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Contact System PDF
Contact System PDF
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CONTACT SYSTEM
RC=RE+RF
S051
Constriction resistance
Contact Points is the increase of resistance for metallically
clean contacts due to the constriction of the
current
electrical current when being forced through
contamination constriction a small, effective contact area.
The contacts do not touch over the entire
contact a apparent contact area but in fact, due to the
roughness, touch only on a few relatively
contact surface small points.
Increasing contact pressure can enlarge the
effective contact area by elastic and plastic
contact b
deformation of the micro contact spikes on
S087
the surface. The larger the effective contact
area and the contact pressure, the lower the
fig 4.3 Contact Points
constriction resistance.
Layer resistance
is the contact resistance of metallically clean surfaces and is extremely small, typically
several mΩ. Absolutely clean metallic surfaces do not exist in practice because the contact
surface is covered by thin layers with low conductivity, semiconductor properties or even
isolating characteristics.
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POWER RELAYS
These layers of oxides, sulphides and other compounds will be formed on the surface of
metals by absorption of gas molecules from the ambient atmosphere within a very short
time. The growth of these layers will be slowed down and eventually stopped as the layer
itself prevents further chemical reaction. The thickness of the layers and the speed of growth
are dependent on the contact material, ambient atmosphere, temperature and time.
Very thin layers cause little increase in resistance due to the tunnel-effect. The resistance of
thicker layers depends on the depth of the layer, effective contact area and the specific
resistance of the contact material/layer. To get a reliable electric contact these layers have to
be destroyed. This can be done by mechanical or electro-thermal destruction.
Apart from different layers or films, other contaminants may be on the surface of the
contacts, increasing the resistance or even preventing electrical contact. These contaminants
may be atmospheric dust or particles created by wear of the moving parts within the relay
such as plastics and fibres. Other contaminants can be the result of outgassing of the plastic
materials within the relay or generated by catalytic effect, through decomposition of organic
vapours under the influence of arc, silicon sediments, oil or grease.
Mechanical cleaning
When the contacts are closing, the metal
surfaces will collide and hit against each Contact Wipe
other several times (bouncing), causing
elastic deformation of the effective contact initial position after relative
area and mechanical destruction of the thin movement
layers.
The same effect can be obtained by
applying high contact pressure to cause
micro deformations on the contact surface
destroying the insulating film.
Furthermore, the design of most relays
allows the contact surfaces to wipe across
each other destroying the non conductive
films on the contact surfaces. This contact S001
Electrical cleaning
The low and non conductive layers can also be destroyed by the effects of:
a) electrical voltage (fritting)
b) current (heating of contact points)
c) thermal effects (high temperatures due to the electrical arc)
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CONTACT SYSTEM
a) Fritting
If the layers have not been mechanically destroyed by the closing of the contacts, or if the
contacts have been closed for a long period of time without conducting sufficient current, the
electrical effect of fritting will contribute towards establishing a metallic contact, despite
layers on the effective contact area.
The term fritting describes the electrical
breakdown of the oxide/foreign layer when
a sufficiently high voltage (fritting voltage) is
applied across a closed contact.
Due to the applied voltage and the very
short distance (the thickness of the layers)
between the two potentials an extremely
high electric field is generated. The low
conductive layer will break down and a
small current (a few nA) is forced through
very thin channels in the layer. The resulting
local high current density, heats the
conducting channels up quickly, destroying
the layers, until finally (within a few ms) a
metal to metal bridge is established,
fig 4.5
Contact Fritting
electrically linking the two surfaces.
The value of fritting voltage depends on the
contact material, composition and thickness of the layers, conductivity and composition of
the contact surface. Voltages in the range of only a few volts up to some hundreds of volts
may be necessary for fritting to occur.
b) High currents
High continuous currents and increased contact resistance due to the layers causes heating
of the contact. The layers will eventually be destroyed thermally and a larger effective
contact area is created, reducing the constriction resistance. Therefore, higher contact
current may considerably reduce contact resistance.
c) Arc, sparks
Under certain circumstances an electric spark or arc will be generated during contact
making (bounce) or contact breaking under load. The extremely high temperatures of these
arcs may destroy the contact layers and burn or disintegrate other contaminants or particles
in the vicinity of the point of contact.
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POWER RELAYS
0.01 - 0.1 10
0.1 - <1 100
>1 1000
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CONTACT SYSTEM
For low level applications, the effect of contact resistance can usually be ignored if the load
resistance is much higher than the contact resistance. In this case the full signal voltage will
be available at the load (e.g. fig 4.8).
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POWER RELAYS
especially important when the contact resistance is tested after a prolonged period of
storage. The testing procedure has to provide both types of cleaning effect:
• mechanical cleaning by switching the relay several times
• electrical cleaning by using the appropriate test voltages/currents.
20
CONTACT SYSTEM
strong electrical field resulting in a spark discharge and an electric arc. This arc may,
however, help to electrically clean the contact surfaces.
• After impact of the contacts the kinetic energy leads to bouncing. The contacts will
rebound and slightly open several times. This bouncing may be regarded as a switching
process. While bouncing, even though the contacts are separated for a short time, the
normally high inrush currents maintain an arc between the contact surfaces. Excessive
heating at the contact points can melt the surface and, in extreme cases, lead to welding.
Arc in DC circuits
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Arc in AC circuits
In AC circuits the supply helps to extinguish the arc as it will collapse when the current
becomes too low or reaches zero (every 10ms for 50Hz supply).
The arc may however be re-established if the supply voltage is above the maximum
switching voltage for the particular relay or if the contacts at the current zero-crossing are not
completely opened. In this case the air gap is still relatively small and the electric field may
be strong enough to cause electrical breakdown, especially with surge voltages associated
with inductive loads.
The arc may also be re-established if the high temperature generated by the previous arc
allows re-ionization of the air path.
After a few cycles however, the contact gap will be sufficiently large and the energy in the
circuit too weak to re-ignite the arc.
In order to limit the negative effects of the arc and to extend contact life, it is necessary to
extinguish the arc as quickly as possible. This can be done by relay design or by using
certain electric arc suppression circuits.
Design
The primary design factors influencing
arcing are the length of the air gap between Contacts in Series
the contacts and their opening speed. The
wider the contact gap the better the arc 11
arc 1
14
extinguishing properties as more energy
(voltage/current) would be necessary to arc 2
21 24
maintain (DC) or re-ignite (AC) the arc (see
fig 4.11). arc 3
31 34
Design limits for a relay often mean it is not
possible to provide a sufficiently large air arc 4
I 41 44
gap to elongate the arc. However, in order
to increase the maximum breaking capacity Supply voltage
R Load
U
the contacts of a multi-pole relay may be
connected in series, leading to more than S009
properties.
Electric circuits
Contact protection circuits reduce the duration of electrical arcs and can significantly
increase the service life of the relay and suppress electrical noise. This is especially important
when switching inductive loads. For arc suppression circuits see chapter 4.5.3.
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CONTACT SYSTEM
Despite the extremely high temperatures and other adverse effects resulting from arcing, the
electric arc also has some advantages such as the electrical cleaning effect and surge
limitation.
Electrical cleaning
The high temperature created by the arc clean the contact surfaces by destroying (burning,
decomposing) chemical layers and other non conductive contaminants in the vicinity of the
actual contact point. Also, existing small particles may eventually be burnt away. As a result,
this cleaning effect keeps the contact resistance stable and therefore has a positive effect on
relay reliability.
Surge voltage peaks - The electrical arc can be considered as an additional resistor in the
load circuit (see fig 4.10). This helps to limit the surge voltages when switching inductive
loads.
Type of load/supply
Resistive loads
Voltage and current are directly dependent variables, Ohms law
U=R*I
applies at all times, regardless of DC or AC supply.
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POWER RELAYS
Inductive loads
The load inductance has an inertia effect on the current. Inductive loads always have a
resistive component (coil resistance etc.). Once DC voltage is applied the current is
I=U/R(1-e-t/T)
T=R/L, being the time constant, given in ms.
For an AC supply the current lags the voltage, expressed as phase shift angle or power
factor cosϕ. The higher the time constant or lower the power factor, the higher the
inductivity.
When inductive loads are switched off, the energy stored in the inductance generates high
surge voltages. Typical inductive loads are electromagnetic components such as coils,
transformers, motors, solenoids, contactors, other relays, etc.
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CONTACT SYSTEM
Capacitive loads
If DC voltage is applied to a combined
capacitive/resistive load the current is
I=U/Re-t/T
the time constant T=RC in ms.
For an AC supply the stable state current
leads voltage. When capacitive loads are
switched on, the resulting peak current can
be extremely high if the circuit resistance is
low (see inrush current).
Load level
The load currents usually applied to power relay contacts extend from a fewµA up to 30A or
higher. With regard to thermal contact effects and arc phenomena, loads can be classified
as:
Dry circuits
Voltage <80mV, current <10mA, no electrical cleaning effect
Low level circuits
Voltage 80mV to <300mV, current <10mA,
practically no electrical cleaning effect.
Relays for these loads range from micro
relays to small PCB relays for signal
switching. The most important consideration
in this load range is contact resistance and
contact reliability.
Intermediate level
Voltage 300mV to <10V, current <300mA,
short arcing will occur and the electrical
cleaning effect helps keep contact resistance
low. There is a wide variety of applications
in this load range, such as household
fig 4.17 Load Levels
appliances, air conditioners, audio devices
and business machines.
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POWER RELAYS
Heavy loads
Voltage >10V , current >300mA. For these loads, stable arcs, contact erosion and material
migration are predominant features.
current.
The inrush current for sodium vapour lamps is approximately 1-3 times and for mercury
lamps approximately 3 times the rated lamp current.
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CONTACT SYSTEM
The same effect of high inrush currents due to low initial component temperature exists for
other resistive loads such as heaters. The temperature difference between cold and hot
heating elements is not as big for incandescent lamps and therefore the difference in
resistance is smaller.
Fluorescent lamps
The inrush current is typically 5-10 times the steady state current. Depending on the
capacitive effect of the power correction circuit however, the inrush currents may be
considerably higher.
Motor loads
When a motor starts, there is no EMF as the rotor is standing still. The inrush current for the
acceleration phase can be 5-10 times the rated current.
Solenoids, contactors
Unenergized solenoids have a low inductance due to the big air gap in their magnetic
system. The inrush current can be 10-20 times the steady state current measured in the
pulled in position. The same applies to other electromechanical loads such as contactor
coils.
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POWER RELAYS
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CONTACT SYSTEM
Bouncing
When the moving contact arrives at the fixed contact, part of its kinetic energy will cause
elastic deformation and the contact will rebound several times. This period is the relay
bounce time.
Although bouncing has an advantageous mechanical cleaning effect, there are negative
effects such as wear due to arcing. If preventative measures are not taken, pulse triggered
control circuits or circuits acting as counters can receive false input information because of
multiple closures of the contacts.
Inrush current
As previously described, arcing combined with contact bouncing is one of the parameters
that limits inrush current.
The maximum make or inrush current for a relay is the maximum current that can be applied
for a four second period immediately after contact closure. This parameter is specified for a
duty cycle of 10%.
Care has to be taken during the design and test phase of an application to ensure that the
peak inrush current will not exceed the relay specification. Inrush currents can be extremely
high compared to the rated current of the load to be switched. Typical current vs. time
diagrams for different typical electrical loads are shown infig 4.18.
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POWER RELAYS
The destruction of the layers on the contact surfaces can only be achieved by the mechanical
effects of contact bouncing and relative movement. Contact materials with high resistance to
the building up of oxide layers have to be selected (e.g. gold plated contacts). If typical
contact materials for power switching are used in such applications (e.g. AgCdO), the
resultant increase in contact resistance can cause reliability problems (see contact
resistance).
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CONTACT SYSTEM
degradation of the mechanical properties of contact springs. In addition, plastic parts like
actuators or the relay base may deform as a result of being in direct contact with the
overheated metal parts.
can be expressed as the square of the current multiplied by the duration of the pulse; e.g.
500A for 5ms give an I2t-value of 5002*5*10-3=1250A2sec.
• Absolute maximum current in A
These maximum values range from 20000A2sec/500A for industrial power relays to
1000A2sec/200A for PCB-relays.
When considering continuous high currents or electrical overload, heat dissipation via the
relay terminals is of great importance and care has to be taken in the design of connections
and selection of terminal type. The minimum specified PCB conductor widths and wire cross
section must be adhered to.
Contact material, required properties
The properties required by contact material for the conducting state are:
• high melting temperature to prevent welding
• low specific resistance
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POWER RELAYS
Electrical arc
When the contact surfaces separate, the high electrical field (short contact gap) and the load
current will generate an arc. Depending on the switching current/voltage and the contact
opening characteristics the arc will be maintained for a certain time (see chapter 4.3).
Effects of arcing
Extremely high temperatures within the arc area causes melting and consequently contact
wear, material migration, evaporation and sputtering of contact material, together with a
reduction of insulation properties which may finally lead to relay failure.
Switching of high DC loads causes material transfer from the cathode to the anode. Uneven
contact surfaces develop, forming a pip and a crater. Eventually such contacts may
mechanically lock as if they were welded (seefig 4.12).
The positive effect of the switching arc is the electrical cleaning of contact surfaces by
burning away or disintegrating layers or other contaminants, and limiting extreme surge
voltage when switching inductive loads.
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CONTACT SYSTEM
Arc extinguishing
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34
CONTACT SYSTEM
Protective circuits do, however, have disadvantages. The most obvious is the initial cost of
adding the protection components. This cost however may be recouped by being able to use
a relay with a lower current rating and/or by obtaining a longer electrical life.
There are several methods of protecting the relay contacts. The most suitable for a given
application will depend on the supply (AC or DC) and the characteristics of the load to be
switched. For every application a suitable circuit has to be selected. An optimum solution
can often only be found by examining the waveforms on an oscilloscope and by
comparative life cycle testing.
The most commonly used circuits and information regarding their characteristics are given
below.
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POWER RELAYS
low arc suppression properties, no significant extension of contact life, not suitable for all
loads
using an oscilloscope. The current has to be calculated from this voltage and from the
known resistance, across which the voltage was measured.
If RC circuits in parallel to the contacts are used with an AC supply, special care has to be
taken with regard to the effect of leakage current across the RC circuit. For high impedance
loads and electronic circuits this leakage current may cause problems.
Protection circuits shown in fig 4.27.a have to be avoided due to extreme inrush currents
and the probability of contact welding.
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CONTACT SYSTEM
way the maximum breaking capacity and the electrical life of a multi-pole relay with a DC
load can be increased. The duration of the arc will be reduced significantly, but the arc
energy remains the same leaving surge peaks and material migration unchanged. Therefore
the result is not as effective as an RC circuit or diode.
EMC considerations
Electromagnetic compatibilit of equipment is a further consideration. Whereas relays do not
pose any problem as to susceptibility to external interference (immunity), the topic of
emission or electromagnetic disturbance needs further deliberation.
An electromagnetic disturbance is defined by law as "any electromagnetic phenomenon
which may degrade the performance of a device, unit of equipment or system". All
frequencies and all forms of interferences are involved. The EU Directive covers all electric,
electrical and electronic appliances, equipment and installations containing electrical
and/or electronic components.
As relays are just components, they do not fall within the scope of the EU Directive, but any
equipment using relays will.
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POWER RELAYS
Emission from the relay contacts during switching may cause problems depending on the
type of load switched and to some extent on the relay design. In particular, the switching arc
and voltage spikes due to back EMF are likely to cause emissions. These factors are
generally beyond the control of the relay manufacturer.
Where emission problems occur, a contact protection circuit should be used to reduce or
eliminate the effects of arcing and/or back EMF spikes. An optimum arc suppression circuit,
however, does not necessarily eliminate all EMC emission problems. Equipment testing will
be necessary to guarantee compliance with the directives and standards.
Switching frequency, NOx generation (corrosion)
When switching at a high frequency rate and with high arc intensity, abnormal corrosion
may occur. NOx will be generated which will react with other substances (e.g. water vapour)
under the influence of the electrical arc, eventually forming nitric acid which may form a
blue-green corrosive deposit. To reduce this effect, the vent tab of sealed relays should be
opened when switching at a high frequency.
This phenomenon also has to be considered when carrying out accelerated contact life
testing of relays under high load conditions.
Dielectric strength
Dielectric strength is the effective voltage insulation can withstand without electrical
discharge or breakdown. For an air gap this limit is dependent on the distance between the
contacts and other parameters such as atmospheric pressure, humidity, contact shape and
temperature.
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CONTACT SYSTEM
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POWER RELAYS
characteristics.
Therefore, no single metal can combine high temperature
high mechanical
all properties. Even alloys have the same resistance resistance
principal characteristics as their low price
40
CONTACT SYSTEM
Contact Material
Properties
CONDUCTIVITY
+ low contact
resistance
MECHANICAL TEMPERATURE
RESISTANCE RESISTANCE
+ hardness + resistant to
+ resistance against inrush currents
mechanical wear + resistant to
+ price electrical wear
S019
These examples prove that an optimal contact material, fulfilling all technical requirements
does not and cannot exist. This, however, does not prevent the wide use and application of
relays. Different contact materials can be selected for respective applications, e.g. signal
switching (prime objective: contact resistance) versus power switching (prime objective:
electrical life).
There is no known universal contact material which suits the entire range of high power
applications. The choice primarily depends on the type of load (AC , DC, resistive, inductive,
capacitive, lamp, etc.) and switching voltage and current.
41
POWER RELAYS
42
CONTACT SYSTEM
In application a minimum load of 100mA at 12V is recommended, but during relay testing
these values should be exceeded.
For resistive loads at mains voltage AgCdO shows better results than AgSnO
2.
AgCdO contacts:
• typical power relay contact material
• medium to heavy load switching
• high mechanical resistance
• high resistance against welding
motors etc.
Silver Nickel:
• universal material for medium to high contact loads
• higher resistance than AgNi0.15
• high mechanical resistance
• high resistance against welding
43
POWER RELAYS
44
CONTACT SYSTEM
CONTACT MATERIALS
Contact Typical properties Typical applications Range of
material applications
Fine Gold Best corrosion resistance, but Gold plating of ≤ 1µm
rarely used as a pure metal (too thickness as storage
soft). protection. Economical
Danger of cold welding contact protection in
sulphuric atmosphere, with
2..3µm thickness (minimum)
Hard Gold Very good corrosion resistance, Dry circuits, use in sulphuric µV..60V
AuNi1 low and stable contact resistance, atmosphere (min 2..3µm) µA..0.2A
AuCo1 for very small contact loads
Gold-Silver Lowest contact resistance (stable Dry circuits, measuring µV..60V
AuAg10 even with smallest loads) circuits µA..0.2A
Gold-Nickel Free from material transfer within For medium current and 100mV..
AuNi5 a wide range of loads; small voltage levels ..60V
contact resistance; easy arcing; 1mA..0.3A
friction oxidation is possible in
case of small breaking capacity,
high number of operations and
big contact overtravel; very
expensive
Silver- Better tarnishing resistance than Signal circuits with medium ≥1V
Palladium with Ag, greater hardness, low loads 1mA..1A
AgPd30 contact wear, expensive; stable
contact resistance
Tungsten Highest melting point, high wear Circuits having highest ≥60V
W resistance with heavy loads, little making and breaking ≥1A
transfer of material requirements
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POWER RELAYS
Plated contacts
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CONTACT SYSTEM
Contact design
As contact material is expensive, contacts are usually made of copper with a layer of contact
material (e.g. AgCdO) on the contact face. The thickness of the layer is sufficient to
withstand electrical wear during the specified life of the relay. In some special applications
where extreme arcing and contact erosion is expected, the entire contact rivet may be made
from the contact material.
Multi-layered contacts have been designed in the search for a "universal contact". Materials
highly resistant to wear are covered with other contact metals with less resistance to electrical
erosion and low contact resistance. If such contacts are used in low power applications, the
top layer gives the advantage of having a low and stable contact resistance. In the case of
high power switching the top layers will quickly be burnt away, exposing the highly arc
resistant material below.
However, such multi-layer contacts are not widely used in power relays. The reason is that
extensive sputtering of the soft surface material can reduce the insulation properties of
plastic parts near the contacts. Furthermore, this erosion effect is irreversible. Once used for
switching high loads, the advantage of low contact resistance for low loads is gone.
For the relatively large contacts used in power relays, the cost of multi-layer contacts is
considerable.
Riveted/welded contacts:
Contact Design Another aspect of contact design depends
Welded and riveted contacts
on manufacturing methods, and to a lower
riveted contact extent, the application.
Cu rivet
Two production methods for contact
contact contact assembly are widely used:
material
material
• riveting the contact to its carrier or
• welding the contact material to the
contact
contact spring.
spring
welding Both techniques are accepted but riveted
points
contacts suit the requirements of a power
C/O contact relay better. This is due mainly to their
S026
Welded contact higher electrical and thermal conductivity
together with the ease of guaranteeing a
fig 4.41 Contact Design
good connection when using thin contact
carriers.
Welded contacts are mainly used in signal relays.
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POWER RELAYS
Number of poles
Multi-pole Configuration indicates the number of electrically
independent, but mechanically linked,
2-pole 4-pole
contact sets in the relay, e.g. a three pole
relay relay relay can switch three separate electrical
(1) (4) (1) (2) (3) (4)
circuits or loads. fig 4.42 shows the
12 42 12 22 32 42
schematic of a 2- and 4-pole relay.
(5) (8) (5) (6) (7) (8)
14 44 14 24 34 44
(9)
11
(12)
41
(9)
11
(10)
21
(11)
31
(12)
41 Contact function
(13) (14) (13) (14) Contact configurations and design of
A1 A2 A1 A2
contact groups are defined according to
their function and based on DIN 41020 and
S048 by NARM, where the various combinations
have been given form letter symbols. The
fig 4.42 Multi-pole Configuration
48
CONTACT SYSTEM
Terminal designation
Terminal identification is specified according to DIN EN 50005
The terminals of switching contacts are designated with a two digit code. The first digit
indicates the number of poles concerned, the second digit specifies the switching function
i.e.
1 change over contact
2 normally closed contact
4 normally open contact
For example, terminal 22 denotes the normally closed contact of pole number 2.
Coil terminals are designated A1, A2, etc. for 1-coil and 2-coil magnetic systems.
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POWER RELAYS
Terminal Designation
N/C N/O C/O
.2 .4 .4 .2
.1 .1 .1
2-pole relay 12
11 14
22
21 24
S028
Terminal designations of octal type plug-in relays are defined according to IEC 67, DIN
41556. The system consists of consecutive numbers to indicate the terminal. For modern
octal plug-in relays both numbering systems are indicated on the case.
Types of contact
Contacts used in power relays are one of two types, single or twin.
Single contacts
are contact sets with one contact rivet per contact spring and are preferred when switching
high currents.
Twin contacts
(or bifurcated contacts) are contacts with two contact tips per contact spring. Both tips
operate in parallel, are electrically connected, and switch simultaneously.
The main advantage of using bifurcated contacts over single contacts is a substantial
increase in contact reliability, particularly when switching low level or signal currents. The
mathematical probability of a good contact being established when two parallel contacts
are used rather than one is higher. In practice it has been found that the failure probability is
reduced by a factor of between 4 and 25, compared to a single contact.
These figures should only be used as a guide, the actual reliability will depend on many
application parameters.
50
CONTACT SYSTEM
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POWER RELAYS
product, application and requirement profile are matched as closely as possible, can one be
assured that operation will take place with the minimum of problems.
Quality of electrical contact should be considered with regard to contact reliability. Contact
failure modes might include high or unstable contact resistance due to layers, isolating films
on the contact surfaces or other contaminants like micro-particles or dust.
Probability of failure
The occurrence of failures in the life of a
component can be described in probability
terms i.e. in the form of a Gaussian
function.
The probability of a failure occurring at a
certain time is specified by its probability
density function.
For electrical life, the mean value X
indicates the typical life.
Some components will fail after and some
before this value.
The cumulative failure probability function is
the integral of the probability density fig 4.47
Probability Functions
52
CONTACT SYSTEM
Bathtub curve
Similar to other electrical and electronic
components, the failure rate of relays over a
number operations can be shown in a
diagram. The expected failure rate λ is not
constant over the entire period of use.
Because of the shape of this curve it is
called the bathtub curve.
The bathtub curve can be divided into three
phases:
When switching low power the chance is that, if contaminants exist, they will lead to faulty
switching operations.
When switching high power, the electrical cleaning effect will increase the quality of contact
and the failure rate during the initial phase will be drastically reduced.
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POWER RELAYS
Contact reliability
Contact reliability can be improved by:
• increasing electrical cleaning, selection
of the correct type of relay for the
application (e.g. signal relay or power
relay), correct circuit design taking into
account switching voltage and current.
• twin contacts. Bifurcated contacts are
designed to establish a good contact
even in the case of a non conductive
layer or an insulating particle being
trapped between the contact surfaces.
• burn-in procedure. The object of this is
to reduce the early failure rate in an
application by applying a test procedure
to fail relays showing poor contact
reliability in the initial phase. fig 4.51 Burn-in
54
CONTACT SYSTEM
Electrical life
Electrical life is the number of operations for a given contact load under specified conditions
before a permanent contact failure occurs.
Without specified switching conditions (e.g. current/voltage, duty cycle, maximum switching
rate, etc.) and the criteria for contact failure (e.g. contact welding, number of faulty
operations, contact resistance above a specified value, etc.) the specification of electrical life
cannot be determined.
Statistically, electrical life can be seen in phase 3 of the bathtub curve. The end of service
life is indicated by an increase of the failure probability with respect to the number of
operations. This is due to:
• wear and burnout of relay contacts.
• welding of contacts
Welding of contacts occurs at the instant of contact closure by an arc discharge
simultaneously with contact bounce.
• reduction in contact force because of contact erosion
• mechanical locking
Material migration caused by transfer of molten contact metal forming a crater and cone,
eventually leading to a failure in contact opening.
55
POWER RELAYS
• reduced insulation
The depositing of scattered contact metal and condensation of evaporated contact
material on the surfaces of insulators, as well as thermal deterioration, can cause a
reduction in their insulation properties such as insulation resistance and dielectric
strength.
According to IEC 255, the life of a component is considered to be reached if any of the
insulation characteristics fall below 75% of the specified values.
• powder deposits on the contact surfaces caused by wear of plastic parts such as the
contact actuator, oxide powders caused by rubbing motion of moving parts and those
produced by erosion of contact metal. Carbide deposits produced by dissolution of
organic gases absorbed by the contact surfaces.
Typical life
is the mean value of switching operations
under a specified load. For relays, the typi-
cal life represents the number of operations
fig 4.52
for which statistically approximately 50% of
Electrical life
56
CONTACT SYSTEM
AC loads
In most catalogues, the electrical life for AC
loads is given in the form of a diagram as in
fig 4.53. These diagrams indicate the
typical life - usually for N/O contacts and
for unsealed relays either in respect of the
breaking capacity in VA or the switching
current in A.
Both types of diagram are valid for one
switching voltage only, usually, the nominal
voltage (e.g. 250VAC). For loads with an
identical breaking capacity, but a different
switching voltage, the one with the lower
switching current will result in a higher
contact life.
fig 4.53 Contact Life
Example:
for the nominal voltage of 220VAC and a breaking
capacity of 1.1kVA (current 5A) the expected typical life
for resistive load is 350.000 operations; under the
assumption of an inductive load with a cosϕ of 0.4 the
expected typical life is -350.000*reduction factor 0.7
giving 245,000 operations.
DC loads
Because the major consideration is arc
duration, which is dependent on the precise
load and relay design, the electrical life
cannot be indicated in the form of a fig 4.54
diagram as for AC loads.
Reduction Factor
Usually, the electrical life is given for some typical loads. The life for other loads is estimated
by interpolation or by testing in the actual application.
Contact life with DC loads is highest for pure resistive loads. For inductive loads, the larger
the inductance (longer time constant L/R), the shorter the expected contact life. This may be
partially compensated by contact protection circuits.
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POWER RELAYS
Weibull diagram
Apart from the typical electrical life of a
relay, it may also be defined by a
cumulative failure probability. In order to
process the probability distributions
mathematically, and be able to convert the
data to relatively simple graphs, the
probability density function is approximated
by functions such as Gauss' distribution, or
in the case of relays and other components,
by the Weibull distribution.
The absolute failure probability for a
specified contact load is approximated by a
straight line in the Weibull diagram.
The general formula for the probability
distribution is:
fig 4.55
probability of survival is R=e-(t/n)b
Weibull Diagram
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CONTACT SYSTEM
Sealed relays
When switching a full load on the contacts
at extremes of switching rate and ambient
temperature, nitric acid may be produced as
a result of the high energy arc discharge. To
maintain specified performance the relay
should be opened or vented. Usually, this
can be accomplished by opening a vent
hole after completion of any cleaning
process.
If the relay has to remain sealed during
application because of a harsh ambient
environment (gases, humidity, dust), and
used at maximum current and switching
frequency, the electrical life has to be
fig 4.57
derated.
Sealed Relays
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POWER RELAYS
AC-DC switching
The switching capacity of a relay is lower for
DC loads than for AC. Due to the lack of
zero voltage crossing, the arc discharge
lasts longer. There is also the contact
material transfer phenomenon when
switching DC loads which may cause
contact locking.
Therefore, if AC or DC switching can be
chosen during the design stage, as shown in
fig 4.58, AC switching should be chosen as
it will lead to higher switching capacity and
longer electrical life.
fig 4.58
Polarity switching
AC-DC Switching
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CONTACT SYSTEM
Motor reversing
When reversing a motor by switching
between two polarities, the arc between the
opening contacts may short to the closing
contacts, leading to a short-circuit of the
power supply (see above).
As there is practically no load in this circuit,
the current will be strong enough to
maintain the arc and burn the relay contact
system.
A motor reversing circuit using only C/O
contacts must not be used.
An additional relay should be used to first
disconnect the motor from the power source,
and only then the reversing relay switched
fig 4.60
after the arc has extinguished.
Motor Reversing
Multi-pole relays
When selecting relays and circuit design for switching multiple poles with different
voltages/loads, special considerations are necessary.
Loads and contacts should be connected with the same polarity and potential as shown in
fig 4.61.
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POWER RELAYS
adjacent contacts should be created by interposing an unused contact set between the sets
of switching contacts.
3 phase switching
The same considerations for multi-pole
relays applies to the switching of a 3 phase
power supply.
Even if using the relay poles within their
specified limits, maximum switching voltage
and current per pole, the arc discharge and
connected ionization during the switching
procedure may lead to short-circuits
between adjacent poles. In such cases, the
resulting short circuit current may maintain a
stable arc, destroying the contact system.
When switching 3 phase supplies, relays
with sufficient isolation characteristics have
to be selected. For switching 3x380VAC,
relays with an insulation category of C380 fig 4.62 3-Phase Switching
62
CONTACT SYSTEM
S009
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POWER RELAYS
CONTACT SYSTEM
64