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Q-1: What are coordination number of BCC, FCC and HCP crystal structure?
A-1: CN, the coordination number, which is the number of closest neighbors to which an atom is bonded.
CN of BCC structure is 8
CN of FCC structure is 12
CN of HCP structure is 12
BCC FCC
HCP
Q-2: What are packing factors of BCC, FCC and HCP crystal structure?
A-2: APF, the atomic packing factor, which is the fraction of the volume of the cell actually occupied by
the hard spheres. APF = Sum of atomic volumes/Volume of cell.
APF of BCC structure is 0.68
APF of FCC structure is 0.74
APF of HCP structure is 0.74
Q-3: How many slip planes are there in BCC, FCC and HCP crystal structure?
A-3:
Crystal Slip Planes
BCC {110}, {112}, {123}
FCC {111}
HCP Basal plane, Prismatic & Pyramidal planes
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[1 3 3] a/3, b, c
[1 2 0] a/2, -b, 0c
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Q-5: Show crystalographic planes [1 0 2], [2 2 1], [6 3 2], [10 1 0]
A-5:
Crystalographic Planes
[1 0 2]
[ 2 2 1]
[632]
[10 1 0]
Plane
ABCD
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Q-6: Show Burger’s vector in edge and screw dislocations.
A-6: Burger’s vector in edge dislocations Burger’s vector in screw dislocations
Q-7: Why fine grained structure is harder than coarse grain structure?
A-7: The smaller the grain size, the more frequent is the pile up of dislocations. With decrease in grain
size, the mean distance of a dislocation can travel decreases, and soon starts pile up of dislocations at
grain boundaries. This leads to increase in yield strength of the material.
Q-8: What is the type of solid solution (a) copper and nickel (b) Iron and carbon
A-8: (a) copper and nickel
Cu-Ni forms a sunstitutional solid solution. If a melt of Cu and Ni with any composition is
cooled, a solid solution begins to freeze out. This solid solution is richer in Ni than the liquid
solution. As the two phase system of solid plus melt is cooled further, the mole fractin of Ni
decreases in both the solid solution and the liquid melt.
Q-9: Differentiate between the following; a) age hardening b) strain hardening c) precipitation
hardening.
A-9: a) Age hardening or c) precipitation hardening.
Age hardening is produced by solution treating and quenching an alloy. Term ‘Age hardening’ is used
to describe the process because strength develops with time. Requisite for precipitation hardening to
take place is that second phase must be soluble at an elevated temperature but precipitates upon
quenching and aging at a lower temperature. This limits the alloy systems which can be
strengthened by precipitation hardening. For example: Al-alloys, Cu-Be alloys, Mg-Al alloys, Cu-Sn
alloys. If the precipitation occurs at normal ambient temperatures, it is called natural aging. Some
alloy systems needed to be aged at higher temperatures and the process is known as artificial aging.
Most precipitation hardened alloys are limited in their maximum service temperatures, which may
lose their strength at elevated temperatures due to over-aging.
b) Strain hardening
• Phenomenon where ductile metals become stronger and harder when they are deformed
plastically is called strain hardening or work hardening.
• During plastic deformation, dislocation density increases. And thus their interaction with
each other resulting in increase in yield stress.
• Dislocation density (ρ) and shear stress (τ) are related as, τ = τ o + A ρ
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Q-10: Explain the effect of mean stress on fatigue life.
A-10: Failure that occurs under fluctuating/cyclic loads – Fatigue. Fatigue occurs at stresses that
considerable smaller than yield/tensile strength of the material. S-N testing is done under
alternating (completely reversed) loading and stress. Here mean stress (σm) is zero. If mean stress is
present then fatigue life will change according to the following diagram.
Following empirical curves are used to estimate mean stress effects on fatigue life
a. Soderberg (USA, 1930)
b. Goodman (England, 1899)
c. Gerber (Germany, 1874)
d. Morrow (USA, 1960s)
Q-11: Explain the difference between Soderberg line and Goodman line.
A-11:
σ max − σ min
Alternating stress (σ a ) =
2
σ max + σ min
Mean stress (σ m ) =
2
Yield strength = σ y
Ultimate TensileStrength = σ u
σa σm
1. Goodman Line + =1
σ e σ ut
σa σm
2. Soderberg Line + =1
σe σ y
• Most actual test data tend to fall above the Goodman line.
• The Soderberg line is very conservative and seldom used.
Q-12: What are creep resistant alloy? Give composition of Nimonic 90 and Vitallium HS 21.
A-12: Creep resistant alloy
To make creep resistance alloy we have to strengthen the solid solution by mechanisms which cause
dislocation locking and those which contribute to lattice friction hardening.
The alloy can also be hardened by precipitation. Some solute alloying elements is added in reducing
the rate of climb and cross-slip processes.
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Example: The nickel alloy (Inconol, Nimonic), ferritic steel, austenitic steel 16-25-6, etc.
Composition of Nimonic 90
Cr-20%, Co-16%, Ti-2.3% Al-1.40 %, Fe-0.5%, C-0.08%, Mn-0.06%, Si-0.017% and Ni -58%
Composition of Vitallium HS 21
C – 0.25%, Cr – 27%, Ni –3 %, Mo – 5%, Fe – 1%, Mn – 1%, Si -1%, Co - bal
Hydrogen embrittlement
Hydrogen embrittlement is more failure than a form of corrosion, but it is often results from the
hydrogen, produced from corrosion. Atomic hydrogen produced during corrosion diffuses
interstitially through crystal lattice, and interferes with dislocation motion, leading to failure. It is
similar to stress corrosion in the sense that ductile materials experience brittle failures as a result.
Counter measures to hydrogen embrittlement include: heat treatment to reduce strength of the
alloy; removal of source of hydrogen; baking the component to drive out any dissolved hydrogen.
Example
(i) Copper and Nickel couple
(ii) Gold and Silver couple
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Q-15: Explain how annealing and normalizing are diffusion controlled processes?
A-15: Annealing can be defined as a heat treatment process in which the material is taken to a high
temperature, kept there for some time and then cooled. Carbon atoms diffuse in BCC and FCC by
interstitial diffusion process. High temperatures allow diffusion processes to occur fast. The time at
the high temperature (soaking time) must be long enough to allow the desired transformation to
occur.
Normalizing is used to refine the grains and produce a more uniform and desirable size distribution.
It involves heating the component to attain single phase (e.g.: austenite in steels), then cooling in
open air atmosphere. In normalizing also high temperature allows diffusion process to occur fast.
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Eutectic reactions for copper-silver
cooling α(8.0 wt% Ag + 92 wt% Cu) +
L (71.9 wt% Ag + 28.1 wt% Cu) R
β(91.2 wt% Ag + 8.8 wt% Cu)
heating
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Eutectic reactions for Lead and tin
cooling α(18.3 wt% Sn + 81.7 wt% Pb) +
L (61.9 wt% Sn + 38.1 wt% Pb) R
β(97.8 wt% Sn + 2.2 wt% Pb)
heating
Hypereutectoid Steel
Plain carbon steels in which carbon percentage is more than 0.8% are called hypoeutectoid steel.
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Q-20: What is the driving force in the formation of Spheroidite?
A-20: The driving force for the formation of spheroidite is the net reduction in ferrite-cementite phase
boundary area.
Austempering is different from martempering in the sense that it involves austenite-to bainite
transformation. Thus, the structure of austempered steel is bainite. Advantages of austempering are
improved ductility; decreased distortion and disadvantages are need for special molten bath; process
can be applied to limited number of steels.
Q-24: Give composition and use of (a) Hadfield steel (b) Maraging steel (c) Spring Steel (d) Rail
Steel (e) Invar Steel
A-24:
Composition Use
(a) Hadfield steel C 1.1 to 1.4%, Mn 11-14%, rest Fe Jaw crusher plate, Nuts and
bolts, Chains
(b) Maraging steel C <0.03%, Ni-25%, Co 7-10%, Mo 3 -5%, Ti – Aircraft under carriage parts,
1.75 %, Al- 0.2%, other trace, rest Fe portable bridges and booster
motor in missile
(c) Spring Steel C 0.55 – 0.65%, Si 0.1 – 0.35%, Mn 0.7 – 1.0 Spring
%, Cr 0.4 – 0.6%, Ni 0.4 – 0.7%, Mo 0.15 –
0.25%, rest Fe
Q-26: What is Superalloy? Give composition and use of Waspalloy, and Inconel?
A-26: Superalloys as a class constitute the currently reigning aristocrats of the metallurgical world. They
are the alloys which have made jet flight possible, and they show what can be achieved by drawing
together and exploiting all the resources of modern physical and process metallurgy in the pursuit of
a very challenging objective.
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Applications of Superalloy?
• Gas Turbine Engines
− Blades, vanes, disks, combustors
• Space Vehicles
− Rocket motors
• Nuclear Reactors
• Submarines
• Petroleum Equipment
Composition Use
Waspalloy Cr-19%, Co-13%, Ti-3%, Al 1.4%, Zr 0.06 %, For high temperature
C 0.08%, rest Ni application upto 900oC
Inconel Cr 15%, Ti 2.4%, Al 1%, Nb 1%, Ta 1%, Fe For high temperature
7%, C 0.04%, rest Ni application upto 820oC
Q-27: What are PTFE, Nylon 6, Nylon 610, Perspex, where they are used?
A-27:
What is? Use
PTFE Fluorocarbons (PTFE or TFE) or Teflon. It Anticorrosive seals, chemical
is chemically inert in almost all pipes and valves, bearings, anti
environments, excellent electrical adhesive coatings, high
properties; low coefficient of friction; may be temperature electronic parts.
used to 260oC; relatively weak and poor
cold-flow properties.
Q-28: What are conducting polymers and conducting ceramics? Give 2 examples of each.
A-28: Conducting Polymers
Due to the kind of bonding, polymers are typically electrical and thermal insulators. However,
conducting polymers can be obtained by doping, and conducting polymer-matrix composites can be
obtained by the use of conducting fillers. They decompose at moderate temperatures (100 – 400oC),
and are lightweight. Other properties vary greatly. . The most recent research in this has been the
development of highly conducting polymers with good stability and acceptable processing attributes.
Conducting Ceramics
Conductive ceramics, advanced industrial materials that, owing to modifications in their structure,
serve as electrical conductors. Like metals, conducting ceramics have overlapping electron energy
bands and are therefore excellent electronic conductors. They constitute complex systems based on
oxide and non-oxide phases.
Examples: lead oxide (PbO), ruthenium dioxide (RuO2), bismuth ruthenate (Bi2Ru2O7)
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Q-29: What are silicon carbide and silicon nitride, what are their strength and hardness?
A-29: Silicon carbide (SiC)
It is known as one of best ceramic material for very high temperature applications. It is used as
coatings on other material for protection from extreme temperatures. It is also used as abrasive
material. It is used as reinforcement in many metallic and ceramic based composites. It is a
semiconductor and often used in high temperature electronics.
Ultimate tensile strength of SiC is 300 MPa
Hardness of SiC is 2500 VPN (Vickers Pyramid Number)
Q-30: What are dispersion strengthened and particulate composites? Give two examples of
each.
A-30: Dispersion-strengthened composites
• In this composite, particles are of 0.01-0.1 μm in size.
• Strengthening occurs as a result of dislocation motion hindrance. It is similar to that of
precipitation hardening in metals.
• Matrix bears the major portion of the applied load, while dispersoids obstruct the motion of
dislocations.
Example: thoria (ThO2) dispersed Ni-alloys (TD Ni-alloys) with high-temperature strength; SAP
(sintered aluminium powder) – where aluminium matrix is dispersed with extremely small flakes of
alumina (Al2O3).
Particulate composites
• These composites contain large number of coarse particles.
• These composites are designed to produce combination of properties rather than increase the
strength.
• Mechanical properties are characterized by rule-of-mixtures.
• Particulate composites are usually made of all three conventional engineering materials, namely
– metals, polymers and ceramics.
Example: tungsten carbide (WC) or titanium carbide (TiC) embedded cobalt or nickel based cutting
tools. Aluminium alloy castings containing dispersed SiC particles are widely used for automotive
applications including pistons and brake applications.
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(c) Carbon Carbon Composite
It is a composite material consisting of carbon fibre reinforcement in a matrix of graphite. It was
developed for the nose cones of intercontinental ballistic missiles. It has been used in the brake
systems of Formula One racing cars. Carbon–carbon is well-suited to structural applications at high
temperatures, or where thermal shock resistance and/or a low coefficient of thermal expansion is
needed.
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