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CHAPTER 4

ACTUATORS
4.1 Actuation system

Actuation systems are the elements of control systems which are responsible for
transforming the output of a microprocessor or control system into a controlling
action on a machine or device. E.g. we might have an electrical output of the
controller which has to be transformed into a linear motion to move a load.

4.2 Comparison of actuating systems

Hydraulic Electric Pneumatic
Good + for large robots and Good+ for all sizes of robots Many+ components are
heavy payload usually off-the-shelf -
Highest
+ power/weight ratio Better
+ control, good for high Reliable
+ components
precision robots
Stiff+system, high accuracy, Higher
+ compliance than No leaks
+ or sparks
better response hydraulics
No reduction
+ gear needed Reduction
+ gears used re duce Inexpensive
+ and simple
inertia on the motor
Can+work in wide range of Does+not leak, good for cleanLow pressure
+ compared
speeds without difficulty room hydraulics
Can+be left in position with Reliable,
+ low maintenance Good + for on-off
out any damage application and for pick
and place Compliant
systems
May- leak. Not fit for clean Can +be spark-free. Good for Noisy - systems
room applications explosive environments
Requires
- pump, reservoir, Needs - reduction gears,Low Require - air pressure,
motor, hoses, etc. stiffness filter. etc.
Can-be expensive and noisy.
increased backlash, cost, Difficult
- to control their
weight, etc. linear position
Requires
- maintenance Motor needs braking device Deform
- under load con
stantly
Viscosity
- of oil changes when not powered. Other- Very- low stiffness. Inaccu
with temperature rate response

Very- susceptible to dirt and wise, the arm will fall. Lowest
- power to weight
other foreign material in oil ratio

High- torque, high pressure, -

large inertia on the actuator
Table 4.1

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4.3 Pneumatic and Hydraulic systems

Pneumatic signals are usually used to control final control elements. Pneumatic
signals can be used to actuate large valves and other high power control devices and
to move significant loads. The main drawback with pneumatic systems is the
compressibility of air. Hydraulic signals can be used for higher power control
devices but are more expensive than pneumatic systems and there are hazards
associated with oil leaks.

With a hydraulic systems, pressurized oil is provided by a pump driven by an

electric motor. The pump pumps oil from a non return valve. Figure 4.2 shows the
arrangement.

Figure 4.1: Hydraulic power supply

A pressure relief valve is included to release the pressure in case it rises above the
safe level, the non-return is to prevent the oil being back driven to the pump and the
accumulator is too smooth out any short term fluctuations in the output oil pressure.

With a pneumatic power supply an electric motor drives the air compressor The air
inlet to the compressor is likely to be filtered and via a silencer to reduce the noise
level. A

pressure relief valve provides protection against the pressure in the system rising
above a safe level. Since the air compressor increases the temperature of the air
there is likely to be a cooling system and to remove contamination and water from
the air a filter with water trap. An air receiver increases the volume of air and
smoothes out any short-term pressure fluctuations.
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Figure 4.2: Pneumatic power supply

4.3.1 Directional Control Valves

Pneumatic and hydraulic systems use directional control valve to direct the flow of
fluid through a system. It is used to open/close , or on/off devices. These valves are
used to develop sequences control systems. They can be activated to switch the fluid
flow direction of mechanical, electrical or fluid pressure signals. Figure 4.3(a)
shows a typical directional control valve (spool valve). In (a) the air supply is
connected to port 1 and port 3 is closed. This will make the device connected to
port2 is pressurized. In (b) the air supply is cut off and port 2 is connected to port 3.

Figure 4.4 shows another type of directional control valve, the poppet valve. There
is no connection between port 1 to which the system is connected. When the button
is released the spring forces the ball back up against its seat and so closes off the
flow.

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Figure 4.3: Spool Valve

Figure 4.4: Poppet valve

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4.3.2 Valve symbols

Figure 4.5: (a) Flow path, (b) flow shut off, (c) initial connections

Most two and three-way valves have spring returns. The spring returns the spool to
its normal position when the solenoid is not powered. Two-way valves open and
close the air path between two ports. Three-way valves connect one air port to
either of two other ports. A three-way valve could switch an actuator between
supply air and an exhaust port. The actuator could be a spring-return cylinder.
Spring-return three-way spool valves can be used as pressure-release safety valves;
the valve must be powered to connect the air supply to the system, and if power fails
it exhausts system pressure.

Figure 4.6: Valve actuation symbols

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Figure 4.7: Typical of directional control valves

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4.3.3 Cylinders

Figure 4.8: a) Double acting cylinder

b) Single acting cylinder

The hydraulic or pneumatic cylinder is an example of a linear actuator. The

principle and form are the same for both hydraulic and pneumatic with the
difference of size and pressures(hydraulic requires more pressure). The cylinder
consist of a cylindrical tube along which a piston/ram can slide. Single acting
cylinder is used when the control pressure is applied to just one side of the piston, a
spring often being used to provide the opposition to the movement of the piston.
Figure 4.9 shows the solenoid control valve for a single acting cylinder. When a
current passes through the solenoid, the valve switches position and pressure is
applied to move the piston along the cylinder. As a consequence the spring returns
the piston back to initial position.

Figure 4.9: Control of Single acting cylinder

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Double acting cylinder is used when the control pressures are applied to each side
of the piston. A difference in pressure between the two sides then results in motion
of the piston, the piston being able to move in either direction along the cylinder as
result of high pressure signals. Figure 4.10 shows the solenoid control valve for a
double acting cylinder. Curent through one solenoid causes the piston to move in
one direction with current through the other solenoid reversing the direction of
motion.

Figure 4.10: control of Double Acting cylinder

Figure 4.11 shows how a 4/3 way directional control valve controls a double acting
cylinder.

Figure 4.11: A 4/3 way directional control valve controls a double acting
cylinder
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4.3.4 Pressure Supply

Air Supply

Air-powered actuators require a source of compressed air or vacuum. Many

manufacturing plants have compressors and a ready supply of compressed air.
Experienced users of compressed air are aware that the air must be filtered to
remove dirt that can jam the actuator or valve, regulated to not exceed the design
pressure, and lubricated with a fine oil mist to reduce wear in the actuators. Figure
4.12 shows a complete filter-regulator-lubricator (FRL) units.

Figure 4.12: Filter Regulated lubricators in a compressed air supply system

The presence of an FRL does not necessarily mean that lubrication is adequate. In
an automated system, where air is always being turned on and off, oil may settle in
the supply lines. Some pneumatic actuators may suddenly become hydraulic
actuators when they fill with oil, while other actuators may never receive any
lubrication. It is important that lubricators be located as near as possible to the
actual inlets of actuators.

For a vacuum supply, the previously-discussed venturi vacuum generator can supply
high vacuum pressure at low volumes. If high vacuum pressure and large air
volume are both required, vacuum pumps are available. If only a low vacuum
pressure and lots of air flow are required, then a blower or regenerative blower is a
better choice.

Hydraulic supply

Hydraulic power supply units, such as that shown in figure 4.13, must include a
pump, a pressure control valve, an oil reservoir tank, and a filter to clean the
hydraulic fluid as it returns. If precision components such as servovalves are used,
the fluid in the tank should be agitated and cleaned continuously.

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Figure 4.13: Hydraulic power supply

4.4 Electric systems

The electrical system used as actuators for control:

i. switching devices such as mechanical switches e.g relays,
ii. solenoid type devices where a current through a solenoid is used to actuate a
soft iron core.
iii. Drive systems such as d.c and a.c motor – to produce rotation.

4.4.1 Relays

A Relay is an electrically operated device that mechanically switches electric

circuits. It is an important part of many control system because it is useful for
remote control and for controlling high voltage and current devices with a low
voltage and current control signal. When current flows through the electromagnet in
an electromechanical control relay, a magnetic field that attracts the iron arm of the
armature to the core of the magnet is set up. As a result, the contacts on the armature
and relay frame are switched. Relay may have NO contacts or NC contacts or
combinations of both.. Figure 4.14 shows an electromechanical control relay.

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Figure 4.14: An electromechanical control relay

4.4.2 Solenoids

A solenoid is a device used to convert an electrical signal or an electrical current

into linear mechanical motion. As shown in Figure 4.15, the solenoid is made up of
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a coil with a movable iron core. When the coil is energized, the core, or
armature as it is sometimes called, is pulled inside the coil. The amount of pulling or
pushing force produced by the solenoid is determined by the number of turns of
copper wire and the amount of current flowing through the coil.
The coil current for dc solenoids is limited by coil resistance only. With the plunger
seated, pull is greater than needed, so on smaller solenoids a partial voltage coil is
often used. On larger solenoids a two-section coil can be used where a cut-off
switch operates when the plunger is just about seated and opens up the circuit for
part of the coil. The iron core is made of soft steel with low reluctance. For dc
solenoids, a solid core is acceptable because the current is in one direction and
continuous. The dc solenoid has a time constant; because coil inductance slows
down magnetizing, the action is slower than that of the ac solenoid.
The frame and plunger of ac solenoids consists of thin silicon-steel that has been
laminated and varnished to reduce eddy currents. The head is carefully ground so it
will seal accurately. An air gap or spacer of nonmagnetic material must be in the
magnetic path so that the plunger will not stick closed because of residual
magnetism. The resistance of the ac coil is very low, so current flow is primarily
limited by the inductive reactance (XL) of the coil. The plunger must seal fully
against the seat. If it doesn't, the air gap in the magnetic path is increased and will
reduce the inductance of the coil. As a result, the coil will overheat.
The length of the solenoid stroke is very important. Shorter strokes result in faster
operating rates; they also require less power. More force is available at shorter
strokes, which allows a smaller size solenoid to be used. Shorter strokes have less
impact force, which helps to reduce solenoid wear. The maximum stroke should not
exceed one-half of
the plunger length. In ac solenoids, a relatively high in-rush current occurs, which
decreases as the plunger moves toward the seated position. This high in-rush current
generally provides higher forces at longer strokes than the dc versions. The reason
for such a high in-rush current (Figure 4.16) is the fact that the basic opposition to
current flow when a solenoid is energized is only the resistance of the copper coil.
Upon energizing, however, the armature begins to move iron into the core of the
coil. This large amount of iron in the magnetic circuit greatly increases the
inductance of the coil and thus decreases the current through the coil. The heating
effect of the coil further reduces current flow because copper wire when heated,
increases in resistance, limiting some current flow.

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Figure 4.15: Solenoid

Figure 4.16: AC coil in rush and sealed currents

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4.4.3 Solenoid valves

A solenoid valve is a combination of two basic functional units:

• A solenoid (electromagnet) with its core or plunger.
• A valve body containing an orifice in which a disc or plug is positioned to restrict or
allow flow.
Flow through an orifice is OFF or allowed by the movement of the core and depends
on whether the solenoid is energized or de-energized. When the coil is energized,
the core is drawn into the solenoid coil to open the valve. The spring returns the
valve to its original closed position when the current ceases. Solenoid valves are
available to control hydraulics (oil fluid), pneumatics (air), or water flow (Fig. 4-
17). '
Standard applications of solenoid valves generally require that the valve be mounted
directly in line in the piping with the inlet and outlet connections directly opposite
each other (Fig. 4-18) The valve body is usually a brass forging. It is recommended
that strainers be used to prevent grit or dirt from lodging in the orifice and causing
leakage. A

valve must be installed with direction of flow in accordance with the arrow cast on
the side of the valve.

Figure 4.17: Solenoid valves

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Figure 4.18: Solenoid valve installation

4.5 Motor

Figure 4.19 shows the motor classification

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Figure 4.19: Motor clarification

Electric motors are frequently used as the final control element in positional or speed-
control systems. Motors can be classified into two main categories: d.c. motors and a.c.
motors, most motors used in modem control systems being d.c. motors. The basic
principles involved in the action of a motor are:
1. A force is exerted on a conductor in a magnetic field when a current passes
through it (Fig. 4.19). For a conductor of length L carrying a current / in a
magnetic field of flux density B at right angles to the conductor, the force F
equals BIL.
2. When a conductor moves in a magnetic field then an e.m.f. is induced across it
(Fig. 4.20). The induced e.m.f. e is equal to the rate at which the magnetic flux 0
(flux equals the product of the flux density and the area) swept through by the
conductor changes (Faraday's law), i.e. e = -dΦ/dt. The minus sign is because the

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e.m.f. is in such a direction as to oppose the change producing it (Lenz's law),
i.e. the direction of the induced e.m.f. is in such a direction as to produce a current
which sets up magnetic fields which tend to neutralise the change in magnetic flux
linked by the coil and which was responsible for the e.m.f. For this reason it is
often referred to as a back e.m.f.

Figure 4.20: Force on a current carrying conductor

Figure 4.21: Induced e.m.f

Motors must be started and stopped efficiently. In automated processes, the angular
position, speed, and/or acceleration of a motor also must be controlled, despite
variations in the loading of the motor. In most of these applications the main
controller is a digital computer, which provides control signals to a motor controller,
which in turn provides power to the motor.

4.5.1 Direct Current (d.c)Motor

4.5.1.1 Basic principles
To determine the direction of movement of a conductor carrying current in a
magnetic field, the right-hand motor rule is used [Fig. 4-22( upper)]. The thumb and
first two fingers of the right hand are arranged so that they are at right angles to each
other, with the forefinger pointing in the direction of the magnetic lines of force of

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the field and the middle finger pointing in the direction of current flow (-
to +) in the conductor. The thumb will be pointing in the direction of movement of
the conductor, as shown in Fig. 4.22(below)). This figure illustrates how motor
torque is produced by a current-carrying coil or loop of wire placed in a magnetic
field. The interaction between the two magnetic fields causes a bending of the lines
of force. When the lines tend to straighten out, they cause the loop to undergo a
rotating motion. The left conductor is forced downward, and the right conductor is
forced upward, causing a counterclockwise rotation of the armature.
In the conventional d.c. motor, coils of wire are mounted in slots on a cylinder of
magnetic material called the armature. The armature is mounted on bearings and is
free to rotate. It is mounted in the magnetic field produced byfield poles. These may
be, for small motors, permanent magnets or electromagnets with their magnetism
produced by a current through the field coils. Figure 4.23 shows the basic principle
of a four-pole d.c. motor with the magnetic field produced by current carrying coils.
The ends of each armature coil are connected to adjacent segments of a segmented
ring called the commutator with electrical contacts made to the segments through
carbon contacts called brushes. As the armature rotates, the commutator reverses the
current in each coil as it moves between the field poles. This is necessary if the
forces acting on the coil are to remain acting in the same direction and so the
rotation continue. The direction of rotation of the d.c. motor can be reversed by
reversing either the armature current or the field current.

Figure 4.22: D.C motor basics

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Figure 4.23: D.C motor

4.5.1.2 Characteristic of d.c motors

i. high torque at low speed

ii. good speed control over full range (no low end cogging)
iii. better overload capability
iv. more expensive than a.c motors
v. physically large than a.c motors of the same horse power
vi. more routine maintenance and repairs required

4.5.1.3 Type of d.c motors

D.C motors with field coils are classified as series, shunt, compound and separately
excited according to how the field windings and armature windings are connected.
Figure 2.24 shows the type of d.c motors.

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Figure 4.24: Typical of d.c motors a) series, b) shunt

c) compound and d) separately excited

i. Series wound motor

With the series wound motor the armature and fields coils are in series. Such a
motor exerts the highest starting torque and has the greatest no-load speed. With
light loads there is a danger that a series wound motor might run at too high a speed.
Reversing the polarity of the supply to the coils has no effect on the direction of
rotation of the motor, it will continue rotating in the same direction since both the
field and armature currents have been reversed.
ii. Shunt wound motor

With the shunt wound motor the armature and field coils are in parallel. It provides
the lowest starting torque, a much lower no-load speed and has good speed
regulation. Because of this almost constant speed regardless of load, shunt wound
motors are very widely used. To reverse the direction of rotation, either the armature

or field supplied must be reversed. For this reason, the separately excited windings
are preferable for such a situation.

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iii. Compound motor

The compound motor has two field windings, one in series with the armature and
one in parallel. Compound wound motors aim to get the best features of the series
and shunt wound motors, namely a high starting torque and good speed regulation.

iv. Permanent magnet (field)

A permanent-magnet dc motor is a motor in which the main field flux is produced

by permanent magnets. An electromagnet is used for the secondary field or armature
flux. Figure 4.25 illustrates the operation of the permanent-magnet motor. Current
flow through the armature coil from the dc voltage source causes the armature to act
as a magnet. The armature poles are attracted to field poles of opposite polarity,
causing the armature to rotate. In Fig. 4.25(a), the armature rotates in a clockwise
direction. When the armature poles are in line with the field poles, the brushes are at
a gap in the commutator and no current flows in the armature. Thus forces of
magnetic attraction and repulsion stop, as illustrated in Fig. 4.25(b). Then inertia
carries the armature past this neutral point. The commutator reverses the armature
current when unlike poles of the armature and field are facing each other, thus
reversing the polarity of the armature field. Like poles of the armature and field then
repel each other, causing continuous armature rotation, as shown in Fig. 4.25(c).
The direction of rotation of a permanent-magnet d.c motor is determined by the
direction of the current flow through the armature coil. Reversing the leads to the
armature will reverse the direction of rotation. One of the features of a dc motor is
that its speed can be easily controlled. The speed of a permanent-magnet motor is
directly proportional to the value of the voltage applied to the armature. The greater
the armature voltage, the faster the speed of the motor.
Source

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Figure 4.25: Permanent magnet d.c motor operation

4.5.1.4 DC Motors for Control Applications

The DC motors works when

o The armature rotates because of torque caused by current in the armature windings,
which are surrounded by the magnetic field, but

o The speed is limited by the generation of Counter Electro-Motive Force as the

armature moves in the field.

There are thus two basic methods to control the speed of DC motors:
o Controlling the amount of current that flows in the armature, and
o Controlling the strength of the magnetic field.

The permanent magnet motor can have DC power applied to the armature (via the
commutator), but the strength of the permanent magnetic field can’t be varied. This
type of DC motor, which is the cheapest and the most common in small sizes, can
be controlled only by controlling the current in the armature. We will see that this
method of control will allow only speed to be decreased from the “nominal” value
listed on the motor’s nameplate. The direction that this motor rotates can be
changed by changing the polarity of the applied DC.

Torque output of a standard permanent magnet motor is limited by the amount of

current that the armature windings can carry without burning out. Lots of current
carrying capacity means heavier armatures. Figure 4.26 demonstrates the speed
versus torque relationship for a permanent magnet motor at a given supply voltage.
Printed circuit and moving coil motors are permanent magnet motors that include no
iron in their armatures, thus reducing armature weight (and therefore inertia).
Printed circuit motors have “windings” that are little more than circuit board tracks.
Moving coil motor armatures consist of woven copper wire windings, set in epoxy
to hold their shape. These motors usually rotate very rapidly, and external gearing
trades away speed for increased torque.
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Figure 4.26: Speed/torque output relationship for DC motors. Voltage is

constant in each case

There are three types of would field DC motors. The first, with speed/torque
characteristics as shown in figure 4.26, is the series wound. In this type of motor,
the field windings and armature windings are wired in series. Current passing
through the field windings must also pass through the commutator to the armature
windings. Reducing the DC current to the field also reduces armature current.
Since reducing armature current reduces speed, while reducing field strength
increases speed, control of this type of motor is difficult. In fact, if the motor is
allowed to run without a frictional load, it can accelerate all by itself until it self-
destructs. It is also an interesting fact that the direction of rotation of a series wound
DC motor cannot be changed by changing the polarity of the DC supply. When
armature current direction is changed by reversing DC polarity, the magnetic field
polarity also reverses, so the induced torque direction remains the same.

Another type of wound field DC motor is the shunt wound motor. In the shunt
wound motor, the field windings and the armature windings are brought out of the
motor casing separately, and the user connects them to separate supplies so that the
field strength and the armature current can be controlled independently. This type
of motor can, depending on the type of control selected, have its speed reduced or
increased from the nominal values. The direction of rotation of this type of motor
can be changed by changing the polarity of either, but not both, of the supplies. The
speed/torque relationship for this type of motor at a given voltage supply is shown is
shown in figure 4.26

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It is possible to tap into a series wound DC motor’s circuitry so that shunts
can be added to allow some of the DC power to by pass either the field windings or
the armature. This yields a compound wound motor. Speed can be controlled by
varying resistance in the shunts. Speed control is limited, since reduction in the
resistance in a shunt (e.g., shunt at armature) means increased current in other parts
of the circuit (e.g., through the field windings). Overheating is then a danger. This
method of controlling compound motors is used in applications where two or more
motors must have their speeds synchronized, and only slight variation of motor
speed is required.

4.5.1.5 Speed Control for DC Motors

Two simple formulas are important in understanding the response of DC motors to

changes to supplied power. The first,

Va  Ia * Ra 
RPM 
F
where:

RPM = Motor rotational speed

Va = Voltage across the armature
Ia = Current in the armature
Ra = Resistance in the armature
F = Field strength

Shows the relationship of the motor speed to applied armature voltage (decreased
Va will decrease RPM), to armature resistance (adding resistance to Ra will reduce
RPM) and to the field strength (a decrease in F will increase speed). Armature
current is slightly harder to control because of the variation in CEMF as speed
increases, but control of speed through current control is often the method of choice.
It allows maximizing torque without exceeding the maximum current range of the
motor.

The second equation,

T = K * F * Ia

Where:
T = motor output torque
K = a constant for the motor
shows the relationship between torque, field strength, and armature current. Note
that a decrease in field strength, which we said earlier would cause an increase in
speed, will also cause a reduction in the available torque unless armature current is
increased.

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4.5.1.6 Stopping of D.C Motor

Stopping of a motor is a form of speed control. Methods used to stop DC motors are
similar to speed control techniques. To stop a motor, we must accelerate it in the
direction opposite to that in which it is moving. Mechanical brakes can be used.
There are two methods of electrically stopping a DC motor. The most common is
the dynamic braking method. To stop a DC motor using this method, the magnetic
field remains in place, but the armature voltage supply is replaced by a resistor. The
motor thus becomes a generator, and its kinetic energy is converted to electric
current that bums off in the resistor. Small motors can be stopped in milliseconds
using this technique.
The other electrical method to stop a DC motor is called plugging. As in dynamic
braking, the magnetic field must be retained until the motor comes to a stop. Unlike
dynamic braking, the armature is connected to a DC supply of opposite polarity.
This results in a dramatic acceleration in the opposite direction. Armature current
due to the (reversed) armature DC supply is further increased by the current due to
the existing CEMF! Braking is rapid, but the high current is hard on the armature.
This type of braking is therefore used only for emergency braking or for the braking
of motors specially built for this type of extra armature current. Plugging carries
another potential problem. Once plugging stops a motor, it will then accelerate the
motor in the opposite direction. Motors that are stopped by plugging need to have a
zero speed switch mounted on the motor shaft or on the load. A zero speed switch
contains an inertial Switch that disconnects the armature voltage supply when motor
speed reduces to a near stop.
These electrical braking techniques will not hold a motor in the stopped position, so
if positive braking is required to hold a load steady at the stopped position, then:
• A mechanical brake can be used to very rigidly hold a load wherever it happens to
stop, or
• A positional servosystem can cause the motor to stop at a given position.

4.5.2 ALTERNATING CURRENT (A.C) MOTORS

Over 90 percent of all motors run on alternating current. Both a.c and d.c motors
have inherent characteristic that govern their uses.

4.5.2.1 Characteristics of a.c motors

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i. lower cost for use
ii. less maintenance required
iii. various enclosures readily available for different operating
environments
iv. ability to withstand harsh operating environments
v. physically smaller than d.c motors of the same horse power
vi. less costly repairs
vii. ability to run at speed above the nameplate rating.

4.5.2.2 Types of a.c motors

Alternating current motors can be classified into two groups, single phase and
polyphase with each group being further subdivided into induction and synchronous
motors. Single-phase motors tend to be used for low power requirements while
polyphase motors are used for higher powers. Induction motors tend to be cheaper
than synchronous motors and are thus very widely used. Induction motors are made
in both three phase and single phase types. The induction motor is so named
because no external voltage is applied to its rotor. Instead, the a.c current in the
stator induces a voltage across an air gap and into the rotor winding to produce
rotor current and magnetic field. The stator and rotor magnetic fields then interact
and cause the rotor to turn. Figure 4.27 shows the induced rotor current.

Figure 4.27: Induced rotor current

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i. Squirrel-cage induction motor

The majority of industrial applications usually involve the use of a three-phase,

squirrel-cage induction motor (Fig. 4-28). Characteristics of the squirrel-cage motor
include the following:
• The rotor consists of copper conductors embedded in a solid core with the ends
shorted to resemble a squirrel cage.
• Speed is essentially constant.
• Large starting currents required by this motor can cause voltage fluctuations.
•Direction of rotation can be reversed by interchanging any two of the three main
power lines to the motor.
• Power factor tends to be poor for reduced loads.
• When voltage is applied to the stator winding, a rotating magnetic field is
produced, which induces a voltage in the rotor. This voltage, in turn, creates a large
current flow in the rotor. The high current in the rotor creates a magnetic field of its
own. The rotor field and the stator field tend to attract each other. This situation
creates a torque, which spins the rotor in the same direction as the rotation of the
magnetic field produced by the stator.
• Once started, the motor will continue to run with a phase loss as a single-phase
motor. The current drawn from the remaining twp lines will almost double, and the
motor will overheat.

Squirrel-cage motors are usually chosen over other types of motors because of their
simplicity, ruggedness, and reliability. Because of these unique features, squirrel-
cage motors have become the accepted standard for a.c all purpose, constant speed
motor applications.

It is important to remember how the speed of an induction motor is determined—

that is, by the number of poles and the frequency of the power supply (not the
supply voltage). The speed of the standard squirrel-cage induction motor is
inherently constant. Special multi-speed squirrel-cage motors, however, are man-
ufactured with stator windings in which the number of poles may be changed by
changing the external connections. These multispeed motors are available in two or
more fixed speeds, which are determined by the connections made to the motor.
Two-speed motors usually have one winding that may be connected to provide two
speeds, one of which is half the other (Fig. 4.28 and Figure 4.29).

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Figure 4.28: Three phase squirrel cage induction motor

Figure 4.29: Multispeed squirrel cage motor winding

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ii. Wound rotor induction motor

A wound rotor induction motor is an induction motor with a wire round rotor that is
used for variable speed application as shown in Figure 4.30. The ststor consists of
three single phase windings placed 120 electrical degrees apart and connected to
three phase power source.

Figure 4.30: Three phase wound rotor induction motor

The speed of the wound rotor can be varied by placing various amounts of
resistance in the rotor circuit through the slip rings. The more resistance placed in
the rotor circuit, the slower the motor will go; when all the resistance is removed
from the rotor circuit, the motor will run at full speed. Placing resistance in the rotor
circuit reduces the starting current and provides high starting torque. The power
factor of this type of motor is low at no-load and high at full-load. To reverse this
type of motor, interchange any two voltage supply leads. Some of the advantages
and disadvantages of wound-rotor induction motors include:
Advantages
• High starting torque with low starting current.
• Smooth acceleration under heavy loads.
• No abnormal heating during the starting period.
• Good speed adjustment when operating under a constant load.
Disadvantages
• Greater initial cost and maintenance costs than those of the squirrel-cage motor.
• Poor speed regulation when operating with resistance in the rotor circuit.

iii. Synchronous motor

The synchronous motor, as its name suggests, is a motor that runs at a constant
speed from no-load to full-load. Its speed is the same as that of the rotating
magnetic field. A synchronous motor uses a single- or three-phase stator to generate
a rotating magnetic field and an electromagnetic rotor that is supplied with direct
current. The rotor acts like a magnet and is attracted by the rotating stator field. This
attraction will exert a torque on the rotor and cause it to rotate with the field.

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Synchronous motors are not self starting and must be brought up to near
synchronous speed before they can continue rotating by themselves.

4.5.2.3 Control for AC Motors

There are now several inexpensive and successful techniques for varying the
frequency of AC power. This was not always the case. Prior to the development of
silicon devices, AC motor speed was dictated by the 60 Hz supply frequency.
One early way that AC motors had their speed changed was by changing the num-
ber of field poles. shows the location of a north pole as the field rotates. The rotation
rate of a motor can be doubled by changing how the poles are connected to the three
phase supply. In fact, the rate of rotation of the field for any AC motor can be
calculated using the following equation:
120f
N = ——
P
where:
N = speed of rotation of the field in RPM f = frequency of the AC in Hz P
P = number of separately-connected sets of poles
e.g., with an AC frequency of 60 hertz., the speed of rotation of the field is:

N = (120 * 60)/2 = 3600/2 = 1800 RPM

It is important to note that this method of controlling the speed of AC motors will
not allow true variable speed control. The speeds that can be obtained are tied to the
60 Hz supply and limited by the small number of poles that can be physically fitted
into a motor's casing.

4.5.2.4 Stopping of AC Motors

AC induction motors can be brought to a rapid halt by dynamic braking. The AC

supply to the field is replaced with a DC supply. The motor becomes a generator,
but the current generated in the rotor has no route to the outside world, so it must
flow around the short-circuited squirrel cage or wound field, converting the
rotational energy into heat.
Synchronous motors without induction coils or squirrel cages in their rotors cannot
be stopped dynamically. Mechanical brakes are necessary.

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4.5.3 Electronically Commutated Motors

There are four types of electronically commutated motors: the stepper motor, the
timing motor, the SCR motor and the brushless d.c servo motor. Here we only
discuss two types: stepper and brushless motors.

4.5.3.1 Stepper Motor

Stepper motors are versatile, long-lasting, simple motors that can be used in many
applications. In most applications, the stepper motors are used without feedback.
This is because unless a step is missed, a stepper motor steps a known angle each
time it is moved. Thus, its angular position is always known and no feedback is
necessary. Stepper motors come in many different forms and principles of
operation. Each type has certain characteristics unique to it, yielding it appropriate
choice for certain application. Most stepper motors can be used in different modes
by wiring them differently.

Unlike regular DC or AC motors (but similar to brushless DC motors) if you

connect a stepper motor to power, it will not rotate. Steppers rotate only when the
magnetic field is rotated through its different windings. In fact, their maximum
torque is developed when they do not turn. Even when not powered, steppers have
a residual torque called detent torque. It requires an external torque to turn a stepper
motor, even when not powered. As a result, all stepper motors need a micro-
processor or driver/controller (indexer) circuit for rotation. You may either create
your own driver or you may purchase a device called an indexer that will drive the
stepper motor for you. As with servomotors, which need feedback circuitry, stepper
type of motor is more appropriate. For industrial robotic actuation, stepper motors
are hardly used, except in small table-top robots, or, in one case, an industrial robot
with stepper motors and feedback. However, stepper motors are used extensively in
non-industrial robots and robotic devices, as well as in other devices that are used in
conjunction with robots, from tooling machines to peripheral devices and from
automatic manufacturing to control devices.

4.5.3.1.1 Structure of stepper motor

Generally, stepper motors have permanent magnet rotors, while their stators house
multiple windings. The heat generated in the coils can easily dissipate through the
motor’s body, stepper motors are less susceptible to heat damage, and since there
are no brushes or commutators, they have long life.

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In different types of stepper motors, the permanent magnet rotors are different.
We will discuss two types of rotors later. In each case, though, the rotor follows a
moving magnetic field generated by the coils. As a result, somewhat similar to both
AC motors and brushless DC motors, a rotor follows a moving flux under the
control of a controller or driver. In the next few sections, we will study how stepper
motors operate.

4.5.3.1.2 Principle of Operation

Imagine a stepper motor with two coils in its stator and a permanent magnet as its
rotor, as shown in Figure 4.31. When each of the coils of the stator is energized, the
permanently magnetized rotor (or soft iron in variable reluctance motors) will rotate
to align itself with the stator magnetic field (a). The rotor will stay at this position
unless the field rotates. As the power to the present coil is disrupted and is directed
to the next coil, the rotor will rotate again to align itself with the field in the new
position (b). Each rotation is equal to the step angle, which may vary from 180
degrees to as little as a fraction of a degree. (In this example, it is 90°). Next, the
first coil will once again be turned on, but in the opposite polarity, while the second
is turned off. This will cause the rotor to rotate another step in the same direction.
The process continues as one coil is turned off and another is turned on. A sequence
of four steps will bring the rotor back to exactly the same state it was at the
beginning of the sequence. Now imagine that at the conclusion of the first step,
instead of turning off one coil and turning on the second coil, that both would be
turned on. In that case, the rotor would only rotate 45° to align itself to the path of
least reluctance (Figure 4.31(c)). Later, if the first coil is turned off while the second
remains on, the rotor will rotate another 45°. This is called half-step operation and
includes a sequence of eight movements.
Of course, with the opposite on-off sequence, the rotor will rotate in the opposite
direction. Most industrial steppers run between 1.8 to 7.5 degrees at full stepping.
Obviously, to reduce the size of the steps, the number of poles may be increased.
However, there is a physical limit to how many poles may be used. To further
increase the number of steps per revolution, different numbers of teeth can be built
into the stator and rotor creating an effect similar to a caliper. For instance, 50 teeth
on the rotor and 40 teeth on the stator will result in a 1.8-degree step angle with 200
steps per revolution, as will be
discussed later.

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Figure 4.31: Basic Principle of a stepper motor. As the coils in the stator are
turned on and off the rotor will rotate to align itself with the magnetic field.

4.5.3.2 Brushless d.c servomotor

Brushless DC servomotors are a hybrid between AC motors and DC motors.

Although not exactly the same, their construction is very similar to an AC motor.
The major difference is that brushless DC motors are operated with an electronically
switched DC waveform that is similar to an AC current (either sine wave or
trapezoidal waveform), but is not necessarily at 60 Hz. As a result, unlike AC
motors, DC brushless motors can be operated at any speeds, including very low
speeds. To operate, a feedback signal is necessary to determine when to switch the
direction of the current. In practice, a re-solver, an optical encoder, or a hall effect
sensor, attached to the rotors, sends a signal to a controller, which switches the
current to the rotor. For smooth operation and almost constant torque, the rotor
usually has three phases in it. Thus, three currents, with 120 o phase shift, are fed
into the rotor. Brushless DC motors are operated by a controller circuit. They will
not operate if you connect them directly to a DC power source.

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Figure 4.32: Brushless DC servomotor.

4.5.4 Servomotors
A servomotor is a DC, AC, brushless, or even stepper, motor with feedback that can
be controlled to move at a desired speed (and consequently, torque), for a desired
angle of rotation. To do this, a feedback device sends signals to the controller
circuit of the servomotor reporting its angular position and velocity. If as a result of
higher loads, the velocity is lower than desired set value, the current is increased
until the speed is equal to the desired value. If the speed signal shows that the
velocity is larger than desired, the current is reduced accordingly. If position
feedback is used as well, the position signal is used to shut off the motor as the rotor
approaches the desired angular position.

Figure 4.33: Schematic of a servomotor controller

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4.6 Special-Purpose Actuator Systems

Some devices used as actuators are complete automated systems in themselves.

Robots
are a prime example.

Figure 4.34: An X-Y table

Off-the-shelf X-Y tables are used as components in many systems where

reprogrammable position control is desired. The X-Y table, as shown in figure 4.34,
is just two servocontrolled linear actuators (often servomotors and ballscrews) with
their linear axes perpendicular to each other. The X-Y table may move the table
under a stationary tool (such as a glue dispenser), or may move a tool over a
stationary worktable. Programmable X-Y tables are used to control water-jet cutters
that are used to cut shoe leather, plastics, and floor mats for cars. Clothing
manufacturers are improving efficiency by using powerful X-Y tables to move
knives or lasers used to cut materials. Even the woodworking industry is getting
into the act. X-Y tables are used in automatic panel cutters to saw computer-
optimized patterns from four by eight feet sheets of plywood and veneer.

Numerical control (NC) equipment can cut metal under the control of a built-in
digital controller instead of being operated by a human operator.

A piece of NC equipment combines X-Y motion of a workpiece or cutting tool with

a third, the Z axis. In addition to linear position control, control of rotation about
each of the three axes is available with some NC equipment. Additional
controllable features include the rotational speed of the tool or workpiece and the
flow of coolant.

Early NC lathers and mills required a program of instructions to be prepared as

patterns of holes punched into paper of plastic tape. The tape was read one
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instruction at a time while the workpiece was machined. The program
tapes were typed using equipment specifically designed to punch tape.

Later, read/write memory was added in NC controllers, so the tape had to be read
only once into memory. The NC equipment became known as Computer Numerical
Control (CNC) equipment. Meanwhile, advances in tape punchers allowed
programmers to write whole NC programs at a standard computer terminal, then
send the program to a tape puncher.

Logically, the tape was eliminated in the next evolution by having the central
computer write programs directly into CNC memory. The CNC equipment became
known as Direct Numerical Control (DNC) equipment.

Now the human programmer is no longer always required. Computer Aided

Manufacturing (CAM) systems are now available the receive part descriptions from
a CAD database, automatically write the NV program, and can even provide
instructions to the NV equipment as it cuts the metal.

There are systems houses that will build special-purpose automated equipment units
of any kind. Each of these custom-designed systems can be used as a component in
a larger system, with the larger system’s controller controlling the sub-systems’
controllers.

Some special-purpose systems assemble electrical components onto circuit boards.

These component insertion machines can be purchased to handle any of the
electronic component shapes. A typical component insertion machine might
remove components from their packaging in a roll, cut and bend the leads to the
proper length and shape, then insert the component into the correct location on the
board. Programmable component insertion machines can select components and
positions.

Some systems convey assembled circuit boards through component soldering

machines, where solder is applied or where pre-applied solder on the boards is
heated until it flows to attach the components and then transports the circuit boards
through board cleaning machines where solder flux is washed off.

Completed circuit boards are often tested by automated circuit and component
testers, in which the boards are drawn down onto an array of probes, and the tester
automatically runs through a series of tests, notifying the human or computer
controller if a fault is detected.

Automated Storage and Retrieval Systems (AS/RS) can be used for computerized
control of inventory. A typical AS/RS includes an automated method of moving
goods from a central shipping/receiving location into and out of storage. The
AS/RS will keep track of exactly what is in stock and where it is. This means that
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stock items do not need to be stored in the same location every time, as long as
the computer remembers where they are. More efficient use can be made of storage
space. The computer also can keep track of stock reserved for outstanding customer
orders, without actually having to pull it from storage, until the whole order can be
filled. The computer can ensure that the reserved items are not given to anybody
else.

The AS/RS is a valuable component in a fully automated plant. It can be used in

Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) systems that accept customer orders,
schedule production, produce and assemble products, assemble and ship customer
shipments, and even invoice customers. Control of partial orders as goods move
into and out of inventory is essential for such a CIM system to work..

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