Project Fulfillment of B.Sc.

Graduation
2016-2017

Experimental and Theoretical Performance

Analysis of a Francis Turbine

Prepared by
Amr Mostafa Mahmoud Abo Alam
Mohammed Mostafa Kamel El-Deihi
Mostafa Mahmoud Mohammed El-Dekken

Under the Supervision of

Prof. M. M. I. Hammouda
Prof. M. ElFaisal ElRefaie
Mr. Belal Hasan
Contents
1. Fundamentals
1.1. Hydraulic Turbines
• Introduction
• Early History of Hydraulic Turbines
• Classification of Hydraulic Turbines
• Main Types of Hydraulic Turbines
• Comparison between Hydraulic Turbines
• Working Principle of a Francis Turbine
• Principle of Dimensional Homogeneity
1.2. Draft Tubes
• Introduction
• Advantages of Utilizing Draft Tubes
• Types of Draft Tubes
• Cavitation and Limitation of Turbine Height Above Tailrace Level
• Cavitation Performance of Hydraulic Turbines
• Methods To Avoid Cavitation

2. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)

2.1. Introduction
• What is Computational Fluid Dynamics?
• Advantages and Disadvantages
• Limitations
• Applications of CFD
2.2. Governing Equations
• Introduction
• Conservation of Momentum
2.3. Discretization of Differential Equations
• Introduction
• Finite Difference Method
• Finite Volume Method
2.4. Numerical Solutions of Algebraic Equations
• Direct Methods
• Iterative Methods
• CFD Solution Analysis

3. Formulation of the Present Problem

3.1. Problem Simulation
• Introduction
• Computational Flow Domain
• Mesh Generation
• Boundary Conditions
• Model Setup
• Results
Appendices
• A (Sensors)
• B (SolidWorks Drawings)
• C (References)
 1
Fundamentals
 Hydraulic Turbines
Introduction
A Turbine is a rotary engine actuated by the reaction or impulse or both of a current of
fluid (as water, steam, or air) subject to pressure and usually made with a series of curved
vanes on a central rotating spindle. The purpose of a turbine is to extract energy from a
fluid, resulting in a decrease of fluid pressure, not necessarily a decrease of fluid speed
across the turbine.

Early History of Hydraulic Turbines

The oldest and simplest form of a hydraulic turbine is the waterwheel, first used in ancient
Greece and subsequently adopted throughout medieval Europe for the grinding of grain.

Benoit Fourneyron (French engineer): He developed the first commercially successful

hydraulic turbine. Later Fourneyron built turbines for industrial purposes that achieved a
speed of 2300 rpm, developing about 50 kW at efficiency of over 80%.

James B. Francis (American engineer): He designed the first radial-inflow hydraulic

turbine that became widely used, gave excellent results, and was highly regarded. In its
original form, it was used for heads of between 10 and 100 m.

Lester A. Pelton (American inventor): The Pelton wheel turbine was brought into use in
the second half of the nineteenth century. The head of water used originally was between
about 90 and 900 m (modern versions operate up to heads of nearly 2000 m).

Viktor Kaplan (Austrian engineer): The Kaplan turbine was an evolution of the Francis
turbine. Its invention allowed efficient power production in low-head applications that was
not possible with Francis turbines. The head ranges from 10–70 m and the output from 5
to 200 MW. Runner diameters are between 2 and 11 m.

Classification of Hydraulic Turbines

Hydraulic Turbines are classified depending on the predominant direction of the fluid
motion relative to the rotor’s axis as the fluid passes the blades.

1. Axial-flow Turbines: For an axial-flow turbine the fluid maintains a significant

axial-flow direction component from the inlet to outlet of the rotor.

2. Radial-flow Turbines: For a radial-flow turbine the flow across the blades involves
a substantial radial-flow component at the rotor inlet, exit, or both.

3. Mixed-flow Turbines: For a Mixed-flow Turbine there may be significant radial-

and axial-flow velocity components for the flow through the rotor row.
Main Types of Hydraulic Turbines

Impulse Turbines: In an impulse turbine the hydraulic energy (Pressure Head) is first
converted into kinetic energy by means of an efficient nozzle. The high velocity jet issuing
from the nozzle then strikes a series of suitably shaped buckets fixed around the rim of a
wheel. The buckets change the direction of jet without changing its pressure. The resulting
change in momentum sets buckets and wheel into rotary motion and thus mechanical
energy is made available at the turbine shaft. The fluid jet leaves the runner with a reduced
energy. An impulse turbine operates under atmospheric pressure, there is no change of
static pressure across the turbine runner and the unit is often referred to as a free jet
turbine.

Pelton Wheel: The Pelton wheel is an

impulse turbine in which vanes, sometimes
called ‘buckets’, of elliptical shape are
attached to the periphery of a rotating wheel.
One or two nozzles project a jet of water
tangentially to the vane pitch circle. The
vanes are of double-outlet section, so that the
jet is split and leaves symmetrically on both
sides of the vane. In this way the end thrust
on the bearings and the shaft is eliminated.

Figure (1.1) Pelton Wheel Bucket

Reaction Turbines: In a reaction turbine a part of the total available hydraulic energy
(Pressure Head) is transformed into kinetic energy before the water is taken to the turbine
runner. A substantial part remains in the form of pressure energy. Subsequently both the
velocity and pressure change simultaneously as water glides along the turbine runner. The
flow from inlet to outlet of the turbine is under pressure and, therefore, blades of a
reaction turbine are closed passages sealed from atmospheric conditions.

Primary Features of a Reaction Turbine

1. Only part of the overall pressure drop has occurred up to turbine entry, the
remaining pressure drop takes place in the turbine itself.
2. The flow completely fills all of the passages in the runner, unlike the Pelton
turbine where, for each jet, only one or two of the buckets at a time are in contact
with the water.
3. Pivot-able guide vanes are used to control and direct the flow.
Kaplan Turbine: The Kaplan turbine was an evolution of the Francis turbine. Its
invention allowed efficient power production in low-head applications that was not
possible with Francis turbines. The head ranges from 10–70 m and the output from 5 to
200 MW. Runner diameters are between 2 and 11 m. Turbines rotate at a constant rate,
which varies from facility to facility. That rate ranges from as low as 69.2 rpm to 429 rpm.

Figure (1.2)

Figure (1.2) Rotor of a Kaplan Turbine

Figure (1.3) Kaplan Turbine

Francis Turbine: Francis turbines are the
most common water turbine in use today.
They operate in a water head from 40 to
600 m and are primarily used for electrical
power production. The electric generators
which most often use this type of turbine
have a power output which generally
ranges just a few kilowatts up to 800 MW,
though mini-hydro installations may be
lower. Penstock (input pipes) diameters are
between 0.91 and 10.06 m. The speed range
of the turbine is from 75 to 1000 rpm.
Figure (1.4) Rotor of a Francis Turbine

Rotor Adjustable
guide vanes
Rotor blades

Draft tube

Figure (1.5) A Francis Turbine with a Draft Tube

 Comparison between Hydraulic Turbines

Stationary
guide vanes Rotor vanes Guide vanes
Casing

Casing
Water nozzle Draft tube
Tail race
Vane Rotor vanes

(a) Impulse turbine (b) Reaction turbine (c) Propeller turbine

(Pelton wheel) (Francis type) (Kaplan type)

Figure (1.6) Comparison between Hydraulic Turbines

Table (1.1) operating Range of hydraulic Turbines

Figure (1.7) Efficiency of Various Turbines with Specific Speed

Working Principle of Francis Turbines

The majority of Francis turbines are arranged so that the axis is vertical (some smaller
machines can have horizontal axes).Water enters via a spiral casing called a volute or
scroll that surrounds the runner. The area of cross-section of the volute decreases along the
flow path in such a way that the flow velocity remains constant. From the volute, the flow
enters a ring of stationary guide vanes, which direct it onto the runner at the most
appropriate angle. In flowing through the runner, the angular momentum of the water is
reduced and work is supplied to the turbine shaft. At the design condition, the absolute
flow leaves the runner axially (although a small amount of swirl may be countenanced)
into the draft tube and, finally, the flow enters the tailrace.

Figure (1.8) Velocity Triangles of a Francis Turbine

2𝜋𝑟12 𝑏1 𝜔
cot 𝛼1 = + cot 𝛽1
𝑄

For a constant angular speed, in order to maintain the appropriate runner entry angle 𝛼1 ,
the guide vane angle is adjusted as Q changes.
Performance Curves
Any specific turbo-machine has its own unique performance curve, as determined by its
size, rotating speed, design details, and fluid handled. Experience has shown, however,
that the shape of the performance curve can be roughly correlated with the machine type.

Figure (1.9) Variation of Head, Efficiency, and Power with Flow Rate
For a turbine operation under constant head, the important quantities are the variations of
discharge, speed, and efficiency.

Figure (1.10) Isoefficiency Curves of a Francis Turbine

Principle of Dimensional Homogeneity
If an equation correctly represents a relationship between variables in a physical process, it
will be homogeneous in dimensions. That is, each term will add to the other terms only if
they are all of like dimensions.

Similitude
The principle of similarity, or similitude, follows from the principle of dimensional
homogeneity. The principle of similarity is used to relate information obtained by testing a
model to the corresponding information that would pertain to the full-scale device, called
the prototype. The real objective of a similarity study is to accurately predict the
performance or behavior of one object (or machine, or test) from information about the
performance of a similar object under a different set of conditions (e.g., size, speed, and
fluid involved). To do this, strictly speaking, complete similitude must be precisely
maintained.

Types of Similarities
1. Geometric Similarity: A model and a prototype are geometrically similar if all
physical or body dimensions in all three (Cartesian) axes have the same linear
ratio. This means that all length dimensions, all angles, all flow directions, all
orientations, and even surface roughness heights must “scale.” In simple terms, the
model must “look” exactly like the prototype.

2. Kinematic Similarity: The motions of two systems are kinematically similar if

similar elements lie at similar locations at similar times. By including time
similarity, one introduces such elements as velocity and acceleration—as in a fluid
flow problem. In fluid mechanics, kinematic similarity means that ratios of
velocity (e.g., fluid velocity to blade velocity) and ratios of time scales (frequency
or rotational speeds) must be equal.

3. Dynamic Similarity: Dynamic similarity requires that ratios of forces, masses,

and energies be equal between a model and a prototype, presupposing geometric
and kinematic similarities. In general, dynamic similarity requires equality of the
Reynolds number, Mach number, and Froude number. At times, equality of Weber
number and/or cavitation number will be required.

Dimensionless Groups
In the study of phenomena involving fluid flows, either analytically or experimentally,
there are invariably many flow and geometric parameters involved. In the interest of
saving time and money, the fewest possible combinations of parameters should be
utilized.
 𝑊̇
𝐶𝑊̇ = Power Coefficient
𝜌ω3 𝐷5

𝑔𝐻
𝐶𝐻 = Head Coefficient
ω2 𝐷2

𝑄
𝐶𝑄 = Flow Rate Coefficient
ω𝐷3

𝑊̇ 𝐶𝑊̇
𝜂𝑇 = = Efficiency
𝛾𝑄𝐻 𝐶𝑄 𝐶𝐻

Figure(1.11) Dimensionless Performance Curves

Turbo-machinery Similarity Rules

𝑊̇2 𝜌2 𝜔2 3 𝐷2 5
(𝐶𝑊̇ )1 = (𝐶𝑊̇ )2 𝑜𝑟 = � � � �
𝑊̇1 𝜌1 𝜔1 𝐷1

𝐻2 𝜔2 2 𝐷2 2
(𝐶𝐻 )1 = (𝐶𝐻 )2 𝑜𝑟 =� � � �
𝐻1 𝜔1 𝐷1

𝑄2 𝜔2 𝐷2 3
(𝐶𝑄 )1 = (𝐶𝑄 )2 𝑜𝑟 = � �� �
𝑄1 𝜔1 𝐷1

1 − (𝜂 𝑇 )2 𝐷1
= ( )1/4
1 − (𝜂 𝑇 )1 𝐷2

Specific Speed for Turbines

It is the shaft speed that is developed for a unit discharge (Q) under a unit pressure head
(H).

1/2
𝐶𝑄 ω𝑄 1/2
ω𝑠 = 3/4 = (𝑔𝐻)3/4
(Dimensionless)
𝐶𝐻

Power Specific Speed for Turbines

In the case of a hydraulic turbine, the power specific speed ω𝑠𝑝 is often used

1/2
𝐶 ̇ ω(𝑊̇𝑇 /𝜌)1/2
𝑊
ω𝑠𝑝 = 5/4= = (𝑔𝐻𝑇 )5/4
(Dimensionless)
𝐶𝐻

Connection between ω𝑠 and ω𝑠𝑝

ω𝑠𝑝 ω(𝑊̇𝑇 /𝜌)1/2 (𝑔𝐻)3/4

= (𝑔𝐻𝑇 )5/4 ω𝑄 1/2
= �𝜂
ω𝑠
Variation of hydraulic efficiency for several types of turbines with operating
load

Full load is defined as the load under which a turbine develops its maximum efficiency
anything above that is known as overload and anything below that is known as part load.

Figure (1.12) Efficiency as a Function of Load at Constant Speed and Constant Head

Efficiency Reduction in a Hydraulic Turbine is due to

1. Frictional head losses and draft tube head losses.

2. Mismatch of flow entry angle with blade angle.
3. The need to attain a certain turbine speed before useful power output is achieved.
4. Mechanical losses attributed to bearings, seals, and the like.
5. Volumetric loses due to water leakage.
 Draft Tubes

Introduction
Reaction turbines must be completely enclosed because a pressure difference exists
between the working fluid (water) in the turbine and atmosphere. Therefore, it is necessary
to connect the turbine outlet by means of a pipe known as draft tube up to tailrace level.
After the Fluid exerts work on the turbine it leaves with a high velocity and thus a high
kinetic energy, this kinetic energy is preserved by the addition of a draft tube that changes
this energy to pressure energy to increase the output of the turbine.

Figure (1.13) Energy Balance between Points 1 and 2

Total Head at (1) = H + h (m) Relative to the datum

V22
Total Head at (2) = + h + Turbine output + loses in turbine + loses in draft tube
2g
(m)
Total Head at (1) = total Head at (2)

V22
Turbine Output = H − − loses in Turbine − loses in draft tube (m)
2g

• Thus, to increase the turbine output we must reduce the exit velocity (V2 ), loses in
turbine, and loses in draft tube.
• A draft tube (Divergent tube) is used to decrease the exit velocity and thus, increases
the output of the turbine.
The outlet diameter of the draft tube can be increased either by increasing the height of the
draft tube or by increasing the angle of draft tube.

• The increase in height for increasing the diameter without increase in angle is limited
by the pressure at the outlet of the runner.
• An increase in draft tube angle for increasing the diameter without increase in height is
limited by the losses in the draft tube.

The flow in the draft tube is from low pressure region to high pressure region. In such
flow, there is a danger of water particles separating out from main stream and trying to
flow back resulting in formation of eddies which are carried away in main stream causing
losses. The maximum value of cone angle is limited to 8°. The gain in work by increasing
an angle above 8° will be lost in eddy
losses and separated flow.

Figure (1.14) Variation of Cone Angle

Advantages of Utilizing Draft Tubes
1. It allows the turbine to be set above the tailrace water level where it is more accessible
and yet does not cause any sacrifice in the head of turbine. It also prevents the flooding
of generator and other equipment during flood period when the tailrace, water height
goes up.
2. It converts part of the velocity energy of the water leaving the turbine into the pressure
energy and increases the overall efficiency of the plant.

Types of Draft Tubes

1. Conical Draft Tube: This is known as tapered draft tube and used in all reaction
turbines where conditions permit. It is preferred for low specific speed and vertical
shaft Francis turbine. The maximum cone angle of this draft tube is limited to 8°.The
hydraulic efficiency of such type of draft tube is 90%.The draft tube should be made
as to secure a gradual reduction of velocity (uniform decease towards the exit of draft
tube) from the runner to the mouth. A form that is theoretically good is “Trumpet
Shaped”.

Figure (1.15)
2. Elbow Type Draft Tube: The elbow type draft tube is often preferred in most of the
power plants, where the setting of vertical draft tube does not permit enough room
without excessive cost of excavation. This offers an advantage in the cost of
excavation. If the tube is large in diameter; it may be necessary to make the horizontal
portion of some other section than circular in order that the vertical dimension may not
be too great. A common form of section used is oval or rectangle. If the cross-section
is gradually changed from circular at wheel discharge to rectangular at the mouth of
the tube, there is considerable saving in the excavation cost. The efficiency of this tube
lies between 60 to 70%. The horizontal portion of the elbow type draft tube is
generally inclined upward to lead the water gradually to the tailrace level and prevent
the entry of air from the exit end.

Figure (1.16) Oval and Rectangular Ends

3. Bell-Mouth or Moody Draft Tube: The whirl component of the water is large when
the turbine works at part load conditions. The high speed
runner under low head has high whirling component. As
water enters the draft tube from the high speed runner, it
whirls in the direction in which the runner rotates. The
axis of rotation is the vertical axis of the draft tube. The
vortex tends to remain in the same plane because of its
gyroscopic properties and therefore, will not follow the
center line of the tube. This causes Eddies and whirls in
the curved portion of the draft tube and only a portion of
the discharged area at the exit may be effective. Actually
water flows back into the part of the draft tube and causes
serious eddies and losses. The central cone arrangement
of Bell-Mouth draft tube reduces the whirl action of the
discharged water and increases the efficiency of this draft
tube to 85%. The flow coming out of the high speed
runner is whirling flow and can be considered as free
vortex flow. The pressure is minimum at the center of the
free vortex; therefore, the cavitation may start by the
liberation of air and vaporization of water at the center of
the draft tube immediately underneath the runner if the
velocity of whirl is large.
Figure (1.17) Moody Draft Tube
 Cavitation and Limitation of Turbine Height above Tailrace Level
The formation of water vapor and air bubbles on the water surface due to the reduction of
pressure is known as "Cavitation". When the pressure of the water reduces below the
saturation pressure corresponding to the temperature of the water, the rapid formation of
water vapor bubbles starts. The bubbles suddenly collapse with the violent action and
collapsing pressure will be very high. The rapid formation and collapsing of the bubbles
causes the pitting of the metallic surface. It also reduces the efficiency of the hydraulic
prime mover causing honeycombing of runner and blade contours which reduces the
power output.

Figure (1.18) Energy Balance between points 1 and 2

V12 P1 V22 P2
+ +z+h= + + loses in draft tube
2g ρg 2g ρg
P2 Pa
=h+
ρg ρg
2
V1 P1 V22 Pa
+ +z= + + loses in draft tube
2g ρg 2g ρg

Pa − P1 V12 − V22
z=� �−� � + loses in draft tube
ρg 2g

∵ V12 > V22

∴ Pa > P1
The pressure should not be below the cavitation pressure which is the saturation pressure
of water at the water temperature to avoid the cavitation in turbine.
An increase in height of the draft tube also increases the height of the turbine (Z) above
tailrace level and reduces the pressure (P1 ), and increases the danger of cavitation.
Cavitation Performance of Hydraulic Turbines
Thoma factor, σ, defined as;

��(Pa − P1 )/ρg� − Z� [(Ha − H1 ) − Z]

σ= =
H H
Where;
Ha = Atmospheric pressure head in meters of water
H1 = Pressure in meters of water corresponding to point 1.
H = Working head of turbine (difference between headrace and tailrace level in meters)
Z = Height of turbine outlet above tailrace level in meters.

[(Ha − Hv ) − Z ] = Hs is the net positive suction head (NPSH), the amount of head
needed to avoid cavitation.

σ represents the fraction of the available head H, which is unavailable for the production
of work. A large value of σ means that a smaller part of the available head can be utilized.

Critical value of cavitation factor;

��(Pa − Pv )/ρg� − Z� [(Ha − Hv ) − Z]

σc = =
H H

Where, Pv is the vapor pressure at point 1 corresponding to the temperature at the same
point.
To avoid cavitation σ > σc and thus, P1 > Pv .

Suction specific speed is defined as;

�Q
ωss = ω
(gHs )3/4

This specific speed determines the effect of cavitation.

Wislicenus showed that ωss = 4 rad/s for turbines.
 Connection between Thoma’s factor, and specific speeds

ωQ1/2 �Q
ωs = ωss = ω
(gH)3/4 (gHs )3/4
ωsp
Hs = �η
σ= ωs
H

ωs ωQ1/2 (gHs )3/4 Hs 3/4

= × = � � = (σ)3/4
ωss (gH)3/4 ω�Q H
ω sp
(σ)3/4 =
ωss × �η
ωsp 4/3 1
σ=� � × 2/3
ωss η

• For a turbine with constant efficiency as ωsp increases σ increases

• For a turbine with constant power specific speed as efficiency increases σ decreases

Figure (1.19) Cavitation Efficiency with Power Specific Speed for Different Turbines
Methods to Avoid Cavitation

1. Installing the turbine at a lower Z value:

Pa − P1 V12 − V22
z=� �−� � + loses in draft tube
ρg 2g

V21 −V22 Pa −P1

For constant � � as Z is reduced � � is reduced as well Pa = Constant Thus, P1
2g ρg
increases. So that P1 goes farther away from the vapor pressure and as a result the
occurrence of cavitation is reduced.
In some applications Z is even negative, but this arrangement is not preferred as the
inspection and repair of the turbine is difficult

2. Selection of Specific Speed: By selecting a runner of proper specific speed for the
given head from the equation or charts it is possible to avoid the cavitation.

3. Use of Material: The cavitation effect can be reduced by selecting materials which
can resist better the cavitation effect. The cast steel is better than cast iron and stainless
steel or alloy steel is still better than cast steel. The pitting effect of cavitation on cast
steel can be repaired more economically by ordinary welding. It has been observed
that the welded parts are more resistant to cavitation than ordinary ones.

4. Polishing: The cavitation effect is less on polished surfaces than ordinary one. That is
why the cast steel runners and blades are coated with stainless steel.
 2
Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD)
 Introduction
What is Computational Fluid Dynamics?
In the beginning, this popular field of study ,usually referred to by its acronym CFD ,was
only known in the high-technology engineering areas of aeronautics and astronautics , but
now it is becoming a rapidly adopted methodology for solving complex problems in
modern engineering practice.
Constriction of new and improved system designs and optimization carried out on existing
equipment through t through computational simulations are resulting in enhanced
efficiency and lower operating costs.
Nevertheless, the basic question remains: What is computational fluid dynamics? In
retrospect, it has certainly evolved, integrating not only the disciplines of fluid mechanics
with mathematics but also computer science, as illustrated in the Figure

Let’s briefly discuss each of these individual disciplines. Fluid mechanics is essentially the
study of fluids, either in motion (fluid in dynamic mode) or at rest (fluid in stationary
mode). CFD is particularly dedicated to the former, fluids that are in motion, and how the
fluid-flow behavior influences processes that may include heat transfer and possibly
chemical reactions in combusting flows. This directly applies to the “fluid dynamics”
description appearing in the terminology. Additionally, the physical characteristics of the
fluid motion can usually be described through fundamental mathematical equations,
usually in partial differential form, which govern a process of interest and are often called
governing equations in CFD .
In order to solve these mathematical equations, computer scientists using high-level
computer programming languages convert the equations into computer programs or
software packages. The “computational” part simply means the study of the fluid flow
using numerical simulations, which involves employing computer programs or software
packages performed on high-speed digital computers to attain the numerical solutions.
Another question arises: Do we actually require the expertise of three specific people from
each discipline—fluids engineering, mathematics, and computer science—to come
together for the development of CFD programs or even to conduct CFD simulations? The
answer is that it is more likely that a person who proficiently obtains more or less some
subsets of the knowledge from each discipline can meet the demands of CFD.
CFD has also become one of the three basic methods or approaches that can be employed
to solve problems in fluid dynamics and heat transfer. As demonstrated in Figure

The approaches that are strongly interlinked do not work in the approaches that are
strongly interlinked do not work in isolation. Traditionally, both experimental and
analytical methods have been used to study the various aspects of fluid dynamics and to
assist engineers in the design of equipment and industrial processes involving fluid flow
and heat transfer. With the advent of digital computers, the computational (numerical)
aspect has emerged as another viable approach. Although the analytical method is still
practiced by many, and experiments will continue to be significantly performed, the trend
is clearly toward greater reliance on the computational approach for industrial designs,
particularly when the fluid flows are very complex.
Advantages of CFD
First: CFD presents the perfect opportunity to study specific terms in the governing
equations in a more detailed fashion.
SECOND: CFD complements experimental and analytical approaches by providing
• An alternative cost-effective means of simulating real fluid flows in small time.
• An small scale problems
• An answer about "what if" scenarios in a short time.
• A detailed visualization and comprehensive information when compared to
analytical and experimental fluid dynamics.
Third: CFD has the capacity to simulate flow conditions that are not reproducible in
experimental tests found in geophysical and biological fluid dynamics, such as nuclear
accident scenarios or scenarios that are too huge or too remote to be simulated
experimentally.

Disadvantages of CFD
CFD based programs such as ANSYS Fluent requires very high computer specifications,
which adds to the overall cost of the machine.
As mentioned on the ANSYS Inc. website, the preferred specifications for computers to
implement non-complicated projects are;

Typical Specs:

• 1-2 CPUs, 4-12 physical cores each

• 16GB RAM (minimum), 64GB+ recommended
• 2TB+ hard drive space
• Workstation graphics card
• OS: Windows 7/10 or RedHat/SUSE Linux

Add-ons:

• OzenCloud for overflow compute capacity

• Nvidia Tesla GPU
• RAID0 SSDs + backup
• 3D Mouse (e.g. 3Dconnexion)

Limitations of CFD

Numerical errors exist in computations; therefore, there will be differences between

computed results and reality. Visualization of numerical solutions using vectors, contours,
or animated movies of unsteady flows is by far the most effective way of interpreting the
huge amount of data generated from the numerical calculation. However, there is a danger
that an erroneous solution, which may look good, will not correspond to the expected flow
behavior!
Errors that appear during the CFD analysis can be classified into the following four steps:

• Errors of physical model

• Discretization errors
• Errors of solution of discretization equations ( iterative errors )
• Programming errors

Applications of CFD

1. As an Educational and Teaching Tool

CFD is also revolutionizing the teaching and learning of fluid mechanics and thermal
science in higher-education institutions through visualization of complex fluid flows.

For Students: CFD allows students to enhance their understanding of difficult subjects
such as Fluid dynamics and Heat transfer and make them grasp and master the subject. For
instance, we were faced during our learning journey a type of flow that is called Couette
flow, which describes the flow between two concentric cylinders, at the beginning it was
hard to understand the flow pattern clearly and deeply, but after utilizing CFD based
programs such as ANSYS Fluent to simulate the problem for different cases we were able
to visualize the main flow features clearly.

Figure (2.1) Project Schematic of Couette Flow

 Figure (2.2) Temperature Contour of Couette Flow

The Couette flow became well understood after we compared the analytical solution to the
numerical one for each case as well as the contour plot for Temperature variations in the
radial direction as shown in figure (3.2) (Rotating inner cylinder)

For Teachers: The software allows teachers to create their own examples or to customize
predefined existing ones. With carefully constructed examples, to make students
understand and develop an intuitive feel for flow physics.

2. As a Research Tool

Many of the most important aspects of these types of flows are non-linear and, as a
consequence, often do not have any analytic solution. This motivates the search for
numerical solutions for the partial differential equations
CFD, analogous to wind-tunnel tests, can be employed as a research tool to perform
numerical experiments. The figure represents a “snapshot” taken for an unsteady flow past
two side-by-side cylinders at a given instant of time and the comparative visualization of
the numerical calculations based on a large eddy simulation (LES) model attests to the
power of CFD modeling for capturing the complex flow characteristics.
 Figure (2.3)

3. As a Design Tool
Similarly, CFD is becoming an integral part of the engineering design and analysis
environment in prominent industries. Companies are progressively seeking industrial
solutions through the extensive use of CFD for the optimization of product development
and processes and/or to predict the performance of new designs before they are
manufactured or implemented. For example, as shown in figure (3.4), engineers use CFD
extensively to predict the behavior of the flow over the turbine blades to obtain the
optimum angels of the blades and also to know the stresses variation over the blades for
designing and manufacturing purposes.

Figure (2.4) Flow Over a 3-D Curved Rotor

 Governing Equations
Introduction
The universe is written in the language of mathematics! , that is any phenomenon
(physical, Chemical, Biological … etc.) can be described by a set of mathematical
equations.

CFD is fundamentally based on the governing equations of fluid dynamics. The governing
equations represent mathematical statements of the conservation laws of physics namely:

• Mass Conservation (continuity equation).

• Momentum conservation (Newton's second law of motion).
• Energy conservation (first law of thermodynamics).
Those governing equations can be described in differential or integral form.

Our starting point is the concept of the continuous media (solid or liquid) that consists of
elementary volumes that are infinitesimal from the macroscopic viewpoint but sufficiently
large in comparison with the typical distance between the molecules so they can
themselves be considered as continua.

The conservation laws must be satisfied by any such fluid element. This can be
mathematically expressed in two different ways. We can follow the so-called Largangian
approach, where the equations are formulated directly in terms of properties of a given
elementary volume moving in space. This approach is rarely used in CFD. Much more
common is the Eulerian approach, in which the conservation principles applied to an
elementary volume are reformulated in terms of distributed properties such as density
ρ(x, t), temperature T(x, t), or velocity v(x, t) considered as vector or scalar functions of
space x and time t.

Next, we differentiate between conservative forms and non-conservative forms

Consider a general flow field as represented by the streamlines as shown in figure(4.1),
the control volume may be fixed in space with the fluid moving through it .Alternatively,
the control volume may be moving with the fluid that is the same fluid particles are
always inside it .The fluid-flow equations that we directly obtain by applying the
fundamental physical principles to a finite control volume are in integral form, and those
applied to the infinitesimal fluid element are in the partial differential form. The equations
obtained from the finite control volume or that is fixed in space are called conservative
form of the governing equation. The equations obtained from the finite control volume
moving with the fluid are called the non-conservative form of the governing equations.
 Figure (2.5) Finite Fluid Element

Our next step is to introduce the material derivative. Let us consider an element moving
with the velocity V(x, y, z, t) in the fluid with density ρ(x, y, z, t) as shown in Figure (4.2)
(any other scalar field can be used instead of density without the loss of generality).

Figure (2.6)

The position vector of the element in the Cartesian coordinate system varies with time as
R (t) = (x (t), y (t), z (t)). Differentiation of ρ with respect to time gives the rate of change
of density within the element.
Where we have identified the time derivatives of the components of the position vector as
the correspondent components of the local velocity V = ui + vj + wk. The right-hand side
of the equation bears the name of the material derivative and has special notation

𝐷𝜌
Here, 𝐷𝑡
is a symbol for the instantaneous time rate of change of density of the fluid
element as it moves through space. By definition this symbol is called the substantial
𝜕𝜌
derivative D/Dt. This is different from 𝜕𝑡
which is physically the time rate of change of
density at a specific fixed point and it is called the local derivative
A general expression for the substantial derivative in Cartesian coordinates:

In a vector notation which is valid for any coordinate system

Where 𝛻. 𝑽 is called the convective derivative, which is physically the time rate of
change due to movement of the fluid element from one location to another in the flow
field where the flow properties are spatially different.
Our next step is to introduce the transformation of coordinates

Suppose a transformation is carried out from a Cartesian coordinate system (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 )to
another coordinate system (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 . ) this new system will be called a curvilinear
coordinate system.It will be assumed that there is a one-to-one relationship between the
𝑋𝑖 and the𝑢𝑖 , so that for example 𝑋1 can be written as a function of the 𝑢𝑖 ,𝑥1 =
𝑥1 (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 ) and conversely 𝑢1 = 𝑢1 (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ) The surfaces 𝑢𝑖 = constant are referred
to as coordinate surfaces and the intersection of these surfaces defines the coordinate
curves, so for example the 𝑢1 coordinate curve is the intersection of the surfaces 𝑢2 =
constant and 𝑢3 = constant.

Figure (2.7) General 3-D Coordinates

Now consider a small displacement dx = (𝑑𝑥1 , 𝑑𝑥2 , 𝑑𝑥3 ). since the 𝑥𝑖 are functions of the
𝑢𝑖 this can be written as

𝜕𝑥𝑖
Or more compactly using suffix notation: 𝑑𝑥𝑖 = 𝑑𝑢𝑖
𝜕𝑢𝑖

A unit vector 𝑒1 to be defined in the direction of the 𝑢1 curve, by

where ℎ1 is a scale factor defined by

The unit vectors 𝑒2 and 𝑒3 are defined in a similar way, along with the scale factors ℎ2 and
ℎ3 .

The displacement vector dx can then be written in terms of these unit vectors and scale
factors as

Attention will be restricted to coordinate systems in which the unit vectors are orthogonal,
so that

Such coordinate systems are known as orthogonal curvilinear coordinates. This means
that the coordinate curves are perpendicular to each other where they intersect. It will also
be assumed that the coordinate system is right-handed, so that

Suppose ф is a scalar function and 𝐀 = 𝐴1 𝒆𝟏 + 𝐴2 𝒆𝟐 + 𝐴3 𝒆𝟑 is a vector function of

orthogonal curvilinear coordinate 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 then
1 𝜕ф 1 𝜕ф 1 𝜕ф
∇ф = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 ф = 𝒆𝟏 + 𝒆𝟐 + 𝒆
ℎ1 𝜕𝑢1 ℎ2 𝜕𝑢2 ℎ3 𝜕𝑢3 𝟑
1 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇. 𝑨 = 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑨 = � (ℎ2 ℎ3 𝐴1 ) + (ℎ1 ℎ3 𝐴2 ) + (ℎ ℎ 𝐴 )�
ℎ1 ℎ2 ℎ3 𝜕𝑢1 𝜕𝑢2 𝜕𝑢3 2 1 3

For Cylindrical polar coordinates (R, ф, z)

 ℎ𝑟 = 1 , ℎф = 𝑅 , ℎ𝑧 = 1

For spherical polar coordinates (r, θ, ф)

ℎ𝑟 = 1 , ℎ𝜃 = 𝑟 , ℎ𝑧 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
Spherical Cylindrical

1. Mass Conservation
The first principle to review is undoubtedly the oldest; It is the conservation of mass in a
closed system or the ‘‘continuity’’ of mass through a flow (open) system. From
Engineering Thermodynamics, we recall that the mass conservation statement for a
control volume is

Where 𝑀𝐶𝑉 is the mass that is trapped instantaneously inside the control volume (CV),
while the (𝑚̇) are the mass flow rates associated with flow into and out of the control
volume.

The control volume to be considered is the infinitesimally small (△x, △y) fluid element
drawn around a fixed location (x, y) in the flow field as shown in figure (4.4).

Figure (2.8) Mass Conservation Applied to a Finite Fluid Element

In 3-D flow field, the control volume would be the parallelepiped x y z as shown in the
figure (4.5)
We will derive the continuity equation in 2-D form for simplicity and then show the final
form of the equation in the 3-D form.

Taking u and ν as the local velocity components at point (x, y), The rate at which mass
enters the control volume through the surface perpendicular to x may be expressed as (ρu)
△y △z, where ρ is the local density of the fluid, and similarly through the surfaces
perpendicular to y and z as (ρν) △x △z and (ρw) △x △y, respectively.

Or, dividing through by the constant size of the control volume (△x △y),

In a 3-D flow, an analogous argument yields

Where w is the velocity component in the z direction.

The last Equation is precisely the partial differential form of the continuity equation.
This specific differential form is usually called the conservative form
In a vector notation, the continuity equation can be written as:
𝜕𝜌
+ 𝛻 ∙ ρ𝐕 = 0
𝜕𝑡

For the non-conservative form of the continuity equation, the partial differential form can
be rearranged as;

Or

The flow in the draft tube can be assumed as an incompressible flow that is ρ= const. so
the variation of density with time is negligible.
The continuity equation under these assumptions will be

In a vector notation, continuity can be written as:

𝛻. 𝑽 = 𝟎
That is, the divergence of the velocity field is zero.

2. Conservation of momentum
The underlying physical principle is Newton’s second law, which states that the rate of
change of momentum of a body is equal to the net force acting on it:

For a fluid element of unit volume moving within a flow, the left-hand side is replaced by
the material derivative

In the Cartesian coordinates the above equation become:

We can distinguish between two kinds of forces acting on a fluid element:

1. Body Forces: They act directly on the mass of the fluid and originate from a
remote source. The examples are the gravity, electric (Coulomb), magnetic ….etc.
The total body force acting on a fluid element is proportional to its mass. In the
following, we will assume that the body forces are lumped together into a net force
of strength 𝑓 per unit mass, so that the force per unit volume is 𝜌𝑓.
2. Surface Forces: They are the pressure and friction forces acting between
neighboring fluid elements and between a fluid element and an adjacent wall as
shown in figure (4.5).
 Figure (2.9) Momentum Conservation Applied to a Finite Fluid Element

Summing all these forces in the x direction, the x-momentum equation becomes;

In a similar manner the momentum equation in the y and z directions can be obtained and
expressed as

The stress tensor can be separated into the isotropic pressure part, which is always present,
and the viscous (friction) part, which exists only in flowing fluid and must be zero if the
fluid is at rest:

Where

Is the Kroneker-delta tensor.

It is shown in the fluid dynamics textbooks that the vector field of surface forces can be
represented as a divergence of a symmetric 3 × 3 tensor called the stress tensor τ. Its
component τij can be seen as the i-component of the surface force acting on a unit area
surface, which is normal to the j-axis of the Cartesian coordinate system. Here and in the
rest of the book we assume that the values 1, 2, and 3 of indices i and j correspond to the
Cartesian coordinates x, y, and z. The diagonal elements τ𝑖𝑗 cause extension/contraction of
the fluid element, while the off-diagonal elements are responsible for its deformation by
the shear.For the equations to fully describe the flow, a model for the viscous stresses
σ𝑖𝑗 has to be introduced. Newton was first to suggest that the shear stress must be
proportional to the velocity gradient. This was later developed by Stokes into the linear
model for the stress tensor:

Where μ and λ are the first and second viscosity coefficients respectively. Note that in an
incompressible fluid with ∇ · V = 0, the term with the second viscosity disappears. For
−2
compressible fluids, it is generally believed that 𝜆 = 3
𝜇 is an accurate approximation
except for interior of shock waves in hypersonic flows. The fluids whose behavior
satisfies the model are called Newtonian. After substituting and using the second viscosity
assumption we obtain the final form of the momentum conservation equations, the Navier-
Stokes equation is

The equations can be written in a shorter form if we introduce the rate of strain tensor
with components

And use the Einstein summation convention, according to which repeated indices in a
term imply summation over all their possible values (1, 2, and 3 in our case):

For the draft tube, the flow may be considered as incompressible with constant viscosity.
Under these assumptions the Navier-Stokes equations become in a Victorian form:

The x-momentum equation reduces to

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑃 𝜕 2𝑢 𝜕 2𝑢 𝜕 2𝑢
𝜌� +𝑢 +𝜈 +𝑤 �=− + 𝜇 � 2 + 2 + 2 � + 𝜌𝑓𝑥
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
The y-momentum equation reduces to
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑃 𝜕 2𝑣 𝜕 2𝑣 𝜕 2𝑣
𝜌� +𝑢 +𝜈 +𝑤 �=− + 𝜇 � 2 + 2 + 2 � + 𝜌𝑓𝑦
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
The Z-momentum equation reduces to
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑃 𝜕 2𝑤 𝜕 2𝑤 𝜕 2𝑤
𝜌� +𝑢 +𝜈 +𝑤 �=− +𝜇� 2 + + � + 𝜌𝑓𝑧
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
 Discretization of Differential Equations
Introduction
The process of obtaining the computational solution consists of two stages:
The first stage involves the conversion of the partial differential equations and auxiliary
(boundary and initial) conditions into a system of discrete algebraic equations. This stage
is commonly known as the discretization stage.
The second stage of the solution process involves the implementation of numerical
methods to provide a solution to the system of algebraic equations.

Figure (2.10) Discretization Approaches

Finite Difference Approximation
Computational Grid
The first step toward a finite difference approximation is to cover the solution domain
together with its boundaries by a computational grid.

Time Discretization
The grid covering the time interval [𝑡0 , 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑 ] of the solution consists of time layers
.

They can be distributed uniformly that is with constant time step Δt, or non-uniformly,
with varying Δt.

Space Discretization
If the space domain is one-dimensional, the computational grid is a one-dimensional set of
points with Δx being either constant (uniform grids) of a function of x (non-
uniform, also called clustered or stretched grids). One can choose between structured and
unstructured grids. In an unstructured grid, the nodes are placed irregularly. Unstructured
mesh commonly refers to a mesh overlay with cells that are in the form of either a
triangle-shaped element in two dimensions or a tetrahedron-shaped element in three
dimensions. The main advantage of the unstructured grids is their geometric flexibility.
Any geometric shape can be covered by the grid, with some nodes placed exactly at the
boundaries.

Figure (2.11) Different Cell Topologies

 Figure (2.12)

Approximation of

Assuming and expanding it using a Taylor series about point (i, j);
1. Forward Difference

Thus,

2. Backward Difference

Thus,
 3. Central Difference

Thus;

Summery and Comparison

Higher-Order Derivatives
Figure (2.13)
Linear Interpolation
In addition to the approximation of partial derivatives, development of many finite difference and
finite volume methods requires approximate evaluation of variables at points that do not belong to
the computational grid. This is usually done using linear interpolation from neighboring grid
points. The operation introduces truncation error of the second order.

Thus;

Approximation of Partial Differential Equations

A finite difference representation of a PDE is obtained by replacing each term of the
equation by its finite difference approximation. It is imperative that the approximations of
all terms are derived at the same grid point and the same time layer.

System of Difference Equations

The approximations of the PDE written for all internal grid points and approximations of
boundary and initial conditions form a system of algebraic equations called difference
equations or, in more general terms, discretization equations. The system has to be solved
to find the values of the unknown functions at the grid points.
The need to solve huge systems of algebraic equations has always been a critical aspect,
even a bottleneck of CFD analysis. The available computing power limits the size of the
system that can be solved in reasonable time and, thus, the type of the flow and heat
transfer processes that can be accurately analyzed.
Finite Volume Method
The finite-volume method discretizes the integral form of the conservation equations
directly in physical space. The computational domain is subdivided into a finite number of
contiguous control volumes, where the resulting statements express the exact conservation
of relevant properties for each of the control volumes. At the centroid of each of the
control volumes, the variable values are calculated. Interpolation is used to express
variable values at the control volume surface in terms of the center values, and suitable
quadrature formulae are applied to approximate the surface and volume integrals. As the
finite-volume method works with control volumes and not grid intersection points, it has
the capacity to accommodate any type of grid. Here, instead of structured grids,
unstructured grids can be employed that allow a large number of options for the definition
of the shape and location of the control volumes.
As with the finite-difference method, a numerical grid must be initially defined to
discretize the physical flow domain of interest. The cornerstone of the finite-volume
method is the control volume integration. In a control volume, the bounding surface areas
of the element are directly linked to the discretization of the first- and second-order
derivatives for (the generic flow-field variable).

Approximation of

Where represents the variable values at the elemental surfaces and N denotes the
number of bounding surfaces on the elemental volume.
Higher-Order Derivatives
The approximation of the first-order derivatives at the control volume faces is usually
determined from the discrete u values of the surrounding elements. For example, in a
structured mesh arrangement, where the central control volume (shaded) is surrounded by
only one adjacent control volume at each face, the first-order derivatives could be
approximated by a piecewise-linear gradient profile between the central and adjacent
nodes. If needed, higher-order quadratic profiles could also be employed to attain higher
accuracy for the numerical solution, which requires more surrounding elemental volumes
within the mesh system.

Figure (2.14)
Methods of Interpolation
1. Upwind Interpolation
The simplest method of approximation of is to use the value at a neighboring
grid point. This means approximating by either , . In the upwind interpolation, the
choice, , is dictated by the direction of the flow

The value at the nearest upwind (upstream) grid point is taken. The choice seems natural
since the upwind value is convicted by the flow toward the point .

Since n is in the positive x-direction at i+1/2 and negative

at i-1/2, thus;

Figure (2.15) Upwind Interpolation

 2. Linear upwind difference scheme (LUDS)

Assume the fluid is flowing in the positive x-direction;

∴ Figure (2.16) LUDS

3. Quadratic upwind difference scheme (QUICK)

A popular higher-order scheme for interpolation is the Quadratic Upstream Interpolation
of Convective Kinematics, or QUICK. It has the third order of accuracy and is obtained by
fitting a parabola through the values of the interpolated function at two grid points
upstream and one point downstream.

Assume the fluid is flowing in the positive x-direction;

Figure (2.17) QUICK

 Numerical Solutions of Algebraic Equations
After the various discretization methods for the partial differential equations is applied, we
obtain a system of linear or non-linear algebraic equations. The complexity and size of this set
of equations depend on the dimensionality and geometry of the physical problem. Depending
on whether the equations are linear or nonlinear, there are essentially two families of
numerical methods are:
• Direct methods.
• Iterative methods.

In the Direct method, the unknowns are solved all at once. In the non-linear case the
discretized equations must be solved by an Iterative technique that involves guessing the
solution. Iterative methods are generally much more economical, and only non-zero terms of
the algebraic equations are required to be stored in the core memory this advance shows up
for linear equations as the matrices obtained are typically sparse unlike non-linear system of
equations.

Direct Methods
Gauss elimination method
Aϕ = B
Where ϕ contains the unknown nodal variables

The solution is obtained by eliminating the entries below the diagonal to yield a lower triangle
of zeros. After this process is complete, the original matrix A becomes an upper triangular
matrix that is given by

This process is called the forward elimination process. The upper triangular system of
equations can now be solved by the back substitution process.
The bulk of the computational effort is in the forward elimination process; the back
substitution process requires fewer arithmetic operations and is thus much less costly.
Iterative Methods
Most CFD problems usually result in a large system of non- linear equations. This leaves the
only option of employing an iterative method. In an iterative method, one guesses the solution
and uses the equation to systematically improve the solution until it reaches some level of
convergence. This is usually the case for CFD problems.

1. Jacobi method

For the first iteration, assume a value then compute .Then use
these value for the second iteration until the solution converges.

2. Gauss-Siedel method

It uses the same principles as the Jacobi method but updates the solution in the same
iteration. For example assume
Then compute and use this value straightaway in the next step of evaluating .
CFD Solution Analysis

Consistency

This property concerns the discretization of the partial differential equations where the
approximation performed should diminish or become exact if the finite quantities, such as the
time step Δt and mesh spacing Δx, Δy, and Δz, tend to zero. This error represents the
difference between the discretized equation and the exact one. For any numerical method to
be consistent, the truncation error must become zero when the time step Δt 0 and/or mesh
spacing Δx, Δy, and Δz  0.

Stability

It is a property that concerns the growth or decay of errors introduced at any stage during the
computation. The errors here are because rounding-off at every step of computation. due to
the finite number of significant figures the computer hardware can accommodate as well as a
poor initial guess. A numerical solution method is therefore considered to be stable if it does
not magnify the errors that appear in the course of the numerical solution process Stability in
the context of iterative methods ensures that the solution does not diverge or get false answer.

Convergence

Convergence of a numerical process can be defined as the solution of the system of algebraic
equations approaching the true solution of the partial differential equations having the same
initial and boundary conditions.

There are three important aspects for iterative convergence to happen;

• All the discretized equations (momentum, energy, etc.) are deemed to be converged
when they reach a specified tolerance at every nodal location.
• The numerical solution no longer changes with additional iterations.
• Overall mass, momentum, energy, and scalar balances are obtained.

During the numerical procedure, the imbalances (errors) of the discretized equations are
monitored, and these defects are commonly referred to as the residuals of the system of
algebraic equations; i.e., they measure the extent of imbalances arising from the equations and
terminate the numerical process when a specified tolerance is reached. For satisfactory
convergence, the residuals should diminish as the numerical process progresses.

It is noted that iterative convergence is not the same as grid convergence .Grid convergence
seeks a grid-independent solution, which means approaching the exact solution which can be
checked by halving the grid dimensions and compare the results.

So the definition of the residual is the difference between the discretized form of the partial
differential equation and the exact form, for a well-posed formulation, the residuals become
negligible with increasing iterations.
Sources of Errors

1. Discretization error
Discretization errors are due to the difference between the exact solution of the modeled
equations and a numerical solution with a limited time and space resolution.

2. Round off Error

Round-off errors exist due to the difference between the machine accuracy
of a computer and the true value of a variable. Every computer represents numbers that have a
finite number of significant digits. The default value of the number of significant digits for
many computers is 7, and this is commonly referred to as single precision. However,
calculations can also be performed using 15 significant digits, which is referred as double
precision.

Figure (2.18) Error as a Function of Step Size

3. Iteration or Convergence Error

Iteration or convergence errors occur due to the difference between a fully converged solution
of a finite number of grid points and a solution that has not fully achieved convergence. Either
because of the user’s being too impatient to allow the solution algorithm to complete its
progress to the final converged solution or because of the user’s applying too large
convergence tolerances to halt the iteration process when the CFD solution may still be
considerably far from its converged state.
4. Physical Modeling Error
Physical modeling errors are those due to uncertainty in the formulation of the mathematical
models and deliberate simplifications of the models. The sources of uncertainty in physical
models are;
• The phenomenon is not thoroughly understood.
• Parameters employed in the model are known to possess some degree of uncertainty.
• Appropriate models are simplified, and thus uncertainty is introduced.
• Experimental confirmation of the models is not possible or is incomplete

5. Human Error
• Computer programming errors: involve human mistakes made in programming, which
are the direct responsibility of the programmers.
• Usage errors: Inexperience in handling CFD codes result from inappropriate setting
of boundary conditions, selection of bad numerical schemes, etc.

Controlling the Solution Errors

We see from the above figure that as the mesh or time-step size decreases, the discretization
error decreases while the round-off error increases. For the total error, it is evident that
continually decreasing the step size does not necessarily mean that more accurate results are
attained. The opposite is true at small step sizes, where less accurate results are obtained
because of the quicker increase in the round-off error. In order to contain this error, we should
therefore avoid a large number of computations with very small numbers. In practice, we will
not be able to determine the magnitude of the error involved in the numerical method so to
have conclusion about discretization error the issue of grid independence should be checked
at by halving the mesh size in each direction and check if the solution obtained doesn’t differ
significantly if so then the discretization error is at an acceptable level but if not then the
solution is a function of number of grids and grid refinement should be applied to the problem
to refine the accuracy of the solution until grid independent occurs . Also in a large round off
errors double precision solver to reduce round-off error. if the round-off error is found to be
significant, the flow calculations can be repeated using double precision while holding the
mesh sizes (and the size of the time step in transient problems) constant. If the results do not
change considerably, we conclude that the round-off error is not a problem in the CFD
solution. However, if the changes are larger than expected, we may attempt to reduce the total
number of calculations by either increasing the mesh sizes or changing the order of
computations, such as adopting a higher approximation to evaluate the first-order spatial
derivatives of the convective terms and/or the first-order time derivatives in the conservation
equation

Verification and Validation

• Verification: is the process of assessing the numerical simulation uncertainty by

comparing the results with the analytical solution.
• Validation: is the process of assessing simulation model uncertainty by using
benchmark experimental data.
 3
Formulation of the Present
Problem
 Problem Simulation
Introduction
The main goal of the project is to implement and apply the basic knowledge of the thermal
sciences to a practical problem utilizing numerical techniques and well known CFD-based
programs such as ANSYS Fluent. The problem concentrated on understanding the flow
pattern at different operating conditions in a draft tube of a Francis turbine manufactured
by GILKES. Inc., which exists in the Fluid Mechanics lab of the Mechanical Engineering
Department of Al-Azhar University in Cairo. Taking variable measurements at specific
operating points of the turbine in the lab familiarized us with the experimental work. Some
of these measured variables were used as boundary conditions in simulating the draft tube,
as will be explained in the subsequent sections.
Apart from the main goal, we modeled and animated the turbine as a whole and the
mounted devices before attempting to simulate the draft tube. This gave us the opportunity
to implement CAD-based software such as SolidWorks to a real world problem.
Moreover, we understood fairly the operating principle of a Data Acquisition System,
which links the measuring devices to the computer.
The 3-D model of the project is shown in figure (3.1), for further details, see appendix (B).
The project consisted of three major branches; namely
1. Studying and researching
2. Lab work
3. Computer software
Studying and researching which is the first step in conducting the project. In this phase,
we studied Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and hydraulic turbines using some
textbooks and online resources. (See appendix (C)). The purpose of this phase was to
prepare ourselves to the next two steps.

Lab work the second step of the project was to conduct laboratory measurements, this
phase consisted of two steps; namely
1. Turbine and device dimensioning
2. Running the turbine and taking measurements
In the dimensioning step, we measured the whole dimensions of the turbine elements and
the devices mounted on it using simple tools like a digital micrometer. Moreover, we used
the 2-D drawing that was made by GILKES.Inc, as shown in figure (3.3). After
completing the dimensioning phase, we moved to the second step, which is running the
turbine at a specific operating point. A pump located beneath the tank is connected to the
turbine to create the head required for the turbine. The pump is driven by an electric motor
which is regulated via a Variable Speed Drive (VSD), so we can control the rotational
speed of the pump shaft and thus, the turbine output. Also a brake stepper motor is
connected to the turbine to control the guide vane angle that allows us to control the flow
rate. Thus, by using a VSD and a brake stepper motor we can fix the operating point. In
our project, we have chosen four operating points (case 1, case 2, case 3, and case 4) all
operating at fully opened guide vane angle, but at different rpms and flow rate so the
operating point in our case is controlled by only two variables, which are the rotational
speed of the turbine shaft in rpm and the head in meters (flow rate).
The first case was at the rated power as GILKES.Inc recommend (Given in the turbine
manual), while the second case is at the rated power obtained experimentally (measured in
the lab).
The measuring devices mounted on the turbine are;
1. Fluid level sensor
2. Load cell
3. Pressure sensors
4. Speed sensors
5. Brake stepper motor
See Appendix A for further details. These devices are connected to a Data Acquisition
which is connected to the computer Using LabVIEW software to monitor the data.
Computer software in this phase, we started implementing the various data that we
obtained from the two previous phases. This enabled us to utilize the intended software.
This phase consisted of three steps
1. SolidWorks
2. Microsoft Excel
3. ANSYS Fluent
In the first step we used the data that we obtained from the dimensioning step to make a 3-
D model for the whole experiment i.e. turbine elements, sensors, VSD, pump, tank … etc.
As shown in figure (3.1). After constructing the 3-D model we created a computational
fluid domain for the draft tube and the rotor, the details of how we done so is explained
later. We also made an animation for the model and its assembly.
An exploded view of the model with a bill of materials (BOM) is shown in figure (3.2).
To conduct the third step we needed the flow domain as well as the boundary conditions.
We used the velocity triangle at the inlet of the blade to program a Microsoft Excel file
that is applicable to any operating point. This is explained later in the boundary conditions
section.
After we obtained the flow domain and the boundary conditions, we used ANSYS Fluent
to carry out the simulation for the four cases separately and compare the results we got to
make our conclusions using CFD-post; more details will be explained later. A project
schematic is shown in figure (3.4).
Figure (3.1) 3-D Model of the Project
Figure (3.2) Expanded View of the Project
Figure (3.3) 2-D Drawings from GILKES.Inc
Figure (3.4) Project Schematic
Computational Flow Domain
In attempting to construct the flow domain of our problem i.e. the draft tube and the rotor
from the previously constructed 3-D model, we used the cavity feature embedded in
SolidWorks, which permits us to obtain the flow domain from the model. The flow
domain of the draft tube consists of four parts assembled together and the rotor as one
part. This division was necessary as it facilitated the construction of the mesh in the
meshing step.
At the begging, the project concentrated on understanding and studying the flow pattern
and the main flow parameters such as pressure, and velocity in the draft tube, but due to
the lack of sufficient measurement devices at the inlet of the draft tube, we were not able
to obtain the boundary conditions that are necessary to complete our simulation. Thus, we
attempted to insert the rotor flow domain with the draft tube as a whole assembly. This
gave us the opportunity to obtain the boundary conditions at the inlet of the rotor by
constructing the velocity triangle at the inlet of the blade, which was established by
knowing the flow rate and the rotational speed at the investigated point of operation. The
procedure of acquiring the boundary conditions is discussed in the boundary conditions
section.
The draft tube along with the rotor before using the cavity feature is shown in figure (3.5).
This 3-D model was obtained in the modeling process of the project. It is to be clear that
this is not the flow domain, but rather is the physical model of the problem.
The flow domain along with the dimensions that was obtained after the use of the cavity
feature is shown in figure (3.6). This figure represents the actual flow domain of the
problem and it is the counter part of the 3-D model i.e. the 3-D model was filled with solid
material and then the model was extracted from it. This process is executed as ANSYS
Fluent must read the flow domain as a solid body and not as emptied space as in reality.
An exploded view of the flow domain is shown in figure (3.7). As previously mentioned
the draft tube is subdivided into four parts to ease the construction of the mesh.
Figure (3.5) 3-D Model of the Rotor and the Draft Tube
Figure (3.6) Flow Domain of the Problem
Figure (3.7) Expanded View of the Flow Domain
 Mesh Generation
The basic idea of CFD is to make calculations at only limited (Finite) number of points and then
interpolate the results for the entire domain (surface or volume).The partial differential equations
that govern fluid flow are not usually amenable to analytical solutions, except for very simple
cases. Therefore, in order to analyze fluid flows, flow domains are split into smaller subdomains
(made up of geometric primitives like hexahedra and tetrahedral in 3D and quadrilaterals and
triangles in 2D). The governing equations are then discretized and solved inside each of these
subdomains. The subdomains are often called elements or cells, and the collection of all elements
or cells is called a mesh or grid. Grid generation is the first process involved in computing
numerical solutions to the equations that describe a physical process. The result of the solution
depends upon the quality of grid and that we will talk about it in this section. In constructing the
mesh for the flow domain we use three types of meshes in consecutive order;

1. Coarse mesh
2. Refined mesh
3. High independent mesh
We adopted this procedure to ensure that the mesh independence is obtained, which is one of the
most vital points that gives an indication that the iterations that we obtained for the different flow
variables are reasonably true. The major differences between these three mesh types are the
number of elements, mesh quality, and the intensiveness of the mesh near the wall of the draft
tube. These mesh properties increase as we go from a coarse mesh to a high independent mesh as
mentioned above. A description accompanied with some figures about the three different meshes
is shown in the following sections.

1. Coarse mesh
Component name Number of elements Number of nodes kind of mesh
Rotor 611,615 119,874 Tetrahedral
Draft tube 658,661 203,575 Tetrahedral
Total flow domain 1,270,276 323,449 Tetrahedral

Figure (3.8) Rotor Plan View Figure (3.9) Rotor Cross Section
 Figure (3.10) Draft Tube Inlet Figure (3.11) Draft Tube Outlet

Figure (3.12) Draft Tube Cross Section

2. Refined mesh

Component name Number of elements Number of nodes kind of mesh

Rotor 1,620,486 2,336,471 Tetrahedral
Tetrahedral&
Draft tube 460,965 925,650
hexahedral
Tetrahedral&
Total flow domain 2,081,451 3,262,121
hexahedral
 Figure (3.13) Rotor Plan View Figure (3.14) Rotor Cross Section

Figure (3.15) Draft Tube Inlet Figure (3.16) Draft Tube Outlet

Figure (3.17) Draft Tube Cross Section

 3. High independent mesh
In this mesh type we note that we used inflation type mesh to increase the mesh
intensiveness near the wall of draft tube and this is the final mesh which is utilized to
solve the final solution of the problem.
Component name Number of elements Number of nodes kind of mesh
Rotor 800,129 156,521 Tetrahedral
Draft tube 1,298,009 975,979 hexahedral
Tetrahedral &
Total flow domain 2,098,138 1,132,500
hexahedral

Figure (3.18) Rotor Plan view Figure (3.19) Rotor Cross Section

Figure (3.20) Draft Tube Inlet Figure (3.21) Draft Tube Outlet
Figure (3.22) Draft Tube Cross Section
Boundary Conditions
In the simulation process of the problem under hand, one must obtain the boundary
conditions in order to fully define the problem. Without the boundary conditions the
governing equations have infinite number of solutions, where each solution corresponds to
a particular boundary condition, which may vary completely from case to case. When
attempting to obtain the boundary conditions one must also make certain assumptions to
simulate the problem.
Some of the Boundary Conditions in ANSYS Fluent are:
• Pressure inlet
• Pressure outlet
• Velocity inlet
• Mass flow inlet
• Outlet flow
• Wall

In this project the boundary conditions were obtained from the Lab at certain different
operating conditions and the dimensions of flow domain i.e. the draft tube and rotor
assembled together along with certain rational assumptions.
There are some measurement devices mounted on the Francis turbine to constantly
monitor the different parameters that we are interested in such as, the fluid level in the
tank and the speed of the shaft. These two variables are utilized to calculate the boundary
conditions of the problem. By measuring the fluid level in the tank one can calculate the
flow rate from derived equations in conjunction with the V-notch and certain measured
experimental coefficients. The equation that we used to obtain the flow rate after
measuring the fluid level is given below;
Where;
• C is an experimentally determined coefficient. Ranges from 0.58 to 0.62
• θ is the V-notch angle
• H is the Fluid level
• Q is the Flow rate

Now that we know the flow rate (Q) and the rotational speed of the shaft (N); we used
these two variables in conjunction with the dimensions of the flow domain to obtain the
boundary conditions.
We took advantage of the programming capabilities of Microsoft Excel to program the
problem so as to obtain the boundary conditions. The inputs are the flow rate (Q) and the
rotational speed (N) as well as the rotor flow domain dimensions.

Figure (3.23) Velocity Triangles

 Equations Utilized in Microsoft Excel

V ➝ Absolute Velocity

𝑉𝑤 ➝ Whirl Velocity

𝑉𝑓 ➝ Flow Velocity

𝑢➝Blade Velocity

𝑉𝑟 ➝Relative Velocity

α ➝Guide Vane Angle

β ➝ Blade Angle

b ➝Blade Height
Input and Output table from Microsoft Excel

Inputs
Operating Outputs
Geometry Velocity [m/s]
Conditions
D1 [cm] 8.236 Q [m3/s] - Vf1 -
D2 [cm] 4.048 N [rpm] - Vf2 -
β1° 26.5 ρ [kg/m3] 1000 u1 -
β2° 12 g [m/s2] 9.81 u2 -
b1 [cm] 0.799 Vω1 -
b2 [cm] 1.49 Vω2 -
V1 -
V2 -
Vr1 -
Vr2 -
α 1° -
α 2° -
The calculated values of (Vf1) and (Vω1) along with N and assuming that the pressure
outlet from the draft tube is zero gauge for all cases are used as the boundary conditions as
well as the no slip condition applied at the walls of the draft tube and rotor.
The boundary conditions for the four cases that we investigated are;
Case 1

Input Output
Q [L/s] 3.55 Vf1 (m/s) 1.717
N [rpm] 2300 Vω1 (m/s) 13.362

Case 2

Input Output
Q [L/s] 2.87 Vf1 [m/s] 1.388
N [rpm] 2252 Vω1 [m/s] 12.496

Case 3

Input Output
Q [L/s] 0. 2 Vf1 [m/s] 0.0967
N [rpm] 1200 Vω1 [m/s] 5.369

Case 4

Input Output
Q [L/s] 0. 32263 Vf1 [m/s] 0.156
N (rpm) 1700 Vω1 [m/s] 7.644
The general procedure for obtaining the boundary conditions is shown in the figure below

Figure (3.24) Boundary Condition Layout

The measured variables of the turbine are transmitted to the Data Acquisition (DAQ)
where it converts the analog signals to a digital one i.e. analog-to-digital converter, this
digital signal is then processed to the computer where it can be read with ease by the use
of certain programs such as LabVIEW. These measurements with some assumptions and
mathematical equations are used in Microsoft Excel to obtain the boundary conditions
which are used in CFD-based programs such as ANSYS Fluent.
 Figure (3.25) Fixed Wall Figure (3.26) Inlet

Figure (3.27) Rotating Wall Figure (3.28) Outlet

Figure (3.29) Flow Domain

Model Setup
After inserting the geometry of the rotor and the draft tube into the design modeler and specifying
the various boundary conditions (inlet, outlet…etc.), the next step was to choose the different
choices to completely define the problem under study.

We chose the following choices in the program

• Pressure based type solver

• Steady time solver
• Absolute velocity formulation
• Gravity acceleration is on with a value of 9.81 𝑚/𝑠 2
• Viscous SST K-Omega Turbulence Model
• Material (working fluid) is chosen from Fluent library as water-liquid h2o
• Solution method is Simple scheme of pressure-velocity coupling and the spatial
discretization of Green-Gauss Node based Gradient, and PRESTO pressure. Second order
(third order in cases 3, and 4) of Momentum ,turbulent kinetic energy, and specific
dissipation rate.
• Higher order term relaxation for flow variables only
• Solution initialization is by hybrid initialization

The problem can be considered with negligible error as an incompressible flow problem. We chose
pressure based type solver as it convergences quickly for incompressible flow problems. Also, the
reason for using the steady time solver was made so as to facilitate the calculations. Moreover, we
included gravity effects in the calculations.

The major reason for using Viscous SST K-Omega Turbulence Model (Shear Stress Transport
linking turbulent kinetic energy(k)- and specific dissipation rate ω), is that the k -ω model is
superior in its treatment for the viscous layer near the wall region, while the treatment of non-
turbulent flow at the free stream region is problematic, it also accounts for transitional flows and
shearing options near the wall but it doesn’t have any options for compressibility as mentioned in
ANSYS lecture notes for turbulent models, also it gives better results than k - ε model in places
where separation occurs near wall as the diverging part of the draft tube and in the wake and
boundary regions (places inside boundary layer region) as in the portion of the draft tube after the
elbow, also the free stream flow which gives worse accuracy than k - ε model is small in the
geometry of our problem as this geometry is small , so SST k-Omega model is the best choice for
the problem than other models. The only disadvantage in using this model is that the
computational cost per iteration (time per iteration) is greater than the k - ε model.
The Simple scheme (Semi-Implicit Method for pressure Linkage Equations) of the pressure-
velocity coupling, was chosen as it is a popular scheme in Engineering applications, which is used
to guess the pressure field to solve the momentum equations, then a pressure correction equation is
deduced from the continuity equation, then this equation is solved to obtain a pressure correction
field, which in turn is used to update the velocity and pressure fields. Also this scheme requires
less iteration cost than most of the other schemes.
Also the PRESTO (PREssure STaggering Option) pressure spatial discretization was chosen as it
is used for flows with high swirl numbers, high-speed rotating flows, and flows in strongly curved
domains as in the case of the draft tube.
 Based on our experience, the Green-Gauss Node based Gradient gives less convergence time in the
mesh which we constructed and in general, it made the solution more stable than the Least Square
Gradient method.

After initiating the setup of the model and running the calculations, we obtained the results after
the following iteration characteristics of the four cases as follows;

First case

Residual
continuity x-velocity y-velocity z-velocity k Omega
name
Residual
4.9212e-02 5.6942e-04 7.2969e-04 6.0317e-04 3.7980e-04 4.0499e-04
value

Figure (3.30) Convergence History of the First Case

Second case

Residual
continuity x-velocity y-velocity z-velocity k Omega
name
Residual
3.7893e-03 1.4911e-04 1.9281e-04 1.4753e-04 1.8601e-04 1.2812e-04
value
 Figure (3.31) Convergence History of the Second Case

Third Case

Residual
continuity x-velocity y-velocity z-velocity k Omega
name
Residual
1.5900e-03 8.5304e-05 9.7721e-05 8.5234e-05 9.5262e-05 1.6461e-04
value

Figure (3.33) Convergence History of the Third Case

 Fourth Case

Residual
continuity x-velocity y-velocity z-velocity k Omega
name
Residual
1.6834e-03 9.3019e-05 1.0551e-04 9.2994e-05 5.3481e-05 1.5170e-04
value

Figure (3.32) Convergence History of the Fourth Case

Results
After the residuals have reached the desired values, the iteration step hauled, and it is the
time to obtain the results, which is discussed it in this section. This was achieved by using
CFD-post for each of the four cases that we defined earlier.
We concentrated our attention and our results at three different sections of the draft tube
for each case (cases 1, 2, 3, and 4)
Section 1 is at the inlet of the draft tube.
Section 2 is at the end of the elbow of the draft tube.
Section 3 is at the outlet of the draft tube.
These sections are pictured in figure (3.34). We computed the following at each section
for each case;
1. Pressure Contour.
2. Axial Velocity Contour.
3. Axial velocity plots.
To draw the plot, we first needed a line to represent the diameter at that section, but there
is an infinite number of lines in a plane, so we draw two lines that are perpendicular to
each other in each section.
The flow conditions at the inlet of the draft tube changes as the operating point changes.
As the rotational speed of the shaft increases the flow swirls more rapidly, i.e. the
circumferential velocity component increases.
The streamlines for each case is shown in figure (3.35)

Figure (3.34) Section Labels

Figure (3.35) Streamlines of the Flow Domain
 Figure (3.36) Pressure Contours of the Flow Domain

Due to the strong swirling effect of the flow, the velocity components and the pressure
fluctuates from point to point rapidly.
The pressure contours as shown in figure (3.36) shows that there is a strong fluctuation in
the first two cases and a uniform distribution in the last two cases i.e. the lowest rotational
speed.
The velocity contours as shown in Figure (3.37) shows that case 1 has the strongest
velocity fluctuations, this is due to the high swirl involved.

Figure (3.37) Velocity Contours of the Flow Domain

After we have looked at the flow pattern generally in the draft tube, we then represent the
main flow variables in a more detailed manner at each section, as described earlier.
The following figures show the main flow variables at the different sections

Section 1
• Pressure contour

Figure (3.38) Pressure Contours at the Inlet of the Draft Tube

• Axial velocity contour

Figure (3.39) Axial Velocity Contours at the Inlet of the Draft Tube
• Axial Velocity Plots

Figure (3.40)
 Figure (3.41)

As shown in figure (3.39), there is a reverse

flow in the center of the section
Positive values indicate that the particles are
flowing in the positive X-direction i.e. reverse
flow, since the flow should be moving in the
negative X-direction i.e. negative values. Figure
(3.40) shows the variation of the axial velocity
with the diameter at section 1 drawn in the Z-
direction; the line is shown in the figure (3.42)
Also, figure (3.41) shows the variation of the
axial velocity with the diameter at section 1
drawn in the Y-direction; the line is shown in
the figure (3.42). Figure (3.42) Lines in the Z and Y directions
 Section 2
• Pressure Contour

Figure (3.43) Pressure Contours at the Outlet of the Elbow

• Axial velocity contour

Figure (3.44) Axial Velocity Contours at the Outlet of the Elbow

• Axial velocity Plots

Figure (3.45)
 Figure (3.46)

As shown in figure (3.44), the reversed flow

behavior is changed from section 1 and it is not
at the center of the section anymore, it is
shifted!
Also the axial velocity plots in both sections
show that the reverse flow is increased in
section 2, since the area under the curve is
increased. By considering the diameter that is
drawn in a specific direction say X, the reverse
flow is calculated from:
𝑋
𝑄 = 𝜋 ∫−𝑋 𝑋𝑣. 𝑑𝑥

Where 𝑣 is the axial velocity component. Figure (3.47)

Figure (3.45) shows the variation of the axial velocity with the diameter at section 2 drawn
in the Z-direction, the line is shown in the figure (3.47).Also, Figure (3.46) shows the
variation of axial velocity with the diameter at section 2 drawn in the x-direction in, the
line is shown in the figure (3.47).
 Section 3

• Axial velocity contour

Figure (3.48) Axial Velocity Contours at the Outlet of the Draft Tube
Since section 3 is at the outlet of the draft tube, we did not start our results by the pressure
contours since from our boundary conditions the outlet pressure is zero.
As shown in the figure (3.48), the reversed flow is decreased compared to section 2
The area under the curve is decreased also,
the magnitude of the axial velocity is also
decreased, and this is shown more clearly in
plots (3.50) and (3.51) respectively.
Figure (3.50) shows the variation of the axial
velocity with the diameter at section 3 drawn
in the Z-direction, the line is shown in figure
(3.49)
Also, figure (3.51) shows the variation of the
axial velocity with the diameter at section 3
drawn in the x-direction, the line is shown in
figure (3.49). Figure (3.49) Lines in the Z and X directions

• Axial Velocity plots

Figure (3.50)
Figure (3.51)
 Appendix A
SENSORS

A.1 Fluid Level Sensor

A.2 Load Cell
A.3 Pressure sensor
A.4 Speed sensor
A.5 Steppers
A.1
Fluid Level Sensor
(eTape PN-12110015TC-8)

Specifications
• Resolution: < 0.01“(0.25 mm)
• Width: 1.0" (25.4 mm) Reference Resistor (Rref): 1500,
±10%
• Sensor Output: 1500 empty, 300 full, ±10% Temperature Range: 15°F - 150°F (-
9°C - 65°C)
• Resistance Gradient: 140 /inch (56/cm), ±10% Power Rating: 0.5 Watts (VMax = 10V)

Theory of Operation
The Malone eTape liquid level sensor is an innovative solid state sensor that makes use of
printed electronics instead of moving mechanical floats as shown:

Linear potentiometer Gravitational fluid level sensor with a float

Figure (A.1.1) Figure (A.1.2)
The eTape sensor's envelope is compressed by hydrostatic pressure of the fluid in which it
is immersed resulting in a change in resistance which corresponds to the distance from the
top of the sensor to the fluid surface. The eTape sensor provides a resistive output that is
inversely proportional to the level of the liquid: the lower the liquid level, the higher the
output resistance; the higher the liquid level, the lower the output resistance.
The typical output characteristics of the eTape sensor are show in the figure below:
 Figure (A.1.3)

Connection and Installation

Connect to the eTape by attaching alligator clips or by soldering leads to the crimp pin
connectors with low temperature solder. Do not over heat with soldering iron. The inner
two pins (pins 2 and 3) are the sensor output (Rsense). The outer pins (pins 1 and 4) are
the reference resistor (Rref) which can be used for temperature compensation. Suspend the
eTape sensor in the fluid to be measured. To work properly the sensor must remain
straight and must not be bent vertically or longitudinally. Double sided adhesive tape may
be applied to the upper back portion of the sensor to adhere the sensor to the inside wall of
the container to be measured. Only apply tape to the upper back portion of the sensor as
shown in the figure below. If adhesive tape is applied to any other portion of the sensor it
may not work properly. The vent hole located above the max line allows the eTape to
equilibrate with atmospheric pressure. The vent hole is fitted with a hydrophobic filter
membrane to prevent the eTape from being swamped if inadvertently submerged.

Figure (A.1.4)
A.2
Load Cell
(Double-ended shear beam)

Figure (A.2.1)

Specifications
• Temperature Range : -20 to 70 °c
• Rated output : 2.0 mV/W
• Rated output Tolerance : 0.2 mV/W
 Figure (A.2.2)

Theory of Operation
Through a mechanical construction, the force being sensed deforms a strain gauge. The
strain gauge measures the deformation (strain) as a change in electrical resistance, which
is a measure of the strain and hence the applied forces. A load cell usually consists of four
strain gauges in a Wheatstone bridge configuration. The electrical signal output is
typically in the order of a few millivolts and requires amplification by an instrumentation
amplifier before it can be used. The output of the transducer can be scaled to calculate the
force applied to the transducer.

Strain gauge load cells are the most common in industry. These load cells are particularly
stiff, have very good resonance values, and tend to have long life cycles in application.
Strain gauge load cells work on the principle that the strain gauge (a planar resistor)
deforms/stretches/contracts when the material of the load cells deforms appropriately.
These values are extremely small and are relational to the stress and/or strain that the
material load cell is undergoing at the time. The change in resistance of the strain gauge
provides an electrical value change that is calibrated to the load placed on the load cell.
Strain gauge load cells convert the load acting on them into electrical signals. The gauges
themselves are bonded onto a beam or structural member that deforms when weight is
applied. In most cases, four strain gauges are used to obtain maximum sensitivity and
temperature compensation. Two of the gauges are usually in tension can be represented as
T1 and T2,and two in compression can be represented as C1 and C2, and are wired with
compensation adjustments. The strain gauge load cell is fundamentally a spring optimized
for strain measurement. Gauges are mounted in areas that exhibit strain in compression or
tension. When weight is applied to the load cell, gauges C1 and C2 compress decreasing
their resistances. Simultaneously, gauges T1 and T2 are stretched increasing their
resistances. The change in resistances causes more current to flow through C1 and C2 and
less current to flow through T1 and T2. Thus a potential difference is felt between the
outputs or signal leads of the load cell. The gauges are mounted in a differential bridge to
enhance measurement accuracy. When weight is applied, the strain changes the electrical
resistance of the gauges in proportion to the load.

Load Cell is used for measuring Power of a Shaft by using what is called Prony brake as
indicated in the figure

Figure (A.2.3)
A prony brake is an example of an absorbing dynamometer; the term ‘‘dynamometer’’
refers to a device that absorbs and measures the power output of a prime mover
 Calibration Curve

2500

2000

1500
Weight

1000

500

0
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Volts

Figure (A.2.4)
A.3

Pressure Sensor
MSP 300
Stainless Steel Isolated Pressure Transducer

Figure (A.3.1)

Figure (A.3.2)

Figure (A.3.3)
 Specification
• Operating temperature range : -4 to 185ºF (-20 to 85ºC) .
• Ranges up to 10,000 PSI or 700 BAR
• Accuracy : <1%
• Pressure Cycles: > 𝟏𝟎𝟖
• Presser Overload: 2X rated pressure.
• Supply Voltage : 5V (DC)
• Supply Current : <10mA

Cross Section of a Typical Strain Gauge Pressure Sensor

Figure (A.3.4)

Theory of Operation
Because of the great variety of conditions, ranges, and materials for which pressure must
be measured, there are many different types of pressure sensor designs. Often pressure can
be converted to some intermediate form, such as displacement. The sensor then converts
this displacement into an electrical output such as voltage or current. Transducers of this
form are the strain gauge, variable capacitance, and piezoelectric, Wheatstone bridge
(strain based) sensors are the most common, offering solutions that meet varying
accuracy, size, ruggedness, and cost constraints. Bridge sensors are used for high and low
pressure applications, and can measure absolute, gauge, or differential pressure. All bridge
sensors make use of a strain gauge and a diaphragm (Figure A.3.4).which is similar to the
working principal of our sensor.
 Calibration Curve

3.5

2.5
input(pressure)

1.5

0.5

0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5

output (voltage)
A.4

Speed Sensor
Incremental 40-mm-dia. Rotary Encoder
CSM_E6B2-C_DS_E_5_1

Figure (A.4.1)

Figure (A.4.2)
 Specifications
• Diameter : 40 mm
• Operating Voltage Range : 5 to 24 V (DC)
• Shaft Loading : 30 N radial and 20 N thrust
• Resolution : 2,000 Pulses/rotation

Theory of Operation
A rotary encoder, also called a shaft encoder, is an electro-mechanical device that converts
the angular position or motion of a shaft or axle to an analog or digital code.
There are two main types: absolute and incremental (relative). The output of absolute
encoders indicates the current position of the shaft, making them angle transducers. The
output of incremental encoders provides information about the motion of the shaft, which
is typically further processed elsewhere into information such as speed, distance and
position.

Figure (A.4.3)
Absolute Rotary encoder with LED
A.5

Brake Stepper Motor

Figure (A.5.1)

Figure (A.5.2)

Specifications
• Accuracy : ±5%
• Temperature raise : 80°C
Theory of Operation
Stepper or stepping motors, as their name implies, are capable of moving a fraction of a
rotation with a great degree of precision. This is accomplished by the design of a rotor that
aligns with the magnetic field generated by energized coils. The step size can range from
90 degrees to as little as 0.5 degrees or less. Two common types of stepper motors are
variable reluctance and unipolar designs. The design of a variable reluctance stepping
motor is illustrated in Figure:

Variable reluctance stepper motor

Figure (A.5.3)

There are three sets of windings, labeled 1, 2, and 3 in the figure, and there are two sets of
teeth on the rotor, labeled X and Y. With the windings labeled 1 energized, the rotor snaps
to a position where one set of the teeth are aligned with the windings. This motion is a
result of the magnetic field generated by the windings.
Suppose that winding 1 is de-energized and winding 2 is energized. The rotor will turn
until the teeth marked Y are aligned with winding 2. This produces a 30-degree step.
A useful characteristic of stepper motors is holding torque. As long as one of the
windings is energized, the rotor resists motion, until the torque produced by the winding to
rotor interaction is overcome.
Appendix B
SOLIDWORKS DRAWINGS
Figure (B-1) Francis Turbine Assembly
Figure (B-2) Rotor
Figure (B-3) Blades
Figure (B-4) Draft Tube
Figure (B-5) Tank Stand
Figure (B-6) Tank
Figure (B-7) Pump
Figure (B-8) Load Cell Sensor
Figure (B-9) Speed Sensor
Figure (B-10) Pressure Sensor
Figure (B-11) Brake Stepper Motor
Figure (B-12) Fluid Level Sensor
Appendix C
REFERENCES
1. Fundamental
George A. Aggidis, Audrius Zidonis (2014). Hydro turbine prototype testing and
generation of performance curves: Fully automated approach: Elsevier renewable energy.
S Larry Dixon, Cesare Hall (2013). Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics of
Turbomachinery: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Merle C. Potter, David C. Wiggert, Bassem H. Ramadan (2016). Mechanics of Fluids: CL
Engineering.
Bruce R. Munson, Alric P. Rothmayer, Theodore H. Okiishi, Wade W. Huebsch (2012).
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics: Wiley.
Yunus Cengel, John Cimbala (2013). Fluid Mechanics Fundamentals and Applications:
McGraw-Hill Education
Seppo A. Korpela (2011). Principles of Turbomachinery: Wiley.
2. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
Jiyuan Tu, Guan Heng Yeoh (2012). Computational Fluid Dynamics: A Practical
Approach: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Oleg Zikanov (2010). Essential Computational Fluid Dynamics: Wiley.
Anderson (1995). Computational Fluid Dynamics: MHS.
H. Versteeg, W. Malalasekera (2007). An Introduction to Computational Fluid Dynamics:
The Finite Volume Method: Pearson.
3. Formulation of the Present Problem
FLUENT Learning Modules, Confluence, Cornell University.
https://confluence.cornell.edu/display/SIMULATION/FLUENT+Learning+Modules
CFD tutorials | ANSYS.
https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLbpfw4fR56bOOe66QwctUTndm9MJgpxnO
Pankaj P. Gohill, R.P.Saini (2014). CFD: Numerical Analysis and Performance
Prediction in Francis Turbine: Proceedings of 2014 1st International Conference on Non-
Conventional Energy.
Hyen-Jun Choi, Mohammed Asid Zullah, Hyoung-Woon Roh, Pil-Su Ha, Sueg-Young
Ohd, Young-Ho Lee (2012). CFD validation of performance improvement of a 500 kW
Francis turbine: Elsevier renewable energy.
Huimin Xiao, Yu (2010). 3D-Viscous Flow Simulation and Performance Prediction of a
Complete Model Francis Turbine.
Ruchi Khare and Vishnu Prasad (2012). Numerical Study on Performance Characteristics
of Draft Tube of Mixed Flow Hydraulic Turbine.
Sylvain Tridon, Stephar Barre, Gabriel Dan Ciocan, and Laurent Tomas
(2010).Experimental analysis of the swirling Flow in a Francis turbine draft tube: Focus
on radial velocity component determination. ELSEVIER.
Yongzhong Zenga, Xiaobing Liua, Huiyan Wanga (2012).Prediction and experimental
verification of vortex flow in draft tube of Francis turbine based on CFD. ELSEVIER.