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Computer Notes Class 9: Amjad Ali Amjad
Computer Notes Class 9: Amjad Ali Amjad
Q#13: Modern computers are based on stored program concept. Who introduces this concept and discuss his contribution
in history.
VON Neumann introduced this concept. He gave the idea which states that “data and program can be stored in the same memory,
thus the machine can itself alter its program or internal data.”
Q#14: Which language is used for artificial intelligence?
LISP is used in artificial intelligence.
Q#15: Which language is used for scientific purposes?
FORTRAN (Formula Translation) is designed at IBM for scientific computing. It was mainly used for scientific purposes.
Q#16: For what purpose JAVA was developed?
JAVA was developed by the Sun Microsystems with the basic purpose to control microprocessors which are used in the consumer
items such as VCR Toasters and for PDA. Java has the powerful capabilities of network programming.
Q#17: What is the difference between Digital and Analogue computers?
Digital Computers: Digital computers process data in numerical form using digital circuits.
The digital computers perform arithmetic and logic operations with discrete values. In early 1940‟s Aiken built the first general
purpose digital computer called MARK-1. Digital computers are used in business, educational institute, hospitals etc. Examples of
digital computers are IBM PC, Apple‟s Macintosh etc.
Analogue Computers:
Analogue computers use electronic or mechanical phenomenon to solve the problem by using one kind of physical quantity to
represent another.
Early special purpose analogue computers were the slide rule, the curvimeter, plainmeter and the harmonic analyzer. General
purpose analogue computers were first built in 1930‟s. Speed meter in the car is best example of analogue computer.
Q#18: What are different computer applications? Briefly explain
Various types of computer applications are developed , computer hardware and computer application is very advanced. Computer
Application could be define in the some categories. Research in computer science is decided into basic research and applied
research in computer science. Some of the computer application used are as detailed as under.
NETWORK APPLICATIONS
Computer Networking is the coordination of communication within a particular system between central (server) and some of its
members. Network Topology is the pattern of relationships between a terminal in a computer network, there are various types of
network topology.
GRAPH APPLICATIONS
Many types of computers with difference graph applications. Computer graphics applications beginning of its development began
in the late 1950s and early 1960s. It is a computer program used to draw a picture that gives a new dimension in the field of
computer time. There are two obvious ways to enter information into the computer graphics into an application, namely:
1. Direct Graphics Programming, by writing into the programming language.
2. Digitizing (or Graphics) Tablets, by using the mouse.
ANIMATION
Each computer may be having difference specification, so the choosing computer components must be carefully. It is a form of art
that appear spontaneously generate life movement on an object. To achieve these effects, animators have to construct a series of
frames / images of a subject, that each of the next frames is slightly different from the previous frame. Animation is one
of computer applications which intended to give more interesting when using computer.
Computer with a lot of animation is run slowly than poor of animation, so it must increase computer performance for which use
many animation. There are actually several different functions to produce computer-based animation and one thereof is an
animated three-dimensional (3D). One rather than the technique is to create an object which is then adjusted and moved, in which
ultimately will produce a complete 3D animation. Another function is to create computer animations using a standard computer
paint tools to paint the frames a single prior to the merger. This is then stored as an image file.
WEB APPLICATIONS
Web applications are a part of computer applications.WWW is the most exciting applications on the Internet and applications
such as email is very important and widely used. Every computer have a CPU as main brain, one of main components of a CPU is
for support the web applications and computer development.
In this application a lot of convenience that can be done such as:
ordered or purchased an item online
register online
reached multimedia, etc
Network technology both cabling and wireless issues bought us connects everywhere. Notices are placed on the WWW called
"HomePage" and every home page has the address of each. In order to attract users' attention so that the homepage can be visited,
then we have them shape it interesting and there are many clear edicts. In this field of art is necessary, so that the world of
advertising and commerce world, the better. The computer applications especially web application most commonly used browser
today is Netscape Navigator in the world other than Internet Explorer. Web application be the largest used application because the
role of internet history. Without internet web application could not interact with people.
APPLICATION OF EDUCATION
Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI). Computers are directly used in the learning process, as a substitute teacher or a
book. Some CAI applications are: Drill and Practice, Tutorials, Simulation.
Computer Managed Instruction (CMI). The teachers use computers to plan for college, the students adapted to the
conditions, which consisted of computer-assisted learning programs, reading, and exams.
Computer Assisted Testing (CAT). Computers are used as test media. Many forms, ranging from simple where the
computer (usually through the display) is used as a substitute for examination questions in paper form, to the more
advanced form, where the ability of computers used to explore students' abilities in ways actively questioning.
APPLICATION OF BUSINESS / OFFICE
Another computer applications is office application, this applications is used for business purpose. Every business, large or small,
to process large amounts of data in daily operations. Data obtained from the payroll, customer invoicing and financial accounts,
inventory management, and account customers that all fees must be calculated, stored, classified, sorted, directive, processed
again, reported, communicated and disseminated at a time. Processing of such data is known as Business Data Processing or Data
Processing (DP). If the processing is done by computer, this is known as Electronic Data Processing (EDP). Now every office's
employee must could operate computer, so they must know how to use computer to make their job easy.
DBMS (Data Base Management System)
Computers also can be used as Effective in business management. Through a computerized database management system
(DBMS) and the SIM, a manager or company executive can be assisted in making decisions about the entire business operation
and to provide guidance and instructions to subordinates. DBMS types which common used nowadays is relational database and
RDBMS concept.
Application for a Certain Class
Air Traffic Control System
Airline Reservation Systems
There are so many computer applications; every application has a unique function and specification. Everyone could use
computer or explore CPU architecture easily by learning computer tutorial.
CHAPTER NO. l
FILL IN THE BLANKS
1. One of the earliest and the simplest computing devices, developed about 3000 years ago, was_____________.
2. A simple _______consists of a rectangular wooden frame carrying several parallel
wires, each wire sporting a number of beads.
3. In Napier's idea of product, the numbers in the top row were known as__________
4. Napier's idea of logarithm gave birth to another very useful and commonly used calculating device
called________
5. A slide rule consists of two scales __________ and__________.
6. The __________is an example of an analog-processing device, which means that the
numbers are represented by position on a scale rather than by digits.
7. In 1642 Blaise Pascal designed a machine called_____.
8. _______in 1672 developed a calculating machine which could not only add and
subtract but also multiply and divide numbers directly.
9. In 1786 J.H.Muller proposed another calculating machine called a_______________.
10. The lifetime project of Charles Babbage was to build a new machine known as ___
11. Analytical engine was consisted of five units i)______ii)_______ iii)_______
iv) _______v)_______.
12. The__________ unit of analytical engine was used to store the numbers fed to the
machine and also those numbers that were generated during the process of problem solving.
13. The_____unit of analytical engine was the arithmetic and logic unit.
14. The_____unit of analytical engine was to supervise all the other units and direct their
working.
15. The______unit of analytical engine was to supply data and instructions to the store.
16. The_________unit of the analytical engine was to display the results of calculations.
17. The first relay computer (electromechanical machine) using binary system was called the_________________.
18. In 1944 Dr.Howard Aiken designed and electromechanical machine known as Automatic Sequence
Controlled Calculator (ASCC) or_________________.
19. The invention of thermionic valve (vacuum tube) in 1906 opened the gates for development of__________.
20. ENIAC stands for__________________________ .
21. EDSAC stands for_______________________________.
22. EDVAC stands for_______________________________.
23. UNIVAC-1 stands for_____________________________.
24. In first generation computers_________were used instead of relays.
25. Second-generation computer were able to perform a single operation in______and
were capable to store data in Kilos of bytes.
26. In second-generation computers _____________were used instead of vacuum tubes.
27. ________________Computers had built-in error detecting devices.
28. HLL stands for _________________ .
29. ICs stand for___________
30. In third generation computers were used instead of transistors
31. __________ Computers were able to perform multiprogramming and database
management.
32. Four generation computers use microprocessor chips known as______.________.
33. An era of personal computers started with___________when he produced ZX-80 and
ZX-81.
34. ICOT stands for_______________________________________.
35. AI stands for_________________________________________.
36. PROLOG stands for________________________________•
37. There are three categorizers of computers depending upon the design and technology
1)______2)______3)________.
38. An______computer accepts data in continuous or physical form.
39. A______computer accepts data in the form of discrete numbers or digits.
40 A____ __computer combines best features of Analog and Digital computers.
41. There are four main types of computers depending upon the size and speed of the
computer which are 1)________2)________3)___________4)___________.
42. _____________are the largest, fastest and most expensive computers developed to
solve the complicated problems.
43. _____and_______ are the examples of supercomputers.
ANSWERS:
ABACUS 2. ABACUS 3. Logarithms 4. Slide Rule 5. (i) The Rule (ii) The Slide 6. Slide Rule 7.Pascal Calculators 8.
Leibnitz 9. Difference Engine 10. Analytical Engine 11.Store, Mill, Control, Input, Output. 12. Store 13. Mill 14. Control
15. Input 16. Output 17.Complex Calculator 18.Mark-l 19.Electronic Computers 20. Electronic Numerical Integrator
And Calculator 21.Electronic Delayed Storage Automatic Computer 22.Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic
Computer 23. Universal Automatic Computer 24. Vacuum Tubes 25. Microseconds 26. Transistors 27.Second
Generation 28. High Level Language 29. Integrated Circuits 30. Integrated Circuits31.Third Generation 32. Very Large
Scale Integrated Circuits (VLSI) 33. Clive Sinclair 34. Institute For New Generation Computer Technology 35.Artificial
Intelligence 36. Programming In Logic 37.Analog Computers, Digital Computers, and Hybrid Computers. 38. Analog
39. Digital 40. Hybrid 41. Supercomputers, Mainframe Computers, Minicomputers, Microcomputers 42.Super
Computers 43. CRAY-1, CRAY-2
Chapter No.02
Computer Components
Short Questions
Q#1.What is the difference between computer hardware and software?
Computer Hardware:
Physical parts of the computer system that you can feel and touch are known as computer hardware.
Examples: keyboard, mouse, motherboard, RAM, CPU etc.
Components of computer hardware:
Following are the components of computer hardware.
Input Unit: input unit consists of input devices. It is used to insert data into the computer. Keyboard, scanner, microphone are the
major input devices.
Output Unit: output unit of computer system consists of output devices. It is used to display data from the computer. Printer,
monitor and speaker are the major output devices.
System Unit: system unit contains number of other component which is enclosed in a rectangular casing. Casing is available in
two forms, tower casing and desktop casing. Most important components of the system unit is motherboard. All other components
are attached onto it.
Computer Software:
Organized collection of computer data and instructions is called computer software.
Q#2: What is computer, computer program?
Computer:
Computer is an electronic device which is used to process data and give output in the form of information.
Computer Program:
Set of instructions given to the computer to solve a specific problem.
Q#3: Write short note on following
1. Central processing Unit
2. Arithmetic and Logic Unit
3. Control Unit
1. CPU: CPU is a highly complex set of electronic circuitry that executes program instructions.
CPU has the ability to recall numbers from memory and perform arithmetic and logical operation with them such as addition or
multiplication and then store the results.
2. Arithmetic and Logic Unit:
Part of the CPU which executes all arithmetic and logical operations is called ALU.
ALU can perform following operations
Addition
Subtraction
Multiplication
Division and
Logical operations
3. Control Unit:
Part of the CPU which directs the entire computer system to carry out or execute the programs is called CU.
It controls flow of information and helps to perform activities of other units. This job is performed through clock pluses. Clock
pulses regulate the activities.
CPU has location to store the results which are still in process. These temporary storage locations of CPU are called registers.
Q#8: Write a Note on Main Memory and secondary memory. Also give examples.
Main Memory:
The memory which is directly accessible by the by the processing unit is called main memory.
Contents are lost when computer is switched off.
Store and retrieval of data is much faster from main memory.
Main memory is located on mother board so data retrieval is faster.
Main memory is expensive than secondary memory.
Examples: the example of main memory is RAM
Secondary Memory:
The additional memory to store data which is more than the storage of main memory is called secondary memory.
Examples: the example of secondary memory is flash memory, tape drives, hard disk drives, floppy disks etc.
Q#9: What are the different kinds of input devices and output devices?
Input Devices: the devices which are used to enter data and instructions into the computer are called input devices.
Kinds of Input Devices:
Keyboard
Pointing Devices
Mouse
Joy Stick
Scanning Devices
Scanner
Voice Input Devices
Microphone
Output Devices: The devices which are used to receive data and information from the computer are called output devices.
Kinds of Output Devices:
Most commonly output devices are:
Monitor
Printer
Speaker
Q#10: Define magnetic disk?
Magnetic Disk:
A memory device that is covered with a magnetic coating on which digital information is stored in the form of microscopically
small, magnetized needles is called as magnetic disk.
Data on magnetic disk is recorded into the magnetic material in machine code. Disks have become popular due to their random
access. These disk spin in the disk drives Read/Write heads moving on the disk along its radius can read data at any location under
the heads.
Different types of disk drives and magnetic disks are in use. The most popular types of magnetic disks are interchangeable disks
called the floppy disks and fixed disks called the hard disks.
Generally PCs are configured with at least one hard disk drive and one floppy disk drive. Hard Disk provided a very big storage
capacity and are very fast but these are not inter changeable. Floppy disks are smaller than the hard disk, because they always
consists only one platter. Floppies are available in size of 3.5" and 5.25" inches. Both of them are available in double density and
high-density storage capacities. The storage capacities of these diskettes used for IBM compatible computer.
Q#14: What is floppy disk? Differentiate between hard disk and floppy disk:
Although slower than a hard disk, are inexpensive and can easily moved from computer to computer. They are comparatively
fragile and must be handled with care.
Difference in the Capacity between Hard Disk and Floppy Disk
A hard disk contains several disk platters stacked on a single rotating spindle. Data are stored on all recording surfaces. For a disk
with four platters, there are eight recording surfaces on which data can be stored. A floppy disk has only one platter on which data
is written, that is why the storage capacity of a hard disk is more as compared to the floppy disk. Hard disks or fixed disks are also
called Winchester disk are permanently installed or fixed within the system unit.
. CHAPTER NO. 2
FILL IN THE BLANKS
1. A computer along with its peripheral devices is called as______.
2. The work carried out by a computer system is known as _______which means the use
of electronic machine to derive results.
3. A computer system has two major divisions known as______and________.
4. The_________part of a computer system consists of physical components installed in
a main computer box and all associated equipments interconnected in an organized way.
5. A_____in general consists of three major units. (i) System unit, (ii) Input units
and (iii) Output units.
6. A______is a device which allows two computers to communicate on telephone lines.
7. The____________of a computer system contains, (i) The CPU (ii) Memory (iii)
Disk drives (iv) Adapters and connectors.
8. _________Js the brain of a computer which performs all the analytical, computational
and logical functions that occur inside the system.
9. __________performs different arithmetical and logical operations such as addition,
subtraction, division and logical comparison on numerical data in the binary system.
10. A__________is a temporary storage device, which holds data as long as it is being
interpreted.
11. The__________is that part of CPU which controls and coordinates the activities of all
other computer units.
12. A_________is a set of instructions in sequence, which tells the computer what to do.
13. The capacity of a storage device is expressed as number of_____.
14 One__________is a group of eight bits that forms one character.
15 A bit is a binary number used in digital computers and stands for______________.
16. RAM stands for______________________________________.
17. ROM stands for_____________________________________.
18. PROM stands for_____________________________________.
19. EPROM stands for____________________________________.
20. EAROM stands for________________________:____________.
ANSWERS
1. Computer system 2.Eectronic Data Processing (EPD) 3. computer hardware, computer software 4. hardware 5.
computer system 6. modem 7. system unit 8. CPU 9.ALU 10. Register 11. Control unit 12.program 13. Bytes, characters
or bits 14. Byte, 15. Binary digit 16. Random access memory 17. Read only memory 18. Programmable read only
memory 19. Erasable programmable read only memory 20. Electrically alterable read only memory.
Chapter No. 3
Input/ output devices
Short Questions
Q#1: What is the function of left click?
Left Click:
Left click is use to select a graphical object such as a file icon and a piece of text in a document etc or to press a button
such as start button and closing, opening and minimizing a window.
Q#2: What is the function of right click?
Right Click:
Right click is used to view the properties of an object such as file, folder, desktop etc.
Q#3: What are the functions performed by drag event of a mouse?
Drag Event:
Drag event triggers when we keep on pressing the left mouse button while moving the mouse. This event is used to select
more than one item at a time or to drop and object into another application.
Q#4: What is advantage of trackball over mouse?
The advantage of trackball is that the trackball is stationary and it does not require much space for use. Secondly we can
place a trackball on any type of surface.
Q#5: What is voice recognition software? Explain.
Voice Recognition:
A voice recognition system uses a microphone as input device and it converts a person‟s speech into digital data by
comparing the electrical pattern produces by the voice with a set of prerecorded patterns stored in the computer.
Explanation:
User can input his voice through speaker into the system. It may be used to say text (word) to the computer or to give
commands to the computer. We can open application programs, operate the menus of the application and save the work.
Q#2: Name the different categories of input devices?
Input Devices:
Input devices are used to provide data or information to the computer. The computer follows the instructions given to it
by and input device. A variety of input devices are used with the computer depending on the type and purpose of input
information. For example, a keyboard is commonly used to transfer data or information from human readable form to
machine readable form. Other examples of input devices are: mouse, joystick, trackball, light pens, digitizers, scanners,
optical character reader (OCR), touch window, etc.
Mouse
The mouse is an input device that usually contains one or two buttons. As a user moves the mouse on a flat surface, the
mouse controls the cursor movement on the screen. When the user presses one of the buttons, the mouse either marks a
place on the screen or makes selection from data or menu on the screen. A mouse has a sphere on its underside. This
rotates as the mouse is moved along a flat surface.
The mouse translates the direction and speed of rotation into digital signals that identifies the position or control, the
cursor on the computer.
A mouse can be used for many applications, ranging from games to drawing and designing products with computer
graphics. It provides an alternative for people who are uncomfortable with a keyboard but it also can be used in
combination with a keyboard to input data.
Trackball
A Trackball is a pointing device almost like a mouse turned upside down. The user controls the cursor on the screen by
rolling a plastic ball with a fingertip or wrist. To execute commands with a Trackball, one or more buttons are pressed,
much in the same way as is done with a mouse. The cursor can be moved around on the screen by rolling the ball with a
thumb or finger.
Trackball is popular among users of laptop computers when space is limited and may be mounted on either side of the
keyboard. For handicapped people who may have difficulty pressing keys on a standard keyboard or using a mouse, the
trackball may be the answer since it edoes not require to moves the entire arm to use it.
Scanner
Scanner is an input device. It is also called Optical Reader or Digital Scanner. It scans or reads text and picture printed on
a paper and enters them directly into the computer memory.
The advantage of a scanner is that the user needs not type the input data in. This is a lust and accurate method for
entering data into the computer. The scanner takes electronic images, of text or pictures from the paper it breaks each
image into light and dark dots and stores them into the computer memory in machine codes. Scanned text can be edited
by OCR software. Optical Character Recognition (OCR) software translates the scanned document into text that can be
edited.
The image scanner is useful because it translates printed images into an electronic format than can be stored in
computer's memory. The stored image can be transferred into a paint program or directly into a word processor. You can
use software to organize and manipulate the electronic image.
Keyboard
A keyboard is the most commonly used input device which helps us in simply keying in required information in a
computer. This information is subsequently stored in the computer‟s memory. A keyboard can be used effectively to
communicate with the computer but considered to be relatively slow as compared to other input devices. The keyboard is
divided into following divisions:
Q#3: What is keyboard? Name different key categories on the keyboard.
Keyboard:
A keyboard is the most commonly used input device which helps us in simply keying in required information in a
computer. This information is subsequently stored in the computer‟s memory. A keyboard can be used effectively to
communicate with the computer but considered to be relatively slow as compared to other input devices. The keyboard is
divided into following divisions:
Alphabetic Keypad:
These keys are similar to a standard typewriter and is used to type general information.
Numeric Keypad:
These keys are used to input numeric data only. These are very useful in case of large numeric data input because all
numeric keys can be accessed by one hand only. These keys can also be used as an alternative to the screen navigation
and editing keys.
Function Keys
These are keys marked as F1 - F12, located normally at the top of the keyboard. These are special keys provided to a
programmer which allow him to attach special functions to each key. Each of these function keys are also given some
special function in different packages.
Screen Navigation and Editing Keys
These keys are provided to move around in the screen. May programs use these keys to let the user move around the
screen display. In some keyboards these keys are also provided inside the numeric keypad as alternate keys.
Q#4: Name five important keys on the keyboard along with their function.
Caps Lock:
Computer keyboard toggle key that enables or disables all the letters from being typed in uppercase.
Back Space Key:
Sometimes referred to as the rubout key, the backspace key is used to delete any character before the current position of
the cursor.
Tab Key:
An indentation at the beginning of a line to signify a new paragraph in a document. Usually about five spaces
Enter Key:
Alternatively referred to as a return key, the enter key is used to return a cursor to the next line or execute a command or
operation.
Shift Key:
A keyboard key that allows a user to type a single capital letter. For example, pressing and holding the shift key while
pressing the letter a key would generate a capital A.
Home key:
This key is often used to return the user to the beginning of the line or the beginning of a document.
CHAPTER NO. 3
FILL IN THE BLANKS
1. _________Receive information from the outside; convert it from a form that is easily
understandable by the user into a form that is acceptable for the computer.
2. _________......Retrieve information from the computer memory; convert it into a form
that can be directly understood by human.'
3. Some examples of old __________ are punched card readers, paper tape readers etc.
4. Some examples of modern _________are key board, magnetic ink character reader,
optical character reader, voice recognition devices, mouse, joystick, light pen etc.
5. ____are used as mass storage as well as input devices for bulk transformation of data,
6. A key board may be divided into four general areas:________, _____ ,
________, ________
7, There are two basic styles of keyboards known as________,__________.
8. A_________consists of a small hand-held unit with one, two or three buttons and a
small ball at the bottom on which it can roll.
9. ____________is an input device, a small box with moving stick and buttons.
10. ________ convert any image into electronic form by shining light onto the image
sensing the intensity of the reflection at every point.
11. ________,________,_______are known as primary additive colors because they can
be combined to create any other color.
1 2. The software used to translate the image into text is called_____________.____.
13. _____________have higher quality reproduction and can scan a page in a single pass.
14. A_______________is a pointing device almost like a mouse turned upside down.
15. An___________is an input device which consists of a photo-cell placed in a small tube
which can sense a position on display tube when its end is held against the screen.
16. The capability of translating voice to text is known as__________.
17. There are four basic steps involved in speech recognition are ________
,___________,________________
18. CCD stands for____________.___________________.
19. MICR stands for__________________________________.
20. A video monitor consists of a ___________,which is a TV like screen.
21. A computer can communicate with, the user through a ______by representing the
result/information in visual form.
22. There are two types of monitors____________,_____________.
23. _________monitors are of two varieties depending upon shade of the display i) green
ii) amber.
24. The two basic types of colored monitors are_______,_________.
25. A _____________monitor works the same way as color TV set.
26. An RGB monitor has three electron guns;_______,_________,_____________.
27. The main categories of printers depending upon the type of print mechanism
are______________,_________________,
28. The printers, which work like typewriters, are known as_________.
29. There are three types of impact printers based on their speed of printing and number of
characters per line. These are:________,_______ ,______;______.
30. ______________printer is that in which each letter is formed with the series of dots.
ANSWERS
1.Input devices 2. Output devices 3. Input devices 4. Input devices 5.floppy drives, hard disks 6. Typewriter area or
alphanumeric keypad., numeric keypad , function keypad , screen navigation and editing keys. 7. PC/XT-style keyboard,
at-s;tyle keyboards 8. Mouse 9. Joystick 10. Image scanners 11. Red, green and blue 12. Optical character recognition
(OCR) 13. Flatbed scanners 14. Trackball 15. Electric light pen 16. Voice recognition/ speech recognition. 17. I) Say the
word ii) digitize the word iii) match the word iv) display the word. 18. Charged coupled device 19. Magnetic ink
character reader 20. Cathode ray tube (CRT) 21. Video monitor 22. I) Black and white or monochrome monitors ii)
colored monitors 23. Monochrome 24. I) Composite ii) RGB 25, Composite 26, A red gun, a green gun and a blue gun
27. I) Impact printers ii) non-impact printers 28. Impact printers 29. 1) Dot matrix printers 2) daisy wheel printers 3) line
printers 30) Dot matrix
Chapter No. 04
Storage Devices
Short Questions
Q#1: Why the RAM needs continuous power supply in order to maintain the contents?
RAM is made up of integrated circuits so it needs continuous power supply. No mechanical process is involved in the
working of RAM.
Q#2: Describe in detail the purpose and working of the main memory.
Working of RAM:
When the processor or CPU gets the next instruction it is to perform, the instruction may contain the address of some
memory or RAM location from which data is to be read (brought to the processor for further processing). This address is
sent to the RAM controller. The RAM controller organizes the request and sends it down the appropriate address lines so
that transistors along the lines open up the cells so that each capacitor value can be read. A capacitor with a charge over a
certain voltage level represents the binary value of 1 and a capacitor with less than that charge represents a 0. For
dynamic RAM, before a capacitor is read, it must be power-refreshed to ensure that the value read is valid. Depending on
the type of RAM, the entire line of data may be read that the specific address happens to be located at or, in some RAM
types, a unit of data called a page is read. The data that is read is transmitted along the data lines to the processor's nearby
data buffer known as level-1 cache and another copy may be held in level-2 cache.
For video RAM, the process is similar to DRAM except that, in some forms of video RAM, while data is being written to
video RAM by the processor, data can simultaneously be read from RAM by the video controller (for example, for
refreshing the display image).
Purpose of RAM:
Random Access Memory (RAM) is simply called "Memory". It is directly readable by the Central Processing Unit
(CPU) of a computer system. It's installed into the motherboard slots of a computer system. For a better performance and
fast execution of programs a computer system should have large RAM. The RAM sizes of 256MB, 512 MB and 1GB are
normal these days.
It's the only memory that is directly accessible by the Central Processing Unit (CPU) for reading/ writing. The CPU can't
access the hard drives or CD drives attached with it. In case the CPU needs to access data that is residing in a hard disk or
CD drive it's first transferred to RAM. If the RAM has got a small size then it'll store only a small amount of data and
will load/re-load data continuously from the Data Source (hard disk or CD drive) to RAM. That's why a large sized RAM
is desirable for the efficient performance and working of a computer system. If the RAM is small sized then applications
and software that require a large memory area may work slowly. Multiple RAM's can be installed in a computer if the
motherboard has multiple slots for RAM's
Q#3: Describe in detail the purpose and working of following Storage devices.
Floppy disk
Hard disk
Working of Floppy Disk:
Read Data From The Floppy Disk:
The steps followed by the floppy disk drive to read data from the floppy disk:
1. The user executes a command, or disk. The program requests information from the floppy disk.
2. The spindle motor in the floppy disk drive rotates the floppy disk.
3. The stepper motor moves the read write head over the required track and the read write head reads the data from the
floppy disk.
4. The floppy disk drive sends the data to the microprocessor for processing.
5. The spindle motor stops rotating the floppy disk in the floppy disk drive.
Write data on the floppy disk:
The steps followed by the floppy disk drive to write data on the floppy disk:
1. The user executes a command, or the program sends data to be written on the floppy disk.
2. The spindle motor in the floppy disk drive rotates the floppy disk.
3. The stepper motor moves the read write head over the required track for the read write head to read the track address
from the floppy disk for storing the data.
4. The erase coils located on the read write head erases the data from the track.
5. The write head is wound up.
6. The write head converts the binary data into electromagnetic impulses and writes the data on the floppy disk.
7. The spindle motor stops rotating the floppy disk in the floppy disk drive.
Working of Hard Disk:
A hard disk uses rigid rotating platters. Each platter has a planar magnetic surface on which digital data may be stored.
Information is written to the disk by transmitting an electromagnetic flux through an read-write head that is very close to
a magnetic material, which in turn changes its polarization due to the flux. A typical hard disk drive design consists of a
central axis or spindle upon which the platters spin at a constant rotational velocity. The associated electronics control the
movement of the read-write armature and the rotation of the disk, and perform reads and writes on demand from the disk
controller. The sealed enclosure protects the drive internals from dust, condensation, and other sources of contamination.
Contrary to popular belief, a hard disk drive does not contain a vacuum. Instead, the system relies on air pressure inside
the drive to support the heads at their proper flying height while the disk is in motion.
Q#7: Explain the purpose of the following and draw a diagram showing their relationship.
Cache memory
Hard disk
Magnetic tape
Cache Memory Purpose:
The main function of cache memory is to speed up the working mechanism of computer and it is placed between the
main memory and CPU.
RAM is called "random access" because any storage location can be accessed directly.
On magnetic tape an item of data could only be accessed by starting from the beginning of the tape and finding an
address sequentially.
RAM is organized and controlled in a way that enables data to be stored and retrieved directly to specific locations.
Note that other forms of storage such as the hard disk and CD-ROM are also accessed directly (or "randomly") but the
term random access is not applied to these forms of storage.
Q#11: A nine class student has a home computer. What storage device he will use in his system? Why it is needed?
He will use hard disk to store data due to following reasons.
Hard disk store massive amount of data
Hard disk is permanent storage device
Hard disk is less expensive
CHAPTER NO- 4
FILL IN THE BLANKS
1. Computer storage is divided into two main classes____________.
2. The capacity of a storage device is expressed as number of_____.
3. 1 nibble=___________________bits.
4. 1 byte-____________________bits.
5. 1 kilobytes=_________________bytes.
6. 1 megabytes =______________kilobytes.
7. 1 gigabytes =_______________megabytes.
8. 1 terabytes =______________ gigabytes.
9. __________ is an extension of the central processing unit (CPU) and is directly
accessible to it.
10. The______of a storage device is expressed as number of bytes, characters or bits.
11. ________is a memory in which each element of information has its own address and from which that element can
be retrieved easily and quickly by using that address.
12. CMOS stands for__________________________________.
13. SIMMs stands for__________________________________.
14. A________________memory chip less than one-fourth the size of a postage stamp
can store more than 4,000,000 bits, or more than 400,000 characters of data.
15. Data can be accessed from ___________without any mechanical movement at
electronic speed, close to the speed of light.
16. SRAM stands for_______________________________ .
17. DRAM stands for________;_____________________________.
18. DIP stands for_______________________________________.
19. DIMMs stand for_____________________________________.
20. ROM stands for_____________________________________..
ANSWERS
1. i) Main storage or primary memory ii) Secondary storage or secondary memory. 2. Bytes, characters or bits 3.(4) 4. 5.
1024 6. 1024 7. 1024 8. 1024 9. Main memory 10. Capacity 11. RAM 12. Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor
13. Single in-line memory modules 14. CMOS 15. RAM 16. Static random access memory 17. Dynamic random access
memory 18. Dual in line pin 19. Dual in-line memory modules 20. Read only memory
Chapter No. 05
Number System
Short Questions:
Q# 1: What is a numbers system?
In mathematics, a 'number system' is a set of numbers, together with one or more operations, such
as addition or multiplication.
A number system is a way of counting things. It's a way of identifying the quantity of something.
Q#2: What is expansion method?
There are a number of ways to convert a number in one base (radix) to the equivalent number in another base. The
standard techniques are all variations on three basic methods.
The most straightforward technique is the expansion method. Suppose we wish to convert the binary number 10101.1 to
decimal. We may write
10101.12 =1 x 24 + 0 x 23 + 1 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20 + 1 x 2-1
= 16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1 + 0.5
= 21.510
Q#3: What is decimal number system? Convert from any base to decimal.
The Decimal Number System uses base 10. It includes the digits from 0 through 9. It is a positional number system.
Convert from Any Base to Decimal
Let's think more carefully what a decimal number means. For example, 1234 means that there are four boxes (digits); and
there are 4 one's in the right-most box (least significant digit), 3 ten's in the next box, 2 hundred's in the next box, and
finally 1 thousand's in the left-most box (most significant digit). The total is 1234:
Original Number: 1 2 3 4
| | | |
How Many Tokens: 1 2 3 4
Digit/Token Value: 1000 100 10 1
Value: 1000 + 200 + 30 + 4 = 1234
= 16 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 1
= 19
The same principle applies to any number base. For example, the number 2132 base 5 corresponds to
2 1 3 2 number in base 5
Then we use the coefficients of the powers of 4 to form the number as represented in base 4:
82/6 = 13 remainder 4
13/6 = 2 remainder 1
2/6 = 0 remainder 2
This table provides all the information you'll ever need to convert from one number base into any other number base for the
decimal values from 0 to 16.
Hexadecimal number into a binary number Conversion:
To convert a hexadecimal number into a binary number, simply break the binary number into 4-bit groups beginning with the LSB
and substitute the corresponding four bits in binary for each hexadecimal digit in the number.
For example, to convert 0ABCDh into a binary value, simply convert each hexadecimal digit according to the table above. The
binary equivalent is:
To convert a binary number into hexadecimal format is almost as easy. The first step is to pad the binary number with leading
zeros to make sure that the binary number contains multiples of four bits. For example, given the binary number 10 1100 1010,
the first step would be to add two bits in the MSB position so that it contains 12 bits. The revised binary value is 0010 1100 1010.
The next step is to separate the binary value into groups of four bits, e.g., 0010 1100 1010. Finally, look up these binary values in
the table above and substitute the appropriate hexadecimal digits, e.g., 2CA.
The weighted values for each position is as follows:
16^3 16^2 16^1 16^0
4096 256 16 1
To calculate the 2's complement of an integer, invert the binary equivalent of the number by changing all of the ones to zeroes and
all of the zeroes to ones (also called 1's complement), and then add one.
For example,
0001 0001(binary 17) 1110 1111(two's complement -17)
For example,
+ 1111 1101 = -3
0000 0010 = +2
Two's complement subtraction is the binary addition of the minuend to the 2's complement of the subtrahend (adding a negative
number is the same as subtracting a positive one).
For example,
1111 1011 = -5
For example,
× 0000 0100 = +4
Two's complement division is repeated 2's complement subtraction. The 2's complement of the divisor is calculated, then added
to the dividend. For the next subtraction cycle, the quotient replaces the dividend. This repeats until the quotient is too small for
subtraction or is zero, then it becomes the remainder. The final answer is the total of subtraction cycles plus the remainder.
For example,
Q#7: what are main data types used in different computer applications? Explain.
Data types used in computer application:
Almost all programming languages explicitly include the notion of data type, though different languages may use different
terminology. Common data types may include:
Integers: In computer science, the term integer is used to refer to a data type which represents some finite subset of the
mathematical integers
Booleans: In computer science, the Boolean or logical data type is a data type, having two values (usually denoted true and false),
characters: In computer and machine-based telecommunications terminology, a character is a unit of information that roughly
corresponds to symbol, such as in an alphabet in the written form of a natural language.
Floating-point numbers: In computing, floating point describes a method of representing real numbers in a way that can support
a wide range of values.
Alphanumeric Strings: In computer programming, a string is traditionally a sequence of characters,
Q#8: Define codes. What are the types of codes used in computer?
Codes
When numbers, letters or words are represented by a special group of symbols, we say they are being encoded and the group of
system is called "Code".
Types of Codes
The codes include Binary code, Binary-coded-decimal code (BCD), and alpha numeric codes. Alphanumeric codes include ASCII
and EBCDIC.
ASCII Code
ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. It is a 7-bit code used to handle alphanumeric data. This
code allows manufacturers to standardize input/output devices such as keyboard, printers, visual display units etc. An extension of
ASCII code uses 8-bits called as ASCII-8 code with an extra 8th-bit as a parity bit to make the total number of 1's either odd or
even.
EBCDIC Code
EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) is an extended form of BCD (Binary Coded Decimal), which can
represent only 16 characters because it is a 4-bit code. EBCDIC is an 8-bit code, so it can represent 256 different characters. It was
developed by IBM and is used in most IBM models and many other computers.
BCD
"In BCD, a digit is usually represented by four bits which, in general, represent the values/digits/characters 0–9. Other bit
combinations are sometimes used for a sign or other indications."
9 in BCD = 1001
8 in BCD = 1000
Boolean Algebra
Q#1: What is Boolean Algebra? What are the uses of Boolean algebra?
The Boolean algebra was developed by the English mathematician George Boole; it is algebra of logic. It deals with statements in
mathematical logic, and puts them in the form of algebraic equations.
Constants
Variable
The variables used in the Boolean algebra are represented by letters such as A, B, C, x, y, z etc, with each variable having one of
two and only two distinct possible values 0 and 1.
Truth Table
A truth table is a breakdown of a logic function by listing all possible values the function can attain. Such a table typically
contains several rows and columns, with the top row representing the logical variables and combinations, in increasing complexity
leading up to the final function.
Boolean Expression:
An expression that results in a value of either TRUE or FALSE is called Boolean expression.
is a Boolean expression because the result is TRUE. All expressions that contain relational operators , such as the less than sign
(<), are Boolean. The operators -- AND, OR, XOR, NOR, and NOT -- are Boolean operators.
Boolean expressions are also called comparison expressions, conditional expressions, and relational expressions.
AND Operation
In Boolean algebra AND operator is represented by a dot or by the absence of any symbol between the two variables and is used
for logical multiplication. For example A.B = X or AB = X.
Thus X is 1 if both A and B are equal to 1 otherwise X will be 0 if either or both A and B are 0 i.e.
1.1 = 1
1.0 = 0
0.1 = 0
0.0 = 0
OR Operation
OR operation is represented by a plus sign between two variables. In Boolean algebra OR is used for logical addition. For
example A+B = X.
The resulting variable X assumes the value 0 only when both A nd B are 0, otherwise X will be 1 if either or both of A and B are 1
i.e.
1+1 = 1
1+0 = 1
0+1 = 1
0+0 = 0
There are three basic laws of Boolean algebra; these are the same as ordinary algebra.
1. Commutative Law
2. Associative Law
3. Distributive Law
1. Commutative Law
It is defined as the law of addition for two variables and it is written as:
A+B=B+A
This law states that the order in which the variables are added makes no difference. Remember that in Boolean algebra addition
and OR operation are same.
It is also defined as the law of multiplication for two variables and it is written as:
A.B = B.A
2. Associative Law
3. Distributive Laws
Assume A, B, and C are logical states that can have the values 0 (false) and 1 (true).
"+" means OR, "·" means AND, and NOT[A] means NOT A.
Postulates
Theorems
Proof:
x + x = (x + x) . 1 by Axiom 2(b)
= x + 0 Axiom 5(b)
= x Axiom 2(a)
x.x = x
Proof:
= x Axiom 2(b)
x+1=1
Proof:
= 1 Axiom 5(a)
Theorem 2(b) :
x.0 = 0
Proof :
x.0
= 0 Axiom (5)
(x')' = x
Proof :
complement of x
x is the com'
(x')' = x
x + x.y = x
Proof:
= x Axiom 2(b)
Theorem 4(b):
x.(x + y) = x
Proof:
x.(x+y)
= x + 0 (Theorem 2)
= x Axiom 2(a)
Theorem 5(a):
Proof:
x + 1 = 1 (Theorem 2a)
0 + 1 = 1 …(1)
In particular, for x =1
1.0 = 0
For 0 B, 0 + 1 = 1
0.1 = 0
1 is the complement of 0.
0' = 1 (5)
Theorem 5(b):
Proof:
x + 1 = 1 (Theorem 2a)
In particular, for x = 0
0 + 1 =1
x.0=0
In particular for 1 B, we have
1 . 0 = 0 …(2)
Duality Principle:
Duality principle states that any result deduced from the axioms of Boolean algebra remains valid if the following steps are
performed.
We know from the theorem 5 that x y x. y now applying the principle of duality on x y x. y it gives us the result
x. y x y hence proved.
K-Map:
Advantages of K-map:
Disadvantages of k-map:
9. x. y is equal to------------------
ANSWERS
1. Software 2. (1) System software (2) Application software.3. System 4. Application 5.i) Operating system ii)
Programming language translator iii) Service software. 6. Operating 7. DOS Shell 8. i).Disc operating system (DOS)
ii).UNIX iii).ZENIX iv. Windows NT 9. Programming language translators 10. Compiler, interpreter and assembler 11.
i).Utility programs ii).Library programs iii).Device drivers. 12. i) Productivity software ii) business software iii)
education software (iv) entertainment software. 13. i) word processing software ii) spreadsheet software 3) database
management software 4) graphics software 5) communications software 6) integrated software. 14.i) Horizontal
integration ii) Vertical integration. 15. i) single user operating systems 2) Multi-user operating systems. 16. Single user
17. Multi-user 18. DOS 19. i) Bach files ii) Command files iii) Executable files. 20. Parameters 21. i) File name ii)
Parameters iii) Switches 22. Switch 23. Cursor 241) internal commands 2) External commands. 25. COMMAND.COM
26. COM.EXE and BAT
Chapter No: 08
Introduction to Windows
Short Questions:
Q#1: Briefly explain the following.
Drives, folders, Directory, File Extension, Icon
Drives:
drives are the devices used to store data. Some drives stores large amount of data like tape drive and some drives stores small
amount of data like floppy drive.
Folders:
In graphical user interfaces environment, a folder is an object that can contain multiple documents. Folders are used to organize
information. In the DOS and UNIX worlds, folders are called directories.
Directory:
An organizational unit, or container, used to organize folders and files into a hierarchical structure. The topmost directory in
any file is called the root directory. A directory that is below another directory is called a subdirectory. A directory above a
subdirectory is called the parent directory. To read information from, or write information into, a directory, you must use
an operating system command.
File-Extension:
File extensions are the ending letters placed after the dot (.) in the file name. For example story.txt. File extension shows the type
of the file and type of data stored in the file.
Icon:
Icons are the graphical representation of the program, a computer file or a tool. It works like hyperlink which is used to navigate a
computer system.
Q#2: Name and explain three different features of Windows.
Features of windows:
Graphical user interface:
Windows provides friendly graphical user interface to work.
Start button: Start button is the gateway of accessing most of the functions available in the computer loaded with windows.
Task bar:
Taskbar provides information and access to applications that are currently running.
Windows Explorer:
It helps to manage the folders, files and disks on the computer or network.
Q#3: What is start button and task bar?
Start Button:
The start button is located on the left corner of the task bar. It is used to start the programs and to access various resources of the
computer.
Task Bar:
The bar at the bottom of the windows desktop is called task bar. Important component of the task bar are as follows.
Start button
Quick launch button
Running application bar
Notification area
Q#4: Write the steps needed to start the program.
Steps needed to start the program:
Click on the start button and then point to all programs option.
Select the program you want to run.
Click on the program icon or menu.
Once the program starts, a small icon appears on the task bar.
Q#5: What are the steps for shutting down and restarting the windows?
Steps for shutting down the windows:
To turn off your computer using the Start menu, click the Start button , and then, in the lower-right corner of the Start menu,
click shut down.
When you click Shut down, your computer closes all open programs, along with Windows itself, and then completely turns off
your computer and display. Shutting down doesn't save your work, so you must save your files first.
Steps for restarting the windows:
To restart your computer using the Start menu, click the Start button , and then, in the lower-right corner of the Start menu,
click Shut down.
A small window will open with three buttons stand by, turn off and restart. Click on restart button. The computer will be restarted.
Q#6: What is Windows explorer? How can we start windows explorer?
Windows Explorer:
Windows Explorer is a tool that allows you to browse, view, copy and delete files.
Windows Explorer comes with Windows 95/98/ME/NT/2000/XP and you can start it as follows:
1. Click Start -> (All) Programs -> Accessories -> Windows Explorer, or
2. Click Start -> Run -> explorer.exe, or
3. Hold the Windows Button on your keyboard and press 'e'.
Q#7: what is the use of Recycle bin?
An icon on the Windows desktop that represents a directory where deleted files are temporarily stored is called recycle bin.
Use of Recycle Bin: This enables you to retrieve files that you may have accidentally deleted.
Q#8: What is control panel? Name three options of control panels and tasks performed them.
Control panel: A utility that permits you to set many of the system parameters is called a control panel.
For example, you can control the type of beeps the Mac makes and the sensitivity of the mouse. The Windows operating
system has a Control Panel program that offers many features like display settings, keyboard and mouse settings, add remove
hardware, phone and modem etc.
Control Panel Options and task performed:
Add remove hardware: it is used to add and remove hardware device drivers for devices such as CDROM, I/O devices, modems,
multimedia and network cards.
Display: it is used for changing background, screen saver, appearance and settings.
Printers: allow installation and removal of printers from the computers.
Mouse: for settings mouse pointer and mouse speed.
Q#9: Write a note on computer virus?
A computer virus is a computer program that can replicate itself and spread from one computer to another.
A computer virus is an executable program. Depend on the nature of a virus, it may cause damage of your hard disk contents,
and/or interfere normal operation of your computer.
By definition, a virus program is able to replicate itself. This means that the virus multiplies on a computer by making copies of
itself. This replication is intentional; it is part of the virus program. In most cases, if a file that contains virus is executed or copied
onto another computer, then that computer will also be "infected" by the same virus.
A virus can be introduced to a computer system along with any software program. For Internet users, this threat can come from
downloading files through FTP (file transfer protocol), or referencing email attachments. (Please refer to our web page
on Handling Email's File Attachments for details.)
When a virus is introduced to a computer system, it can attach itself to, or sometimes even replace, an existing program. Thus,
when the user runs the program in question, the virus is also executed. This usually happens without the user being aware of it.
A virus program contains instructions to initiate some sort of "event" that affects the infected computer. Each virus has a unique
event associated with it. These events and their effects can range from harmless to devastating. For examples:
An annoying message appearing on the computer screen.
Reduced memory or disk space.
Modification of data.
Files overwritten or damaged.
Hard drive erased.
Q#10: what are the benefits of using anti-virus programs?
Benefits
Some important benefits of using antivirus programs are as follows:
Antivirus program protects important data from virus.
It checks all files before they enter computer system.
It alerts the user about the virus before it causes any damage to computer.
It quarantines or eliminates a virus so that it may not harm computer.
It Protects Against Email Threats/Spam
MCQ’s:Chapter No.08
1. Windows dominates the personal computer world, running almost on ---------- % of personal computers.
(a).70 (b).80 (c).90 (d).100
2. In the file name phonenumber.txt the phone number is ---------- and .txt is ------------
(a).name, extension (b).phone, extension (c).number, extension (d).all of these
3. When you delete and object, windows sends it to the -----------------
(a).computer bin (b).recycle bin (c).desktop (d).my documents
4. -------------- acts a directory browser and file manager for windows.
(a).windows explorer (b).internet explorer (c).my documents(d).my computer
5. Windows places the deleted file and folder in------------------
(a).computer bin (b).recycle bin (c).desktop (d).my documents
6. ------------- is just a link to the original file or folder or an application
(a).directory (b).document (c).shortcut (d).hyperlink
7. ------------ can damage the computer system
(a).anti-virus (b).virus (c).program (d).code
8. Windows is a(n)------------------
(a).software (b).computer system (c).operating system (d).file system
9. ----------------- is software that is used to remove the virus from the computer
(a).anti-virus (b).virus (c).program (d).code
10. To add or remove hardware you must select and option from------------
(a).my computer (b).my documents (c).windows explorer (d).control panel
11. ----------- is the gateway of accessing most of the functionality available in the computer loaded with windows.
(a).task bar (b).start button (c).folder (d).application
12. Control panel allows you to customize which of the following features.
(a).appearance (b).themes (c).printer (d).all of the above
13. Computer virus is simply a -----------
(a).a disease (b).computer code (c).type of bacteria (d).hardware component
14. Klez is a ----------------
(a).Game name (b).virus name (c).person name (d).hardware name
15. Good Times was a ------------------
(a).anti-virus (b).virus (c).fake newspaper (d).news channel
16. ---------------- are used to organize data stored on your drives.
(a).task bar (b).start button (c).folder (d).application
17. ---------------provides information and access to applications that are currently running.
(a).task bar (b).start button (c).folder (d).application
18. -------- helps to manage the folders, files and disks on the computer or network.
(a).windows explorer (b).internet explorer (c).my documents (d).my computer
19. -------------enables you to retrieve files that you may have accidentally deleted
(a).computer bin (b).recycle bin (c).desktop (d).my documents
20. A utility that permits you to set many of the system parameters is called a control panel
(a).my computer (b).my documents (c).windows explorer (d).control panel
21. A computer ------------- is an executable program
(a).anti-virus (b).virus (c).program (d).code
22. ------------ are the graphical representation of the program
(a).directory (b).document (c).shortcut (d).icon
23. ---------- are the devices used to store data
(a).directory (b).document (c).drives (d).hyperlink
24. a ------------ is an object that can contain multiple documents
(a).directory (b).document (c).folder (d).icon
25. In the DOS and UNIX worlds, folders are called ------------
(a).directories (b).documents (c).drives (d).shortcut
26. An organizational unit, or container, used to organize folders and files into a hierarchical structure is called
(a).directory (b).document (c).drives (d).hyperlink
27. ----------- works like hyperlink which is used to navigate a computer system.
(a).directory (b).document (c).shortcut (d).icon
28. In----------------- computer consumes less electric power but remain available for
immediate use.
(a). standby mode (b).Hibernate (c).shutdown (d).all of these
Answer Key MCQ’s:
1.c 2.a 3.b 4.a 5.b 6.c 7.b
8.c 9.a 10.d 11.b 12.d 13.b 14.b
15.b 16.c 17.a 18.a 19.b 20.d 21.b
22.d 23.c 24.c 25.a 26.a 27.d 28.a
CHAPTER 08
FILL IN THE BLANKS
1.An_________determines how you interact with your computer to do things.
2. Windows is a________while the DOS is a command line interface.
3. The _______of windows looks like a collection of objects on a colored or black
background.
4. The colored area on the screen, which contains small pictures or graphic objects, a bar at
the bottom with start button and other things on it is called__________.
5. In case of windows small graphic objects such as My Computer, Recycle Bin and My
Briefcase are called_______meaning images.
6. An______on the desktop allows the user to view and interact with windows.
7. _________can be divided into various groups such as 1) System icons 2) Application
icons 3) Folder icons 4) File icons 5) Drive icons 6) Command icons.
8. The keys allow the user to give the computer commands without having to type
long strings of characters.
9. The horizontal bar containing the start button and normally positioned at the bottom of the
screen is called________.
10. The________has two primary functions 1) Acts as a launching pad for all the running
applications 2) provides facility to shift from one program to the other just by clicking the
button of desired program on the task bar when multiple programs are running at a time.
11. The______ is the permanent feature of the task bar located on the left end of the task
bar and activates the main menu of the window.
12. Every window has a control icon that appears on the left of the__________.
13. With a _______button a user can return a window to its original size whether
minimized or maximized.
14. A bar located at the top of a window, containing the name of the application, current topic
or current document is called_________.
15. The appears immediately below the title bar on which commands are grouped
together for manipulating information in the window.
16. A______is used to collect information before processing a command or instructions in
a windows application.
17. _______.enables a user to see easily what is in his computer.
18. ______Jielps to manage the folders, files and disks on our computer or network.
19. _______uses a single window with a dual-paned hierarchical view of the computer
resources.
20. The explorer window is divided in to two panes by a vertical line
called_____________.
21. In__________, computer consumes less electric power but remain available for
immediate use.
22. A __________is a parasitic program written by some individuals to perform illegal
operations on the infected system.
23. A program designed to protect software from viruses is called ___________.
ANSWERS
1, Interface 2. Graphical user interface (GUI) 3. User interface 4. Desktop. 5. Icons 6. Icon 7. Icons 8. Function 9.
Task Bar 10. task bar 11. Start button 12. Title bar 13 restore 14. Title Bar 15. Menu bar 16. Dialog box 17. My
computer 18. Windows explorer 19. Windows explorer 20. Split bar 21. Stand by mode 22. Virus 23. Anti-virus
A Computer is an automatic electronic, calculating device which can process a given input in a prescribed manner to produce a
desired output, at a very high speed with remarkable accuracy. It can also perform all arithmetic and logical functions according to
instructions given in a systematic order to solve any problem and produce processed information.
Advantages of Computers
Speed
Since Computer is an electronic machine and electrical pulses travel at the rate of passage of electric current. This speed enables
the computer to perform millions of calculations per second.
Storage
A computer has too much storage capacity. Once recorded, a piece of information can never be forgotten.
High Accuracy
A computer can be considered as 100% accurate. Checking circuits are built directly into the computer, that computer errors that
undetected are extremely rare.
Versatility
Computer can perform any task, provided it can be reduced to a series of logical steps.
Diligence
Computer never gets tired. It performs most boring, repetitive and monotnous task.
Automatic Operation
Once a program is fed into computer the individual instructions are processed on after the other. Thus computer works
automatically without manual intervention.
Obedience
The ability to take in and store a sequence of instructions for the computer to obey. Such a sequence of instruction is called a
PROGRAM and it must be written in the Computer Language.
Hardware
the physical components and other attached input and output devices of computers are called Hardware. All Hardware
components may be connected mechanically, electrically or electronically with each other. Hardware includes input/output
devices, CPU, backing storage devices and electronic circuit.
Software
Computer required a number of instructions to do any job. The set of these instructions forms programs. Numbers of programs are
combined for some purposes are called software.
They are designed by manufactures and programmers.
Types of Software
1. System Software
2. Application Software
Ages of Computer
At the early age people used pebbles, stones, sticks, scratches, symbols and finger tips to count, which were later replaced by
numbers.
The history of computing is divided into three ages during which man invented and improved different types of calculating
machines. These ages are,
Dark age - 300 BC to 1890
Middle age - 1890 AD to 1944
Modern age - since 1944 AD
Dark Age (3000 BC to 1890 AD
ABACUS
About 3000 years BC, Chinese developed the first calculating machine named Abacus or Soroban.
Abacus consists of a rectangular wooden frame having rods which carry round beads. Counting is done by shifting the beads from
one side to another.
PASCAL’S CALCULATOR
Blasé Pascal (1623-1662), a French developed the first mechanical calculating machine in 1642. This machine consists of gears,
wheels and dials. It was capable of adding and subtracting operations.
JACQUARD’S LOOM
In 1801, a French, Joseph Marie Jacquard developed the first punch card machine.
Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer (EDSAC) was first computer based on stored program concept. It was completed
by Mourice Wilkes at Cambridge University in 1949.
EDVAC
Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC) was built by John Williams Mauchly, John Presper Eckert at Moore
School, Pennsylvania in 1951.
General purpose computers are designed to solve a large variety of problems. The different programs can be used to solve many
problems. Most digital computers are general purpose computers and used in business and commercial data processing.
A computer designed for machine control or process control would be different than a general purpose computer. The special
purpose computers are designed to solve specific problems. The computer program for solving a specific problem is built right
into the computer. Most analog computers are special purpose computers. These special purpose computers are widely used in
industrial robotics.
Types of Computers
1. Analog Computers
Analog computers are used to process continuous data. Analog computers represent variables by physical quantities. Thus any
computer which solve problem by translating physical conditions such as flow, temperature, pressure, angular position or voltage
into related mechanical or electrical related circuits as an analog for the physical phenomenon being investigated in general it is a
computer which uses an analog quantity and produces analog values as output. Thus an analog computer measures continuously.
Analog computers are very much speedy. They produce their results very fast. But their results are approximately correct. All the
analog computers are special purpose computers.
2. Digital Computers
Digital computer represents physical quantities with the help of digits or numbers. These numbers are used to perform Arithmetic
calculations and also make logical decision to reach a conclusion, depending on, the data they receive from the user.
3. Hybrid Computers
Various specifically designed computers are with both digital and analog characteristics combining the advantages of analog and
digital computers when working as a system. Hybrid computers are being used extensively in process control system where it is
necessary to have a close representation with the physical world.
The hybrid system provides the good precision that can be attained with analog computers and the greater control that is possible
with digital computers, plus the ability to accept the input data in either form.
1. Super Computers
Large scientific and research laboratories as well as the government organizations have extra ordinary demand for processing data
which required tremendous processing speed, memory and other services which may not be provided with any other category to
meet their needs. Therefore very large computers used are called Super Computers. These computers are extremely expensive and
the speed is measured in billions of instructions per seconds.
2. Main Frame Computers
The most expensive, largest and the most quickest or speedy computer are called mainframe computers. These computers are used
in large companies, factories, organizations etc. the mainframe computers are the most expensive computers, they cost more than
20 million rupees. In these computers 150 users are able to work on one C.P.U. The mainframes are able to process 1 to 8 bits at a
time. They have several hundreds of megabytes of primary storage and operate at a speed measured in nano second.
3. Mini Computers
Mini computers are smaller than mainframes, both in size and other facilities such as speed, storage capacity and other services.
They are versatile that they can be fitted where ever they are needed. Their speeds are rated between one and fifty million
instructions per second (MIPS). They have primary storage in hundred to three hundred megabytes range with direct access
storage device.
4. Micro Computers
These are the smallest range of computers. They were introduced in the early 70‟s having less storing space and processing speed.
Micro computers of today‟s are equivalent to the mini computers of yesterday in terms of performing and processing. They are
also called “computer of a chip” because its entire circuitry is contained in one tiny chip. The micro computers have a wide range
of applications including uses as portable computer that can be plugged into any wall.
5. Laptop Computers
The smallest computer in size has been developed. This type of small computers look like an office brief case and called
"LAPTOP" computer. The laptops are also termed as "PORTABLE COMPUTERS." Due to the small size and light weight, they
become popular among the computer users. The businessmen found laptop very useful, during traveling and when they are far
away from their desktop computers. A typical laptop computer has all the facilities available in microcomputer. The smallest
laptops are called "PALMTOP".
Generations of Computer
Main Features
Major Innovation - Vacuum Tubes
Main Memory - Punched Cards
Input Output Devices - Punched cards and papers
Languages - Low level machine language
Operating System - No operating system, human operators to set switches
Size - Main frame for example ENIAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC
The duration lasted from 1946-1959 was based on vacuum tubes. These vacuum tubes were about the size of 100 watt light bulb
and used as the internal computer component. However because thousands of such bulbs were used, the computers were very
large and generate a large amount of heat, causing many problems in temperature regulation and climate control.
In this generation input and output device (punched card) that was used fro data storing purpose were very slow. The computers
were operating manually and the language used was a low level machine language (symbolic language) with binary code that
required a high programming skill. ENIAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC and Mark-1 were some of the major inventions of this
generation.
Main Features
Major Innovation - Transistors as main component.
Main Memory - RAM and ROM.
External Storage - Magnetic tapes and Magnetic Disk.
Input Output Devices - Magnetic tapes and Magnetic Disk.
Languages - Assembly language, some high level languages for Example BASIC, COBOL, FORTRAN.
Operating System - Human handles punched card.
Size - Main frame for example IBM-1401, NCR-300, IBM-600 etc.
The period of this generation is from 1959 to 1964. During this period transistor were used for internal logic circuits of computers.
These computers could execute 200000 instructions per second. The input/output devices became much faster by the use of
magnetic table. During this period the low level programing language were used however the high level programming languages
such as FORTRAN and COBOL were also used. The problem of heat maintenance was solved and size of computer reduced,
while speed and reliability were increased. Many companies manufactured second generation computers and many of those for
business applications. The most popular second generation computer was IBM-1401, introduced in 1960, while the following
computers were used by many business organizations. IBM-1400 series, IBM-1600 series, UNIVAC-III, NCR-300 etc.
Main Features
Major Innovation - Integrated circuit (ICs) as basic electronic component.
Main Memory - PROM and DRAM.
External Storage - Improve disk (Floppy Disk)
Input and Output Devices - Keyboard for input, monitor for output.
Languages - More high level languages.
Operating System - Complete operating systems were introduced.
Size - Mini, for example: IBM SYSTEM / 360, ICH-360, HONEY WELL-316 etc.
In this generation the integrated circuits (IC) were used. Integrated circuits contain many electronic components on a single chip.
The disk oriented systems were made at the end of this generation. The size of computer became very small with better
performance and reliability. High level programming languages were extensively used. In 1969 the first microprocessor chip
INTEL 4004 was developed but it was used only in calculators. The faster input/output devices made possible multi-processing
and multi programming. Where by a number of input terminals could be run virtually at the same time on a single centrally
located computer. The famous computer were IBM-360, IBM-370, UNIVAC 9000 series etc.
Main Features
Major Innovation - LSIC and VLSIC (Micro Processor)
Main Memory - EPROM and SRAM.
External Storage - Floppy Disk and Hard Disk.
Input and Output Devices - Monitor for output.
Languages - Languages and application software.
Operating System - MS-DOS and PC-DOS
Size - Micro computer e.g. IBM-PC, Apple Macintosh etc.
The Integrated circuits were more developed and called Small scale integration (SSI), after some time the SSI were more
developed and termed as Large scale integration (LSI). There was a great versatility of input/output devices. In 1971, a powerful
microprocessor chip INTEL 8008 was introduced. The first microprocessor which is used in personal computers (PC) was INTEL
8080. The 8 inch floppy disk was also introduced in 1971, while hard disk was introduced in 1973. The 5.25 floppy disk was first
time used in 1978. The optical disk was developed in 1980. First portable computer "Osborne I" was marketed in 1981. IBM-
3033, IBM-370, IBM system 34, IBM system 36, Cray-I, CP/M etc were introduced in this generation.
Main Features
Major Innovations - ULSIC (Ultra large scale integrated circuit)
Main Memory - EEPROM, SIMM and DIMM.
External Storage - Modified magnetic and Optical disks.
Input/output Devices - Keyboard, Pointing Device, Scanner as input and Monitor as main output.
Languages - AI (Artificial Intelligence) Expert systems.
Operating System - GUI based e.g. Windows 95, Windows NT.
Size - Very small in size example: Laptop, Note book, Digital Diary, Palm top and Pocket PC.
This generation is started from 1981 and still continued, new technologies are adopted to fabricate IC chips, such as electron
beam, X-rays or laser rays. The Very Large Scale Integration
(VLSI) was developed, so the computer became much smaller than ever before. New memory storage device like bubble memory,
optical or memory are being designed. the new computer will be controlled by using human voice and will work by giving
command in our own language. Future computer will in some way to be intelligent and capable of making decision.
Short Notes
1. Super Computer
These are the largest and fastest machines today where numerical computations are carried out speeds of up to 50 million
operation per second. Super computers are very sophisticated machines designed to perform complex calculations at fastest
speeds. Super computers are used to model very large dynamic systems, such as weather patterns national or global weather
forecasting, satellite tracking, cold-testing of atomic and nuclear weapon etc. Carry research and Intel are well known producers
of Super Computers.
2. Main Frames
A main frame originally meant the cabinet containing the central processor unit of a very large computer. After mini computer
became available, the word main-frame comes to refers to the large computer itself.
Mainframes, the biggest and the most productive general purpose systems, that are made to model large dynamic computing need
of a big organizations that serve hundreds of terminals all at the same time. A terminal consists of a monitor and keyboard that
allow a person to enter information and retrieve it from the computer. These computers are the ultimate in sophistication,
flexibility and speed.
3. Mini-Computer
Mini computer are increasingly powerful and do almost anything that large computers do, only more slowly and at much lower
cost than mainframes. This makes it ideal for small companies where capacity and speed of operations in not highly critical. These
computers are smaller than mainframe and larger than micro computer in size. A mini computer is a multiprocessing system
having terminals attached to it and is capable of supporting 4 to 200 users simultaneously. DEC VAX and IBM AS/400 are
commonly used mini-computers.
4. Micro-Computer
Micro-Computers are computers that are powered by microprocessors. Sometimes they are referred as SINGLE CHIP
PROCESSOR a SYSTEM-ON-A-CHIP. Micro-computers or personal computers are the smallest computers, designed to be used
by individuals for writing, illustrating, budgeting, playing games and communicating with other computers.
Programming Language
A programming language is a type of software. A program is a set of step by step instruction that directs the computer to do the
tasks you want it to do and produce the result you want. A set of rules that provides a way of telling a computer when operations
to perform is called a Programming Language.
Assembly Language
In assembly language, the statements are written in symbolic codes (termed as mnemonics) that are easier for human to read and
write as compared to machine language. Each assembly language statement corresponds to one machine language statement.
1. Operation codes of machine language are mnemonics, which are easy to remember.
2. An Assembly language program may be written easily as compared to machine language.
3. The memory addresses are used in machine language which is replaced by the variable names in this language.
4. Revision of complete program is quite easy.
5. The insertion and deletion of the instructions in the program are quite easy.
High level languages are closer to human languages than low-level language and include statement like GOTO and PRINT which
are regular words. Unlike the assembly language, the program of high level languages do not have to be written for a particular
computer, but it can be execute on any machine that has a compiler for that language.
Internet
Internet is the largest network of the world that connects computers located t different parts of the world. The Internet has had a
huge impact on society. The Internet provides information and service, as well as the ability to communicate to people all around
the world in a variety of ways. These range from bulletin boards and chat rooms to voice conversations and video conferencing.
The Internet creates new ways for citizens to communicate, congregate and share information. It is obvious that the Internet has
and will continue to change the way we live.
All in all, the Internet is affecting so many people's lives in most welcome, exciting and challenging ways.
Advantages of Internet
Disadvantages of Internet
1. The student waste their precious hours on sitting on Internet without taking any positive and constructive benefit.
2. Most of the people using Internet to satisfy their negative desires.
3. Adult material is easily available through Internet which destroys the moral values of young boys and girls.
4. Computer hacking is very common by the use of Internet some extreme minded people can digest the money through the use of
credit cards of others.
5. The students waste their time in useless talking with each other.
6. Several hours on Internet without any purpose produce wrong effects on a person.
Compiler
A compiler is complex system software that automatically converts a program written in some high-level language into an
equivalent low-level machine language. The compiler or the language processor converts the entire program into machine code
before execution. A program written by a programmer in a language other than machine language is called a Source Program. The
output from a compiler or an assembler, which consists of machine language instructions, is called the Object Program.
Interpreter
An interpreter is another type of translator that converts each statement of a program written in a high level language into machine
code and executes it before translating the next statement of the source program. It differs from a compiler that translates the
entire source program into object program without undergoing its execution.
Short Notes
John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz developed BASIC in 1964 for beginners. BASIC is a very simple language to use and
understand. It uses simple English words. Even a person with a little knowledge of computer programming can learn it and utilize
it for business and scientific purpose. It is a powerful language that has grasped millions of users. The biggest problem with it is
that it has no standard version and different manufacturers modified it into different versions.
PASCAL
A French mathematician Blaise Pascal introduced a programming language by the name of PASCAL. It is a highly structured
programming language. It was developed in 1970's after the concept of structured programming.
It was developed in 1957 for IBM computers to solve mathematical, scientific and engineering problems. It was one of the first
languages to introduce the concept of "Modular Programming". It has been revised so many times.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Data processing often referred as D.P is a process of collecting the data together and converting the data into information. The
method used for collecting the data may be manual, mechanical or electronic.
Data processing is a term mostly associated with business and commercial work. Since computers are being used in the processing
of data the term “electronic data processing” may also be used.
Data processing means transformation of data into more meaningful results for carrying out scientific, business activities. The
result of data processing is called “information”. The transformation of data consist of a sequence of operations. The sequence is
called “procedure”.
Input -> Processing -> Output
Data processing is a system which takes data as an input, carries out the required processing on the data and produces the
information. The system is called “MANUAL” when processing is performed by human beings and “AUTOMATIC” when
machines are used. When computers are used for data processing the system is called “Electronic Data Processing”.
Elements of EDP
There are five basic elements in a processing system which uses a computer for processing data. These are hardware, software,
user program, procedure and personnel.
1. HARDWARE
All the physical parts which makes up a computer system called hardware i.e. all the devices or peripherals which performs the
data processing operations.
2. SOFTWARE
Software consists of programs and routines whose purpose is to make the computer useable for the user. These software normally
supplied by computer manufacturers or software manufacturers.
3. USER PROGRAM
A program consist of a related instructions to perform operations. A data processing job may require a number of programs.
4. PROCEDURE
The operations of data processing system requires procedure for use, in preparing data, for operating the computer and distributing
the output after processing.
5. PERSONNELS
System Analyst studies information needs and data processing requirements, design a data processing system and prepare
specification.
b) PROGRAMMER
A computer peripheral that puts text or a computer generated image on paper or on another medium, such as a transparency.
Printer can be categorized in several ways the most common distinction is IMPACT and NON-IMPACT.
IMPACT PRINTING
Is the method used by the conventional type writers. In some type of impact printing a metal “hammer” embossed with a character
strikes a print ribbon, which presses the characters image into paper. In other types the hammer strikes the paper and presses it
into the ribbon characters created through impact printing can be formed by either a solid font or dot matrix printing mechanism.
Does not depend on the impact of metal on paper. In fact no physical contact at all occurs between the printing mechanism and the
paper. The most popular non-impact methods today utilize thermal transfer, ink-jet.
TYPES OF PRINTERS
Any printer that produces character made up of dots using a wire pin printed head. The quality of output from a dot matrix printer
depends largely on the number of dots in the matrix, which might be low enough to show individual dots or might be high enough
to approach the look of fully formed characters. Dot matrix printers are often categorized by the number of pins in the printer head
typically, 9 or 24.
LINE PRINTERS
Any printer that prints one line at one time, as opposed to one character at a time or one page at a time. Line printer typically
produce the 11 by 17 inch “computer” printout. They are high speed devices and are often used with mainframes, minicomputers,
or networked machines rather than with single user system. Types of line printers include chain printers and band printer.
LASER PRINTERS
An electro photographic printer that is based on the technology used by photocopiers. A focused laser beam and a rotating mirror
are used to draw an image of the desired page on a photosensitive drum. This image is converted on the drum into an electrostatic
charge, which attracts and holds toner. A piece of electro statically charged paper is rolled against the drum, which pulls the toner
away from the drum and onto the paper. Heat is then applied to fuse the toner to the paper. Finally, the electrified charge is
removed from the drum and the excess toner is collected. By omitting the final step and repeating only the toner application and
paper handling steps, the printer can make multiple copies.
Daisy wheel printer are sometimes called letter quality printer because they are often used to produce attractive correspondence.
The D.W.P is a flat circular device made of metal with character embossed on it. As this wheel spins at a very high speed the
hammer hits the specific character against the ribbon which presses against the paper.
It is a kind of non-impact printer. In electro thermal printing, characters are burned on to a special paper by heated rods on a print
heat. They transfer ink from a wax-based ribbon onto plain paper. This printer can support high quality graphic.
It is a kind of non-impact spray small dots of electrically charged ink onto a paper to form images. Ink jet printer is flexible
enough to be used as plotters.
Secondary storage devices are also called backup storage because it is used to store data. Volume of data on permanent basis
which can be partially transferred to the primary storage, when required for data processing. Afterwards these devices are
comparatively cheap and provide greater space to store the data /instructions are stored on secondary storage devices in the same
binary codes as in primary storage.
The storage capacity of the primary storage of today‟s computer is not sufficient. To store a large volume of data as a result
additional memory called secondary storage is needed with most of the computer system.
These devices also provides the fast communication than I/O devices. The internal memory of a computer is a volatile memory.
Therefore, we cannot save the data permanently. In that case we require secondary storage device which provide the facility to
store the data for future use.
Random Access Devices are those devices on which we can directly access the data. These devices are comparatively provide the
fast communication.
FLOPPY DISK
A floppy disk, also called simply a diskette or disk, is a small flexible Mylar disk coated with iron oxide on which data are stored.
The floppy disk has been around since early 1970s, today it is available in three 3½ inch, 5¼ inch and 8 inch sizes. The 5¼ and 8
inch diskettes are covered by stiff protective jacket with different holes. The central big hole called hub ring which is used to hold
by disk drive during rotation. The elongated read write window is used to read and write data through read/write head.
The small hole next to the hub ring is called index hole which is used to locating data through computer. The cut out on the side of
the floppy disk is called write protect notch. If we cover this opening with a piece of paper then we can‟t write data on to disk.
In small diskette a hard plastic cover and protective metal is used to protect disk. Before using a disk we have to format a disk in
which disk is divided into tracks and sectors for storing the data. Diskettes may be double sided and single sided while the storage
capacity becomes less or more.
Floppy diskettes are more convenient to use with microcomputers. A floppy disk which is a random access device can access data
fast than magnetic tape.
Sequential Access Devices are those in which we can access the data one by one in a sequence. These devices provide slow
communication as compared to Random Access Device.
MAGNETIC TAPE
Magnetic tape is a sequential access device about one half or one fourth inch in size and made of Mylar (a plastic material) coated
with a thin layer of iron oxide. Data can be read and write through a device which is called tape drive. The read/write head of tape
drive which is an electromagnetic component read, write and erase data from magnetic tape. Magnetic tape is divided into nine
separate strips or tracks in which eight tracks are used to store data and ninth track is used for error checking bit.
Magnetic tape can store large quantities of data therefore they are erasable, usable and durable secondary storage device. But it
can use with large computers.
INPUT DEVICES
Input devices are used to provide data or information to the computer. The computer follows the instructions given to it by and
input device. A variety of input devices are used with the computer depending on the type and purpose of input information. For
example, a keyboard is commonly used to transfer data or information from human readable form to machine readable form.
Other examples of input devices are: mouse, joystick, trackball, light pens, digitizers, scanners, optical character reader (OCR),
touch window, etc.
MOUSE
The mouse is an input device that usually contains one or two buttons. As a user moves the mouse on a flat surface, the mouse
controls the cursor movement on the screen. When the user presses one of the buttons, the mouse either marks a place on the
screen or makes selection from data or menu on the screen. A mouse has a sphere on its underside. This rotates as the mouse is
moved along a flat surface.
The mouse translates the direction and speed of rotation into a digital signal that identifies the position or control, the cursor on
the computer.
A mouse can be used for many applications, ranging from games to drawing and designing products with computer graphics. It
provides an alternative for people who are uncomfortable with a keyboard but it also can be used in combination with a keyboard
to input data.
TRACKBALL
A Trackball is a pointing device almost like a mouse turned upside down. The user controls the cursor on the screen by rolling a
plastic ball with a fingertip or wrist. To execute commands with a Trackball, one or more buttons are pressed, much in the same
way as is done with a mouse. The cursor can be moved around on the screen by rolling the ball with a thumb or finger.
Trackball is popular among users of laptop computers when space is limited and may be mounted on either side of the keyboard.
For handicapped people who may have difficulty pressing keys on a standard keyboard or using a mouse, the trackball may be the
answer since it does not require to moves the entire arm to use it.
SCANNER
Scanner is an input device. It is also called Optical Reader or Digital Scanner. It scans or reads text and picture printed on a paper
and enters them directly into the computer memory.
The advantage of a scanner is that the user needs not type the input data in. This is a lust and accurate method for entering data
into the computer. The scanner takes electronic images, of text or pictures from the paper it breaks each image into light and dark
dots and stores them into the computer memory in machine codes. Scanned text can be edited by OCR software. Optical Character
Recognition (OCR) software translates the scanned document into text that can be edited.
The image scanner is useful because it translates printed images into an electronic format than can be stored in computer's
memory. The stored image can be transferred into a paint program or directly into a word processor. You can use software to
organize and manipulate the electronic image.
KEYBOARD
A keyboard is the most commonly used input device which helps us in simply keying in required information in a computer. This
information is subsequently stored in the computer‟s memory. A keyboard can be used effectively to communicate with the
computer but considered to be relatively slow as compared to other input devices. The keyboard is divided into following
divisions:
ALPHABETIC KEYPAD
These keys are similar to a standard typewriter and is used to type general information.
NUMBERIC KEYPAD
These keys are used to input numeric data only. These are very useful in case of large numeric data input because all numeric keys
can be accessed by one hand only. These keys can also be used as an alternative to the screen navigation and editing keys.
FUNCTION KEYS
These are keys marked as F1 - F12, located normally at the top of the keyboard. These are special keys provided to a programmer
which allow him to attach special functions to each key. Each of these function keys are also given some special function in
different packages.
SCREEN NAVIGATION AND EDITING KEYS
These keys are provided to move around in the screen. May programs use these keys to let the user move around the screen
display. In some keyboards these keys are also provided inside the numeric keypad as alternate keys.
OUTPUT DEVICES
An output device is used to display the data or information that we receive from the computer. An output device can be used to
display or print the intermediate or final results performed by computer. A variety of output devices are used with computer. The
use of these devices depends on the type and purpose of output. Some examples of output devices are: Monitors, Printer, Plotters,
Visual display unit (VDU), liquid crystal display (LCD), etc.
MONITOR
To display result or output from computer, a T.V like device is used which is called monitor. The monitors are also referred as
C.R.T (Cathode Ray Tube), V.D.U (Visual Display Unit). The monitor assist during input from the keyboard, this display is called
a soft copy. The monitor can be of various kinds, depending on the type of application. Monitors are categorized into two groups:
1.Monochrome monitors
2. Color monitors
MONOCHROME MONITORS
Monochrome monitors are used specially for text editing purpose. These monitors can display only one colour. Normally amber,
green or paper white.
COLOUR MONITORS
Color monitors serves a wide range of selection according to the application. Such as red, green, blue, Enhance Graphic Array
(EGA), Color Graphic Array (CGA), Video Graphics Array (VGA), Super Video Graphics Array (SVGA).
1. CRT Monitor
2. LCD Monitor
CRT MONITOR
The CRT monitors are a lot like television set, using the same CRT or Cathorde Ray Tube technology. The CRT monitor has two
major parts; the screen and the cathode ray tube (CRT). The screen is the front of the monitor and CRT is fitted inside the monitor.
Another monitor type is LCD or Liquid Crystal Display. LCD monitors are a lot like CRT monitors without the bulkiness but they
do not have CRT. LCD monitors use a flat lightweight surface filled with millions of tiny glass bubbles, each having a phosphoric
covering. These phosphoric coverings glow to create an image. LCD screens provide clarity and flicker-free viewing.
PLOTTER
Plotter is a special output device, which is used to produce high quality, perfectly proportional hard copy output. Plotters are
designed to produce large drawings or images such as construction plans for buildings or blue prints for mechanical devices.
Plotters have been used in automotive and aircraft design, topological surveys, architectural layouts and other similar complex
drafting jobs.
A plotter is composed of a pen, a move-able carriage, a drum and a holder for chart paper. Both the pen and the paper can move
up and down and back and forth. This permits very detailed drawings. Some plotter having colored pens can make colored
drawings also.
1. Drum Plotter
2. Flatbed Plotter
DRUM PLOTTER
On the drum plotter, the pens, and the drum move concurrently in different axes to produce the image. Drum plotters are used to
produce continuous output, such as plotting earthquake activity, or for long graphic output, such as structural view of a
skyscraper.
FLATBED PLOTTER
On some flatbed plotters, the pen moves in both axes while the paper remains stationary. However, on most desktop plotters, both
paper and pen move concurrently in much the same way as on drum plotters.
HARD DISK
Hard disk is a thin circular metal plate coated both side with a magnetic material. A hard disk pack consist of a number of disk
mounted on central shaft which rotate at a speed of 2400 rpm or more. In a hard disk information is stored on both the surfaces of
each disk plate except the upper and the lower surfaces of the bottom plate which are not used. Information is recorded on the
track of the disk surfaces in the form of invisible tiny magnetic spot. The presence of a magnetic spot represent 1 bit and its
absence represents 0 bit.
Hard disk are potentially very high capacity storage devices typically in the range of 20 megabyte to 1 gigabyte. Data are recorded
on the tracks of a spinning disk surface and read from the surface by one or more read/write heads. There are two basic types of
disk system.
1. Moving head
2. Fixed head
MOVING HEAD
The moving head consist of one read/write head for each disk surface mounted on an axis and which can be moved in and out. In
this system each read/write head moves horizontally across the surface of the disk. So that it is able to access each track
individually. Information stored on the tracks which constitute a cylindrical shape through the disk pack are therefore accessed
simultaneously.
FIXED HEAD
In the fixed head system the axis are non-movable. A large number of read/write heads are distributed over the disk surfaces. One
head for each track as a result no head movement is required and therefore information is accessed more quickly.
VOICE RECOGNITION
A voice recognition system compares a person's live speech to their stored voice pattern. Larger organizations sometimes use
voice verification systems as time attendance devices. Many companies also use this technology for access to sensitive files and
networks. Some financial services use voice verification systems to secure telephone banking transactions. These systems use
speaker dependent voice recognition software. This type of software requires the computer to make a profile of your voice, that is,
you train the computer to recognize your inflection patterns.
DISK DRIVE
Disk drive is a peripheral device that reads or write the disks (hard disks, floppy disks, etc) that store information. Disk drives are
called "Storage Device" because they store information or portabel or permanent disks. The drive contains a motor to rotate the
disk at a constant rate and one or more read/write heads, which are positioned over the desired track.
CD-WRITER
A CD writer is a device connected to your computer which can write on CD-WR and CD-R discs. CD-WR discs may be written,
erased and rewritten, while CD-R discs may be written only once. CD writer performances is measured in X unit, where IX =150
kilobytes/sec. This allows user to master a CD-ROM or audio CD for publishing CD-R devices can also read CD-ROMs and play
audio CDs. The CD writer is also called a CD-R drive (short for Compact Disc - Recordable Drive)
BITS & BYTES
The smallest piece of data that can be recognized and used by a computer, is the bit, a binary digit. A bit is a single binary value,
either a 1 or 0. A group of eight bits is called a byte. The byte is the basic unit for measure of the size of the memory, with today‟s
computer memory sizes. It is more common to hear the term kilobyte (KB) or megabyte (MB).
COMPUTER WORD
A computer word is the number of adjacent bits that can be stored and manipulated as a unit. Just an English vocabulary words are
of varying lengths so are computer words. Many microcomputers have the ability to manipulate a 32 bit word, while some models
have words length of 8 and 16 bits.
EXPRESSIONS
An expression is a combination of constants and variables linked by arithmetic operators like (+, -, *, /, \). Expressions are used to
perform different operations. The expressions are evaluated from left to right but some operators have priority over the others.
Parenthesis are evaluated first then multiplication and division have the same priority from left to right. Similarly the addition and
subtraction are evaluated with equal priorities. If all the operators are used in an expression have the same priority then the
expression be executed from left to right.
* Arithmetic expressions
* Logical expressions
* Relational expressions.
ARITHMETICAL EXPRESSIONS
In an arithmetic expression the following operators are used in conjunction with the operands.
Symbol Meaning
+ Addition
- Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division
^ Exponentiation
( Left parenthesis
) Right parenthesis
RELATIONAL EXPRESSION
A Relational expression is composed of operands linked by the relational operators. The relational operators used in the relational
expression are given.
Symbol Meaning
= equal to
Example
A>B
B <> C
LOGICAL EXPRESSIONS
When a selections is based upon one or more condition being true. It is possible to combine the condition together using logical
operators and the resulting condition would either be true or false the most commonly used logical operators are AND, OR and
NOT.
COMPUTER LANGUAGE
Language is a system for representation and communication of information or data. Like human beings, a language or signal is
required to communicate between two persons. Similarly, we cannot obtain any result by computer without langtage. Computer
does not understand directly what we are communicating with computer as English or Arabic, it understands only machine
language (binary codes 0-1). Computer translates English language into machine codes through interpreter then process
instructions and give us the results.
* High-level language
* Low-level language
Machine Language
Although computers can be programmed to understand many different computer language. There is only one language understood
by the computer without using a translation program. This language is called the machine language or the machine codes.
Machine codes are the fundamental language of the computer and is normally written as strings of binary 0-1.
Advantages:
Programs written in machine language can be executed very fast by the computer. This is mainly because machine instructions are
directly understood by the CPU and no translation of program is required.
Disadvantages:
However, writing a program in machine language has several disadvantage.
Machine Dependent
Because the internal design of every type of computer is different from every other type of computer and needs different electrical
signals to operate. The machine language also is different from computer to computer.
Difficult To Program
Although easily used by the computer, machine language is difficult to program. It is necessary for the programmer either to
memorize the dozens of code number for the commands in the machine‟s instruction set or to constantly refer to a reference card.
Difficult to Modify
It is difficult to correct or modify machine language programs. Checking machine instructions to locate errors is difficult as
writing them initially.
Symbolic Languages
In symbolic languages, alphabets are used (a-z). symbolic languages are further divide into two main levels.
A language which is one step higher than machine language in human readability is called Assembly Language or a low-level
language. In an assembly language binary numbers are replaced by human readable symbols called mnemonics. Thus a low-level
language is better in understanding than a machine language for humans and almost has the same efficiency as machine language
for computer operation. An assembly language is a combination of mnemonic, operation codes and symbolic codes for addresses.
Each computer uses and has a mnemonic code for each instruction, which may vary from computer to computer. Some of the
commonly used codes are given in the following table.
COMMAND NAME MNEMONIC
Add - ADD
Subtract - SUB
Multiply - MUL
Compare Registry - CR
Compare - COMP
An assembly language is very efficient but it is difficult to work with and it requires good skills for programming. A program
written in an assembly language is translated into a machine language before execution. A computer program which translates any
assembly language into its equivalent machine code is known as an assembler.
INTERPRETER
An interpreter is a set of programs which translates the high-level language into machine acceptable form. The interpreters are
slow in speed as compared to compilers. The interpreter takes a single line of the source code, translates that line into object code
and carries it out immediately. The process is repeated line by line until the whole program has been translated and run. If the
program loops back to earlier statements, they will be translated afresh each time round. This means that both the source program
and the interpreter must remain in the main memory together which may limit the space available for data. Perhaps the biggest
drawback of an interpreter is the time it takes to translate and run a program including all the repetition which can be involved.
In order to develop a computer program, a programmer has to go through the following stages:
In this step a programmer studies the problem and decides how the problem will be best solved. Studying a problem is necessary
because it helps a programmer to decide about:
An algorithm is a set of instructions or sequence of steps that must be carried out before a programmer starts preparing his
program. The programmer designs an algorithm to help visualize possible alternatives in a program.
3. FLOWCHARTING
A flow chart is a graphical representation of a program which helps a programmer to decide on various data processing procedures
with the help of labeled geometrical diagrams. A flow chart is mainly used to describe the complete data processing system
including the hardware devices and media used. It is very necessary for a programmer to know about the available devices before
developing a program.
4. CODING OR WRITING THE PROGRAM
The next job after analyzing the problem is to write the program in a high-level language, usually called coding. This is achieved
by translating the flow chart in an appropriate high-level language, of course according to the syntax rules of the language.
5. TEST EXECUTION
The process of execution of any program to find out for errors or bugs (mistakes) is called test execution. This is very important
because it helps a programmer to check the logic of the program and to ensure that the program is error-free and workable.
6. DEBUGGING
It is a term which is used extensively in programming. Debugging is the process of detecting, locating and correcting the bugs by
running the programs again and again.
7. FINAL DOCUMENTATION
It is written information about any computer software. Final document guides the user about how to use the program in the most
efficient way.
MODES OF OPERATION
There are two modes of operation for BASIC. The mode that you are in determines what BASIC will do with the instruction you
give it. When you start BASIC you receive the OK prompt. You then have two modes available to you immediately.
DIRECT MODE
In the direct mode BASIC acts like a calculator. No line numbers are required. Direct mode is not of course the main purpose of
BASIC, but it is useful at times particularly when you are debugging program or short problems in which you want to perform
quick calculation e.g., PRINT 3+4.
INDIRECT MODE
In this mode you first put a line number on each statement. Once you have a program you can run it and get your results. The
indirect mode saves your instructions in the computer along with their line number, you can execute the program as many times as
you wish simply by typing RUN.
STEPS OF PROGRAMMING
There are five steps in preparing a computer programme which are also called ABCDE of Programming.
ANALYSIS
In this step the system analyst tries to become familiar with the problem. He has to study the problem and prepare some notes
upon that problem. He also notes that what is given, what is required and what will computer can do.
BLOCKING
In this step the programmer converts the analyst report to a series of steps through which the computer will give the required
result. The steps are commonly known as Algorithm. There are different ways to write those detailed sequential steps. The most
common method used is flow charting. A flow chart is symbolic representation of flow of a programme.
CODING
In this step the programmer writes the program in any computer language. This step is known as coding. After this program is fed
into the computer and is compiled with the help of a given compiler.
DEBUGGING
Debugging is a step in which a programmer corrects a syntax error which may come after the compilation.
TESTING
Testing is a step where the programmer is finally testing the program for execution (there may be any logical mistake which
compiler cannot trace).
EXECUTION
In this step we send the program for execution where company‟s data will be fed and process.
INTRODUCTION TO BASIC
BASIC is a high level language used for purpose of writing a program on a computer. It stands for Beginners All-purpose
Symbolic Instruction Code. BASIC is an easy to use “friendly” language where instruction resembles elementary, algebraic
formulas and certain English keywords such Let, Read, Print, Goto etc.
HISTORY OF BASIC
The language was developed at Dartmouth College in 1967, under the direction of John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz. It was
quickly discovered and adopted. All the major computer manufacturers offered their own version of BASIC for their particular
computers.
In 1978, the American National Standard Institute standardized an essential subset of BASIC in order to promote uniformity from
one version of BASIC into another.
In recent years some new version of BASIC have been developed which included a variety of features that are not included in
more traditional versions.
* DRAM
* SRAM
* EPROM
* PROM
3. Memory
4. Cache Memory
1. Hard Disk
2. Floppy Disk
RAM
RAM is that part of main memory in which data and instructions are held temporarily. RAM provides a working area to the user
to enter and process data. In RAM each data element has its own address (location). Any data element can be read easily and
quickly by using that address. It is also called as Read-And-Write Memory (RAM) since the computer can store or write data at
any selected location (address) and can retrieve or read data when needed. It is a temporary memory of a computer used to store
data and an instruction when the computer is on; everything that is stored in RAM is lost when the computer is turned off. For this
reason it is also called volatile memory. Large RAM sizes provide larger data that computer can hold and process. Additional
RAM chips can be installed in a computer simply by plugging them on motherboard. This increases the storage capacity of RAM
of computer.
RAM is a semiconductor memory with no moving part. Data can be accessed from RAM at very high speed very close to the
speed of light. A memory chip less than one-fourth size of a postage stamp can store more than 500,000 bytes equivalent to the
printed matter on a popular daily newspaper.
ROM
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The instructions written in ROM can only be read but cannot be changed or deleted. The
ROM is, therefore, also called non-volatile memory. It is not possible to write new information or instructions into the ROM. This
is the reason why it is called Read Only Memory.
ROM stores data and instructions permanently. When the power is turned off, the instructions stored in ROM are not lost. The
instructions are written into the ROM chips at the time of its manufacturing. When the computer is switched on, the instructions in
the ROM are automatically loaded into the memory of the computer. These instructions prepare the computer system for use and
display the initial operating system screen.
A variation of ROM is programmable read only memory (PROM). PROM is a ROM into which you can load read only programs
and data. Some microcomputer software packages, such as electronic spreadsheets are available as PROM units as well as on
interchangeable disks. ROM and PROM are used in variety of capabilities within a computer system.
Difference Between RAM and ROM
Everything that is stored in RAM is lost when the computer is turned off. For this reason it is also called volatile memory.
In contrast the Read Only Memory (ROM) is non-volatile memory. Instructions can only be read from ROM. Instructions once
written on ROM chip cannot be changed. It is a permanent memory of a computer, i.e. the contents of this type of memory are not
lost when the computer is turned off. As soon as the computer is turned on, a program that resides on ROM automatically makes
the computer ready for use. ROM is a semiconductor memory generally programmed by the manufacturer.
The capacity of RAM in a computer affects computer's power. More RAM can make computer run faster. The computer does not
necessarily have to load a complete program into its main memory to run it. However greater is the part of a program it can fit into
memory, the faster the program will run.
Many RAM chips are installed on a small circuit board. These RAM chips are wired together to form a single module of large
memory called Single In-Line Memory Modules (SIMMs). SIMM has contact terminals on it one side. It can easily be plugged
into the motherboard. SIMMs had different capacities such as 1 Mbyte, 4Mbytes, and 16Mbytes with varying speed.
SIMMs were popular by PC users in 1980s but has now been replaced by DIMMs. Like SIMMs, Dual In-Line Memory Modules
(DIMMs) have been developed installing many RAM chips. DIMMs provide larger capacity as compared to SIMMs. DIMMs
have wider data bus and thus have higher rate of data transfer. DIMMs are available in several configurations having different
capacities and speeds. You can expand RAM capacity of your computer by simply plugging in more DIMMs.
Short Notes
Floppy Diskette
It is a small removable, portable storage device that is made of polyester film coated with a metal oxide compound. It looks like a
45 rpm phonograph record except that it is enclosed in a jacket square in shape. It is readable by a computer with a floppy disk
drive. The physical size of disks has shrunk from the early 8 inch to 5.25 inch square and about 1 millimeter thick (mini-floppy) to
3.5 inch square and about 2 millimeters thick (microfloppy) while the data capacity has risen.
Hard Disk
A hard drive is a magnetic disk on which you can store computer data. The term hard is used to distinguish it from a soft, or
floppy disk. Hard disk holds more data and is faster than floppy disks. In general, hard disks are less portable than floppies,
although it is possible to buy removable hard disks. Today's computers typically come with a hard disk that contains several
billion bytes (giga bytes) of storage.
CD-ROM
CD-ROM (Compact Disc, Read Only Memory) is an adaption of the CD that is designed to store computer data in the form of text
and graphics, as well as hi-fi stereo sound. It is a non-volatile optical data storage medium that is physically the same as an audio
CD and is capable of storing large amounts of data up to 1 GB, although the most common size is 650 MB about 12 million bytes
per pound weight. All CD-ROMs confirm to a standard size and format, so you can load any type of CD-ROM into any CD-ROM
player. In addition CD-ROM players are also capable of playing audio CDs. A standard CD is 120mm (4.75 inches) in diameter
and 1.2 mm (0.05 inches) thick.
Magnetic Tape
A magnetic tape is also a storage device from which you can access data serially like an audio cassette from which you can hear
the songs in the order in which they are stored. Serial access is slower than the direct access provided by media such as diskettes.
When you want to access some particular data from the tape, the device has to scan through all the data you do not need but that
data is stored before the required one. The access speed can be quite slow when the tape is long and what you want is not near the
start. So the best use of the magnetic tape is for the data that you do not use very often.
Magnetic Disk
A magnetic disk is a metal or plastic disk coated with magnetic material. Data is recorded into the magnetic material in machine
code. Disks have became popular due to their random access. These disk spin in the disk drives Read/Write heads moving on the
disk along its radius can read data at any location under the heads.
Different types of disk drives and magnetic disks are in use. The most popular types of magnetic disks are interchangeable disks
called the floppy disks and fixed disks called the hard disks.
Generally PCs are configured with at least one hard disk drive and on floppy disk drive. Hard Disk provided a very big storage
capacity and are very fast but these are not inter changeable. Floppy disks are smaller than the hard disk, because they always
consists only one platter. Floppies are available in size of 3.5" and 5.25" inches. Both of them are available in double density and
high-density storage capacities. The storage capacities of these diskettes used for IBM compatible computer.
Floppy Disk, although slower than a hard disk, are inexpensive and can easily moved from computer to computer. They are
comparatively fragile and must be handled with care.
Difference in the Capacity Between Hard Disk and Floppy Disk
A hard disk contains several disk platters stacked on a single rotating spindle. Data are stored on all recording surfaces. For a disk
with four platters, there are eight recording surfaces on which data can be stored. A floppy disk has only one platter on which data
is written, that is why the storage capacity of a hard disk is more as compared to the floppy disk. Hard disks or fixed disks are also
called Winchester disk are permanently installed or fixed with in the system unit.
Central Processing Unit - CPU
The central processing unit (CPU), also called the microprocessor, the processor or central processor is the brains of the computer.
The CPU is housed on a tiny silicon chip. This chip contains millions of switches and pathways that help your computer make
important decisions. The switches control the flow of the electricity as it travels across the miles of pathways. The CPU knows
which switches to turn on and which to turn off because it receives its instructions from computer programs. Programs are a set of
special instructions written by programmers that control the activities of the computer. Programs are also known as software.
* Control Unit
* Arithmetic/Logic Unit
Arithmetic/Logic Unit
Because all computer data is stored as numbers, a lot of the processing that takes place involves comparing numbers or carrying
out mathematical operations. In addition to establishing ordered sequences and changing those sequences the computer can
perform only two types of operations: arithmetic operations and logical operations. Arithmetic operations include addition,
subtraction, multiplication and divisions. Logical operations include comparisons, such as determining whether one number is
equal to, greater than or less than another number. Also, every logical operation has an opposite. For example, in addition to
"equal to" there is "not equal to."
Many instructions carried out by the control unit involve simply moving data from one place to another - from memory to storage,
from memory to the printer and so forth. However, when the control unit encounters an instruction that involves arithmetic or
logic, it passes that instruction to the second component of the CPU, the arithmetic or logic unit, or ALU. The ALU includes a
group of registers - high-speed memory locations built directly into the CPU that are used to hold the data currently being
processed. For example, the control unit might load two numbers from memory into the registers in the ALU. Then, it might tell
the ALU to divide the two numbers (an arithmetic operation) or to see whether the numbers are equal (a logical operation).
Secondary Storage
Secondary storage or secondary memory also referred as backing storage is used to supplement the capacity of main storage; the
memory stores a bulk of information. It is also called auxiliary storage or mass storage. The information stored in this memory is
used by the CPU by first bringing it to main memory.
1. Magnetic Disks
2. Magnetic Tape
Access through sequential access storage is non-addressable that is why an operator cannot refer directly to the contents of a
particular storage location such as used with magnetic tape. This involves examining sequentially all beginning of the tape and
continuing to search through all record until the desired information area is found.
Direct Access Storage is addressable that is a given item can be selected from anywhere in storage by simply specifying the
address where it is located direct access devices such as magnetic disks provide immediate access to individual records and do not
require reading from the beginning of a file to find a particular record.
Computer Bus
In computer the term bus refers that paths between the components, actually bus, is a group of a wire. The bus is the common path
way through which the processors send/receive data and commands to/from primary and secondary storage and all can transport 8
bits at a time whereas a bus with 16 lines can transport 16 bits at a time.
1. Data Bus
2. Address Bus
Data Bus
The data bus is an electrical path that connects the central processing unit (CPU) memory, and the other hardware devices on the
motherboard. Actually, the bus is a group of parallel wires. The number of wires in the bus affects, the speed at which data can
travel between components, just as the number of lanes on a highway effects how long it takes people to get to their destinations.
Because each wire can transfer one bit at a time, an eight-wire bus can move eight bits at a time. A 16-bit bus can transfer two
bytes and a 32-bit bus can transfer four bytes at a time.
Address Bus
The second bus that is found in every micro computer is the address bus. The address bus is a set of wires similar to the data bus,
but is connects only the CPU and memory and all it carries are memory addresses. The reason that the address bus is important is
that the number of lines in it determines the maximum number of memory address. For example, one byte of data is enough to
represent 2 = 256 different values, if the address bus could carry only eight bits at a time, the CPU could address only 256 bytes of
memory. Most of the early PCs had 20-bit address bus, so the CPU could address only 2(20) bytes or 1 MB of data.
Computer Ports
A system board with its processor and memory unit can work only when linked to input/output storage and communication
devices to receive data and communicate results of processing.
Peripheral devices such as a keyboard, mouse, monitor and a printer come with a cable and a multiple connector. A port is one of
the entry lines coming into the computer. A port provides a direct link to the microcomputer's common electrical bus.
1. Serial Ports
2. Parallel Ports
Serial Ports
A serial port provides a connection for transmitting data one bit at a time. A serial port connects your computer to a device such as
modem, which requires two-way data transmission, or to a device such as a mouse, which requires only one-way data
transmission. IBM-compatible computers use either 9-pin or 25-pin connectors for their serial ports COM1, COM2 etc.
Parallel Ports
A parallel port provides a connection for transmitting data eight bits at a time over a cable with eight separate dta lines. Parallel
transmission is fast because eight bits travel simultaneously. Parallel transmission is typically used to send data to the printer. The
cable that connects two parallel ports contains 25 wires, eight wires carry data and the remaining wires carry control signals that
help to maintain orderly transmission and reception. IBM-compatible computes generally allow you to use up to three ports which
are designated as LPT1, LPT2 etc.
Memory Unit
Memory unit is the place where the computer program and data are stored during processing. It is the area, through which all the
data which is input into or output of the CPU must pass. It is monitored by OU which keeps track of every thing in the storage. It
is a random access device, which consists of thousands upon thousands of storage locations, each of which can be directly reached
by the CU. Each storage location is distinguished by the address.
This part of memory contains permanently stored information. When the power is switched off. ROM does not wash away. This
information is available to a computer to read and process but not to be changed is kept on ROM. This information is stored on
small pieces of memory chips, before the computer is assembled.
This part of memory consists of blank chips and hence the computer can use it to store and retrieve (write and read) information
during its processing. The information stored in RAM is volatile, that is, when the computer is shut down the stored information is
lost.
Data
The word data is derived from Latin language. It is plural of Datum (But Data is usually used as a singular term.) Datum
(singular) - Data (plural). Data is any collection of facts of figures. The data is the raw material to be processed by a computer.
Example
Names of students, marks obtained in the examination, designation of employees, addresses, quantity, rate, sales figures or
anything that is input to the computer is data. Even pictures, photographs, drawings, charts and maps can be treated as data.
Computer processes the data and produces the output or result.
Types of Data
Numeric Data
The data which is represented in the form of numbers is known as Numeric Data. This includes 0-9 digits, a decimal point (.), +,
/, - sign and the letters "E" or "D". The numeric data is further divided into two groups:
1. Integer Data
2. Real Data
Integer Data
Integer Data is in the form of whole numbers. It does not contain a decimal point, however it may be a positive or a negative
number.
Example
Population of Pakistan, numbers of passengers traveling in an airplane, number of students in a class, number of computer in a
lab etc.
2543, 7, -60, 5555, 0, + 72 etc
Real Data
Real data is in the form of fractional numbers. It contains a decimal point. It can also be positive or negative number.
Real Data is further divided into two types.
a. Fixed Point Data
b. Floating Point Data
Fixed point data may include digits (0--9), a decimal point, + / - sign.
Example
Percentage of marks, weight, quantity temperature etc.
-23.0007, 0.0002, + 9243.9, 17013 etc
Floating point data may include digits (0-9), decimal point, + / - sign and letters "D", "d", "E", or "e". The data, which is in the
exponential form, can be represented in the floating point notation.
Example
Speed of light, mass of atomic particles, distance between stars and etc.
1.602 x 10(-19) (Charge of electron in coulomb) - Here -19 = power
The value can be feed into the computer as 1.602 E-19.
Character Data
String Data
String data consists of the sequence of characters. Characters may be English alphabets, numbers or space. The space, which
separates two words, is also a character. The string data is further divided into two types.
1. Alphabetic Data
2. Alphanumeric Data
The data, which is composed of English alphabets, is called alphabetic data. Names of people, names of places, and names of
items are considered alphabetic data.
For example : Ahmed, Hyderabad, Chair etc
The data that consists of alphabets as well as numerals and some special characters is called alphanumeric data. Address,
employee's code, etc are alphanumeric data.
For example: 10/B, Block No 2, E103 etc.
Graphical Data
It is possible that pictures, charts and maps can be treated as data. The scanner is normally used to enter this type of data. The
common use of this data is found in the National Identity Card. The photographs and thumb impression are scanned and stored
into the computer to identify a person.
Number System
The number system is the system of counting and calculation. Number system is based on some characters called digits. Each
number is made up of these characters. The number of digits a system uses is called its base or radix. For example the number
system we use in our daily life is called Decimal System. Its base is 10 (As the name 'Deci' implies which mean that it uses 10
digits (i.e. 0-9)
Codes
When numbers, letters or words are represented by a special group of symbols, we say they are being encoded and the group of
system is called "Code".
Types of Codes
The codes include Binary code, Binary-coded-decimal code (BCD), and alpha numeric codes. Alphanumeric codes include
ASCII and EBCDIC.
ASCII Code
ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. It is a 7-bit code used to handle alphanumeric data. This
code allows manufacturers to standardize input/output devices such as keyboard, printers, visual display units etc. An extension
of ASCII code uses 8-bits called as ASCII-8 code with an extra 8th-bit as a parity bit to make the total number of 1's either odd
or even.
EBCDIC Code
EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) is an extended form of BCD (Binary Coded Decimal), which can
represent only 16 characters because it is a 4-bit code. EBCDIC is an 8-bit code, so it can represent 256 different characters. It
was developed by IBM and is used in most IBM models and many other computers.
.>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>..
Machine Language
Machine language is the only language that a compute understands directly without any translation, it is the binary language. It is
the language of 0's and 1's . It consists of strings of binary numbers.
The binary codes are very difficult to memorize for human beings that is why a machine language is cumbersome for a user.
High-Level language are more suitable for human use than machine languages and enable the programmer to write instructions
easily using English words and familiar mathematical symbols. These symbolic languages are called High-Level languages. These
high-level languages consist of simple English sentences, which are very easy to understand and memorize for human being.
Low-Level Languages
Both the machine and assembly languages are called Low-Level Languages. An assembly language is one step higher than the
machine language in human readability. A machine language consists of totally of numbers and is almost impossible for humans
to read. In an assembly language, some of these numbers are replaced by human readable symbols called language for humans and
almost of the same efficiency as machine language for computer operations. An assembly language is a combination of mnemonic
operation codes and symbolic codes for address.
Assembly language is very difficult but it requires good skills for programming. A program written in an assembly language is
translated into a machine language before computer can understand and execute it. A computer program, which translates an
assembly language program into its equivalent machine language, is called assembler.
A program can be written in much shorter time and much precisely when a high level language is used. A program written in a
high level language can be executed in any computer system, which has a compiler for that programming language.
Operating System
Operating system provides link between the user and the computer. It enables the user to have complete control over the computer
system by commands through the keyboard or any other input device. The supervisor part of an operating system resides all the
times in the memory (RAM) of the computer after the computer is turned on. An operating system performs the following tasks:
1. Controls basic Input and Output devices.
5. Maintains security
This enables the user to achieve high efficiencies of which the processing systems are capable. Operating systems can be
classified as:
Single user operating systems are used on individual systems or Personal Computers. These operating systems reside on disks and
re called Disk Operating Systems (DOS). Some of the most widely used single user operating systems are :
1. MS-DOS
2. PCDOS
3. OS/2
4. Windows 95
Multi-User Operating Systems are used for data processing on lrge computer systems. They enhance the potential of computer
systems with multiprogramming, multiprocessing and timesharing facilities making them suitable for large organizations. Some of
the multi-user operating systems are:
1. UNIX / XENIX
2. MACOSX
3. Windows NT
DOS
DOS stands for "Disk Operating System". It is a program, which acts as an interface between the user and the computer hardware.
DOS allows manipulation of files and programs by interpreting and processing the commands typed by the user.
The DOS software is automatically copied from a floppy disk or the hard drive into the computer's memory whenever the
computer is turned on or booted(made a computer ready to be used by putting in its instructions). DOS is not an application
package that you start and then exit when done. This is an operating system runs from the moment you turn the computer on until
you turn the machine off. The major tasks the DOS must carry out are:
1. Internal Commands
2. External Commands
Internal Commands
Internal commands are a part of the DOS program COMMAND.COM and are loaded into memory when you boot your computer.
These commands are needed to be used most often, although they are not seen when we display the disk directory of filenames on
our screen. Some internal DOS commands are:
CLS
Syntax: CLS
DIR
This command is used to display a list of current directly files and subdirectories.
Syntax: DIR[drive:][path][filename][/p][1w]
CHDIR (CD)
This command is used to display the current directory or changes in the current (default) directory.
Syntax: CD[drive:][path]
DEL
This command is used to deletes one or more specified files from the disk.
External Commands
External Commands are programs, which exist on the DOS disk or the hard disk. They are run when you type their name on the
command line. For example, typing FORMAT at the DOS prompt results in a program called FORMAT.COM being executed.
External Commands are not frequently used and DOS saves valuable memory space by loading them only when required. Some
the external commands are:
CHKDSK
This command is used to checks the validity of a disk and reports the total space, used and free space on the selected disk.
SYS
This command is used to create a bootable drive and installs the main DOS files.
Syntax: SYS[drive:][path]drive2:
e.g. SYS A:
TREE
XCOPY
This commands is used to copy files (except hidden and system files) and directories, including sub directories.
DELTREE
This command is used to delete all files and sub directories in a directory.
Syntax: DELTREE[/Y][pathname]
The term boot or bootstrap, when used with computers, means start or startup. When we boot our computers, we are turning it on
and loading the Disk Operating System (DOS) into our computer's memory. The sequence of events that occur between the time
you turn on your computer and the time it is ready for you to issue commands is referred to as the boot process. At the completion
of the boot up process the system gives a DOS Prompt as soon as it is ready for operations
Windows Desktop
Windows "Desktop" is like a working surface of a desk. Desktop is where your applications, folders and shortcuts are located.
Desktop contains the following items.
1. Icons
2. Taskbar
3. Start Button
The function of these desktop items is given below:
Icon
An icon is a small colourful graphical picture that represents an object like a file, folder, program or any hardware components of
the computer. Every icon has a lable, which identifies it. The labels can be changed.
Windows operating system uses different icons to represent files, folders and applications. Icons found on the desktop are
normally left aligned. Icons of the Desktop. The icons provided by windows are:
1. My Documents
2. My Computer
3. My Network Places
4. Recycle Bin
5. Internet Explorer
Task Bar
The task bar is at the bottom of the desktop but you can move it to the top or either side of the screen by clicking and dragging it
to the new location. Buttons representing programs currently running on your computer appears on the task bar. At the very left of
the task bar is the start button. At the right side is an area called the system tray? Here you will find graphical representation of
various background operations. It also shows the system clock.
Start Button
Start button is found at the lower left corner of the screen. Click once on the start button to open a menu of choices. Through this
button we can open the programs, installed on your computer and access all the utilities available in the windows environment.
We can shutdown, restart and/or standby the computer by using the start button.
Start menu displays a menu of choices:
1. Programs
2. Favorites
3. Documents
4. Settings
5. Find
6. Help
7. Run
8. Shutdown
Short Notes
Recycle Bin
Recycle bin makes it easy to delete and undelete files and folders. When a file or folder is deleted from any location, Windows
stores it in the recycle bin. If a file is deleted accidentally, you can move it back from the recycle bin. We can also empty recycle
bin to save disk space.
Steps to move back the file or folder from the recycle bin.
1. Open Recycle bin by double clicking on its icon.
2. Select the file or folder you want to move back.
3. Click the right mouse.
4. A menu will appear, choose restore from it.
5. Windows will move the file or folder back to the location from where it was deleted.
My Computer
My computer lets you browse the contents of your computer. The common tasks that we can perform through my computer are:
1. Access information stored as different storage devices connected with the computer, such as hard disk, floppy disk or CD
ROM.
2. Create, move, copy, delete or rename files, folders and programs from one disk to another disk.
3. Execute or run programs from the disks.
4. Configure devices of the computer.
5. Add or remove a printer.
My Documents
It is a desktop folder that provides a convenient place to store documents, graphics or other files that you want to access quickly.
On the desktop it is represented by a folder with a sheet of paper in it. When you save a file in a program such as word pad or
paint, the file is by default saved in my documents unless you choose a different location.
The following steps may be followed to open a document from its window.
1. Move the mouse pointer to My Documents icon.
2. Double click on it to open its windows.
3. Double click on any of its item to open it.
Windows
It is a rectangular area of Screen that displays different information. In windows every folder or application has a window.
Following are the properties of a window:
1. Every window has a title bar which displays the name of the window.
2. A window can be resized, minimized and maximized by pressing the buttons at the top right corner, of the title bar.
3. A window can be closed by pressing the x button at the right of the title bar.
4. A window can be moved at any location of the screen.
Programs
Place the mouse pointer to the programs entry and a sub menu will open, showing all programs or applications currently installed.
To open a program, which has been installed on your computer, click on it and the program will open.
Favorites
Favorites menu present a list of the Internet addresses that you have added to your Internet Explorer Favorite List.
Documents
The Documents menu lists the files you have recently worked on. You can open the most recently used document directly from
here. To open a document from this list, simply click on it and the document will open.
Settings
This menu provides the facility to change or configure the hardware or software settings of the computer. This menu leads to
several choices.
The individual icons in the Control Panel refer to a variety of tools to control the way of your computer, its components presents
information, as well as the tools to control the behaviour and appearance of the Windows interface.
The Find/Search
This option of the start menu helps in locating files or folders stored on the hard disk or network. This command is very helpful in
case we forget the exact location of a file or folder that we want to access. The search option present different ways for finding a
file or folder. These options include search based on name, type, size, and date and storage location of the file or folder. It opens a
dialog box, where the user can type a name of the file or folder to search for. The procedure of using this command is given
below:
1. Click on Find option of the start menu, the Find dialog box will appear.
2. Enter the name of the file or folder in the Named text box.
3. From the Look in drop down list box choose the location where you imagine that your desired file or folder may be present.
4. Click on the Find now button to start search.
5. If find dialog box successfully searches the location of the desired file or folder, it will display it in the window below this
dialog box.
Help
To access the Help system of windows, you can select Help from the start menu. Help option helps us how to use the commands
and menus and in case of problems how to trouble shoot the windows operating system.
Run
This command is used to execute a command or program directly instead of using the icon or program menu. Press the "Browse"
button to locate the program you want to open through Run command.
Shut Down
Shutdown is a process in which computer closes all programs currently running and disconnects the devices connected with it and
turns it self off. Following step are followed to shutdown the computer.
1. Click on the start button to open the Start Menu.
2. Click on the Shut Down.
3. Shut down dialog box will appear.
4. Choose the shut down option from the list and click the "OK" button.
Control Panel contains a number of icons used to perform different settings of the computer. The frequently used icons are:
Accessibility Options
The accessibility options make it easier for people with disabilities to operate a computer without installing special software.
Accessibility options such as Sticky Keys, Show Sounds and Mouse Keys are designed to help users with specific disabilities take
full advantage of the computer.
It is used to install a new hardware to the computer. Every new hardware comes with a device driver program that connects it to
the computer. For example we can connect a digital camera and installs its driver with this icon.
Add/Remove Programs
This option helps us in installing new software or removes software that we no longer want to keep in the computer. It lists all the
applications or programs currently installed on the computer. Programs should be un-installed or removed through this icon
instead of deleting them one by one.
Date/Time
This option allows us to change or set the Date and Time of the computer system. The date and time are displayed on the system
tray on Task bar. We can also bring the date and time settings dialog box by double clicking time from the system tray.
Display
It is used to change the display setting of the monitor. It has a number of tabs that changes or sets the display properties of the
monitor screen. We can also bring the display properties dialog box right from the desktop by clicking the right mouse button on
any blank space and selecting properties from the menu.
Fonts
This option can be used to add new fonts in the systems font's folder can also copy or remove fonts from this icon.
Internet Options
It changes settings from the web browser software. Web Browser software is used in the Internet to open web pages.
Modems
Modem is a hardware device that enables the computers to make a dialup networking. We can connect to the Internet by modems.
By using this option we can add modern driver and change its dialing settings.
Mouse
By using this option we change the mouse pointer styles and button setting of the mouse.
Printers
This option allows us to add or remove a driver of the printer that is connected to the computer or on a network. Settings of the
printer can also change through this option.
System
This option provided us system information about all the devices connected to the computer.
Users
Computer Virus
In the past few years, new processing crimes has gained the attention of computer users all over the world. Some people have
found a way to create programs that silently replicate themselves on storage media without the computer users realizing it. These
programmers are referred to as computer viruses. A computer virus is a program that literally infects other programs and databases
upon contact. When the program is loaded into the computer, the virus attaches itself to other programs that are residing in the
system. When someone inserts an infected disk into a computer, the files in computer's memory become infected. The reverse is
also true, that is a disk used in an infected computer becomes infected. Computer can be infected when a hacker creates a virus
and sends it over the phone lines to a network. Since network is connected to thousands of computer, the infection is carried to all
the connected computers. Running a program or accessing the network or infected disk activities the virus without the user's
knowledge.
There are many types of viruses. Some act quickly by erasing user programs and files on disk. Other grows like a cancer,
destroying small parts of a file each day. Some acts like a time bomb. They lay dormant for days or months and all of a sudden
become active, attacking on any software on the system at a particular time. When the virus at a computer, it performs the
activities assigned to it for which it was created.
Virus Activities
Some of the activities that a virus has been programmed to do are:
1. Copy themselves to other programs.
2. Display information on the screen.
3. Destroy data files
4. Erase an entire hard disk
5. Lie dormant for a specified time or until a given condition is met.
Like the viruses that cause cold and diseases in humans, computer viruses do not occur naturally. A virus program may be
harmless, simply producing an obscene or silly unexpectedly on the computer screen. But it may also be a very destructive and
harmful. It may wipe out huge amount of data or corrupt files on the user's hard disk. Whatever is the motive behind it anger,
revenge or intellectual challenge, it is clear that people creating virus do not have respect for other people's hard work.
Anti-Virus
Computer users need to protect their computers from viruses until they are eradicated from the source and until they no longer
exist. Fortunately there are solutions to safe guard your system against viruses. The first thing that you need to know is the ways
in which your system may be infected. The most common ways that may infect your system are:
1. A floppy or a removable hard disk from another user may be a carrier of virus.
2. Virus may be transmitted to other computers via Network. That is your system may be infected when you link your system with
another user, an online service, or the Internet.
3. Program purchased from unauthorized dealers may be the potential carrier of viruses.
A number of programs have been designed to protect software from viruses. These are called anti-virus programs. However no
anti-virus programs guarantee protection against all viruses. If you suspect that a program is a carrier of virus, you can analyze the
program using anti-virus program to see if it contains any know viruses. Most anti-virus programs can be used to eliminate to a
virus found in a disk. Many computer users have installed these anti-virus programs on their computers. A good anti-virus
program checks for infected files automatically every time you insert any kind of disk or use your modem to retrieve a file, several
anti-virus programs are available and some are even free. Some common anti-virus programs are:
1. McAfee Virus Scan
2. Norton Antivirus
3. Virex
GLOSSARY
Algorithm
A system of coding data by the use of combination of letters to represent item of information.
Alphanumeric Code
Pertaining to character set or field of data in which the coded characters may represent numerals or letters of the alphabets.
Analog Computers
Analog computers are machines designed to perform arithmetical functions upon numbers where the numbers are represented by
some physical quantity.
Antivirus Utility
A program that scans disks and memory for virus, detects and remove them.
Application Program
A program forming part of a user's job and written by the user. As distinct from program forming part of the general purpose
software used to manage the operation of the total computer system.
ASCII Code
A computer program that converts the assembly language program into machine on a language.
Assembly Language
Any symbolic language used for programming which must go through an assembler in order to be converted into the machine
code required for operation on a computer.
BASIC
An acronym for Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code. It is a high level programming language. Because of its
simplicity and comparative power, the language is much used on personal computers.
BIT
An acronym for Binary digit, one of the two digits (0 and 1) used in binary notation.
BUG
A set of bits considered as a unit, normally consist of 8 bits and corresponds to a single character of information.
Character
One of a set of symbols in a data processing system used to denote, for example the numerals 0-9, the letters of the alphabet,
punctuation marks, etc.
COBOL
COBOL is an acronym for Common Business Oriented Language. It is an internationally accepted programming language
developed for general commercial use.
Code
The written instruction for a computer coding is the part of activity of programming.
Compilation
The process of using a compiler to create an object program from a source language.
Compile
A complex program which converts computer instructions written in a source language into machine code.
Computer
Any machine which can accept data in a prescribed form process the data and supply the results of the processing in a specific
format as information or as signals to control automatically some further machine or process.
Computer Program
A program written in a computer language. Computer Simulation, Representing a system or a process by a computer model
constructed from a computer program.
Computer Word
A fixed sequence of bits, bytes, or characters treated as a unit and capable of being stored in one storage location.
Constants
In a program constants are items of data which remain unchanged for each run.
Cursor
A special character, usually a flashing square block or underline, which indicates the position on a screen at which the next
information character will displayed.
Data
A general expression used to describe any group of operands or factors consisting of numbers, alphabetic characters or symbols
which denote any conditions, value or state.
Data processing
The operations performed on data, usually by automatic electronic equipment, in order to derive information or to achieve order
among files.
Debugging
Debugging is the technique of detecting, diagnosing and correcting errors or bugs which may occur in programs or system.
Decision Symbol
A flow charting symbol used to indicate a choice or branching in the information processing path. A diamond shape figure is used
to represent this symbol.
Difference
A digital computer is a machine capable of performing operations on data represented in digital or number form, Disk: A
revolving plate upon which data and programs are stored.
DOS
It is the process of collecting, organizing and storing all the information related to a specific program like flowchart, algorithm,
coding sheets, manuals etc, on papers.
EBCDIC
EBCDIC a data communication code in which 8 information bits are used to form 256 unique character codes. The term is an
abbreviation of Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code.
Equivalence
Any condition in which the unexpected results of an compiled object code is obtained.
Expression
A form of number representation in which quantities are represented by a number called the mantissa multiplied by a power of the
number base called exponent.
Flow Chart
The diagrammatic representation of a sequence of events, usually drawn with conventional symbol representing different types of
events and their interconnection.
Format
A computer language which is nearest to human language. A language in which each instruction or statement corresponds to
several machine code instructions.
Hybrid Computer
Any mixed computer system in which analog and digital computing devices are combined.
Hz
Abbreviation of Hertz.
Information
These are the result which is derived from the processing of data.
Input
The process of transferring data, or program instructions, into memory from sone peripheral unit.
Instruction
That part of a computer program which tells the computer what function to perform at that stage.
Interprpeter
Software that translates each statement of source program into a sequence of machine instructions and executes these machine
instructions one by one before translating the next source language statement.
Jump
1024 bytes.
Label
This is BASIC command which is used to load a BASIC program from a secondary storage device to computer's memory.
Locate
This is BASIC command which is used to show the location of cursor on the screen.
Loop
A series of instructions which are performed repeatedly until some specified condition is satisfied.
Machine Language
The coding system adopted in the design of a computer to represent the instruction of the computer.
Magnetic Disk
A storage device consisting of a number of flat circular plates each coated on both surface with some magnetable material.
Main Storage
This term is usually reserved for describing the internal store of a computer.
Microcomputer
Programs fling technique in which a loop of instructions contains another loop, which may in turn contain another, and so on.
Numeral
One of a set of digits that may be used in a particular system of number system.
Numerical Data
A program in which language produced by translating the program written in source language through the use of a compiler.
Operating System
A set of programs which manages resources of computer include hardware, programs, data and operators.
Output
The device which produces the results from the computer in human readable form.
Printer
Abbreviation of Random Access Memory. Memory into which data can be written and from which data can be read.
Reserved Word
In a programming language, a data name not available to the user because it has some specific significance to the computer.
Resolution
The number of individually addressable and variable picture elements available in a graphic display.
ROM
Acronym for Read only Memory. Memory containing information which is permanent and which cannot be written to, but can be
read by program functions.
RUN
The performance of one program or routine.
Soft Copy
The term is applied to all those programs which in some way can assist all users of a particular type of computer to make the best
use of their machine.
Source Program
A methodology for programming which involves systematic described in increasing detail until the final stage of coding is
required.
Subroutine
Part of a program which performs a logical section of the overall function of the program and which is available whenever the
particular set of instructions is required.
Subscripted Variable
Whose numeric value can change? It is denoted by an array name followed by a subscript; e.g. A(5) or AB$(22