, smoked, salted/dried, and canned seafood preference as a function of gender. For each variable (gender), bars with different letters are significantly
different (p < 0.05).

Fig. 3. Octopus consumption frequency as a function of gender and geographical area (coastal distance and region). For each variable (gender, coastal proximity, and region),
bars with different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).

plain their higher consumption of some lean fish species, such as,
hale, pink cusk-eel, and redfish.
Therefore, cultural factors and higher health consciousness in
women may be the underlying causes to the observed differences.
In fact, other consumer studies have reported gender differences
(FROM, 2011). However, in this Spanish study, differences were
not so clear, being women more favourable to fresh fish. Another
important aspect is the proclivity of women toward dietary
changes that are perceived as enhancing health, including higher
fish consumption (Fagerli & Wandel, 1999). A more recent survey
of Central European consumers (Verbeke, Vermeir, & Brunsø,
2007) has shown that significantly more women belong to the seg-
ments of fish connoisseurs, whereas men rather belong to the seg-
ment of uninvolved fish consumers—displaying lower fish
consumption levels. This difference in the overall fish consumption
is not found in the current study. But, Portuguese culture is Medi-
terranean with higher fish consumption levels than in Central Eur-
ope (Cardoso et al., 2010).
Regional variability
Regional variability and seafood consumption preferences and
frequencies
Geographical location was another studied variable. The sam-
pled population presented a regional distribution quite similar to
that of the Portuguese population (INE, 2008) (Fig. 6). This means
that more than 80% of the surveyed individuals lived in Coastal
areas and that only two important regions exhibited a sampling
bias, Lisbon (above national weight) and North (below). For the
insular areas of Madeira and Azores archipelagos—less populated
than the other regions—, the necessarily lower number of filled
questionnaires (<30) led to less reliable and more random results.
Distance from the sea is an important geographical parameter.
Populations living in inland areas are less attracted to wild fish,
53.7% vs 64.3% like it much (Fig. 1). Between the seven regions, Al-
garve is set apart by its fondness of wild (Fig. 1), whole, and, to a
lesser extent, canned fish (Fig. 7). The preference differences be-
28 C. Cardoso et al. / Appetite 64 (2013) 20–31

Fig. 4. Hake, pink cusk-eel, and redfish consumption frequency as a function of gender. For each variable (gender), bars with different letters are significantly different
(p < 0.05).

Fig. 5. Sardine consumption frequency as a function of gender and geographical area (coastal distance and region). For each variable (gender, coastal proximity, and region),
bars with different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).

tween the other mainland and populous areas of Portugal are smal-
ler. Moreover, there were several interesting variations in the con-
sumption frequency of the studied seafood products. Effectively,
coastal populations present a higher consumption level of octopus,
with 35.3% eating, at least, one serving of this product every month
(the same figure for inland areas is only 26.8%) (Fig. 3). These pop-
ulations also exhibit lower consumption frequencies of farmed fish
species, such as, gilthead sea bream and sea bass (Fig. 8). Whereas
a large fraction of the populations far (>100 km) of the coast con-
sume one or more monthly meals of sea bream and sea bass,
61.7 and 52.4%, respectively, only 53.8% and 42.7% do the same
in the coastal regions. This corroborates the above mentioned pref-
erence of the coastal consumers for wild fish. Inland populations
also display higher consumption levels of sardine, only 8.7% de-
clare never eating sardine, which compares to 18.0% for consumers
living near the sea (Fig. 5).
Another interesting situation is found in the Madeira archipel-
ago, where black scabbard fish is frequently consumed, much more
than in any other Portuguese region (Fig. 9). With respect to
sole, Algarve and Alentejo, two southern areas, present markedly
higher consumption frequencies (Fig. 9). Likewise, in southern Por-
tugal, sardine consumption is higher (Fig. 5). The total seafood
consumption (attained by addition of the average number of
weekly meals of each one of the 23 studied products in any given
region) is similar in almost all Portuguese regions. In fact, whereas
Azores had 3.9 weekly meals, Algarve, Alentejo, Centre, Lisbon,
North, and Madeira yielded higher weekly meals: Algarve, 7.8,
Alentejo, 8.3, Centre, 7.5, Lisbon, 7.5, North, 7.5, and Madeira, 9.0,
respectively. The Azores archipelago deviation may be due to the
consumption of fish species not found in other Portuguese regions
and, as such, not included in the questionnaire.
Regional variability and its importance
Residence region has been shown to be a significant indepen-
dent factor associated with seafood consumption (Myrland et al.,
2000). In particular, observed geographical variations seem to be
much influenced by distance of the coast and cultural factors.
The proximity of the sea is the most obvious factor, accounting
for the preference and consumption of wild sea fish. It has been re-
ported for other countries that high seafood consumption, promi-
nently including wild fish caught off the coast, is associated to
littoral areas (Bemrah et al., 2009).
However, this effect can be masked by other geographical
clines, as happens in Spain (FROM, 2011), where there is a
 C. Cardoso et al. / Appetite 64 (2013) 20–31 29

Fig. 6. Map of Portugal containing regional distribution of survey respondents and Portuguese population (INE, 2008). For each one of the seven regions, values with different
letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).

Fig. 7. Canned and whole fish preference as a function of geographical area (region). For each variable (region), bars with different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).

North–South gradient that matches an Atlantic–Mediterranean Murcia (southern Spain, near Mediterranean Sea) (FROM, 2011).
contrast. Indeed, overall seafood consumption was almost twice The relative poverty in fish in the Mediterranean Sea seems to be
as high in Cantabria (northern Spain, near Bay of Biscay) than in influential. However, Portugal is much smaller than Spain as well
30 C. Cardoso et al. / Appetite 64 (2013) 20–31

Fig. 8. Farmed fish consumption frequency as a function of geographical area (coastal distance). For each variable (coastal proximity), bars with different letters are
significantly different (p < 0.05).

Fig. 9. Black scabbard fish and sole consumption frequency as a function of geographical area (region). For each variable (region), bars with different letters are significantly
different (p < 0.05).

as totally Atlantic, being its inland areas no more than 200 km far
away of the sea. Accordingly, no large differences were found with
exception of Algarve, which is the southern most province of main-
land Portugal with traditionally large fishing populations. This
seems to matter and explain a more prominent taste for wild
and whole fish (including sardine and sole) in this region.
Finally, the large consumption of black scabbard fish in Madeira
is due to its abundance in this archipelago’s waters (Renzoni, Zino,
& Franchi, 1998). In fact, food consumption patterns are strongly
related to local food supply (Nestle et al., 1998). Local food sources
make it easier to prepare quality meals from fresh raw materials.
Moreover, they affect the dissemination of taste preferences, culi-
nary practices, and eating patterns over the generations and
throughout the marketing channels. Limitations in local fish supply
are therefore important constraints strongly influencing regional
discrepancies in seafood consumption (Trondsen, Braaten, Lund,
& Eggen, 2004b).
Conclusions
It was possible to successfully undertake and complete the sur-
vey study on the basis of web resources. Despite some deviations,
such as a larger female participation, a representative sampling
population was attained, yielding a total of 1083 valid question-
naires. It was found out that Portuguese consumers still prefer wild
to cultured fish as well as fat to lean fish. Regarding presentations,
chilled fish is preferred over frozen, salted/dried, canned, and
smoked fish, being the latter the least preferred. Furthermore,
whole fish is also more valued than fish steaks and fillets by Portu-
guese consumers. Soaked cod, hake, and canned tuna are the most
eaten seafood products. Sea bream and salmon, albeit farmed fish,
find also large acceptance. There seems to be some loss of impor-
tance of sardine and horse mackerel. There is some discrepancy be-
tween preferences and the actual consumption patterns, for
instance, in the observed high consumption levels of farmed
 C. Cardoso et al. / Appetite 64 (2013) 20–31
species and canned tuna. This means that there is an opportunity
for seafood distributors supplying whole wild fish not so expensive
and of good sensory and nutritional quality, as can be the case of
Atlantic and chub mackerel.
Due to cultural factors, gender matters not only concerning
preferences, but also consumption frequencies. Men prefer to a
greater extent wild and smoked fish while women accept better
frozen fish. Men consume more cephalopods and sardine and wo-
men eat more frequently hake, pink cusk-eel, and redfish.
On the other hand, it was observed that geographical factors,
such as, coastal vs inland location, latitude (South–North), and
insularity affected preferences and some products’ consumption
patterns. Coastal populations prefer wild fish and eat less farmed
fish products. Algarve (southern Portugal) consumers exhibit a
stronger tendency to wild and whole fish and consume more sar-
dine and sole. Madeira archipelago consumers are particularly fond
of black scabbard fish. These regional variations are to be ascribed
to local availability of fish products and related cultural factors.
References
Bemrah, N., Sirot, V., Leblanc, J. C., & Volatier, J. L. (2009). Fish and seafood
consumption and omega 3 intake in French coastal populations. CALIPSO
survey. Public Health Nutrition, 12(5), 599–608.
Birgisdottir, B. E., Kiely, M., Martinez, J. A., & Thorsdottir, I. (2008). Validity of a food
frequency questionnaire to assess intake of seafood in adults in three European
countries. Food Control, 19, 648–653.
Cardoso, C., Bandarra, N., Lourenço, H., Afonso, C., & Nunes, M. (2010).
Methylmercury risks and EPA+DHA benefits associated with seafood
consumption in Europe. Risk Analysis, 30(5), 827–840.
Claret, A., Guerrero, L., Aguirre, E., Rincón, L., Hernández, M. D., Martínez, I., et al.
(2012). Consumer preferences for sea fish using conjoint analysis. Exploratory
study of the importance of country of origin, obtaining method, storage
conditions and purchasing price. Food Quality and Preference, 26, 259–266.
Cleveland, J., Montville, T. J., Nes, I. F., & Chikindas, M. L. (2001). Bacteriocins. Safe,
natural antimicrobials for food preservation. International Journal of Food
Microbiology, 71(1), 1–20.
CREDOC-AFFSA-DGAL (1999). Enquête INCA (individuelle et nationale sur les
consommations alimentaires). In J. L. Volatier (Ed.) (TEC&DOC ed. (TEC&DOC
ed.). Paris, France: Lavoisier.
EUROSTAT. EU27 trade data since 1995 by CN8 for fisheries product and Portugal.
<http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?query=BOOKMARK_DS-
016890_QID_60911498_UID_-3F171EB0&layout> Accessed 18.06.12.
Fagerli, R. A., & Wandel, M. (1999). Gender differences in opinions and practices
with regard to a ‘‘healthy diet’’. Appetite, 32, 171–190.
FAO (2009). FAO Yearbook. Fishery and Aquaculture Statistics 2007 Commodities/FAO
(Vol. 101). Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations. 99 p.
FROM (2011). Hábitos de compra y consumo de los productos pesqueros en la
población española. Madrid, Spain: Fondo de Regulación y Organización del
Mercado de los Productos de la Pesca y Cultivos Marinos. <http://www.from.es/
multimedia/Habitos%20consumo%202011_tcm85-48938.pdf> Accessed
21.06.12.
Guillotreau, P. (2004). How does the European seafood industry stand after the
revolution of salmon farming. An economic analysis of fish prices. Marine Policy,
28, 227–233.
INE (2008). Estatísticas demográficas 2007. Instituto Nacional de Estatística, 2008:
Lisboa.
INE (2011). Estatísticas da pesca 2010. Lisboa, 2011: Instituto Nacional de Estatística.
IOM (2007). Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks. Washington, DC, USA:
National Academy Press. 722 p.
31
ISSFAL (2004). Recommendations for intake of polynsaturated fatty acids in healthy
adults. (22 p). International Society for the Study of Fatty Acids and Lipids.
Jaffry, S., Pickering, H., Ghulam, Y., Whitmarsh, D., & Wattage, P. (2004). Consumer
choices for quality and sustainability labelled seafood products in the UK. Food
Policy, 29, 215–228.
Jensen, H. H. (2006). Changes in seafood consumer preference patterns and
associated changes in risk exposure. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 53, 591–598.
LeBail, A., Chevalier, D., Mussa, D. M., & Ghoul, M. (2002). High pressure freezing and
thawing of foods. A review. International Journal of Refrigeration-Revue
Internationale du Froid, 25(5), 504–513.
Letarte, A., Dubé, L., & Troche, V. (1997). Similarities and differences in affective and
cognitive origins of food likes and dislikes. Appetite, 28, 115–129.
MARM. (2010). Consumo Alimentario en España. Madrid: Ministerio de Medio
Ambiente y Medio Rural y Marino e Instituto Cerdá. <http://www.marm.es>
Accessed 27.06.12.
McManus, A., Merga, M., & Newton, W. (2011). Omega-3 fatty acids. What
consumers need to know. Appetite, 57, 80–83.
Myrland, Ø., Trondsen, T., Johnston, R. S., & Lund, E. (2000). Determinants of seafood
consumption in Norway. Lifestyle, revealed preferences, and barriers to
consumption. Food Quality and Preference, 11, 169–188.
Nestle, M., Wing, R., Birch, L., DiSogra, L., Drewnowski, A., Middleton, S., et al. (1998).
Behavioral and social influences on food choice. Nutrition Reviews, 56(5),
S50–S74.
Nunes, M. L., Bandarra, N., Oliveira, L., Batista, I., & Calhau, M. A. (2006). Composition
and nutritional value of fishery products consumed in Portugal. In J. B. Luten, C.
Jacobsen, K. Bekaert, A. Saeb, & J. Oehlenschläger (Eds.), Seafood research from
fish to dish, quality, safety and processing of wild and farmed fish (pp. 477–487).
Wageningen, The Netherlands: Wageningen Academic Publishers.
Nygård, B., & Storstad, O. (1998). De-globalization of food markets? Consumer
perceptions of safe food. Sociologia Ruralis, 38(1), 35–53.
Olsen, S. O. (2003). Understanding the relationship between age and seafood
consumption. The mediating role of attitude, health involvement and
convenience. Food Quality and Preference, 14, 199–209.
Orviska, M., & Hudson, J. (2009). Dividing or uniting Europe? Internet usage in the
EU. Information Economics and Policy, 21, 279–290.
Renzoni, A., Zino, F., & Franchi, E. (1998). Mercury levels along the food chain and
risk for exposed populations. Environmental Research, 77, 68–72.
Ruffle, B., Burmaster, D. E., Anderson, P. D., & Gordon, H. D. (2006). Lognormal
distributions for fish consumption by the general U.S. population. Risk Analysis,
14(4), 395–404.
Sveinsdottir, K., Martinsdottir, E., Green-Petersen, D., Hyldig, G., Schelvis, R., &
Delahunty, C. (2009). Sensory characteristics of different cod products related to
consumer preferences and attitudes. Food Quality and Preference, 20, 120–132.
Tressou, J., Crépet, A., Bertail, P., Feinberg, M. H., & Leblanc, J. C. (2004). Probabilistic
exposure assessment to food chemicals based on extreme value theory.
Application to heavy metals from fish and sea products. Food and Chemical
Toxicology, 42, 1349–1358.
Trondsen, T., Scholderer, J., Lund, E., & Eggen, A. E. (2003). Perceived barriers to
consumption of fish among Norwegian women. Appetite, 41, 301–314.
Trondsen, T., Braaten, T., Lund, E., & Eggen, A. E. (2004a). Health and seafood
consumption patterns among women aged 45–69 years. A Norwegian seafood
consumption study. Food Quality and Preference, 15, 117–128.
Trondsen, T., Braaten, T., Lund, E., & Eggen, A. E. (2004b). Consumption of seafood.
The influence of overweight and health beliefs. Food Quality and Preference, 15,
361–374.
Verbeke, W., Sioen, I., Pieniak, Z., Van Camp, J., & De Henauw, S. (2005). Consumer
perception versus scientific evidence about health benefits and safety risks from
fish consumption. Public Health Nutrition, 8, 422–429.
Verbeke, W., & Vackier, I. (2005). Individual determinants of fish consumption.
Application of the theory of planned behaviour. Appetite, 44, 67–82.
Verbeke, W., Frewer, L. J., Scholderer, J., & De Brabander, H. F. (2007a). Why
consumers behave as they do with respect to food safety and risk information.
Analytica Chimica Acta, 586, 2–7.
Verbeke, W., Vermeir, I., & Brunsø, K. (2007b). Consumer evaluation of fish quality
as basis for fish market segmentation. Food Quality and Preference, 18, 651–661.
Wang, F., Jian, Z., Weisong, M., Zetian, F., & Xiaoshuan, Z. (2009). Consumers’
perception toward quality and safety of fishery products, Beijing, China. Food
Control, 20, 918–922.