P R E F A CE

P U B L I SH ER S .

It h
is bel ieved t at some knowl edge of the ir umst anc e s attending t e c c h
p c
ubli ation of this work ,
“
“
STE AM MAK I NG
”
as well as its ompanion , c
volume STE AM U S I NG wil l be of interest to the reader
h h
.
, ,

Th e l amented aut or P rof C as A Smith , h ad arranged wi th t h e

p c W h
. .
, .

Am eri ca n Eng in eer for t h e ubl i ation of the two works hil e t e first
h h c h
.
,

ST E AM MA KI NG
“ "
w as going thro ug t e ol um ns of t e E ng ineer P ro
c
, ,

fe s sor Smith died early in 1 884, l eaving al so to t h e are of the E ng in eer

h c c p c
,
“ ”
t e re e ntl y om let e d m an us ript of ST E A M U S I NG
h c c c
.

To all who are fa mili ar with t e cir umstan es un der whi h the books
h
were written—the aut or suffering from a mortal illness an d struggling
against de ath to thus round out his life work , on l y giving up to die on t eir h
c c
ompletion — wil l appre i ate and val ue the more ig ly the bro ad and h h
c c h c
a tive e xpe rien e t us ryst all ized

W W c h h
.

To Mr John eston , so long conne ted wit t is j ourn al an d

p h h h
. .
,

erson al l y famil i ar wit t e author and is writings h as b e en del e gate d

c c h
,

t h e pleasant duty of ondu ting th e se works thro ug t h e vario us stages

of bookm aking with the resul t now presented Th e t ask h as not been
h
.
,

wi thout its di fiic ul t ie s t e most serio us p erh aps , bein g the loss of the
c h
, ,

inval uable assistan e of t eir author in the work of revision of m atter

an d proof

p p h
.

It h as been the aim as far as ossible , to reserve t e exac t style of

h h h
,

the aut or an d it is beli e ved that t e facts an d feat ures presented in bot
h p
,

books t e heirl ooms of an admirable m an acknowle dge d to be ro found

p c
, ,

an d e x act in his arti ul ar lines of work will be held to cover wh atever

c
,

defects of minor import ance m ay be en ountered .

T HE AMERI CAN EN GIN EER .

CH I C AGO , Jan uary 1 , 1 885 .

 A U T H O R S P R E F A CE
’

his work th e thor h imed t the pr sent tion of modern boil

In t au as a a e a

ers d h an intended to give only those s nctioned by gener l experience

as a a

a dmitti g not h ing for t h e s ke of novelty or pp rent dv nt ges

n a a a a a a

s ch work t h re d th e t h or is of
.
,

I n u be little origin lity

a e c an a an au ,

co rse indebted to m ny so rces for h i inform tion Th

u x mples
a u s a e e a

c h o en t ken from Americ n pr ctice w h er possib l e Th fo r m

.
,

s are a a a e e u a

d t h e boiler t M l ho se
.

“ ”
rine boilers an t ken fro m E ngineering a u u are a as

a l so the t bles of experiments wit h rivetti g

a d wit h t h e f ll sized boil n an u
ers T M L E F let cher t h
o r thor is gr tl y indebt d for permission e au ea e

his v l ble p per on the L c shire boiler in Ch p r IV d to

. . . .

to use a ua a an a a te .
, an

H K Ivers Assistant Engineer U nite d States N avy for val uabl e assist
. .
, , ,

a nc e in pre p aring ill ustrations T w o goo d works on boilers h ave recently

h
.

ap peared in this co untry : Th e able work of Chief Engin eer S ock

h h
,

U nited States N avy which tre ats m ainly of t e m ar ine boiler an d t at of

W c
, ,

Mr m B arr of I ndian apolis Th e former is placed by its pri e beyond

h h h
. . .
,

t e reac of m an y and t e l atter gives more attention to Western prac

,

tice In this book t h e attempt h as b e en m ade to give a more c o mpre h e n

h h h c
.

sive view of the ground than either of t ese aut ors w ile ne essarily ,

m any of t h e facts given are to be found in t h ose works On t h e prac tic al

c h
.

constru tion of boile rs n oth ing bette r h as app e ared th an t e work of Wil
h ch
son w i is not however illustrated by e x amples in detail Th e aut or h
h h h
.
, , ,

woul d have wis ed t is work to be illustrat e d m uc more full y but for

h h c
,

t e desire to keep down t e ost to a re ason able limit

h c
.

Th e t able of experiments wit boilers is ompi l ed from al l sorts of

sources and is bel ieved to be sufil cie n t l y extensive to furnis a prec e dent h
for al most any kind of boiler in an y lo ality ; however noth i ng better c
h c
,

t an the dedu tions of Rankine and Cl ark h ave been m ad e from them
h h
.

It w as origin al ly int e nded to incl ude in t is work t e us e of ste am and

to give an e xtended t able of engine trial s an d a few examples of e n gines
h
but t e work h as h ad to w ai t an d m ay follo w t is at some fut ur e ti m e , h .

CH AS . A S MI T H
. .
S K E T C H O F T H E L I F E A N D C H A R A CT E R
O F T H E AU T H O R .

h h
rles A Sm it was b orn in St Louis O tober 1 1 846 His p arents
C a c
c h
. .
, , .

were both Massa husetts people w o h ad been still further west From
h h h h h h
.

bot fat er an d mot e r e in erite d t e instincts of a sailor an d the

h h h
,

blood of several generations of s ip m ast e rs coursed t rough is veins -

.

Tho ugh he n ever b ecame a sailor he always showed a sailor s fondness for
’

,
“ ”
fixing thin g s for using his han ds for actual cons truction
h h h
, , .

W ile he w as still an infant his mot e r died of c olera in St Louis

c h
, .
,

an d he w as pl a ed in the c are of his fat er s sister in N ewb uryport Mas s

’

h h
.
, ,

T his kind aunt w as his mother , and her ouse w as his ome till he h ad a
h h
ome of is own His mode of life w as simple an d p l ain but young
h h
.
,

Sm ith m ade warm frien ds an d his boy ood was appy .

I first met him in 1 860 when I bec ame principal of the Boys High
’

c h
,

S hool , of N e wburyport He w as t n fo urteen years old and a m e mber

e
c h
.

of the se ond cl ass He w as a pleas ant l ittle fel low wit a frank e arnest
h h h h ch
.
,

l ook an d a fore e ad w ich s uggested brai ns W en t e s oo l gave

h c
.
,

expression to its loyal ty to the U nion by t e ere tion of a liberty pole an d

p ublicly celebrate d a fl ag raising young Smi th w as se lected by his sc ool h
_
-

h h
,

mates to mo unt the platform and h aul ome t e stars an d stripes

c
.

Th e s hool h ad a very good theodolite an d when we came to Loomis

’

h
,

Surv ey in g a great ent us iasm for fi eld work w as developed an d young

h h h
, ,

Smit w as never so appy as when on a s urveying p arty He took t e

hc h
.

Engl is ourse and grad uate d in 1 862 Th e next spring he went into t e
c
.

o ffic e of J B Hen k civil en g ineer in Boston At that time he pro bably

h
. . .
, ,

h ad no idea of going to an engineering school In 1 864 e w as levell er on

c
.

the Boston H artford in Erie Rail way In 1865 he be ame chi ef assistant
h h
.
,

in t e City Engi neer s omce Sp rin gfield Mas s By t is time he saw ’

h h
.
, ,

clearly th at an engineer requires a training far beyond a igh sc ool

education an d he resolved to enter t e Massach usetts Instit ute of T e h ch
h
,

n ol og y the n first opened He h ad be e n read ing a e ad somewhat with

c p h
, .
. ,

o casi on al hel from me so t at he entered what w as organized as a

c
,

sophomore l ass He lived again in N ewburyport an d went e ighty mil e s

.

dail y on hi s way to and from the I nstit ut e P resid e nt R ogers w as hi s

c p
.

tea her in physics P rofessor Runkl e in mathem atics and ap lied mech an
,

ice an d P rofess or H e nck in civil engin eering

h c
.
,

He graduated in t e pion e er lass in 1868 I never quite und e rstood

h h h h
.

h ow e m an aged to meet t e cost of is co urse at t e I nstitut e T o be

h h
.

sure e h ad carefull y saved the earnings of three years an d e sec ured ,

 V I II . S TE A M MA K IN G; OR, B OI L ER P RA C TI C E .

h
for is vacations most ex e l lent employment un d er t e elebrate d h y c h c
drauli o en gineer J B Francis at Lowell Mass He t ere as siste d in h
h c c
.
, . .
, ,

determining the flow of wat er in pipes , o v er wiers t e effi ien y of t ur ,

bines e t c I left Massac huset t s for St Loui s in 1 865 so I di d not fol low
c h c
.
, .
,

losely is areer as a s tude nt

c h h
.

After a y ear as engin eer on the U nion P ac i fi Railway in U t a e

h
,

re t urn ed on t e compl etion of the road t o Bosto n an d went into p artn e r

h h c c
, ,

s ip wit P rofe ssor J B Hen k as ivil engineers Whil e there associate d

h c h h
. . .
,

wit P ro fe ssor Hen k he took c arge of a p art of t e Blue Ridge Rail

h
,

w ay o i N ort Carolin a as division en g ineer

h
.
,

At th at tim e in 1 87 0 the ste ady devel opment of t e P ol ytechnic

h h
, ,

Sc ool of Was ington U niversity m ade it necessary to appoint an instruo

tor o i ci vil e ngin e e ring I took pleas ure in r e co m m e nding young Smith
h h
.

for t e position an d he w as appointed For the first year he m ade is

, .

home in m y family an d as a preparation for the work of the cl ass room he

h
,

r e ad wit me R an kin e s Civil Engin ee ring entire ’

h
.

After a bri e f e xp erience as instructor Mr Smit was appointed pro

h h h
.
,

fe sso r to t e c air of civil an d m e ch anical engin e erin g wh ic w as subes

h h c
,

q uentl y n amed in onor of William P alm T is h air P rofessor Smith

h
.

e ld t ill J une 1 883 wh e n compelle d by his l ast illn e ss to resign

h h h
.
, ,

T o ug d e vot e d at al l times to t h e work of his professors ip P rofe s

h
,

so r Smit found t ime to mingle in m atters of practical engineering F or

h h
.

fi v e years e w as consulting engin e er of t e Iron Mount ain Railway

h h h
,

among o t er t ings d e signing t h e D e s oto s ops an d b uilding a new pi e r

h h
,

in t h e Bl ack river In a simil ar w ay e w as associated wit Messrs

h h
. .

S nickle Harrison Cc de signing t h e arched ribs of t e roof ove r t e

h c h
, .
,

C amb e r of Commer e and the iron trestle s of t e Bessem e r Iron Works

h
, .

P rofessor Sm it w as engag ed as consulting engine e r for t h e c onst ruction

h h
.

of t e w ater works of H annibal of St C arles in Misso uri an d of Ames

c
, . . ,

b ury Massach usetts His l ast profession al duties were in onnection with
, .

t h e l ast na m e d T h e p umping works at R ichmond Va were designed by

h h
. .
, ,

im is plans being ente red in comp e tition an d re ce i ving the first prize
h h
.
,

In 1 879 h e spent is summ er vacation as r e sident engineer of t e B alti

more Bridge Compan y buil ding piers in t e Missi ssippi river j ust below , h
Minn e apolis
h
.

Witho ut attempting to giv e a f ull list of t e profession al enterprizes

of P rofe ssor Smith I ave said eno ugh to s h ow ow tire l e ss a worker heh h
h c
,

w as and ow losely h e st udied the practical det ails of e ngineering B ut

h h h
.
,

it w as in conn e ction w it t h e St Louis Engin e ers Club t at is de vo ’

h h
.

tion an d en t us iasm were most ful ly s o wn He w as an ac t ive mem

h
.

ber for twelve y ears an d t e secret ary for nine or ten years T h e club
, .

h as not alw ays be e n as flouris h ing as i t is now It h as h ad its seasons of

h h h
.

d e pression w en only t h e zeal an d t e co urage of Secret ary Smit s e emed

h
to old it together N ot ing b ut the direst necessity compel led hi m to
. h
yield at l ast
ch h h
.

Th e fat al m alady wh i in t h e s ape of a ca nc erous tumor broug t

c h
, ,

his life to an untim e ly lose on t e 2n d of February 1 884 was born as he , , ,

 L IF E A N D CH A R A C TE R or THE AUTH OR .

h
t o ught of hard work , of exposure an d of p ysi al negle t He oul d h c c c
c
, , .

s arcely stop t o eat or sle e p ; it w as work first an d comfort l ast

h
.

N ot hi ng in P rofessor Smith s life w as more heroic t an the w ay he

’

b attle d for two years against an impending fate W en t oo we ak to stand h

h
.

before :h isl cl as s e taught reclining upon a lo unge One of h is last

c
, .

p upils spe aks in a noti e of h is beloved professor of the days of suffe r

h
ing spent in is study in the U niversit y w e n we gat ered round hi m h h
h
,

as h e l ay on t e lo unge un able to stan d an d listened to h is e xposition

c
, ,

of E onomic Location , taking as a basis t h e work of his friend Arthur

‘ ’

,
”
We l lington
h c h
.

In J an uary 1 883 e w as for ed to give up his clas s work altoget e r

h
, , ,

an d to keep is room Still he was not idle Lying on t h e bed or recl in

ch h h
. .
,
“
ing in an easy air e w as ard at work upon his t w o books on Steam
,

Making an d Steam U sing which are j ust now being issued by t h e

” “

h h h
,

Am erican E ng in eer, in C i cago Th e first w as fi nis ed by t e e n d of

c
.

1 882 an d arrange m ents were m ade for its p ubli ation but the prosp e ct
h c h
, ,

for t e se ond book Was gloomy enough N e vert eless he worked

h h
.
,

at it wit a terrible e ar n e stn e ss whic no unfavorable sympto m could

diminis h
N ay t oug h
linging to t e faint e st glimmer of h ope ofh c h
h h h
.
,

ret urning he alth e toiled at his book wi t t h e re solute air of one w o

h h h
,

was fully conscious t at his days were n umbere d an d t at t e book must

h h h
,

spee dily be fi nis e d In spite of p ain an d t e dark shadow of t e in e v it

h
.

able his m ind seemed cle ar an d h is h and ste ad y In t e sprin g of 83

’

h
.
,

he moved b ack to N ewb uryport Mass to be ne ar his p y s ici an and h is

h h h
.
, ,

family friends T h e re in a quaint old ous e in a qui e t n e ig bo r ood of

h h h
.
,

t at quiet town h e finis e d h is book l aying down is pen an d t h e burd e n

, ,
“ ”
of life at the same time Th e re aders of S t e am U si n g m ay be glad to
h h h
.

kno w t at t e author s very life s blood we n t into th at book ; t at it was

’ ’

h
t e last t h e mos t perfect fruit of a very active an d noble life
h h h
.
,

P rofessor S mit is a go o d ex ampl e of a p oor boy w o m ade is own

h
w ay ; who fo ugh t is o w n b attles ; w h o e arn ed an d onore d e v e ry pos ition h
h e took He w as alw ays a stud e nt S ome of y ou w ill remember w it h
h h h
. .

w at ent usiasm h e studied q uart ernions an d t ermodyn am ics ; with

h
w at zeal an d s uccess h e read all t at h e coul d get on graphical st atics h
h h
,

an d ow m any import ant additions h e suggested Th e re cords of t e

h h
.

St Louis Club prob ably wi l l sho w t at P rofe ssor Smit

. h as presented
more p apers th an any other member p ast or pre se nt
h
.
,

As an e n gine e r P rofe ssor Smith w as bold a n d t rustwo rt y His c o nfi

h c
, .

de n ce w as bas ed upon sound t eory and careful practi e He was skil l ful
in prep aring estim at es an d w as alw ays we ll informed bot as regards the h
l at e st improvements in en g ineering and t e best met o ds of work ing t h e , h h
m aterials of const ruction
h h
.

Th e se accomplis ments added gre atly t o is val ue as an instructor of

young e ngine e rs His students were bro ug t very close to engine e ri n g h
h h
.

work T o ugh w e ll read in theory e loved t o dwe l l on t h e det ails of

.
,

practic e He never lost an opportunity to learn a new process or to study

h h h
.
,

a n e w m ac ine He used to tell ow w ile re sident enginee r on a ro ad in

.
,
 X .
S TE A M MA KI N G: OR , B OI L ER P R A C TICE

N e w Engl and , he tried his h and on t h e engine of the const ru tion trai n
“ ” “ ”
c
ti l l he was able to stoke and to drive
h c h
.

P rofessor Smith left a wife an d t ree hi ldren During her usb an d s

’

c
.

long and di sco uraging si kn ess Mrs Smith w as bette r th an a faith ful
h
.
,

nurse : s e brought aid to his sel f impose d labor an d hope an d cheer to

-

h
,

h is faintin g spirit So we l l did she un ders tan d t e nat ure of his work
h
.

and his needs an d so helpful w as the ass ist an c e she broug t th at it is not

c c c
, ,

too m u h to say that without her positive o operation an d en ouragement

h
t e two books which he l eaves behind woul d ne v er h ave been finished .

I will not spe ak of perso n al loss es I prefer to feel th at we all h a d

c h h
.

m u h to be t ankful for in P rofessor Smit , and the nearest h ad the m ost

h h h
.

T oug dying in his t irty eighth year P rofess or Smith s memory m ay

’
-

c h
,

well be preser v ed Th e world is ertainl y t h e better for is h avi ng

.

l ived in it .

C M W OOD W AR D . .
,

D ean P o l y tec hn ic Sc hoo l ,

Was hin g ton Un ivers ity S t ouis , Mo
, . L .

ST . LOU I S , D ecember , 7 , 1 884 .

 C O N T E N T S .

CH AP T ER I .

ON TH E N ATURE OF H E AT AN D TH E P RO P E RT S ST AM IE or E :
PAG E .

Hea t —T herm od y s
nam ic —Rat io of Vol um e t o P re ure : Re g nau ts Ratio ss ls ’
s
Th e Carnot E ngine — Making St eam—Mea ure ent of eat E x pand ed s —m H
—Tabl e : Th e P ropert ie of Sat urat e St ea Ex a s
l e in Cal c ul ation d m mp s
of Heat E x pand ed E t c —Tabl e : F ac t or of E v a ora t ion I t s U s e s — p —
l s s d
,

Ta b e : E x pan ion and D en it y of Pure Wat er E nt raine Wat er and

it s Mea s ure m ent l 14

CH AP TER II .

ON CO MB UST I ON
cp s
Prin i l e of Com b u s— —
t ion E v apora t iv e Pow er of F uel s —L o ss s by Im per
s s s y
e

fec t Com b u t ion E ffec t of Air Com b u t ion, Quant it Req u lred ,
ls—L ss
on

and Qua it l y of Certain Goa o f Hea t b y d

Ra iat io n and Cond uc
s l ls
o

t ion—Heig h t of St ac k—Ta b l e of B oi er T ria

CH AP T ER I II .

EX TE RN A LL Y R BO L RS
FI R ED STAT I ONA Y I E :

B oil ers h —h p s — l ss s—
t eir S s M—
an d C Specificat ion for Boil e r for eier I ron
mp y s— mp y
, a e a e
“ "
Co Set t ing F h
B oil er for N ov a Sc ot ia I ron Co
M lh s W l s s M ss ss pp
an an re nc

d
B oil er T rie b —
at at e r Tu B oi er B oil er i i i i
s— M l s
u ou e on

l
e

Riv er —
B oat t he
“
d on t an a
”
Spe cificat ion of B oi for L a C
ll M lls l s sL d
: er e e

Ro ing i B oiL mp — p for t h e St oui and Oil Co S ec i

l —U p h s
er . ea an y

hH
ficat ion for 60- inc b m oriz on t al T u ul ar St ea B oi er rig t B oil er . 47

CH AP TER I V .

I NTE RNA LL F R STAT ONAR BO L RS

Y I ED I Y I E

Th e L sh l — sh l ss ld f—S
ire B oi Corni B oi e r at Du pecificat ion for Gal
ys l Gl ss m p y
a nca

l
er e or

ow a y B oil er for Cr t al P a t e a Co an .
 XII . C ON TE N TS .

C H AP T E R V .

IN TE RN AL L r FI R ED PO RTA L B E, LO C O MO TI VE AN D MA RN I E BO I ERS : L
PAG E .

Varie t ie s of Boi l
—L ocom ot iv e B oiler for E ng ine N o 150 Waba h St s
s l l s
e rs .
, , .

L oui —
Pac ific Rai way B oi er for Con o l id at ion Locom ot iv e Mis
“ ”

s c — d s s
,

ouri Pac ifi Ra il roa — Marine B oile r Boile r of H M S Rov er“ ”

l l l l U s
. . .

St ee B oil e r Wa l se nd S ip way Co N e wc as t e pon T yne —Boil er of

ss l l s
- -
. .
,
”—
S S A y rian Monarc h
“
B oi ers for S S Me x ica n
“ '
Boi e r of t h e
d s s
-
. . .

Cuna r St ea m hip Serv ia —St eam Fire E ng ine B oil e r —T h e Herres h off
.

“ ”

101 —1 1 9

CH AP TER VI .

T H E D E S I GN , C ONSTRU C TI ON AN D STRE NGT H or BO I L E RS ;

T he S p e cia s U d s L s l—
l Feat ure sp— n it e St a t e aw Re g u at ion an d In ec tion, S t e am
s— Q y l s App s b ss s ll
,

P re ual it of P at e Ta l e of P re A ow

ss s
ure, urt e na nce ure
bl A ll bl
,

b Ta l e of F h Pre E tc ow a reig t and Tow ing Ve s

l s— l s l s l ss l s
a e ure , , e on

Ru an d Reg u a t ion Re a t ing t o Pre B oi and t he

s s—L s s s — s pl
ure s ,
p c l
se e er .

In t ion of m
Boil er P at e Re l at ing t o In t ru
aw en t Di ci ine
— s s M —h s s A pp d
e

mIn t ru en tp h ine a nd E q ui m e n t for U se w it

m sh p l s s f s d l s
, ac rov e

St ea i m B oi h E x t rac t E ng l i B oard of T ra Ru e
s by d
er ro e
—
Riv e t t ing p m Ex M h e ri en t D av i Greig and B yt an d Co nc l u

s s—— l s s U s s ls
ax ,

ion Conc u ion d of ni t ed St a t e B oar of E ng ine e r Bo t in

l s s y s— Fl s
on .

P at e E y e B ar h an d Tie St a St re n g t of ue . 120—148

C H AP TE R VII .

D E S I G N AND C ONSTRU C TI ON C ONT I NU E D — P RO P O R T I ONS or H E ATI NG

S UR F A C E , ET C — E C ONO MI C EV A P ORAT I O N— EX P L O S I O N S Z
s ll ps — s s M d by M ch s
.

E x pe rim e nt t h e Co ing of fines Te t the t er

m Us s A ss s l s
on a a e an e

St ea p L h ’
— p m oc ia t ion u ire B oi Ex eri ent by
M ss s ld y s s
er on a anca er

h mp — J b — p
E Co D ura ilit Corro ion Ex e rim ent

l W yd—M W k l l s —M
e r . o n er an y :

S t ee by M m Bo P ar arin e St e e B oi
W ls s cl s —s W l s— l
on . r. . e r on er r .

Rob b C on a t er-T u B oi Circ u a tio n of

’
ert i u ion
s bl s V s
on

f c bl
on e er

W — H
a t er On eat ing Sur Ta e of D e ira Ef
fi ciencie for ariou

ss m s s
a e e

Pre ure s an d T il d M B et w ee n Coal in g for O r in ary

‘

arin e B oil e r
y f — s F l —Q s s — s c m y
e .

dO r inar D ra t Co t of Etc ue t ion of Co t , E Etc

l —V us d s l p s s
ue on o

y
, , .

— T h e St l e of B oi for ario Con it ion Et c B oi Ex l o ion

pl s s cl s s
er , er

Ex p o ion Ex erim e n t Con u ion 149 —1 67

CH AP T ER VIII .

MI S CE LLAN OU S BO I E L E RS — CH O I C E or BO I L E R F I TT I NGS AN D AP
P URT E NAN C E S :

F ue ls l sQ
Qua it ie s —Q uan t i t ie Etc ualit y o f W a t er—Og l —s l
’
B oi —P erkin ’
s
s s ll ll L l s
: , , . e er ,

B en
’
Be ev i an d He rre s h off B oi er Hein e Root and
l s A h c lly s s
a t t a,

F m ch l
on , e, ,

ir e ni B oi
” —
it e B oi e r Ke She ph e rd an d t h e
' ’

s — l s—— l App s s d
er nt ra ,

H arri on B oi B oi urt e nan ce —F e e d - w a t e r H ea t er —F ee

m ps s m ls l V l s s f y
er er

Pu j In ec t or St e a B t B ow - of
f Gaug e Sa et

V l s
a a ve

a ve , Et c , Et c 168—19 5
 ST E A M M A K IN G ;
OR

B O IL E R P R A C T IC E .

C HAPT E R l
ON THE N AT U RE OF HE A T AN D T HE PR OPERTIES OF STE AM .

h
By t e tei m heat we understand t at property of bodies by whi h they
‘
h c
g row hot an d gi v e the sen sation with w hi h we are all fami liar c
c
, .

Heat is produ ed in three w ays

By hemical action c A
c
.
,

By me h anical acti on , B
c
.

By el e trical action 0
W c c c c c
, .

A — hen ertain hemi al el emen ts or ompounds are ombined under

c c c
.

ertain ci rc umstan es the resul t is a union ac omp anied by an increas e of

p h c
,

temperature an d the devel o men t of e at ; as for exampl e , arbon or hydro

gen combini ng with oxygen ; sul ph uri c acid or quick l ime with water
c p
, .

.B — By the me h an ical work of friction or ermi ssion : Exam ples of

this are contin uall y b e fore us
cc c c
.

C — By t h e p assage of an el ectri urrent in a ond u tor —as in wires of

c
.
,

too great resistan e ; or the e l ectric arc

c
.

Th e property of heat is thought by some to onsist of a k ind o fmotion

c
or vibration of the mol e ul es of w ic bod ies are supposed to onsis t — for h h c
solid an d liq uid bodi es in vibration an d for gaseous bodies in t e real mo h
h W c
,

tion of t e molecul es ith the arguments pro or on concerning this h y

h
.
, . .
,

t h e s i s we h av e l ittle to do furt er t h an to state th at its tr uth appears

p o

c
,

very probable and in such event t h e produ tion of heat by chemic al com
cc p
,

bin ation or t h e passage of an el e ctri urrent is sim l y a kind of m ech an i

h
cal action ; ih t e one case the vibration resulting from the shock of mole

c c c h
,

ules attra t ing e a h other ; in the ot e r from the setting up of a wave

c h
,

movement or kind of wave , in the p ath of the el ec tri di stur bance w atever
,

th at m ay be
c
.

T hat heat w as produced by me h an i cal me an s h as be e n long known

W h c c c
.

hile the identity of heat and mec ani al for e w as suspe te d by Co unt
Rumford nearly a hun dred years ag o , it w as reserved for Joul e to prove
( by long contin u ed experiment ) t a t t h e h
same q uantity of w ork al ways
h h
,

gave the same q uantity of eat , an d to Rankine an d Clausi us to s ow ,

h
theoretically t at the sam e quantity of heat al ways gives t e same amount h
h c p
,

of work w ich h as sin e been roved beyond al l doubt by experi mental

,

in vestigations
h
.

By t e labors of the two great men Rankine and Claus ius , t h e ,

 S TE A M MA K IN G: OR . B OIL ER P R A C TI CE .

s c
cien e of thermodyn am ics w as reate d —the appl ication of m athem ati s c c
h
,

it the laws of eat O f this intere sting an d beautiful s cience we sh all

.
,

howe ver only s t ate the two fundamental p rinciples

,

Heat an d mec anical energy are m utuall y convertibl e ,

F irs t P rin cip le h
“
an d h
eat requires for its production an d prod u e s by its di sappearan ce c
“
“
mech anical energy in t e proport ion of 772 foot poun ds for ea B ritis h - ch h
unit of h eat .

“
Th e B ritish unit of heat j ust mentioned is : Th e quantity of heat
c
, ,
“
whi h corresponds to an interval of one d e gree of Farenh e it s scal e in the ’

“
temperature of one po und of p ure liqui d water at an d n ear its temperature
“
of greatest d e nsity
T h e second prin ciple as given by Clausius is as foll ows
c
, ,

S econd P rincip le — He at of itsel f never p asses from a old body to a

“
.
, ,

hott e r on e
c
.

R ank in e states the second prin ipl e in a w ay th at h as been severel y

c ritici se d by Maxwel l but w i h appears to mean th at a unit of heat in a hc
h
, ,

cold body can do as m uc work as in a hot body with t h e implied reserva

h c
,

tion th at t ere m ust b e ye t a older body into which it m ay p ass

h c
.

He at is converted into mec anical work thro ugh the agen y of some
h
body t at is expande d by heat s uch as air or water Th e heat is transferr e d
h c
, .

into these mediums usually enclosed wit in limi ts of h an geable volume

, ,

t h e exp anding medium enlarg ing the vol ume against a resistance thereby
does mech anical work .

It h as been taken for granted th at the word temperat ure w as under

stood to h ave it s ordi n ary mean ing an d t at neit er the ordin ary t em e , h h h
metri c scal e s of temperature nor the ordi n ary instruments used for meas
h
,

uring temp e rature req uired des cription ; b ut w e n g re at acc ura cy w as

required , the us e of the air thermometer drew attention to a very on c
v e n ie n t s al e c
D ry air an d so m e of t h e other gas es in rease in volum e or c
p
.

ressure from the temperature of melting ice to that of boil ing water under
h
the at m osp eric pres sure as foll ows
From t h e volume or press ure 1 to

s
Con t ant Vol um e . s
Con ta nt Pre ss ure .

1 3 665
.

N it rog e n Q O O O O O O O O 0 .0 . 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Carbonic A cid

s
Carbonic Ox id e
N it rou Ox id e
Cy anog en
s c
Sul ph uro u A id
1 3 829
.

s f
.

N OTE — Th e abov e rat io are rom Reg n aul t

With th e
i thermomet r the c h ng in vol me of
.

a r portion of d y i e a e u a r a r

w as sed to me s re th e c h ng in temper t re
u d the n t r l res l t w
a u a e a u an a u a u as

t h t the temper t re t which the dry g wo l d h ve no vol me if th e

,

a a u a as u a u
l w sh o ld h old so f the zero or st rting point of s ch
,

a u w t ken ar, as a as a u a

c l e Th is z ro is —46 F or —273 C d is c ll ed bsol te zero d

s a . e 1 °
.
°
.
, an a
“
a u ,
”
an
 N A T UR E OF HE A T A N D P R OP E R TIES OF S TEA M .

temperatures measured on thi s scal e are all ed absol ute temp e rat ures c “
.
”

We sh all give l ater anoth er an d b e tter reason for this scale and it s n am e ,

for we know now that al l t h e gases above given can be reduced to l iq uids
an d solids an d therefore a re not perfe t g ases c
p
.

“ ”
A erfect or reversible engine w as devised by Sadi Carn ot ; an d
al tho ugh s uch an en g ine annot be c
onstructed an d if constructed oul d c c
c
, ,

not be worked ; still it is extremely useful in as sistin g o ur con eptions an d

in g iving us a li mit beyond whi ch we annot hope to pro eed with im c c
prov e m e n t s .

Th e operation of the Carnot engine is as fol l ows : From a hot body , at

temp erature T, a working body rec eives e at at the s ame t e mperature T, , h
h
,

exp anding an d doin g work from the h eat in t e h o t body dire ctly Af t er
h h h
.

a tim éthe h ot body is wit drawn le aving t e working body at t e same

h
,

temperature T1 , an d it then exp ands by virt ue of the he at w ich it contain s

until its temp e rat ure h as fall e n to T2 In exp anding more work h as been
c c h
.
,

effe ted , w hich , of course goes to the redit of t e engine as work done
c
.
,

At the temperature T, the working body is brought into ontact with a

c
,
“
body all e d the cold body at the sam e temp erat ure T, ; work is th e n don e
c p
,

on the working body from the outside in ompressing it to such a oint -

p c
,

heat meanwhile assing from the working body to the old body at the
h
same temperat ure So t at by continuing the pro ess of compression after c
h h
.

t h e removal of the cold body t e working body wi l l h ave j ust re ac e d its

,

first st ate of vol ume , pressure an d temperat ure ; the work expende d in
h c
t e t w o compression pro esses is of course to the debit of the engine , but
h
, ,

there is on t e whole a bal ance of work done by the engine

h c c
.

'

It c an be s own in this ase w hat e ver be the working s ubstan e

h
,

u sed : F irs t — T at this engine utilize s more heat than can be u tili ze d by
any o t her kind of e ngi n e work ing betwe e n t h e s am e temperat ur e s TI an d

T2 S econd — h
T at the work done or h e at utilized , is to t e heat e xpended h
c h
. .
,

from the hot body as the di fferen e between t e te m perat ures betwe e n
h h p
,

w ich t e en gine works , Tl T, is to the absol ute tem erature of the h o t

body T1 Hence the fra tion
. c
T1
where T is an absolute temperature is k nown as the effi ien y of t h e c c
h c c h
,

en gine an d is t e maximum efficien y which can be re a he d by t eory

, .

Th e proof of the above st atements is given in any work on t h e rm o dy

h
n am ic s so t at we sh al l not enter u on it h e re , believing it out of pl a e p c
c
,

in a work of a practical h aracter .

From t h e prop e rties of the Carnot engine , a scal e of temperature

h h
,

based upon t e work done by a body when Tl T, is establis e d ;

h
an d it h as been shown t at the scal e thus est ablished coincides in origin

h
an d amount with t at of the perfe t g as t ermometer whi h c
l a es it upon h , c p c
a more subst anti al b asis

h
.

When e at is put into any body it m ay either increase the agitation of

it s mol e cul es thereby heating it or raising its temperat ure ; or it m ay e x
p c
,

and it against an extern al resist an e doing external work ; or it m ay

 S TE A M MA K L G: OR , B OIL ER P R A CTI CE
v

h
c ange its co n dition o v e rcoming mol e cular at t ra tions doing w at i s c h
h h h
, ,

call e d internal work ; or i t m ay do two o r three of t ese t ree t ings at t h e

same time
h h c
.

W e n a fire is lig ted under a boil e r containing old w ater t h e h e at

h h
,

gen e rat e d by t e c emic al a c t ion of comb ustion p asses from t h e fi re an d

h
t e gas eo us p roducts of c omb us ti on to t e iron of t e b o ile r thro ug t e h h h h
h h
,

iron of t h e boil e r to t h e surface in c o n tact wit the w at e r an d t e n ce into

h
t e w ate r Th e vol um e of t e w at e r sl ightly in re a ses wi t h the tem
. h c
perat ure rai sing t h e l e v e l p artly by i t s ow n incre ase in v ol um e an d p artly
h h
,

by t h e increase in vol um e o f t e air contain e d in the w at e r Th e e at

h
.

increases t h e m o l e cular agi t at ion of t e water till usually at t h e t e mp e ra

h
, ,

t ure of 212 F , t e b oile r beg in s to m ake st eam If a s in m an y of t h e

°

h
. .
,

boiler trial s t h e m an ead or safety val v e is op e n ; or as in a c o mmon t ea

-

h h h h
, ,

kettle t e re is n o ot e r pre ssure than t at of t h e air upo n t e wat e r at

h
, ,

th is temperat ure t h e w at e r remains ; an d al l t e h ea t goi n g i nto it is

expended in overcom ing t h e mole cul ar at traction of o n e atom of w ater
h
for anot er an d in f orci n g t h e m o le cul e s ap art In t us ov e rcoming the h
h
, .

mol e cul ar at traction it is doi n g int e rn al work an d at t e same time in lift

h
,

ing t h e atm o sp e re by t h e steam f ormed it is p e rforming ext e rn al work

h h h h
.
,

W e n t e quantities o f e at w ich a pound of water require s to raise it

from the t e mperature of m e l t i n g ice i n to st e am at an y given press ure are
h
m eas ured th at whic it tak e s to raise t e t e mperat ure is n o t e xactly t h e dif h
h h
,

fere nce in t h e t e mperatur e s w ich would be require d if t e specifi c h e at of

wat e r we re constant , b ut a unit of he at raise s t h e temperature of a pound
h
of wat e r a little l e ss t an one degree at the ig er t e mperatures en a h h Wh
h h h
.

boil er is m akin g steam at a given p ressure ot er t an t at of t h e atmos

p h e re t e rhe is a t e mp e r at ur e at w ich st e am forms from t h e w a t e r an d h
h h h
,

above w ic t h e w ate r c an not be raise d T is is kn o wn as t h e t e mpera

h
.

ture of evaporation for t e pressure It is to be n o te d that t h e p re s sure o f

h h
.

t e atm osp ere m ay be p artly removed an d l ow pressure ste am fo rm ed at

h
l ess t an at m o sp eric pressure h .

T h e quantity of h e at re q uired to evaporat e a unit of weight of water

at di f fe rent pressures an d to rais e t h e t e mp e rat ure up to t at of e vapora
, h
tion w as care full y d e termin e d by R egn ault in an ext e nsiv e s e ries of
h
,

exp e riments m ade at t h e e xpen s e o f t h e Fren c Governmen t Th e v ol um e

h
.

of o n e pound weig t of st e am an d of cours e its re ciprocal t h e density or

h
, , , ,

weig t of a cubic foot of st e am w as determined by experiments m ade by ,

Fai rb airn an d Tate .

From h
t e h eat of evap oration t e volum e of steam t e pressure under h h
c h h
, ,

whi h it w as e vaporated an d t e volum e of t h e water from w ich it w as

,

formed are comp ut e d :

F irs t —Th e extern al work in foot po unds or
product of t h e pres - th e
h
,

sure in pounds per square fo ot by t e differe nce in cubic fe e t of t h e vol ume

of one pound of st e am an d on e p ound of w ater .

S econ d .
—Th e extern al work in h eat units obtained by dividi ng the ex
tern al work in foot pounds by - 77 2 .
 S TE A M MA KI N G: OR B OIL E R P R A CTICE
, .

TAB LE I .
—THE PRO PE RTIE S OF SAT U RATED STEAM .

M n c
3n d5
o
a 3b
o 5 i
c
fi3 3 e2 s e o
8 d
?o : 3 : a u
2 n mn
n
3
o
n 5 5
o
n g
g e
2 u M d
2o
5 o : s 7
a
c c
i
5
3 n
5 3 e
:
3
?n
a n
: 0 3 5
o
3
0
5 8 3
 N A T UR E OF HEA T A N D P R OP ER TIE S OF S TE A M .

TAB LE I .
—THE PROPE RTIES OF SAT U RATE D STE AM .

Va l s—b
ue el ow
l s are com p ut e d p
ls h l skh
an d n o t e x erim en t a l .

s p
N OT E
lc d ls
F or al l v a ue of T ot a I n t e rna w or be l ow t h e at m o h ere 107 0 h e at unit s
m ay be t a
may t ereh f
k en Al l d e cimal part of eat un it
.

o re be in error
av e been neg e te and t h e a t on e

—How m uch more heat is ne e ded to boil a pound of water

.

Ex amp l e I .

at pounds per square inch boiler pre ssure than

200 at fiv e pounds per
c
square in h the feed being at 60 F in either cas e
°

U
. .
,

AT FIVE P O N D S .

d
Heat req uire t o rai
D ed uc t he at t o rai e
s
sf e 1 d
rom 32 t o 60 not u e
° °
f sd
poun w at er rom 32 t o b oil ing °
at 5 pound pres s s ure .

In t ern a
s
ll kk
Heat t o rai e from 60 t o b oi ing
w or of e va po rat ion
°
l
E x te rna w or of e v aporat ion .

Heat req uire d to boil f

rom f d
ee at
°
60 at 5 pound s
 S TE A M MA K IN G: OR , B OIL ER P R A C TI CE .

AT T WO H N D RE D P O ND S U U .

Heat
d req uire
D e uct heat t o
d to rai e
rai e
s
sf 1 pound w at er from 3 2
rom 3 2
° °
t o 60 not u e sd
°
t o boilin g at 200 poun ds per sq . inch .

Int ernal work

Ex t erna w orkl .

Heat required to boil 1 pound of water from feed at 60 °

at 200 po un ds
48 un its .

48
4 p er cent . n e arl y

Th e sam c
e resul t oul d be reache d more di re tly c .

U s
l
Tot a heat
Tot al heat
ff m
rom
ro
°
3 2 at 200 poun
°
3 2 at 5 oun ds p
ds nit .

48
°
D educting from t h e the 28 un ts not used from 3 2 to the fe e d
c
i .

being at we h ave for the divisor to redu e to per cent as before

h h h
. .

We advise t h e reader to use t e former met od by preference , in is

h
,

comp ut ati o ns , as serving to keep in ful l view the different uses an d t e v a

rious amo un t s of h
e at requi red for them ; al tho ug h there is of course , more

c
,

n umeri al work req uired to do so

c c c
.

T h e reason so m u h more diffi ul ty is ex perien ed in m aintai ning

h
high pressure t an l ow press ure steam is to be fo und not in t e boiling of h
h c h h
,

eq ual weig ts of water but in the fa t t at t e high press ure steam ,

l eav e s the boi l er more easily If for exampl e it be employed in an .

, ,

éugine , the engine c an be m ade to do more w ork th ereby If in ru nning .

,

a boat the bo at going fas ter the engine uses more ste am ; if empl oy e d

h h
,

in he ating a building the radiators ac t more energetically wit t h e hig er

,
'

pressure , transmit more heat condense more steam , an d the skill ful
h
,

attend ant s uits is fire to the work

h
.

Ex a mp l e I I — How m uc saving of fuel can be m ad e by rai si ng the

h
.

temperat ure of t h e feed water from 100 F to 200 F t e boiler pressure

° ° - . .
,

being 1 20 pounds per square inch

l d s
.

U s nit .

d
Tot a heat for 120 poun
s s sd
D e uc t in t h e one ca e t h e unit not u e in rai s ing t h e w at er f ro m 32
°
F . t o 100 °
F .

Re q uire
I n t h e ot
df m
h s dd
F
ro b l
er ca e
p s
s f m
°
100 t o oi at 120 o und
.

e uct for not u ing ro

.

°
32 t o 200
°

Req uire d b to p ds f m
oil at 120 o un ro w at e r at 200 °
F
D ifference between an d is 101 units or abo ut 9 per cent
c h
.
,

In orde r to omp are t e perfo rm an ce of di ffe rent boilers workin g w ith

different press ur e s an d fed wit w ater at different temperatures it is n e h ,

cessary to ass um e a stan d ard pre ss ure , temperat ure of evaporat ion an d

h
,

temperature of fee d water Various temperature s of fe e d wat e r av e been

- -

h
.

° °
us e d 0 F 32 F , 1 00 F the l att e r abo ut t e usual temp e rature of feed
,
°
.
, .

w ater for condensing e ngines and 212 F used more ge nerally th an any
°

h h h
, .
,

of the ot ers as a stan dard ; w ile for t e pre ss ure an d temperature of

evaporation the atmos heric
°
p
ressure an d 212 F are us uall y t aken p . .
 N A T UR E OF HEA T A N D P R OP ER TIE S OF S TEA M .

Ex a mp le I II —By exp eriment with

boil er at 160 oun ds er square
a p p
c p c p
.

in h it w as found that , one ound of oal eva orated poun ds of water

p
.

Th e tem erature of the feed water w as n ot e d at 120 F : required the

-°
.

equi valent evaporation from an d at 212 F

°

U s
.

l
d f p
Tot a hea t of ev a orat ion rom 3 2 F at 160
D e uct rom 3 2 t o
°
unit not u e
f s °

sd
. pound s nit

88
.

Hea t
l lh
Int erna
to p
ev a orat e f pm
160 oun
ro
eat of ev a orat ion at 212
°
°
30 at p ds
p
Ex t erna w ork of ev a orat ion at 212°

Sum or h eat of eva porat ion at 212 °

7 91
. X as p
the eva oration requi red .

In c
order t o fa il i tate thi s c mp
o ut ati on the foll owi ng tabl e of fact ors of
e va p oration is give n
10 S TE A M MA KIN G: OR, B OIL ER P R A CTI CE .

— m

— o o o i
« « «
5553
t C‘l h
a
g -u -
n
wa v
e O3
Ea
c
s : a s 8 o a g G S
b
S
“ en s-
un
i v- u -u -
u -u -n -u -u u -u - -n -a c e
-
h o e

——
v s r pe v n v o a o o o c
' 0 0

v-u -u -o r-O r 'i v- v-u - -n -n- e- wi t -

un " n " “n

—
‘ fl i h i ri fl t r ad ra v a n a n n

In

w—— m ©w
w

8 835
au r a at h s-i
g gg-u -t £ -
le O CO Q CO P
05
g -
fi B a o n c
-1 fi
on N O! v-u
? t
1
r-u -u -d v-
no m i n ee
u -u -u -u -i a
fl
n
fl u i
i nu re
o o
a n
m
o Se 8 e s m h e o
o o
3
v y 0

—
r-n -u -n -i v-u -u -u -u -c -l v-i a o-u -c v-u -u -u -u -c v-u -h -u -u -i n ” “n n n fi n

—
v n fl

a:

u
a
ca m e )

r n
ca n
t

-
l ei
a:

v-u -u
— r u n
s a
-u -u -c
a s 1 v-n

t -l v-u
b
-u
ea u

n -u -n
-

-u -u -i
i

v-u
e ru
-u -u -u -t
n
fi

n u
lo

a-

v-
u
u -u

-n -u -u -t
fi
-u -u
to

-
i
«
o
rd

n u a
g w w
o g e o
« o

”
” wa

fi
a
c
a
s
”
c
o
c e
a
a
m
n
m
o
o
u

w
& §m«
n
gg
o

8
a s s e e r
o
n
a
a
siv i v —
e as s a
w n -4
s wa r n -c r u d v- -i n n
as
v- u -u -u -u -
- t
b
w
e! u
g
se g mw
e
e

s c
o o

so
c
h
m
e
a
0
8c
”
c
o
o
n
e

—
v-u - -n fi
-u - u -u -i v-t u w n
ar n a wn u u -t fi fi fi fi fi fi fi fi n a a a

n i
f
v-u -u -u
g
v

-n fi
g g a

fi
S iv — iviviviv
ac ctQ
F-
8
b
u -u -n -u -c fi
‘F
2
‘ fl fi
c-
H

fi
r

fi
S
-‘ - v

fl ‘ fl
-i v i z

v-u -u -
u -u
n a ve

-l
<0
00
v-

fl
2
-

a
<0
4
-

r e s-t
-

n
-i

-: v-4 -1 -
4
m
fi
——— a
— ivu
u -u -u -i
8 52
-
n n d fi
“ b
t- Q
D
-

s-
OD Q
a

v l r-‘ H

-
O

u -u -c 1-1
0
h

0
-4
B
P i
o
$3
CO N
v- v-u -u -n -c

v-
z
u -l v-n
v-n

-n -q
w —
a
e
n o n
fi
nt

F i r-1 7 4 14
v-i c
u
04
d!

en
g4
g
as p
m

iv iviv
on fi c
v-‘ F ‘ v-C F ‘ fi r e fl y-

H v- -i fi H v- - -l v-i

1 fi fi fi H v-i u -
r- n -t — i fi v-u -u - n u-n -u -u -u -i
u -u -
v-i u-

fi
u
v-i
-u -n -i

fi v- iv -i v-n -u -
n -u -i u -u
v- -n -u -i

S s s
ggg fi -‘ ‘ d
a e e s c r e e S S S S S S S S
-4 M § § SSS
9
a
iv
1
-‘ - ! s v-
2 ‘ iv F l F F i t O F F t

1 fi fi v-‘ F QF ‘ v-‘ fi v-‘ H F ‘ fi F ‘ v-‘ fi fi fl fi v-‘ F ‘Fi fi fi fl lfl fi H fl v- -i fi

l
.

v- u -I —— i v-i i u
v- u -u -i
-u - fi r‘ fi fi v -i F ‘ F i rd H l-i H v- iviv - -u -i H v-i fl r-( H -n -n -u -
u u -c 1

F
o

i r-1 9 4 14
0 oo fi
0

H fi
0 a a
fi -
fi
0

fi
o o —a
fi
0

fi
0

‘ H F
0

i r-
4 14
Q 0

14
o

14
0

F
0

ifi
0 o -t wi
0

r l!
O

N
0

fi
a a

w ‘ v-H -l
o 0

fi
a
v-Gv- iv -‘ v-i
a
1
.

v-‘ fl F ‘fi U-l fi F ‘ v-‘ fi v-l v-i N v-H -i fi fi fl F ‘ F‘ F‘ “ F ‘fi fi fi l-‘ F ‘ v-‘ F ‘ v-C F1

w v- (” Gi t - 0 1 5 I“
3 e § S§ z § SSSS
Q 0 Q!

ee eeS8
N h fi fi

a 8 8 2 52 2 2 5 2 2 5
fi
‘ fb t‘ P t‘ fi d

5.3
F 4 F ‘ F ‘ v-‘ F C v-i
' fl fl fi fi fi F ‘ F ‘ fi fl fl fi fi fi fi r “fi v fi fi fi fi fl fi H v-‘ F ‘fi F 4

—
m m w v-n w m
SEESS Se Se r e s
o e nt a 03 b c ea o n
eg
o a

S SS S SS
i lO
g
F

o-c v-u -u -u -u -
i
as s e s
v-u -u -u -u -i v-u -u -n -u -
i -u -u -n -u -s
u wi n wi t
S
n . v-u -u -n -n -c
SSS
u-u -u -n -i v-l
s
r ;

we v- iv -i r-i r'l r-i r i al s s-u -u -u -u -n v-l v-n -u -n -i v-u -n -n -u -i fl fi fi h fi fi fl v-‘ g-‘ fl

m
‘

m -
‘ '

7-4 ou s cz e ac e: e o c e
Sx e
o o a o

S S SSSS S S SS S
o s
8 Sn
v

m
—
b c o
o o c e c
:::;
— —
F u -n -u -u -i
4 p- v-n -u -n -u -i o- u -u -u -u -
s v-u -u -u -u o fi a ~ n a

e ", mp c o d: w m wm « «
a5 8
r
o S

a ma s s
c rp ke
mo z
cra i a c
S
8 Se a rs 2 2 2 2 3
b
w

iv
e
8
—
o o o o o o

F 4 fi fi fi fi fi F ‘ F ‘ F ‘ t ‘ P ‘ v-i r-i r-
‘ v- -i fi a ~m fi f : 7 4 ”
.

w « « 0 o m e

— SS S S
e: co p
S 3 8g
SSSSS z
a
v-l o at
S n S
o

S SS SSS,
to

8
aa
o 8 b 8o e c g
a
z s s
n

::2
o e

— a
“”
o

F ; u- i i v- r d r - JH F ifi t wi fi u -u -u -c
v-i u- H fi v-i v-d v-i a m a fi a a S

w w w w « w m
l t - b-c
SSSs a

SS SS S
v-d H a
m
S2 2 ww h h
a h

2:
0-4 fi fi
2
F
:
fi fl fl fi fi
o o o o
fi a a a fl
g 8o
; ; a
c
a o

a
o c
fi g a a a
s S
a

ma 5
“

n o m c n 5 a n w «
1T ac ce de ee oo ee oo ce
S t 9
SSS S S w m
aa a
o
go go
h
8o ?o g 8
iv iv
o
a 2 2 2 2 2: c 8 o s8 o
-i -
r-i r i v-i r i v i
- fi fi “a u a a u fl ”
1
r-i v-
- fl
P ! v- -i

m ee o n é 3 w w w w
c
flv a
s S
Sg So 8
so ts

SS
ca se

S w m
1‘
o
s
iv
a o
a S S 3
; o e o o o o S o o o o A

v-i fi H H v- -i v-n -n -n -u -i m a fi a u fl a a fl a fi a a fl “:
o ne o o b o n Q o 0 m a c o c m fi
3 o
n o to
8 Sa SS m
n
3 33 go o
w a n n
3
n
5
u
f n a n o 3
z es a g g
-
a n a “a : m n n : m m

21q seefl e q u; ream - pee d JO ea uxed m e y,

 N A T UR E OF HEA T AN D P ROP ER TI ES OF S TEA M .

Th euse of this T able of Factors of Evaporation is readil y seen by ta k

ing t h e last example Th e boiler evaporating 7 91 pounds at 160 pounds
. .

per square inch from feed at 120 F t h e evaporation fact or from Table
°
.
,

°
II for 1 20 and 160 pounds is
. X as before , for t h e
°
equivalent evaporation from and at 212 F .

—
W introduce one other table here the weight of 1 cubic foot of water
e

at different temperatures Very often in the trials of a boile r or engin e

.

the most convenient unit of measurement of water is the cubic foot This .

will be the case when a weir measurem ent is m ade or wh e n the water is
measured by a water meter Th e use of a water m eter involve s m any pre
.

cautions the m ost important being the following : Th e m eter should work
,

under moderate head of supply an d smal l head of delivery ; it should be

set in such a m anner that it can be tested in place under the ex act con di
tions of use ; if a positive meter it should be especially constructed to
,

work freely if it is to be us ed in warm water This table is also used for

, .

estimatin g the weight of water in boilers , and for correc ting boiler tri als
for differences of wat er level .

TA B L E III —E XP AN SI ON AN D D EN SITY OF PURE W ATE R

. .

F nou D K CLAR K AND B Y Em m a Ar p noxm am F ORMUL A

'
. . . .

Tem p r hrur h d r
e at e in
COMP AB Am E ‘

D e nsit y
ub of h
W eig t
l um y
eg ee s
Fa en eit .
Vo e
. D ensit .
pe r C ic F oot .

62 3 5 5
.

1 00739

9 8484
 12 S TEA M MA KIN G: OR . B OIL ER P RA CTI CE .

TAB L E III .

Te m perat ur
hr h d r e in eg ee s
P R
COM A ATIV E

ub
D e n sit y of Wei3 ht
Fa en eit .

V ol u me . D e ns it y .
De r C ic F oot .

210
21 2
21 2
bbyy fmrm uul
o
eas
a.
re m ent .

Th e
use of the table of the properties of steam is more frequent in the
study of engine perfo rmance and indicator d iagrams than of boiler per
form an ce but there is an important point in determining the evaporation
,

of a boiler in wh i ch it becomes of use .

As bubbles of steam form ed on the hot iron of a boiler rise through

the water to the surface , break ing an d scattering spray a portion of wat er ,

thus thrown up in to the steam room is carried along with the steam an d ,

unless m ore heat be supplied to evaporate th is water it increases the volum e

caused by the steam condensed in the pipes in the upper portion of th e
“
boiler This water carri ed with the steam is said to be entrai ned with it
.

“
and is called priming by m any writers When the proportion of water
”
.

becomes so large as to be evident in the action of the engine or the exhaust ,

“
it is usually called by engineers foaming Th e am ount of such water is .

increased if the water is dirty and covered with scum or if g rease and alkal i ,

com bine to form a soap Th e am ount of water which can be carried by

.

steam in suspension is very great but depends som ewhat upon the velocity
,

of the current of steam ; if the p as s ages are large and the flow of steam of ,

m oderate vel ocity the water has time to dr op out of the steam by the
action of gravity In so m e cases the am ount of water carried in weight
.

has been known to be three ti m es that of the steam carrying it , although

usually it does not exceed 1 0 to 15 per cent .

Th e higher the pressure of steam the greater its density and the
quieter other things being equal is the process of ebulli tion and the sm al ler
, ,

the quantity of entrained water Th e am ount of water thrown up in spray

.

is l argely dependent on the circulation , bein g m uch d i m inished by im

prov em en t s in that direction Th e area of surface water in cont act with the
.

s te am seems to be an i m port an t matter accor ding to some authorities , but

 14 S TEA M MA KIN G: OR . B OIL ER PR A OTI OE .

and the reading of the thermome te r ; in uns illful hands the result s are k
sometimes as tonishin g .

Th e second method is t o put int o the feed wat e r a q uan tity of sulph ate
of soda and to draw from the boiler, at inte rv als from the lower gauge cock
k
, ,

a sm al l amount of water, eeping this water by itself ; al so to draw from the

steam condensing either by a coil of pipe in water, or a small pipe in air
, ,

taking care to draw only water without steam at the sam e interval s , keep ,

in g the one separate from the other A chemical an alysis defines the pro
.

portion of sulphate of soda in each portion , and a di vision of the proportion

of sulphate of so da in the portion from the steam by the proportion in that
from the water gives the proportion of water entrained , —the basis of the
method being the fact that steam does not carry the sulphate of so d a ,

thi s being only carried by the hot water entrain ed This method was used .

by P rofessor St ah l sc h m idt at the D usseldorf Exhibition B oiler T rials .

A th ird m ethod has be en suggested : T o enclose a portio n of steam in a

v essel placed insid e the steam pipe then closing it and rem oving it from
,

the steam pipe obtain the weight of the enclosed fluid which being
, , ,

in a known volum e the proportion of water can be found from the volum e
k
,

and density at the nown pre ssure There appear to be m any practical
.

di ffi culties in this method , and we are not aware that it h as been use d to
any extent .

A fourth method is to have a sm al l cyl inder with piston enclosed in the

steam , an d to put a known volume of the cylinder in connection w i t h the
steam ; then closing the communication , pull out the p is t on (which ,
of course passes through proper st umng boxes into the air ) until the
,

—
pressure in the cylinder begins to lower the water conta ined ev apor ,

ating at the pre ssure un til , af t er it has been evaporated the pressure be gins
,

to fal l with increase of volume Th e increase of vol ume at const ant pres
.

sure divided by the fin al volume is the proportion of water carried This .

method promises well , but we have no knowled ge of its us e .

St eam form ed in the presence of water is always saturated that is it is , ,

at the same temperature as the water , and cannot be raised above that tem
p e ra t ure until the water is all evaporated ; but after this has been done , or

if the ste am be heated in a separate vessel t h e te m perature rises n e arly ,

2 F for each unit of heat added to a pound in weight w h ile the ste am
°
.
,

increases in volum e at firs t not very c losely but afterwards very nearly as,

a perfe ct g as , or by part of itself for each degree F Th e amount of .

heat required to raise 1 lb weight of dry steam 1 F , is stated as

.
°
of a .

unit and
, by different authorities the first including R ankine , and the
,

second Hirn Steam thus raised in temperature is said to be superheated

k
.
,

but our nowledge of this con dition is still very lim ite d and confined to
the results of a fe w experiments .
 C HAPT ER II .

ON COMB U STI ON .

Th e proce ss of combust ion is well known t o be due to the act of unitin g

carbon and hyd rogen with oxygen : other substances , such as sulphur an d
phosphorous also develop heat when un iting with oxygen , but for our
practi cal purposes carbon and hydrogen only need to be considered In
, .

fact , hydrogen is a very important elem ent in fuel al though form ing but ,

a very sm all part by weight of ordinary coal the fuel most in use as a ,

Th e first question which arises is , h ow much air must be supplied to

our fuel in order to produce c omplet e combustion ,
—the air being required
for t h e oxygen therein contained Th e quantity of air required varies wi th
.

the compositi on of the fuel , but if we say that for each pound of fuel we
must supply twelve poun ds of air, we sh al l be sufi cientl y near the truth .

Th e volume of air will , of course , depend upon its temperature N ow , the .

quantity of heat which can be developed by the combustion of one pound

of pure carbon is su fficient to boil fiftee n pounds of water from and at a
,

°
temperature of 212 F if none of the h eat were lost ; but there are many
.

reas ons why we do not reach this result in practice and they are as fo l lows : ,

F irs t — Variati ons in th e qual ity of the coal as to its chemical c onst i t u
tion , affecting thereby it s calorific power .

Second — Impurities found with and mix ed in t h e coal , af fecting t h e

ac tual quanti ty of pure coal in an y g iven am ount .

Third —I mperfect or incomplete combustion of the fuel .

F o ur t h — Losse s of h e at from the furnace , the fire , and the metal of the
.

boil er
k
.

Fift h — Th e heat carried ofl in the stac , more or less utili zed in the
creation of draft .

1 . Va ri a ti ons in t he Qua lity of E ac h —From the results of chemical

anal yses , the evaporative po wer of various kinds of fuel expressed in ,

poun ds of water per pound of fuel evaporated from and at 212 F which °
.
,

we will call E , have average values which are given in the foll owing table :
KIND OF F UE L .

ur rrbb m mpl pl lylybubur d d

P re ca on co et e rne t o CO:
.

Pu e ca
CO com
C arcoa
pl ly bu
on inco

hh ll frfr mm pw d dry
et e
o
d
dry
rne
oo
et e
to
,
00 3 .
ne t o CO .

k
C a rcoa
d
r
Co e g oo , dr
o
y
dry
eat , - .

C l
Cok ep hr
oo ,
r dry
ok e av e ag e ,

C l dry b um u
oa , ant aci t e

C l b u
oa , it i no s , best
oa , m
it u ino s
 16 S TEA M MA K IN G; OR , B OIL ER P R A CTI CE .

ll llk bfru
Coa , ca in g , it m ino s , e st
Coa , I inois . ( om ou mine s nea St Louis ) f ru b r .

Peat , dry
L ig nit e

w h fu
Pea t it one - o rt at e hw r 1e
g 5

W oo dd wb h dry p it on e - fift h w
hp r
at e
a 25
p8
.

W oo
Mine rl l u
,

a
est
oi s , a bo
it c
t
ine 10

As to what can be practicall y obtained under favorable conditions , the

table of Boil er Trials at the close of this chapter can answer for itself ; and
, ,

in most cases the resul t s given are t h e best that can be obtained with
,

clean boilers and skill ful firing F or ordinary service results from 7 5 to 80 .

per cent of those g iven in the t able may safely be counted upon
. .

2 Impurities in the coal being earthy mat t er for m s ashes in fires of

.
,

low tem perature , and sl ag or cinders in fires of high t e mperature ; water

is als o present which h as to be evaporated , forming steam and even ,

deco m p osing into hydrogen and oxygen , thereby absorbing heat which
passes off from the furnace ; in the latter case a re co m bination may take -

place whereby the heat of decomposition is given up but that used in

, ,

chan ging water into steam is lost by being carried off up the stack .

3 I mperfec t Com bus tion — S om e coal is usuall y lost with the as hes by
k
. .

falling through the grate bars especially with such inds of coal as ,

split in the fire In some cases this is prevented by wetting the small coal ,
.

thus holding it together till when on the fire it swells and cakes by the heat ;
it is however doubtful if thi s remedy is an econom ical one Th e amount
, , .

of this and the preceding loss may in pract ice be inferred from the colum n
head ed P ercentage of R efuse in the table of B oiler Trials , at the end of
,

this chapter .

From this table it would appear that the refuse is : For the best soft
c o al s from 3 to 10 per cent and for t h e Il linois coals from 1 0 to 20 per cent
.
,
.

F ro m coal near St L ouis we have usually found n early 125 pe r c ent , or

. .

one eighth F or the anthracites from 1 0 to 20 per cent

. .

Taking all things together we find in practice that the b e st coals are
,

t h e English and P ittsburgh soft coals ; next in value the anthracites , whic h
are only inferior by reason of their g reater proportion of refuse and the ,

results are nearly the sam e for the best soft coals an d anthracites Th e .

Illinois coal near St L ouis is 80 per cent in theory but h as rarely been
. .
,

found in practice to ex ceed 6 7 per cent of the best coal s . .

Wood has about half the evaporative power of coal and the usual ,

com parison is to rate one cord 1 28 cubic feet equal to one ton of coal , , .

Th e wood is supposed to be dry hard wood or pitch pine and weighs about
two tons This is the practice of the m aster mechanics in thi s country in
.

rating fuel in locomotives .

Indian corn has so m etim es been burned and found when dry to be
about equal t o the same weight of wood Corn cobs have been found to be .

equal to one third by weight of Illinois coal or say one fourth of good coal
-
,
-
,

or one half of good wood by weigh t

- .

Incomplete combustion produces a very great loss and th is is best

k
,

explained by a quotation from Ran ine s Steam En gin e , p 270 ’

.
 ON COMB US TI ON .

“
Th e burning of carbon is always complete at first that is to say , one ,
“
pound of carbo n com bi n es with two and t wo thirds pounds of oxygen an d -
,
“
m akes three and t wo thirds pounds of carbonic acid an d although the
-
,
“
carbon is solid imm ediately before the combustion it pas ses durin g the ,
“
co m bustion into the gaseous state and the carbonic acid is gaseous This ,
.

“
term inates the proce ss when the layer of carbon is not so thick an d the
supply of air not so sm all , but that oxygen in s umc ien t quantity can get
direc t acces s to al l the solid carbon Th e quantity of heat produced is .

therm al units , as already stated .

“
B ut in other c ases part of the solid carbon is not supplied dire c tly
with oxygen but is first heated and then dissolved into the gaseous state
,
“
by the hot carbonic acid gas fro m the other parts of the furnace Th e .

three an d two thirds po un d s of carbonic acid from one pound of carbon

-

are capa ble of di ssolving an additional pound of carbon making four and ,

t w o thirds pounds of carbonic oxide gas and the vol u m e of this gas ,
-
,

is double that of the carbonic acid gas which produces it .

“
In this case the heat produced instead of being that due ,

the com plete com bustion of one pound of carbon heat units .

“
falls to the am ount due to the imperfect combustion of two
,

pounds of carbon or 2 X 4400 heat units

, , .

S h owinga los s of heat to the amount of

heat units which disappears in v ol at iz in g the second pou nd of carbon
, .

Should the process stop here as it does in f urnaces ill supplied with ai r ,
“
the was te of fuel is very great B ut when the fo ur and two thirds .
-

pounds of carbonic oxide gas containing two pounds of carbon is mi xed ,

with a sumcie nt supply of fresh air , it burns with a blue flame combining
“
with an additional t w o and two thirds pounds of oxygen m ak ing seven-
,
“
and one third pounds of c arbonic acid gas and givin g additional heat of
-
,
“
double the am ount due to the combustion of one and one third pounds of -

carbonic oxide T h at is to say

. X 2 heat units , .

“
To which add the heat produced by the i m perfect co m bustion of
“
two poun ds of carbon .

Thereis obtained the heat due to the complete combustion of two

“
pounds of carbon 2 X heat units
With coal that has little flam e a thin fire with exactly the right draft
, , ,

has been found to give the best results producing exactly the effects in the ,

first part of the quotation .

I t m ay be doubted if such a bad state of af fairs is often found in a

boiler furnace of the present day as indicated in the middle o f the
quotation though a tendency t o an in sumcie nt supply of ai r m ay exist in
,

internal ly fired boilers such as locom otives if there is a very thick fire
,

and no air adm itted above the grate ; and al though not approaching ,

remotely the case when no carbonic acid is produced so m e of the carbonic ,

oxide may pass off unburn e d In such cas es the admission of air above the
.

fuel will be found beneficial .

 S TEA M MA K I N G; OR , B OIL E R P R A C TI CE .

In all soft coals there are found co m p oun ds of carbon and hydrog e n
known as hydro carbons which m ust als o pass into the gas eous co ndi tion
-
,
“
before being burned If these hyd ro carbons such as pitch tar naptha
.
-
, ,
“
et c
.
,are m ixe d on first issuing from the coal with a large quantity of air ,

these inflam m able gases are co m pletely burned wi th a transparent blue

“
flam e producing carbonic acid an d steam but if raised to a red h eat
, ,
“
before being m ixed with air enough they disengage c arbon in fine powd er
“
and the higher the te mperature the more carbon they disengage If this .

“
disengaged carbon is cooled below the temperature of ignition before
co mi ng in contac t with oxygen it constitutes while floating in gas sm oke ,
and when deposited on solid bodies is soot But if thi s disengaged .

carbon is mai nt ained at the te m perature of ig nition and suppli ed with ,

“
oxygen sumcient for its combustion it burns wh ile floating in the inflam ,

m able gas with a red , yel low or white fla m e Th e flam e fro m fuel is the
, .

larger the more slowly its combustion is effec t e d and w it h the colors ,

of flam e g iven above as the com bustion of sm oke is less or m ore com plete .

An exam ple of this is fmm d in the use of com mon illuminating gas when
“
burned with a B unsen or a com mon burner Th e chilling of the gaseous .

hydro carbons which are driven ofiffrom t h e solid pieces of coal by the
-
,

heat developed may take pl ace in t wo ways : either by coming into contact
,

with a cold body as the iro n of the boiler or by finding too m uch cold air ,

in the furnace To fully sustain the latter state m ent only a li ttle con sid
.

c ration need be given to some of t h e fundam ental prin c ipl e s of heat I t is .

well know n that if a cert ain a m ount of heat com m unicated to a body of
,

certain weight and g iven material raises its tem perature a definite num ber
of deg rees thereby the s am e am ount of heat com m unicated to twice the
,

weight of the sam e m aterial will only raise its temperature one half the -

num ber of degrees that it was in the first case .

T o apply t h is to combustion : On e pou n d of carbon burned with

twelve pounds of air gi v es thirte en pound s of g as at a tem perature
°
of 4580 F above that of the external air ; but it is foun d that this
.

rarely if ever happe ns and that to supply oxygen in plenty to the hot
, , ,

carbon s urrou n de d by g as from 50 to 100 per ce nt m ore air is u s e d and .

,

the result is from nineteen pounds of g as at a tem perature of 3 21 5 F 0

.

to twenty fiv e p ounds of gas at a te m perature of 2440 F above the

- 0
.

external air ; but if forty eight pounds of air per pound of coal were -

adm itted the resulti n g tem perature of the forty nine pounds of g as
,
-

would be abou t 1250 F a bove the extern al air With anthracite coal and
0
. .

coke , such a lowering of tem peratu re i s not a ccom p anied by serio us lo ss ,

but with bitum inou s an d sem i bitum i n ou s coal s such a reduction of the -
,

tem perat ure of the fire is al w ays productive of gre at was te .

T o exami ne this more cl os ely suppo s e a c o al with on e h alf free carbon ,

-

“
and one half hydro carbon s e t on fire by the heat If su c h a coal were
- -
.

burned with twelve p ounds of air per pound of coal the t e m perature of the
gas before the hydro carbon ignited would be 2440 abov e the air an d the
0
,

hydro carbon woul d burn if suppli ed with oxygen enough and com plete
-

the c ombustion N o w if w e burn this co al with t wenty four pounds of air

. -
 ON COMB US TI ON .

per pound of coal we have only about 13 00 F , as te m perature of the

,
°
.

smoky product and it is a question whether th e gas would ig nite ; while

,

with more air than this a great proportion of the gas eous fuel is lost and
other evils are incurred .

We find then one marked point of difference between the anthracite

and soft coals as fuel Whil e the former burns completel y with a thin fire
.

admitting an excess of air through it and the free quantity of heat is ,

developed though the resulting t em perature is not very high , the soft
,

coal, on the contrary absolutely requires for perfec t com bustion a high
,

tem perature an d plenty of room before com ing in contact with t h e iron of
the boiler and any de v iation from these conditions produc es smoke and
,

g reat loss o f heating power ; and that while with hard coal too great a
draft only wastes a sm all quantity of heat in the stack , with soft coal t oo
g reat a draft m ay be as bad , or even worse i n its e fi e c t s than too little , .

With soft coal the required high tem perature over the fire may be
produced by intercepting the radi ant heat of the fire by a fire brick arch
‘

k
or dome , which radiates bac agai n to the fire heating the products of ,

com bustion from both sides ; this was first introduced by Mr C Wye . .

Wil l iams many years ago and has been frequently revived in different
,

forms since In som e devices air is introduced at the bridge , or at the

.

edges of the arch or dom e

k
.

T h e great trouble with such arrangements has always been the l ac

of durability of the brick , used in the arch or dome In fact , the more .

refractory the material the hotter the fire and the des truction of the arch ,

becom es only a question of , what is co m paratively , a short time .

O ne of the satisfactory ways of obtaining a high te m perature is by

k
using so thic a bed of coal that the passage of too great a quantity of air
is prevented by its friction upon the fuel : the thickness o f fire being
reg ulated by the size of the coal used and ept so that it will not clinker , k
too much T his effectually raises the tem perature of the fire ; it may
.

also be done by the use of a damper but not in so satisfactory a manner, ,

although there is found to be in many cases a marked i m provem ent by de

crease in the draft Th e general opinion in this country is decidedly in
.

favor of thin fires an d the experiments of P rofessor J ohnson at Washington

,

favor this practice ; but the experiments at Wigan England gave generall y
k
, ,
“ ”
the thic er the fire the better the resul t Experiments with a pyrometer .

are needed in each case but we may safely say that great i m provement can
,

be m ade in our practice in this respect , an d that the only secret in smoke ,

prevention is to have a hot fire with roo m and time to let all the gas burn
before coming to less than a red heat and to fire in small quantities o ver a
,

part of the grate at one time only .

L oss es of heat by radiation and conduction from the furnace and ash
pit of extern all y fired boilers are to be provided against by making the
walls if of brick in two thicknes se s with an air space between them ; by
, ,

keeping the ash pit doors partially closed , and by covering al l radiating
surfaces of metal with some good non co nducting m aterial such as thick -
,

felt faced on the inside with one q uarter inch of asbestos - .

 20 S TE A M MA K IN G: OR , B OIL ER P R A C TI CE .

Th e am o unt of he at which m ay be lo s t by rad iation fro m unco v ered

iron surfaces exposed to air on one side and steam on the other may be
, ,

estim ated as two and six tenths heat units per square foot per hour per
-

degree F of differe n ce of te m perature between the steam and the air If

. .

the air in the room be still this am o unt m ay not be reached but if exposed
, ,

to v iolent winds it m ay be exceeded .

Th e h e at passing up the chim ney is not whol ly l ost , but is use

ful in producing a draft ; and it can be shown that in a chimney where the
draft is produced by the excess of weight of the outside air over that of the
hot g as in the chimney that the greatest qu an tity of gas by weight
,

w ill p as s up the chi m ney when the te m perature of the gas in the chimney is
°
about 6 25 F hotter than the extern al air
. With higher te mperatures the vel .

oci ty of flo w wil l be greater and the q uantity of gas by weight will be less o w

i ng to its greater volu m e L ooked at as a m eans of burning coal for m aki n g

.

s t eam the m ost coal that can be burned to advantage in a gi ven time in a
,

boiler furn ace is when the tem perature in the stack is near b ut does not ,

exceed that of m elti ng lead A higher te m perature than t h is means t h at

, .

the heat has not been properly taken out of the gas and points to an in ,

crease in t h e boiler surface as a means of im pro v ing the performan ce of the

boiler and increasi ng the yield of steam as well as the economy of its pro ,

duction ; a less temperature than the above is always desirable if the

required quantity of steam can be m aintained In cas e twenty four pounds .
-

of air per pound of fuel is used the tem perature of stack giving maxim um
quantity of coal burned requires a little m ore than one fourth of the heat -

generated to m aintain the draft and the other three quarters should pass -

into the water of the boiler If we could get along with o nly twelve pounds
.

of air per pound of fuel only one eighth of the heat generated would be
,
-

required to m ai n tain m aximu m draft With forty eight pounds of air per .
-

pound of fuel one half of the heat generated would be used in m aintaining
,
-

m ax im u m draft H ere again the i m por t an c e of hot fires is plainly i n dica

.

ted and there is ye t another reas on for them : with a hot fire m ore of the
,

heat ge n erated pass es into the water near the fire leavi ng the products of ,

co m bustion at a lower temperat ure to traverse the rem ainde r of the surface
and to l e ave the boiler at a lower te mperature More of the heat generate d .

is therefore utilized than when the fire is not so hot .

A si m ple rel ation between the height of the stack in feet above the
g rate ,i t s area in square fe e t an d the nu m ber of pounds
, of coa l per m inute
burn ed is the following equation where :
, ,

h heigh t in feet of the stack .

A area in s quare feet of st ack .

F num b er of pounds of c o al burned per m inute .

is u n derstood however that A is the least flue area in the passag e

It , ,

of the hot gas .

 22 S TE A M MA K I N G; OR, B OIL ER P R A C TI CE .

AU T HR
O IT Y . L O CATI O N . KIN D O F B OIL E R . KIN D O F FU EL

B F Is
. .

h
e r d
w oo . B r klynW
oo . W . Re t ur dr p
n o flue Ant h ra ‘
cit e

U . S . S Mic h ig a n Ret u r w r ub
n
‘
at e t e

Or
ms b

An t hr
B rook field
acit e

U . S S . P eng in uk Re t uurr w r ub r
n flue N Riv e t y pe . .

U
U
.

. S 8 . .
Roano e

bb
J aco b B e ll Re t n
1 N Riv e
.
at e
rt e

U
U
.

.
Bi
Mt Ve .
. .

r n on 1 N

U . S 8 . Vall y y e Cit . Ant hr

Sem i- B it
acit e

U . S S C. . ru d r
‘
sa e

U . S S . Wy d an ot t e R et ur wa r ub
n te t e

Sem
i
-
B it IIIII
U . S S U.

nd r r r
.

‘
e w it e 1 N R iv e r
U S S Yo u mr ng A e ica
y ard ur ub
. . . . .

N av Y , N . Y Re t n fire t e

L ac kaw a n na
 ON C OMB US TI ON .

m
l I 0 .
r a

w §
E S ue
s r a
e i
as a l h
g c
56 e
3 n t
s 5 i
a
“
E
t
s as ,
a r
e g
a a
e e
.

a a
.

R EMARKS
A h (D r r
e e
h r r
£ 0 £ 4 . I
- a a
m
a a
0 5:
m
H e
3 8
e e e y
c t t
a a
a u a
e
t
e f r fl r n
it in
.
3 S G G
1 n oa
t

100 0 :c o
r

18 9 12 6 40 o
n

85 28 3 14 19 45 29 9 0 9

u
-
t ab
a

op w 61 35
o
t C
é

‘
-
1
5

3
6 o
ob
c
o
c
a

w6
!

0 o
t o

dc
n

o
l
l 1 on
m
ly
ent
in 4
.
ex per .

q -
s
fl
5
ao 50 u s
0

Hwc -a mc o
t
s 1
t £ O

Hg a 55 30 1
c

O w wt e

65 ,

s !
n
c
c
4
. 34 23 8 ti
O o o
t

43 5 25 6 2 1 5 8

50 9 3 7 2 6 1

O
‘

ié
E } 12
f
5 12 6 52 4 0 9 5 6 0

6 0 7 9 47 20 8 0 3

r w ub h r
37 .

6 2 72 9 o s t es
1 8 in a row ,
.

o iz on t a l .
 S TE A M MAK IN G; OR , B OIL ER P R A C TI CE .

HR
AU T O ITY . LO CATION . KI ND OF FU EL

B F Is
. . h rw d
e oo . Nav y r Ya d , N Y . Ret urn fire t u be

U . S S . u w
E ta

U S S Go
. . .

v: B uk hm
c ing a 1 N . Riv e
r ‘

. i

Ret ur n
w at e r t ub e .

1 Ret ur n vvat er t
‘‘
ub e

U S S
.

U S S
.
.

.
.

.
ll
u r
Sat e it e
Z o av e
ii N Ri v e r
U S S
.

U S 8
.
.

.
.

. ll
Com B a n e y
E a
.

U . S 8 Miami
 ON COMB US TI ON .

o I 0 l a I

s
w
‘

a
e
c:
3
s
“s
a
a
a
m s; a
9
es -
a
3
“q; M a)
.

““d o a 0 Q

a 2 s s o
s o
4 .

a
o
b e 0 a “ a
.

o n)
REMARKS
“4
o s 0 h
e
m s
. 20 °
53 + a : a;
“

g ga d o 3 2 a s g
“o-4 o

§
m
h o w 2m
q i t in
. 3
t
3
m
9 -1

(5 CD

37 6 2 7 9 72 31 8 0 3 5 8 6 0 n m 9 w fl n

m m 8 mfi
m u 8 mo w

n m 8 muu
w m 9 n
u
a

w
.

m N um "

u N n n
u
m 9 mu n

n H 9 u u
u

7 4 7 94 5 4 42 5 26 5 0 8 12 0 17 e 9 mm u

m m
.

66
s 9 n
a

27 s m H w u .

1 7 1 26 7 23 8
58 5 25 2 0 8 8 4 4 m N w 6
m
,

6 N a 1
6 m 9 7
n 5 .

5 m w n 0

4 m w a t
10 7 11 9
w
s m
m
1
1 0A
9A
pa t
N o 73 nat
.
r ur l dr f
of one of
a h
t w o us e
a t , ot e
w 9 5 s t e am j e t .

m
.

7 4 .

“
4 m 9 3 m
m
.

x
5 9A u
8 m N 2 m
m
.

7 m 9 5
9 w 9 7 m
2 10 10 4 23 0 44 32 8 5 9 2 7 m m 9 0 m8
w m 8 7 m4
66 °

e m 9 0 w 7
1 10 7 0 8 3 43 6 3 0 4 1 3 12 0 1 0 2 8 8 9 n 2
m 9 4 u 9
195 55 9 21 1 3 0 8 8 4 7 u m 7 5 s 5
m m 7 5 e 5
47 59 6 w 1 71 5 a 9
60 9 % 9 7 m1
16 8 31 5 5 1 5 24 7 6 5 6 8 s 0 u
u 5 m
. 9 9
8 9
u 5
m4
Wit h u
b lr N
oi e
r l dr
natf for
a
o 91.
a t
.
onl

m
.

m n 7

s
9 5
m w 9 5 n 6
n w 9 9 u 4
m
w
u
m
6 6
7 0
7 7
8 3
Wit h bl w r
o e .

m m
.

6 8 5 J
448 16 9 11 51 5 30 5 4 6 4 6 9 u
n
u
w
w
w
8
6
‘

N at ur l dr f
a a t .

m n w 2
w m m 7

. 7 m 7 3 8 7 . Fan dr fa t .

212 49 2 27 3 8 m9 w 8 7 w 6
32 33 7 21 3 0 n 3 w 9 6 n 7
23 1 50 0 27 3 7 w 4 m 9 1 m3
1 52 51 5 24 2 9 n 7 m 8 8 u 1
48 6 9 7 l 50 24 2 1 0 7 1 7 n w 9 0 u 2
n w 8 9 n 1
w w 8 9 m9
w n 8 8 w 7
 26 S TE A M MA K I N G; OR , B OI L E R P R A C TI C E .

AU T O ITHR Y . L O C ATION . KD l D O F B OIL ER . KIN D OF F U EL

B F Is
. . h w d
er oo . U . S S Miam i Re t ur
n fire t ub e Ant hra cit e

U
U
.

.
S
S
.

.
S
S
.

.
hr l d l h
P i a e p ia
D ag on
U
U
U
.

.
S
S
S
.

.
S
S
.

S
.

h
Ge n

M r
h
.

W it e ea
o se
d . Ret ur n d r0 p flue

rd y
. . . .

N Y N Ya L oc om t iv e t p e
. .

a vy
o .

Re t ur n fire t beu 10 8 150

10 8 150

U S S Ka ns as L ocom t iv e
. . .

U
U
. S S Ch ipp e a
. .

S S J m es A g e
wd r
. . .

a‘
 ON C OMB US TI ON .

- -
3
.

S
.

8 3 E
m E
5 2 u5
.

0 m o m
« 3 a ”l 5
o 3 .
I
” na
3 s
s .
.

.
o
n n .

R SMARR S
c
a
m e 3 8a a 3 e
w 3 E
meS o
a u
e
u E a
5 o
.
s s
?8
T a s c o
? : 3
.

0 ET o
3 2 3 h
.
.
3
0 a 0 e m
.

5 e fi
3 m0 86 5: 5
_
o n 3 5
a
m
m8 6 6 q m A
y

—
48
. 6 9 7 1 50 2 1 0 7 1 7 0

”0 8 5 2 6 0 $ 21 3
.

65 4 2 4 9 35 .6
0 4 4 6 3 O 52 .2
0 3 1 5 .7
0 6 0 7 O .9

Cov e e
r d
r dw hf l
U nc ov e e .

it e t .

2 0 1 0 0 7 0 2 10 9

hl b rr
Air o es a ov e g a t e
ft g a t e
sq .

pe r s q
b
. . .

A
ub
ir as a o v e

hm y b k
No t e s o ut
C i ne on
.

ac c onnec t i

28 5
 28 S TE A ) ! MA K IN G: OR B OI L ER P RA C TI CE
. .

AUT HR
O IT Y . LO CATION . KIN D O F B OIL ER .

K C l rk
a n an ,
6 6
E ng 2 L an cas i e
66
hr

1 Ga o ll w y
66
a

Re t u
rn fire t ub
e

Ne
wc as t el Re t ur n fire t ub e 5 82 1069

Ne
wc l
as t e
 30 S TE AM MA KIN G: OR , B OIL E R P R A C TI CE .

HR
AU T O IT Y . LO C ATION . KIN D OF B OIL E R .

Ne w as l
c t e Re t ur
n fire t ub
e Ne
wc l
as t e

We lh
c

Ne
wc l
as t e

Key h m rd
a
‘
Ya lh
E ng is
‘‘

Y N .

a
vy Ya rd Ant hra cit e
 ON COMB US TI ON .

- -
5
.
$ .
£
S
.

8
.

S 9 a
m s 8 3 m8 o
u
wA:
o
m 8 0
9 wa
n e 3 n
E 3
w
a u
.

0
o
5 o
9
a m 2 3 8A
s
o g S O
8
a5 6 .
o
3 3 o : :
a
fi I

“
0 n n

583 u
s E
3 c 0
n

S
.

83 8 8 e
s 3 o 0
-
mm m3
n

5 A
»
.
.
?

5 7 u . M

Co m m on d roo s .

Pe rf r d d r
o at e oo s .

Co m m on d r oo s .

Pe rf r d d r
o at e oo s .

6 -8 26 4 0 128
 3 2 STE AM MA K IN G; OR B OILE R P R A C TI CE
. .

AU T HR
O IT Y . LO CA TION . KIND O F BO IL ER . KIN D OF FU EL

H ul
. B e N Y N
. .

a
v rd
y Ya Re t ur n fire t ub e Ant hra
cit e
ON COMB US TI ON

REMARKS
34 S TEA M MA KI N G: OR, B OI LER P R A C TI CE .

ua
.

n u

KI ND OF B OIL ER
5 s
.

LO CATI ON .
KIND OF FU EL . e
e
3
n5
.
n
3
9 o
0 u
9 « 0 s

5 ?
N Y Nav
. .

66
y rd
Ya Re t ur n fire t ub e Ant hr a cit e
66

Re t ur wa r ub
n te t e
 ON C OMB US TI ON .

. 3
L Ls
.

8 3 8
.

a a o
w w u
3 2 3 d 5
.

5 n ua - 0 m
8
n
a
s u
l I n :
s 8
”
o o
u
.

Eh s e 9 8 e
.

n a
v
R EMARKS
8
.

mo
e e
2 o
u Eg
.

a I
” n a c c
o
n
s fl T o 3
.

a 0 o
c 0
e 0 2 3 h
e m
.

3 o
s 8 0
5 9 : n m g
3 5 q
e
m
 S TEAM MA KIN G: OR B OIL ER P RA CTI CE
. .

HR
AU T O IT Y . LO CATI ON ! KIN D OF BO ILER .

H ul
B e N Y N
. .
avy rd
Ya Ret ur wa r ub
n te t e . Ant hr
acit e

Re t ur n fire t ub e

C L in
. d ’

e u bur
A gs g T hwr h r h b rl r
ee F e nc oi e s eac h
Tw o t
it
ub l r r ur
t w o h eat e s
u a et n
 38 S TE A M MA K IN G; OR B OI L E R P RA C TI CE
, .

AU THO RIT Y . L O C ATI ON . KI N D or BOIL ER .

C Lind é
. . Augs urgb .

c in e
h
yl d r h r
one L ancas i e
eat e
r w h s
it t wo
Ant hr acit e

C E . E m ery . Re t ur n fire t ub e

No t rh
Lanc
a h r
s i e 20 5 6 125

607 6

R H T urst on
. . h N e w York
“
Hovgu
rd

L . E F l hr
et c e Sinc l r
ai 39 5 1507

L anc
a h rs i e 36 6 6 98 5

d
pl
L on
o
on, at
itan Gas
uW hr M r
So t
o ks
et o

C L ind é
. P fers e e n
es t A gs u bur g . Eig t Fh r h enc Saarbruck . III

M ficng ridg e
. Oak M111 Tw o L a cas hi e
n r B it ur l nous"
n ‘

N . McD oug al l

Pi nl ico for W W at Kim O ne Com p os it e 10 6 6 44

é
. .

erl y w
1:
 40 S TE A M MA K I N G; O R B OIL ER P R A C TI CE
. .

AUTHOR TY I . KIN D O F BOILER . KIN D OF F U EL

I M . Lo
n
g d
ri g e Piml ico forW W at Kim.
’
ly . One
om
c p os it e B it u
m ino u s .

3 Re o pr t Commit t ee D . u ld rf
sse o
h
b lr r
L ancas i e,
l ar oi e
w h u bu it t
E s sen c oa l 1 520

H w r ub
eine at e t e

r hwh
Co nis ub it t et
’
ut es

hubr w h ll
, .

L an cas i e, it Ga o
36 6 1 068
w ay t es

r h
Co nis h
w r ub
. .

m
’
St e in ul l er s at e t e

p k
N eum w h w
an s ,
et s
r’

}
it at e
13 7 494

hubr w h ubu ll
oc

L an cas i e , it Ga o
w ay t
l es , an d t
l ar bonl er a so
34 8 2143

r h
Co ni s
hubr w h ubu
ll
.

L anca s i e, it Ga o

b
w ay t es,
l ar a ov e
an d t 34 8 2142

w r ub
B il t t ner
’
at e t e

w r ub
s

W at t h er s
’
at e t e

W Hi ll r
2 ex t ub fi ed ret 6
"
t e Ant hra cit e

19 1083

19 7 7

1
R H B e
.

pr
. u l
Re o t Commit t ee
1 020

Ant h c it e
n
e
» 0 He m any
.

g . Pit t s bur h
g

F lu e int fi rd e

H r f rd W W hra
.

a t o . Ant c it e

ru y ll yWWWW
J e se Cit .

uurr drubp
w
y WW
Lo e
L nn
ll
L o is v i e
W W .
. Ret
R et
n
n t
o fiue
e ex t . fir d e .

r fir d
.

W as h ing
to n W . Ret
u
‘
n fiue ex t e

P . W . Sc h aum l efiel St L o is L ea. u d Oil Co . .

 ON C OMB US TI ON . 41

9 .

d d
.

o o 3 E
: ; 2 E
.
.

B
.
v
o a m O m 6
a3 3
o
.
. n
?I
h
a
o fi
w
s 8 d
o
n
5
a y
R EMARKS
8
.
a
3 m
.
o
s 8
e o w 2 m
a w o
u E
Gn
.

2 o a “I
.
s I
“
5e n
o 3 s
o
e ? o
o
n o 3 s
.

5
»
3 8 3 2
O h
8
. .

E
a E
c

d u a

3 38
e 8 m a
.

e
m 6
a
u n
g
n
q
p
m
a e
d n . 5 m
v m q d

10 0 11 1

8 7 10 6

11 1 12 0

11 0 12 2

Mean of 4
.

1 w k
ee .
 42 S TE A M MA KIN G: OR B OIL ER P R A C TI CE
. .

AU THORITY . L O CAT O I N . KIN D OF BOIL ER . KIN D OF F U EL

P . W . Sch a
‘
um l efi el St L ouis L .

ea d Oil Co . Re t
ur n fine ex t fir ed

C A Sm it
. h St L o is,
. u Wn U niv e r y urn ub
s it Ret t e .

I
B . F hm rw d }
.
Is
and Go
e
’
n .
oo
.
S S L ei a
. l Herresh ofcoi l . An t hr acit e

o o o o o o o o o o o Perk inB O o o o o o o o o o c o o . cum be rl and °

o o

27 2

F H Pon d E dw rd ll s vi
Herres h of
Fl u re t urn ex t fir d Ant
Mt
hr acit e
a e
e e
.

dw rd ll
‘

E a s vi e

Ret
Re t
uurr ubul r
n t a ex t fi e
n fiue ex t fired
.

..
rd .
66
 ON C OMB US Tl ON . 43

R EMARKS .

6 3O
6
5 70
6 5
7 1
100 38 6 9 8 6

ur
24 7 1 9 3
7 9 9 9 24 h o s

3 14 27 3 9

3 26 29 8 30 9 3

56

125 16 2

60
44 S TE A M MA K IN G: OR B OIL E R P R A

L O COMOTIVE B OIL E RS .

NAM E . AU [HORIT Y

Ea rl
ie s t E n g s .

6
c oa l D . l rk
K C a .

11 4 57
co k e

54

412 35

69 9 52 138
699 105

rr
21 Aj a
22 G eat
x rr B it ain
1 3 6 7 106 7
21 19 3 8
78
92
23 G eat

24 Co
lur r l
c as s
ie
B it ain

c ass
21 19 3 8

23 62 1 866
92

79

903 94

9 6 828 86 105
1 9 5 6 1056 1 00 157
10 5 7 82 7 4 5 90
19 1449 7 6 26 56 5
22 1 263 5 7 41

14 7 11 5 8 78
coa
8 62
l
25
26 25 9 63 36 7 38 . 86
12 25 7 06 57 6 61 22
12 25 7 06

1 158
57

78 8
6 44
co
51 71
k 49
e

59 3 55 9 1
.

59 3 66 1 9
.

Lk.

88 S na e
S W . R .
46 S TEA M MA KIN G: OR B OIL ER P R A CTI CE .

é .
é .

5 “
a s
a: 5 E 5 6
NAME . a
3 5 m
“fl
AU THORITY .

5
e 83
5
.

o
3
“
5
0

5 65
5 h: o

17 4 1245 7 1 5 R R Q z et t e
16 1012 63 3
. .

a .

15 1 899 59 6 M M . As s n
’
.

13 1 846 64 6 125
200

80
st a
hy llb wl
o o
o ts .
11 6

87

15 3 7 87 51 4 109
13 1 801 61 3 95
15 3 836 54 o 71

.
L
N o 255
. N .

5 1141 Pit t s bur h pb r

g es t
oo

rp ddr bf
To e
Fan
o
a
oat
t .
. 18 9 6 18 3 2 7
 C HAPT E R lll

E XTERN AL L Y F IRE D s x rl o f '

m nr L
B OI E RS .

B oilers may be defined as the closed vessels in whic h ste am is gener

ated fro m water by the ac tion of heat app l ied from the o utside , —water being
introdu ce d at one aperture and steam rem oved at another Th e heat is .

us uall y the heat carried in the products of co m bustion or hot g as from a ,

furnace , which is pas sed along the surface of the boiler and by gi ving its
heat to the material of the boiler first heats that m aterial , that again heat
ing the wat er in the boiler .

Th e shapes which have been g iven to bo ilers are al m ost endless an d it

is not our intention to attempt any complete col lection of the types which
have been used and abandoned or are still being experimented w ith ; but ,
,

on the contrary , our aim has been to exclude all but what may be cal led
the standards such as have been used for years with satisfaction
, .

Modern boilers are usually either cylin dr ical or a c om bination of cyl in ,

drical with rectangular forms Th e material is either wrought iron or steel

. .

Copper is still u sed in the fire boxes of English locomotives and bras s
-
,

tubes are also in use Th e strength and capacity we shall discuss later,
.

and at present conte nt ourselves with a clas sification and brief de s cription
of the standard types .

In classifying boilers we may b ase our system upon their use whether ,

for stationary locom otive or m arine purposes , and this gives a very c on v e
, ,

nient di vision Stationary boilers may be divided into thre e prim ary
.

groups .

F irs t —Cylinder forms with the fire external and the products of com
bustion also external to the cyli nders .

S e c on d — Externall y fired boilers with fire tubes , by which the products

of combustio n are passed through the water or s t eam .

Third — I nternally fired boilers in which the f urnace is inclosed by a

water ch am ber on all sides but one or two and the products of comba s ,

tion pass through tu bes surrounded by water .

L ocomotive boilers including with them portable boilers are usu al l y in

, ,

t ern all y fired , having a rectangular furnace w ith fire tubes passing through
a horizo ntal shell ; sometimes portable boilers are m ad e with vertical
cylindrical shells and fire boxes , with verti cal fire and sometim es also with
-
,

vertical water tubes

, There is less variety in locom otive boilers proper
.

than in any other class ; with m arine boilers , on the other hand the m od ,

ifi cat ion s have been almost endl ess .

Th e types of marine boilers are now much better defined and may be
considered as establ ished and we have two broad divisions , being the
k
,

prac tice in and around N e w Yor and the practice on the Clyde .
 48 S TE A M MA K IN G: OR , B OI LER PR A OTI CE .

Marine boilers were for many years after their first introduction
limited to low pressures on accou n t of their being fed with salt water from
'

the hot well of an inj ection condense r, and as long as the pressure was not
over twenty pounds per square inch they could be kept clean by blowing ,

out and was hin g ; with a higher te m perature the water deposited salt too ,

rapidly and made scale too fast On the W estern Rivers where fresh
.
,

but very bad water was to be the use of the condensing engine
was soon abandoned and by the use of steam at pressures exceeding 150
,

pounds per square inch a very si m ple and cheap engine and boiler were
,

developed which is at least as economical in the use of fuel as the low pres
sure condensing engines of that day T h e practice around N ew York h as .

remain e d alm ost st ationary while that of the Clyde with the introduction
,

of the surface condenser began at once raisi ng the pressure and int rodu
.

cing co m pound engines until in 1882 several steam ers were se t at work
.

with 1 25 pounds pressure per square inch and the magnificent steamers ,

of the Atlantic li n es are working with ninety pounds Th e introduction .

of h ig her pressures required : first stronger boilers and then more ao , ,

c essibl e boilers for the removal of h arder scale and for more perfect
inspection ; and the Clyde prac tice gradually gre w definite .

T h e N orth R iver B oiler , as the N ew York type is called , has one or more
rectangular internal f urnaces open on the bottom and with a cas t iron front ; -

the products of co m bust ion are carried through large tubes to a connect
ing cham ber and then ascen di ng pass back in s m aller tubes to the front of
, ,

the boiler and thro ugh a shell of steam in an annular cham ber around the
base of the stack T h e ext ernal form is a cylinder with a rectan g ular block
.

inser t ed at the bottom of one end Th e use of fiat stayed surfaces around
.
-

the fire separates this type fro m the Clyde type , which uses cyli ndrical
furnaces as well as shell T h e use of fire tubes of large diam eter has
.

al ways been confined to the Engl ish practice and in this country we ,

never possessed until very recently the facili t ies for manufacture which
, ,

their usage de m ands Th e Clyde boilers may be class ed by the number

.

of furnaces fro m one to four and by their bei ng fired from one or both
, ,

ends L ocomotive boilers are used for high pressures on the torpedo boats
.
,

and al l the form s of upright boilers used with steam fire engines have
been used with small boats as also the water tub e types especially that of
, ,

Herre sc h ofi in connection wit h surface condensers

, .

Externally fired boilers are usually combinations of cylin drical forms

se t w ith axes either horizont ally vertically or inclined , Of the types with , .

horizontal axis the sim plest is the plain cylinder boiler set in brickwork ,
,

either singly or in g roups of two or more called b atteries T h e only ob , .

j e c t i on s are t h e roo m taken up the am ount of land occupied , and the

,

quantity of brickwork with its liability to leak air into the furnace and
,

con s equently the reduction of te m perature therefro m Th e boiler is usuall y .

hung from overhead supports and the brickwork held in place by tie rods
“ ”
p as s ing over the boiler connecting vertical bars call ed buck staves ,

t h ese act as anchor plates against the movem ent of the link s ou t ward
under the action of heat .
 EX TERN AL L Y F IRED S TA TI ON AR Y B OIL ER S .

advantag es of the single cylinder boiler are simplicity , ease of

Th e
acc ess for ins pe ction and repairs , stren g th , durabili ty , and l ow cost of

const ruction , which render this class of boiler well ada pted to hard ,

continuous , and high pressure work They are commonly us ed for blast .

furnaces where land is cheap and it is desirable to keep them in steam for
a long tim e They are usually fired wi th the was te g as from the blast fur
.

nace , but must , of course , have independent g rates to use when th e fur
“ ”
nac e is cold at starting or blowi ng in ; the g as when t urned over the -

e x isting fire and suppli ed with enough air burns fre ely .

We select as an example the boilers of the Meier Iron Company , at

B essemer Ill inois , opposite South St L ouis, constructed upon the follow
, .

ing specifications There are five batteries of two boilers each

. .

SPECIFICATI ON F OR ON E BATTE RY OF STE AM B OIL ERS F OR THE MEIER

IR ON COMPANY .

is to consist of two plain cylindrical boilers with rounded

E a ch B a t tery
ends on e steam dru m an d two mud drums , each boiler to be 60 feet long
,

and 42 inches in diameter Th e boil ers , drums legs and other parts to
.
, ,

be built an d suspended according to the drawi ng s T h e shells of boilers .

to be of 1 inch iron and the heads of i inch iron There is to be one ell ip
-
'
-
.

tical manhole ih each boil er of sixteen (16) and ten (10) inches di ameters
bound with a wrought iron gas et of 5 inch by fi nch and closed with a
- k -

cast iron plate and bridge held down on a lead gas ket by wrought iron
- -

bolts Th e ce ntre of these m an h oles to be exactly in the upper middle

.

l ines of the boilers and in th e middle of the fo urteenth sheet from the
g rat e end of the boilers .

N o H oriz on ta l seams t o be belo w th e fire tiles .

S tea m D ra m to be 24 in ches di amete r shel l of i inch , heads of fi in ch

-
,
- -

boil er iron , legs of f in ch iron There is to be a manhole in one end ,.

el l il pt ic al 1 0 inches and 145 inches diam eters fitted up and closed l ike those
,
- -

in t h e boilers There are to be two ma d dra ma, 24 inches di ameter Shell s

. .

of f inch boiler plate Heads of l i inch cas t iron Each to have a man
.
- - .

hole at one end of same size and fittings as on the steam drum , .

B elow the manhole in the mud drums there is to be a blow 0 3 , or mud -

valve 4 inches in diameter Th e other end of each mud drum is to have a

, .

4 inch check v al ve , with flange for at t aching to the feed pipe

- Each bat .

t e ry is to b e suspen ded in four places by bolts and supports consisting of

ch annel bars carried on rails as shown in the drawings , and the boiler
k
ma er sh all erect these supports and suspend the boil ers .

Th e plate iron of t h e boilers an d drums throughout is to be all C H . .

’
No . with maker s brand designating the quality stamped upon each
sheet , and each sheet must be guaranteed to have a tensile strength of fifty
th ous and po unds per square inch T h e Meier Iron Company to .

have the right to re quire cli ppings of any sheet made, for the p urpose of
testing the same .

Th e b oilers when fitted t o be te sted to 1 00 pounds per sq uare inch of

h ydrostatic pressure .
 E X TERN A LL Y FIR ED S TA TI ON A R Y B OIL ER S .

TR AN S V E R S E S E CT I O N AL VI E W S .

SP ECIFI CATION S F OR F rrrnz o s F O B B on u s ron

'
Mm IR ON COMP ANY .

I . S afety Va lves .
—There is to be one on each steam drum
inches Of 4
clean diam eter and to have a lever and weight to counter balance seventy -

fiv e pounds per square inch pressure .

I I S t eam Va lves —O ne 8 inch glo be valve for each battery O f boilers

. .
-

attached by mean s Of flanges and bolts to the cas t iron pipes between -

ste am drums an d 20 inch steam pipe - .

I I I B low Oi on Ma d Va lves
.
- —One 4 inch valve for each mud drum .
-

attac hed to a neck and flange cas t on the head of the dru m s .

I V Glas s Tu be Wa t er Ga ug es —O ne to each boiler so arranged that

.

t h e glass tube can be removed or replaced while the steam is on the boiler .

Tubes 1 2 inch e s by g inc h best Scotch glass fittings to be screwed into

- -
,

one head O f the boiler .

V M s s is s pp i Gaug e Cocks
i. i — Three to each boiler in the head , to be
hereafter designated by the Meier Iron Com pany Shank one inch .

di am eter .

VI S team Whis t l e —On e 5 inch whistle placed on the main steam

. .
-

pipe at a point to be hereafter desi g nated .

VI I S tea m Ga ug es —Tw o J ohn Kupferl e

. Company steam gauges ,

7 inch face for pressures up to 150 pounds per square inch brass casings
-
,

with syphon pipes carefully tested One Of these to be placed on the 20 .

inch steam pipe and one in the en g ine house at points to be hereafter -

desig nated .

VIII Check Va lv es —On e 4 inch check valve with flange to attach

. .
-

feed pipe for each mud drum All the above pieces to be of the best ma .

t erial and workmanship al l j oints perfectly steam and water tight , and
,

subj ect to inspection by the experts Of the Meier Iron Company Th e .

contractors to fit up fasten an d erect all parts ready for service

, ,
.

Th eshells are made with taper rings thus making t h e outside lap
always at the rear end Of the shee t T h e boilers are set in a s t raight fiue .
 END EL E V AT I O N TR AN S V EB SE SE CTI O N .

thick , each co nnected by th ree legs about 14 inches diam eter Those for .

the inner heat er are about 1 2 inches long an d those for the outer heaters
about 21 inches long on the centre line .

Th e grate is 4 feet 9 35 inches wide by 4 feet 9 36 inch es long , O f which

6 1 6 inches is over the bearing bars
1 T h e e ective length being 4 feet 2 1 0
f
f .
6

inches g iving an area of 201 680 square feet

,
9 Th e heating surface is as .

fo l lo ws :

Main s h lle
Sq ur f
a e ee t .

Th e products Of combustion pass first from the grate over a l o w bridge

“ ”
al ong the heaters then returns to the front on one side Of the shell and
, ,

returns to the rear along the other side Of the shell .

Th e o nly thing we note is the great thickness O f the plates used ,

which with bad water foa m ing causes m uch scale to invite burning
, , Th e .

U nite d States law thus limits the thickness O f plates exposed to the direct
action Of the fire for steam boat boilers : extern ally fired to 012655 inch and ,

as such boilers are frequently found in excellent order after 20 years O f ser
vice , with pressures exceeding 1 00 pounds per square inch on shells 42
inches in di am eter single rivetted there seems little use in m aki ng them 5
, ,

inch thick to carry 7 0 pounds or so per square inch Our ill ustration sho ws .

this boiler and settin g .

“
Fro m the Fren ch to the water tube boilers is a natural transition ,

the water cylinders growing s m aller an d m ore numerous till the well known
Howard B elle v ille , Root Kelly Firm inich P erkins , B abcock 85 Wilcox
, , , , ,

and Heine boilers were introduced In m o st of these the g reater com .

 E X TE RN A L L Y FI RE D S TA TI ONA R Y B OI LER S .

pl e x ity arrangements for clean ing seem to balance any advantages they
Of

k
may have in circulation and the lea age at the innumerable j oints go e s
,

far to neutralize any gain made by the higher steam pressure which can
undoubte dl y be carried with safety .

Of the many varieties O f the water tube type w e sel e ct as ex ample one
'

from the circular Of the B abcock Wilcox Comp any .

Th e B abcock do Wilcox boilers consist O f inclined sets Of tubes con

n ec t e d at e ac h end by steel castings into which the tubes are ex panded
the front and upper ends are connected into a longitudinal drum Th e .

rear e nds are connected by inclined pipes to the same drum w hile at the
‘

bottom there is a mud drum Of cast iron - .

~There are h and holes opposite each end O f e ach tube and man head s

on the steam and mud drums Th e hand hole plates are milled to metal
.

contact with the connections and the whole section is h ung from overhead
by bolts carried on cross beam s resting on the wall s Th e products Of
- .

co m bustion are carried three ti mes across the tubes by m ean s Of deflectors
and these from all the difiere n t batteries are carried through the pipes Of
“ ”
an econom iser or feed heater on their way to the stack
,
-
, .

In Heine s boiler the connections at the front and back ends Of t h e

’

tubes are flat stayed wrought iron plates the stay bolts are made hol low
- -
,

an d plugged ; by taking out the plugs the outside O f the water tubes may be

cleaned There are hand holes and plates opposite each end of each tube
. .

Th e inclin ation O f the tubes is not so great as in the other boiler There .

are m any other varieties Of the water tube boiler from the single coil Of ,
“
J acob P erkins used with a sep arator and circul ator by J ohn Elder and
, ,

after wards revived by Herresch ofi , to the network or cage Of tubes used by

L oftus P erkins .

A very long time ago the device Of an intern al fine was introduced t o
increase the heating surface without increase Of ground room , and an ad
v ant a ge was a t once g ained thereby — that with less water an d more surface
, ,

steam could be raised more quickly : at first a single tube w as used the n ,

two or more Of small er diam eter till finally the m ulti tubular boiler pro
,
-

v ide d great heating surface with in moderate space .

Of the externall y fired boilers w ith return fire tubes , or flue s , the use Of
a single return fine is not comm on in the U nited States and we have no ,

knowledge Of their use ex cept in some cas es where the waste heat O f
puddli ng furnaces has been utilized ; also a few which went out Of service
twenty years ago .

Horizontal external ly fired return flue boilers with from two to twelve .

fin es are the almost universal boiler Of the Mississippi Val ley a natural
, .

consequence O f their use upon the rivers for steamboats and we sh all ,

consider them here as stationary boilers .

Th e ch ief res tri ct ions upon the constr uction Of b oil ers for use in stea m
boats upon the Mississippi R iver and tributaries are as follows
1 B oil ers mus t be tested at least once a year by hydrostatic pre ssure
k
.

and the test applied must exceed the wor ing pressure al lowed in the ratio
Of thre e to t w o .
 58 S TE A M MA KIN 0 : OR . B OILE R P R A O TI CE .

2 Fire . line must be kept at least 2 inches below l ow wat er line .

3 . Wat er level must be kept not less than 4 inches over fi ne .

4 . F eed water must be so del ivered as not to inj ure boiler when e n t er
-

in g it .

5 . Fusible plugs must be place d in such p osition as to melt when wate r

g ets too low .

6 B o il ers 42 inches in diame t er and i inch shel l m ay be al lowed a

.
-

working pressure Of 150 pounds per square inch and the p re ssure allowed
for other diam eters and thickness may varyinversely as the diameter and
directly with the thickness If double rivetted lon g itudin al Seams are .

used the pressure allowed is 20 per cent more . .

7 Each plate mus t be stamped with the number O f pounds ten sile
.

s trai n it will bear .

8 Th e working pres sure allo wed m ust not exceed one sixth O f the
.
-

ten sile strain O f the sheets unless the longitudinal seams are double ,

rivetted in which case 20 per cent additional m ay be al lowed

,
. .

9 Th e plates O f extern ally fired boilers exposed to the action O f h eat

.

must not be over 03 086 inch thick

2 .

1 0 Th e flues or tubes O f ex t ernally fired boilers must have not less than
.

3 inches clear space between and around the m .

F or the two flue type we select the boilers Of the river steamer
-

“
Mon t ana as described by Mr Wm H B ryan Mech anical Engine er Of
”
, . . . . ,

St L ouis MO
.
,

Th e boilers are fo ur in nu m ber set in one battery They are each 42 , .

inches diam eter and 26 feet long with two flue s , each 1 5 inches diameter , .

They are O f C H N O 1 iron and were b uilt by D W 0 Carroll , O f P itts

. . .
, . . .

burgh , P a Th e shell is Of 050 6 wrought iron in sheet s 24 inches w ide an d

9.
-

1 inch lap on circumferenti al seam s single rivetted l i incb centre s ; lon g i ,

- -
.

t ud in al seams double rivetted l éinch centres , rows 1 2inches apart Heads

,
-
.

O f i inch iron C H N O 1
-
Flange 3 inches inside shell s rivets 1 2centres
, . . . .
, .

Steam drum is 20 inches diameter by 1 5 feet long and connects with each ,

shell by a 14 inch leg Centre of drum 3 7 inches above centre O f shells

- . .

B ack h e ad flan ged in for fl ues F ront end flanged outward for same . .

Shell sheet s alternately lap in and out mak ing laps all toward after end , .

Flues all lap same as shells thus the gas never strikes fair on a caulked ,

edge Flues O f i inch iron 15 inches diamete r an d centre of fin es 18 inches

.
-

apart an d 3 } inches below centre O f boiler On e manhole 9 5 inches by 1 5 .

inches above fiue s at after end Of each boiler : its lower edge is 1 3 } inches
from top Of boiler and i inch below low water line Manhole strengthened - .

by g inch ring inside Manhead plate O f cast iron with t wo arch bars
- .
-
.

Hand hole 4 inches by 6 inches in front he ad lo wer edge 2 inches from

-
,

bottom Heads stayed to shell There are t w o mud drums , one under
. .

second sheet from after end and one under fifth sheet from front end .

Steam drum over fifth sheet from af t er end F eed water introduced at .

afte r dru m Mud dru m s are 1 64} inches inside dia m eter and 1 5 feet long
.
,

with ce ntre 41 inch es below centre line of bo iler , united to each sh ell by 8
 E X TE R N A L L Y F I RED S TA TI ON A R Y B OI L E R S .

inch legs Steam is taken from steam drum by a 6 inch copper pipe
.
- .

S afety valve on each boiler with area 11 square inches L ever is 4 feet 3 .

inches lo n g notched at intervals W eight is 9 4 inches by 9 4 i n ches by

, .

8 i nches and weighs 200 p ounds B lows O fi at 140 pou n ds per square inch .

an d sets weight at 3 1 inches from fulcrum On e press u re gauge is p l aced .

at the front O f the boilers and one near the e n gines T here are 10 gauge .

co c ks on the four boilers and eac h boiler h as a float gauge w ith outside
dial These are at the after end O f the boiler close to the feed p ump and
.

are under the eye of the engineers on watch .

Th e fro n t end Of the boiler is carried by the cast iron front A 3 inch -
.
-

by i inch ring is rivetted on the shell and re sts on the front T h e other
- .

end Of the boilers is carried on the back m ud drum , which rests on cast
iron support ing blocks .

Th e furn ace is 14 inches in height from the grate bars to the shell and
3 7 inches high be t ween boilers ; it is 1 7 feet wide under al l four shells , 64}
fee t long to top O f bridge wall and is b uilt with fire brick throughout Th e .

grate is 1 7 feet wid e by 4 feet 2 inches long and 7 0 8 square feet in area .
,
.

Th e bars are double of cas t iron with 1 inch air Spaces bet w een the pair
,
-
,
-

of bars and with 73 inch lugs giving the sam e space to the next bar Th e
,
-
, .

top O f grate is 2 inches below lower lining O f fire door Th e doors b e -

.

tween shells are 18 inches wide by 14 inche s high with half doors 12 inches ,

wide and 1 3 inches high on outer side Of outer sh ells . Th e doors are O f
cas t iron with fi inch holes and the front is Of cast iron in piec es bolted
- - -
, ,

togeth e r and lined with fire brick Th e ash pit is 1 8 inches below bars
,
- .

and the sam e area as the g rate T h e drip from the long exhaus t pipe is
~
.

run in here to put out the fire and cool the ashes wh ich fall through the
bars Th e ash pit doors are O f sh e et iron three large and t w o small ones
.
- -
, .

T h e fire bridge wall is 1 1 inch e s in height with a slope up from the grate
thereto , a run horizontally O f 2 feet carried with the rear end of the grate ,

by a spec ial fram e Th e flame chamber slopes from the bridge where it
.
,

is 3 inch es belo w the shell to the re ar end where it is 6 inches below , , .

There is a lining of 4 inch red brick set in a n d covered by clay and the
-
,

sid e walls are m ade in the sam e way , carried in a sheet iron casing , and -

supported from the deck by iron ro ds .

Th e stacks are t w o in nu m ber each 3 feet in diam eter and 55 135 feet , ,
“ ”
above the grate and are O f N O 12 iron Th e breeching or sm oke connec
, . .

tion is Of the same thickness and is provided with doors opposite the fines ,

in each boiler .

Th e proportions an d dim ensions are s u m m e d up :

r l r
G at e a ea
u rf
b u
Tot a h e at ing s

lr r r r l r r
Rat io, a o t
Ca o im e t e
ace

.
.

rr r k
G at e a ea t o Ca o im et e
A ea s t a c s
k r .
.

r
G at e a ea t o st ac a e a

rr m
St e a m oom .

W at e
a
oo
u
2208 g a ll ons (U S )
. .
 E X TE RN A L L Y F IR E D S TA TI ON A R Y B OILE R S .

hh bw l rr
W eig t O f oi e s , et c
W eig t Of at e

hl r k
W eig h t Of s t ac s
W eig t Of g at e .
.

Tot a .

in point O f sim plicity com e boilers with four flue s and we take
N ext ,

as an exam ple four boilers built in 1 881 for the L aclede R olling Mil l St ,

Louis which were built under the following speci fication

,

SPE CIFI CATI ON F OR A B ATTE RY OF F O U R B OILER S F OR L ACL E DE

ROL LIN G MIL L .

ST L O UI S ,
. MO .
, Aug 1 1881 . , .

S he l ia —Th e shell to be
the best hamm ered charcoal iron 48 inches Of ,

diameter 26 feet long an d i inch thick and to have a tensile s trength Of

, .
-
,

pounds per square inch Al l lon g itudinal seam s to be a b ove the fire .

li n e and d ouble rivetted S eams to be staggered to prevent a con tinuous .

row of rivets .

H ea d s — Heads to be O f the best ham m ered ch arcoal flan ge iron an d

.
,

to be g inch thick Th e back head of each boiler to contain an 1 1 inch by

-
.

15 inch m an hole and the front head a 4 inch by 6 inch hand hole
- -
,
- - - .

F l ues —Each boiler to have two 1 2 inch fi nes and 1 1 inch flue s as
.
- -
,

shown on drawing Flues to be Of i inch iron and Of sam e quality as shell .

-
.

S t ea m D rum Th e steam dh um to be 3 0 inches in diam eter and the

.
-

length equal to the width O f the battery Of boilers Th e legs O f steam .

dru m to be 10 inches diam eter and 8 inches long Each end of steam drum .

will contain an 11 inch by 15 inch m an hole Th e iron u s ed for steam - - - .

drum and legs to be i inch thick and O f same quality as that used in shells - .

L egs to be attached by cap flanges .

Ma d D ra m —T h e mud d rum to be at b ack end Of boilers as shown on ,

drawing and to reach the entire width O f the bottom D iam eter Of dr um
, .

to be 18 inches and Of same quality Of iron as shell L egs to be 8 in c hes

, .

diameter and attached by cap flanges T hickn e s s Of iron for m ud drum s .

a nd legs {ff inch L ength O f legs 20 inches

-
Each end of mud dru m will
.
, .

contain a 10 inch by 14 i n ch man hole and on e end to be furnished with a

- - -

3 inch brass blow O fi cock

-
Hea ds Of mud dru m g inch thick -
.
-
.

S upp or ts j ar B oi l e rs —Th e front ends Of boilers will rest on fire front

and the back ends will rest on cast iron stands - .

S afe ty Va lves —There wil l be two 44 inch safety valves one near each
.
-
,

end O f steam dr um and fitted with proper weigh t s and levers for a pres ,

sure O i 100 pounds steam Th e chests to be Of cast iron the valves and .
-
,

s eats O f composition as per drawi n g , .

D ry P ip es — A dry pipe 7 3 inches di am eter an d 8 ft long to be placed

.
-
, .

in each boiler near the top Th e top O f dry pipe will be d rilled with holes .

S inch diameter equall y di stant apart ; aggrega te area O f holes to be tw ice

-
,

the area of t h e pipe .

S top Va lve — One 1 2 inch iron globe valve with outsi d e screw steam
.
-

val ve and seat to be of brass to be secured to steam drum by flan g es , .

 64 S TE A M MA KIN G: OR, B OIL ER P RA C TI CE .

Gaug e Cocks —Three z inch Mississippi gauge cocks to be placed in

-

k end
.

bac Of wing boiler .

'

Gl ass Wa t er Gaug es . One g lass tube wate r g auge , to be plac ed in the

front end Of
each win g boiler .

B reechina —Th e breec hing to be O f N O 1 2 iron , with doors opening

. .

upwards , provided with hin ges and latches .

B oil er Fron t —Th e fire front will hav e tig h t -fit t ing fire and as h pit
doors , with sui table h inges and latches R egisters and perforated l ining .

o n fire doors as per draw in g , Top of g rate b ars 3 0 inches below boilers. .

S ta ck —Th e stack will be 6 0 feet high above bree ching, an d 4 ft 6 in . .

diam e t er, wit h damper above breeching "

Ma n h o
- les —Th e m an holes to b e 11 X 1 5 inches , each man hol e to
.
- -

have around it on the inside an elliptic ring Ofiron 21} x 2 in ch Rivets to

k
.

be countersun fl ush on both sides P arts wh ere gasket j oint comes to .

be faced Man hole plates to be O f c ast iron and secured by wrought

.
- -
,

ron arches an d bolt s A 2 x 5 inch wrought iron ring on outsi de O fhand

.

holes .

S tea m Gaa g e —One Ashcroft s st eam -gaug e 8 inch face

’
.
-
.
,

B ea ri ng E m s —B earing bars t O be furnished as per drawin g Grate .

bars to be furnished by company .

N O paint or putty is to be put on any part Of boilers until the same

have been del ivered and tested at t h e wor s Only first class wor man k .
- k
ship will be accepted .

Th e setting Oi the se boilers is in red brick , lined with fire brick Th ere .

are two bridge s , and air is admitted through the re ar bri dge to t h e com

b ust ion chamber, which is rather peculiar in form .

B o il ers with five fiues are very much used in the Valley of the Mis sis
sippi River, but th ere is little di fference between them an d those last
de scribed .

What is known as a compromis e between fine and tub ular boil ers , is
one with 6 inch lap welded tubes Of this clas s we g ive as an example , a
- - .
,

battery Of three boilers at t h e works of the St L ouis L ead an d Oil Com .

pany , St L ouis These boilers are eac h 42 inches diameter, and 22 fee t
. .

long Shel ls O f i inch th ick C H N O 1 iron , single rivete d Each boiler

.
- . . . .

has eight 6 inch lap welded tubes with steam and mud drums as shown
- -
, ,

in the drawing which requires no further explanation Th e heads are

, .

flanged an d the fines riveted thereto .

As an example O f the 4 inch tubul ar, we describe three boilers desig n ed

-

by us for Was hington U niversity an d erected in 187 9 They are set inde , .

pen d ently and are used mainly for heating .

Each boiler is 60 inches diam eter , and 1 6 feet long with 3 6 13 p-welded
-
,

tubes , 4 inches external diameter arranged in two g roups with a central

-
,

gangway 12 inches in the clear in the centre Of the boiler This spac e .

allows circul ation and complete in spection , with convenience in clean in g .

Th e shell is i inch steel the heads i inch steel with tensile streng th of
-
,
-

pounds pe r square inch Th e shell is supporte d by the front be .

 EX TE RN A LL Y FIR ED S TA TI ON AR Y B OILE RS .

1 0 5 10
I I I I Fm
Sc al e 1 I 0 1 2 S
I I I Metres
l l pp
I
,

N or —
m T h is sca e a s o a l ies t o c u ts on pag es 65 an d 66

V W
.

END AND S ECTI ON AL IE S .

B O I L E R S AT W O R KS OF ST L OU I S L E AD
. OIL Co .
,
ST L O U I S ,
. MO .

yond which it proj ects enough to attach the bottom blow Ofi There is - .

neither dome nor m ud leg Steam is taken by a 6 inch sheet iron dry pipe
.
- .

Th e heads are stif fened and braced in the manner shown We suggest as .

an i m provem ent that the dry pipe be taken from the top Of the b ack head ,

and that the safety valve be connected thereto By so doing no Open .

,

ing need be made in the shell All lon g itudinal seams are double
.

rivet t ed Th e depth Of furnace 40 inches from shell to grate bar, has

.
,

been much criticized but it has ans wered very well

, .

All sor t s O f devices for sm oke prevention , by the admission Of air , etc , .

have been tried on this furnace , and the conclusion reached is that an in
t ell i g en t firem an with a moderate a m ount O f work will do more to pre
, ,

vent sm oke than anything else ; but that cro w ded as these boilers O ften
are there is no way to prevent smok e .
 S TE A M MAKIN G; OR , B OILE R P R A CTI C E .

Th e
use O f a central space for circulation is quite frequent , but it is
usually not more than 5 or 6 inches In most cases , however the boiler is
k
.
,

stuc as full Of tubes as it can be and they are plac ed so close to the she l l
,

that straining and grooving occur from the unequal ex pansion .

We ill ustrate , as conforming more closely t O the usual practi ce , a 60

inch boiler desig ned by the Hartford B oiler Inspection and Insuran c e
Company .

In som e cases the products Of combustion are taken over the she l l
after comin g through the t ubes Th e use of domes upon the top Of shell is
.

al most universal , but there are Obj ections to them w hich wil l be g iven
later .

Very many com pounds Of these simple types have been made Th e .

Frenc h boiler is often used with fire tubes in the upper shell , an d a c om
bin ation O f t wo short cyl inders the lower and larg er full Of tu bes whil e
, ,

the upper and sm aller is used as a steam drum This is introduced by .

“ ”
the nam e Of compound boiler ; but as this name is used for many other
forms , it is hardly di stinctive .

SECTION AL EL E ATI ON V
6 0 IN C H H O R I Z
~
O N TAL TU B U L AR STE AM B O IL E R . D E SI GN E D BY HAR TF O R D
STE AM B O IL ER I N S P E CTI O N IN S U R AN OE C O .

S P E C I F IC A T IO N

For 60 inch H oriz on ta l

- Ta bul a r S t eam B oi ler, P rep a red by The H a rtfor d
S t eam B oi ler In sp ec tion a n d I ns uran ce Comp a ny .

T Y PE . B oiler to be O f the Horizontal Tubular type , with O ver

hanging Front and D oors complete .
 7O S TE AM MA KIN 0: OR . B OIL ER P R A CTI CE .

tical space which is to be t wo in ches

, as shown in

drawing N O tube to be nearer than 3 in to shell O f boiler

. . .

Holes through heads to be neat ly chamfered O ff All .

tubes to be se t by a D udgeon Expander and slightly ,

flared at the front end , but turned over or beaded down

at bac end k .

FO R IR O N P L ATE S .

Shell plates to be 3 Of an inch thick O f the best 0 H , . .

N O 1 iron with brand te nsile stren g th , and name O f

.
,

maker , plainly stamped on each plate Tensile stren gth .

to be not l ess than lbs per square inch O f section .

,

with a good percentage Of ductility H eads to be of

k
.

an inch thic Of the best C H N O 1 Flan g e iron

, . . . .

F OR STEEL .

STEEL P L ATES . Shell plates to be O f an inch thic , Of homogeneous k

steel Of uniform quality having a tensile strength Of not ,

less than lbs per square inch O f section nor more

.
,

than lbs with 45 per cent ductility as indi cated

, .
,

by the contraction O f area at point O f fracture under

test N ame Of maker brand and tensile strength to be
.
,

plainly stamped on each plate Heads to be Of same .

,

quality as plates Of shell in all particul ars O f an inch

k
,

thic .

FL AN GE S . All fl anges to be turn e d in a neat manner to an internal

radius O f not less than two inches and to be clear of
crac ks chec s , or flaws
, k .

RI vETIN O . B oiler to be riveted i inch rivets throughout Al l - .

g irth seams to be single riveted Al l horizontal seams .

to be double staggered riveted R ivet holes to be .

p unched or drilled so as to come fair in construction .

N O drift pin t o be us ed in cons truc tion of boi ler

- .

B RA OE S .
There are t O be twenty (20) braces in boiler —ten
(10) on each head none O f which are to be less th an ,

three (3 ) ft long Braces to be made O f best round iron ,

. .

O f one (1 ) inch in diameter , an d O f single lengths .

Ho w S ET AN D T here are to be seven (7 ) len gths Of T iron , four (4)

F A S TE NE D . in ches broad and one half (4) inch thi c four (4) bein g - k ,

eight (8) inches long two (2) being sixte en (16) inches ,

long and one (1) eighteen (18) inches long placed radi
, ,

all y ; and riveted with fi inch rivets to each head as -

,

sho wn in drawing Th e holes for fastening the braces .

to these radial brace bars are all to be drilled Th e - .

braces are to be fas tened with suitable jaws and tur ned
pins or bolts so as to realize stren gth equal to inch
,

round iron Braces to be set as shown in drawing and

. ,

to bear un iform tensi on .

 E X TE R N A LL Y F I RED S TA TI ON A R Y B OILE R S .

MAN - H OL ES . B oiler to have one man hole , eleven (11) inches by fif

. .
-

teen (15) inches , wi th strong intern al frame (as shown in

’

drawing) , and suitable plate , yoke and bolt the prop e r , ,

tions Of the whole such as wi ll make it as strong as any

other s ection Of the shell O f li e area k .

HAN D -H OL E S B oiler t o have

two hand holes with suitable plates -

k
.
,

yo es, an d bolts , located one in eac h head below the

tubes as sh own in the drawing
,
.

N O Z Z L ES . B o iler to h ave t wo cast iron nozzles , four (4) inches -

intern al diameter one for steam and the other for safety
,

valve connections , securely rive t ed to boiler .

WAL L -P L ATES
‘

. B oiler to have four cast iron lugs two on each -

,

side the rear lugs each to rest on three transverse rollers

, ,

one inch in diameter which are to rest on suitable cast ,

iron wall plate s, as shown in drawing front lugs to rest

-
,

BL O W - OU T . on sui table wal l plates , without rollers F or blow out

- . -

connection one plat e , i inch thick to be secured with

,
-
,

rivets driven flush in inside Of the shell, an d tapped to

receive a two (2) in ch blow pipe - .

FR O N T . B oiler to be provided with cast -iron front and all

the requi site doors and fastenin gs for facili ty Of access
to tubes furn ace and ash pit
, ,
- .

B U CK S TAVE S . B oiler to be provided with buck st av e s ; also

all bolts , rods nuts and washers anchor bolts to extend
, ,
-

GRATE B AR S . in setting beyond bridg e wall ; also bearer and grat e bars -

(pattern to be selected ) ; also cast iron door to be at le as t -

,

t wo (2) feet by three (3 ) feet and provided with liner

plate for bac tube door—and
,
k door fifteen inches
by fif te en inches for flue for side or rear end .

FI TTIN G S . B oiler to be provided with one safety valve , -

in ches in diameter inch st eam gauge O f standard

,

make , three gauge cock s properly located, al s o one glas s

water gauge , a 2 inch open way blow valve and feed an d
- -

k
,

chec valves , each one and one quarter inch -

.

F U S IB L E PLU G . B oiler to be provided with a fusible plug SO located

that its centre shall be two inches above upper row Of
tubes at bac end k .

D AMP ER . iB oiler to be provided with a damper with s uitable

hand attachm ents , easily accessible at the front O f the
boiler, damper to be fitted to the throat O f t h e smoke
arch as near as practicable to the tube opening s and O f
, ,

area equal to the cross section Of all the tubes .

Th e size and description Of parts to conform subst an

t ial l y to the details O f the accompanying plan . All the

above to be del ivered at
 72 S TE A M MA KIN G: OR B OILER P R A CTI CE
. .

an d all the m at erial and work m an sh ip t o be subj ec ted t o

t h e ins pect ion Of and approve d by t h e Hartford Steam
B oiler Insp ect ion an d Insurance Company .

Th e axe s of t h e cylinders are sometim es placed vert ically as well as ih

clin e d Of the water tube type we will only mention on e in w hich a n umber
.

of con e sh ape d tube s hang fro m a horizontal drum into the fire an d
-
,

Cadiat s in which three horizontal drum s are connected to a fou rth above
them as a steam drum , and from the former vertical cyli nders Of ten or
twelve inches h an g ; those fro m t h e inner drum ar e conne ct ed at the bot
t om by a horizontal drum over the furnace wh ile those from the side
,

drums are carried below the level Of the g rate , and each has hand hole and
plate accessible from be low This boiler seems to combine many good
.

features .

A form of upright fire tube externally fired boiler introduced by Mr

, .

George H Corlis s O f P rovi dence is shown by an example tak en from t h e

k k
.
, ,

P awtuc et Water Wor s at P awt ucket , R I

, These boilers when mod
. .

eratel y worked with a low water h ave g iven steam in a superheated stat e
k
.

There are three boilers at the P awtuc et Water Works , each four feet
in diameter and fourteen feet high carried on two cas t iron man head
,
- -

trunnions There are forty eight 3 inch tubes arranged wi th a centr al

.
- -

gangway and a mud pan stayed to the bottom by stay bolts and tied to the
top by ro ds Th e shell is partly exposed to the fire and the circulation is
.

up on the outside and down the middle , thus depositing sediment in th e

“ ”
mud pan . Th e steam connect ions are m ade by a cas t i ng actin g as st if
fener for the upper head Th e water line may be varied from five to nin e
—
.

°
fe et , in t h e lower p l ace s about 20 sup erheatin g is Obt ain ed .
 C HAPT ER IV .

IN TERNALLY FIRED STATIONARY B OILERS

As but very few horiz ontal intern ally fired boil ers are used in t h e
United States for station ary purp ose s, we hav e quoted entire , by the kind
permission Of the author , a paper by Mr L avin gton E Fletcher , Chief . .

En gineer the Mancheste r Ste am U sers As sociation a boiler insuran c e

Of
’
,

company in England as the highest authority on this subj ect in the world ;
,

an d the paper is SO admirably a dapted to our purpose and so w e ll written

th at we preferred to leave it in the original fearing that it might be l n ,

j ured if incorporated with our work in any other manner .

Th e examples sel ected are : A single fine d internally fired boiler -

,

a Cornish boiler exhibited and tested at the D usse ld orf Exh ibition Thi s .

boiler was constructed with the corrug ated flue introduced by Fox and ,

therefore di ffers in this respect from t h e O lder forms Of Corn ish boilers it ,

is there fore adapted for much higher press ures than were formerly
carried Th e settin g is not an example Of ordin ary practice , which is Of
.

th e L ancashire type .

D ouble fined boilers—a p air exh ibited at the Vienna Exhibition O f

-

1 87 3 by Messrs D Adamson 5 Co , the introducers O f the flan ge joint

, . . .

used in the fin es This boiler is rather shorte r than that recommended by

.

Mr Fletcher but in most respects conform s to his suggestions

.
, .

For the Galloway type we illust rate three out O f four boilers built by
the Edge m oor Iron Company for the Crystal P late Glas s Company : their
k
wor s are situated 23 m iles south of St L ouis These boilers were put . .

in in 1880 and while e xposed to very hard work have given every
,

satisfaction Th e specifications under w hich they were b uilt are ap

.

pended “ .

Th e most usual t ype O f internall y fired stationary boiler in the U nite d

States is the locom otive , this being us ed by most O f the railroad companies
,

in their m achine shops and by several O f the lately constructed water

,

works such as at L awrence Mass an d the Calum et and H ecla mi nes Mich
, , .
, , .

“
Th e O l d fashioned drop return fi ue or tubular boil ers introduced by Mr
-
” “ ”
.

Kirkwood at t h e B rooklyn Water W orks and copied at many places are

k
,

open to al l the criticisms Of Mr Fletcher s paper as being wea ened by .

’

having larg e holes cut in the shell rendering them unfit for the hi gher ,

pre ssures now universal At the B u ffalo Water Works the boilers are Of the
k
.

N orth R iver type as also those at the Cleveland Water Wor s—the latte r
,

being very large .

! T h e p ice r Of t h e s e b lroi e s at d
E g em oo r lwr
, De a a e, on b rd
oa t he ca sr w as eac h .
 IN TE R N A LL Y F IR E D S TA TI ON A R Y B OILE RS .

exam ple selected is one O f Mr Leavitt s this being one Of t h e latest

Th e .
, .

Th e vertical boiler with intern al furn ace s subj ect to alm ost en dl ess
i

modification and we select for illustration a very good example designed

,

by the Hartford Boiler Inspection and Insurance Company .

ON THE L AN CASHIR E B OILER .

ITS CON STRU CTI ON, E QUIPMENT, AND SE TTIN G .

[A p U rr
ape by
se s
’
MR .

Ass ociat ion, ea

V r db f r . H hu f rh
L A I N G TON E FLET C ER, C ie E ng inee Of t h e Man c e st er St eam
e o e t h e In s t it t ion of Mec anica E ng inee s , L on on ] l hr d .

Th e Lancash ire type of boiler differs only from the Cornish in one
point namely that the L an cashire boiler has two furnace tubes whereas
, , ,

the Cornish h as but one In both types Of boilers the Shell is cyli ndrical
.
,

the ends are flat and the furnace tubes are carried throug h from front to
,

back , below the ordinary water line while the boilers are laid horizontal ly
,

and fired internally Internal firing is essential either to a L ancashire or

.

to a Cornish boiler It is a mi stake to speak O f an internally fired L an

.

c as h ire or an extern ally fired Cornish boiler though this is frequently ,

done If the fires are taken out O f the furnace tubes Of a Lancashi re
.

boiler and put underneath it is a L ancashire boiler no longer b ut b ecomes

, ,

an externall y fired double fin ed boiler, and if a Cornish b oiler be treated

in the same way it becomes an externall y fired single fiue d boiler These .

boilers O w e their nam es to the counties in which they w ere first broug ht
into g eneral use T h e single furnace boiler was introduced early in the
.

present century by Trevethick in Cornwall , and is therefore called Cornish .

Th e double furnace boiler w as introduced in 1 844, by Fairbairn and B eth

e ring t on , in Manchester and is therefore call ed L ancashire
, .

In laying down L ancashi re boilers the fact h as been t O O frequently ,

lost sight Of that directly a fire is lighted within them they begin to move
, , .

Th e flat ends to breathe outward the furnace tubes as well as t h e Shell to

,

hog upwards and th e whole structure to elongate If sufficient allowance

, .

is not m ade for these movements straining an d som etim es rupture occurs ;
,

while tendency to this is frequently agg ravated by putting in an extra

thickness Of metal with a v iew O f addi ng strength the additional thick ,

ness increasing the unequal expansion Of the p arts F or some years the .

writer h as had opportunities O f Observing a large num ber O f boilers O f the

L ancash i re , as well as other , types in work under the inspection Of the
Manchester Steam U sers Association an d from these O bs ervations he has
’

en deavored to mature as complete a boiler in construction equi p m ent , , ,

and se t ting as possible In doing this the following points h ave been kept
, .

in vie w : to m ake the boiler safe for a working pressure of from 75 poun ds to
100 pounds per square inch to m ake the structure elastic so that it m ay not be
,

rent by the m ovement Of the parts consequent on alternate expan sion and
contraction but may be able to endure the work Of years ; and to set the
,
 76 S TE A M MA KIN G: OR . B OILE R P R A CTI CE .

boiler an d arrange the fittings SO th at t h e whole shall be above b oard and

accessible for inspec tion Th e writer doe s not ag re e with the view t O O
.

generally held but most O bstructive to im provement namely , that any

k
, ,

thin g will do for a boiler and that it is only a boiler after all He thin s
, .

that a boiler shoul d receive as much attention as an en g ine that it shoul d ,

be made with as much accuracy and attende d with as much care that the
k k
,

fireman Should not be condemned to wor in a dar dirty hole call ed a

k
sto e hole and the boiler as sumed t o be blac and grim y , but that the k
k
,

boiler should be placed in a suitable hou se ept bright and cheery , and
the fitting s as well as the whole structure kept clean an d in first rate work -

ing order ; also that the fireman shoul d be stimulated to become as profic
is nt in the art Of usin g his shovel and manag in g the fire as a fitter in usin g ,

file and erecting an engine If this practice happily adopted by some were
.

to become general and first class boilers were l aid down instead Of low
-

k
, ,

priced ones , the scientific boiler ma er would have fairer scope the steam
-
,

user woul d derive economy , and the public woul d be benefite d by the
prevention Ofexplosions as well as by the abatement Of the smoke n uisance .

Th e L ancashire boiler h as many variations beside the simple form ai

ready described . There is the Galloway boiler in whi c h the furn aces ,

instead Of runnin g through from one end to the other unite in an oval ,

flue stren g thened by water pipes There is the multi tubular in which
.
-
,

the f urn ace tubes unite in a combustion ch amber from which a num ber Of
small flue tubes about three inches in diameter and six feet long run to
the b ack O f the boiler There is Hills multi fiue d boiler in which seven
.
-
,

fiues about 11 inches in diameter , and 8 to 10 feet long take the place Of ,

the s mall tubes in the multi tubular boiler There are also others in which
-
.

the furnace tubes branch Off to the Sides or bottom of the shell instead Of
k
,

runnin g right through to the bac end TO all t hese variations in the
.

Lancas hire boiler an d also to the Cornish this paper appli es as to the con
,

struction Of the shell and furn ace tubes , as well as inreg ard to the equip
ment and s ettin g Of the whole .

TO a ssist in the construction O f L ancashire boil ers for high pressure ,

the Manchester Steam U sers Association authorized the construction Of a
’

boiler expressl y for undergoing a series O f hydraulic bursting tests , and

the manufacture Of the boiler was entrusted to Mr B eeley O f Hyde J unc .
,

tion , who h as heartily seconded the views Of the Association and rendered
val uable assistance in the prosecution Of the trials .

This experim ental boiler is seven feet diam eter which is the usual ,

siz e for mill service It is adapted for a working pressure O f 75 pounds

.

per square inch and its construction is as subsequently described : a num

ber of experimental bursting tests have al ready been made caref ul obse r ,

v at ions being taken of the behav ior O f the boiler under pressure These .

tests have already furnished valuable information and when com pleted ,

will be ful ly reported So m e O f the resul ts are g iven in this paper In

. .

order t o preserve the precise form and character O f the rents the soli d ,

plating around them h as been cut out intact : several O f these spec imen s
are exhibited at the meeting An actual end plate Of a boiler seven feet
.
 78 S TE A M MA KIN G: OR . B OILER P R A CTI CE .

su mcie nt width Of end plate between the two furnace tubes as well as be
tween them and the shell as alread y explained , but also a sp ace Of 9 inches
between the centre of the bottom rivet in the g us sets and those at the fur
nace mouth .

Also
five gusset s t ays are found to work better than any other number .

With five gussets one falls on the centre li ne , which is not only the weakest
part O f the fron t end plate , and thus where it requires the most support ,
but als o where it can be held fast without resis ting the movements of the
furnace tubes Th e part of the end plate that shoul d be left free is imm e
.

di ately Over the furnace crowns With four g ussets the end plate is m ore
.

unguarded at t h e centre which is the weakest part , and more bound im

,

mediately over the furnace tubes , which is the line O f motion .

thickn ess Of the end plates is sometimes as much as i inch for

Th e -

pressures Of 60 pounds per square inch This thic ness however, is quite . k ,

unnecessary and onl y tends , by its rig idity , to cramp the furnace tubes
,

and strain the parts Half an inch has been repeatedly and successfull y
.

adopted in boilers for pressures O f 7 5 poun ds per square inch and fit of

an inch when that pressure h as been exceeded These thick nesses have .

proved amply sumcient In applyin g the hydraulic tests to boilers O f the

k
.

construction and proportions now described before leaving the ma er s ’

yard , it is the practice to carry the pressures up to about 1 50 pounds per

square inch , and to strain fine cords across the flat ends to act as straight
edges from which to gauge the ends at twelve points meas urem ents bein g ,

taken before the test, during the test, and after the test It is found, as a .

rule , that the plate under pressure bulges outw ard at the ce ntre from f; of
an inch to i of an inch and on the rem oval of the pressure returns t o it s
,

original position without suffering any permanent set In the e x perim e n

k
.

tal hydrauli c bursting tests the ends , though only i inch thic , have stood -

a pressure of 27 5 poun ds per square inch without leak age or any appear
ance O f distress but on the pressure being raised to 3 00 pounds the front
,

end plate displayed signs Of weak ness in the vicinity O f the mud hole -

beneath the furnace tubes With this exception the greatest bulg ing w as
.

g inch at the front and 1 6 Of an inch at the back ; while the greatest per
- 8

man ent set was only 1 3 O f an inch

1 .

L on g itudinal stays are frequently introduced to assist the end plates .

In the e Xp erim ent al tests the lon g itu dinal stays were taken out so that it ,

is clear that they are not absolutely necessary where the gussets are sub
s t an t ial Sho ul d it however be thought desirable to adopt them either
.
, , ,

as an assistance to the gussets when t O O weak or as an extra precaution , ,

they will be found easy Of introduction They are therefore shown in the .
, ,

di ag ram s and it wi l l be O bserved that they are secured at each end wi t h

,

double nuts one inside the boil er and one outsid e, and one placed as m uch
,

as 14 inches above the level Of the furnace crowns an d as close together as ,

convenience wil l allow When placed directly over the furnace crowns
.

and only a few inches above them they confine the furnace tubes too
strictly and straining ensues A single stay on the vertical centre line of
.
 IN TE RN A L L Y FI R E D S TA TI ON A R Y B OI LER S .

the front end plate is correct in principle , but two are more convenient in
application .

To increase the elasticity Of the front end p l ate it is attached to the

s hell by an extern al angle iron ring rather than by an intern al one , or by

flang ing It is not n ecessary to attach the end plate at the bac O f the
. k
boiler with an extern al angle ir on ring an d when this has been done the , ,

angle iron has been found to be injured by the action Of the flam e B oth .

O f the end plates instead O f being made in two pieces rivetted together at
,

the j oint , are welded so as to afford a flat surface , which in the case Of the
front plate is more convenient for the attachment Of the mountings Also .

both Of them are turned in the lathe at the outer edge so as to be rendered
perfectly circular and are bored out at the openings for the furnace tubes .

F urna ce Tu bes — Th e longitudinal j oints of the furn ace tubes are

welded when the plates are O f iron , and double rivetted when O fsteel , each -

belt O f p l ating being m ade in one len g th and thus having but one l ong it u
dinal j oint All the transverse seams O f rivets are strengthened by
.

Adam son s flanged j oint or with an encircling hoop either O f B owling

’
,

iron T iron , or ot her approved section One Of the evils that has attended
,
- .

internall y fired boilers has been the frequent collapse O f the furnace tubes ,

but this danger is completely avoided by strengthening the tubes as j ust

described , whereby instead of being weaker than the shell as before , they
,

are rendered stronger .

This has been shown by the experimental bursting tests , in which ,

while the shell has been burst repeatedly, the furnace tubes h ave not
suffered at all nor shown any movem ent on being gauged In some cases
k
.

P etrie s poc e t s and in oth ers Galloway s conical water pipes are intro
’ ’
,

d uce d as a caution against collapse ; whi le in others again the water pipes
are made parallel and either rivetted or welded in place SO as to form one
,

piece with the flue tube In all cases , however the transverse seams O f
.
,

rivets over the fire shoul d be strengthened with flanged sc am s or e ncir '

cling hoops , and it is considered desirable to continue this mode Of con

s tr uction through out the entire length O f the boiler whether water pockets

k
,

or water pipes are introduce d or not Th e thic ness Of plates in the fur
.

nace is som eti mes as much as 1, inch This leads to violent straining and
.

frequent leakage at the furnace mouths and other tran sverse seams O f
rivets . Many 2 ft 9 in furn ace tubes though only fig inch thick have
. . ,
-

stood a hydraulic test O f 120 pounds per square inch without movement
and have worked sati s factorily for years at a steam pressure O f 60 pounds .

I t is advisable however, to have them a little thicker than this in order

, ,

to afford a margin for waste through corrosion and also when the fl anged ,

seam is adopted in order to allow for the thinning that occurs in drawing
the metal te m e ke the flan g e A thickness Of 8 O f an inch is sufficient for a
.

working pressure Of 7 5 pounds per square inch 3 for a pressure Of 80 ,

or 9 0 pounds , and 1 6 for 100 pounds per square inch

1
.

Stays are sometimes introduced for tying furnace tubes to the outer
shells in order to support them Such stays are however in the Lan .
, ,

cash ire boiler un necessary , and when rigid , are decidedl y O bj ectionable
 80 S TEA M MA KIN 0 : OR, B OIL ER P R A C TI CE .

furnace tubes should be left free to move As soon as a fire is li ghte d .

withi n th em , the top O f the tub e becomes hotter than the bottom an d
elongates T his makes the tube arch upwards In conductin g a series Of
. .

trials in 1867 and 1868 for the South L ancashire and Cheshire Coal Asso
c iat io n on the evaporative e f ficiency O f their coals , and also on the compar
ative merits of di fferent boilers the writer had three gauge rods attached to
,

the crown Of the furnace tubes Of two L ancashire boilers and carried up ver
tically through the extern al shell by means Of brass st umng boxes , so that
a ready opportunity w as afforded of wi tnessi ng the rise and fall O f the
furnace tubes while as the gauge ro ds divi ded th e tubes in equal len g t hs
,

a comparison could be drawn as to the movements O f the different parts .

Constant O bservation showed that the distortion O f the tubes varied

very much at different times , being most severe shortly after li ghting the
fires while the colder the water to start with the great er was the rise O f
,

the crown As soon as the water became generall y heated th e gauge rods
.

retired to their Ol d position , an d the distorti on of the furnac e tubes

seldom lasted more than an hour .

Th e boilers were 28 feet long the furn ac e tubes Of steel Of an inch

k k
, ,

thic in one case and Of iron , 3 O f an inch thic in the other Care was
, .

taken not to strain the boiler by severe firing , steam being g ot up with the
dam mrs o nly partially open yet the furnace tubes rose 8 of an inch when
,

the flame pas sed round the boiler in the external bri c kwork flues in the
ordinary way , and 5 inch when they p assed O ff direct to the chimney
without heati n g the outer shell Th e curve that the flue appears to assum e
.

is not a segment Of a circle ; the gauge rod at a quarter Of the length Of

t h e boiler from the front showed in one case as high a rise as t h e rod
p l aced mi dway in the length Of the boiler and in an other cas e {4 O f an
,

i nch more This is jus t what might be expected from the local action Of
.

the fire an d accounts for the groovi ng action being far more severe at the
front end Of a boiler than at the b ack and shows the importance Of afford
,

ing great er elasticity at that part Furnace tubes lashed to the shell Often
.

tear them selves away from it in ordi n ary work and the frac tured stays ,

rubbing against the sh ell leaves a wi t ness O f its movements the amo unt O f ,

which fre q uently exceeds that just mentioned In one case a furnace tube .

that had a st ay tying it to the top of the shell was found to have crumpled
up the St ay and broken it by an upward thrust showing how little need ,

there had been for tying to keep the furn ace tube from droopin g .

S h el l — Th e sh ell which is 1 5 Of an inch thick for a pressure O f 75 pounds

,
1

9
per square inch , and 1 3 of an in ch for a pressure Of 100 pounds is com ,

posed Of plates abou t 3 feet wide , which are laid in not more th an three
len g ths round the circumference in order that the longitudinal seams may
k
,

clear the brickwor seat irig s Th e long itudinal seam s are SO arranged as
.

to break j oint and avoid the centre li ne along the top and b ottom Of the
,

boiler In all the lon g itudinal rents Obtain ed under the experim ental h y
.

draul ic tests the plates b ul g ed outwards at the middle O f their width , and
this action was Observed to a slight extent before rupture showing that ,

the greatest strain and thus the point Of first fracture , occurred at or near
,
 IN TERN A L L Y FI RED S TA TI ON A R Y B OILE R S .

the centre line Of eac h plate This would seem to Show that brea ing . k
j oint is Of practi cal advantage , and that a boiler composed Of wide plates
‘

is not so strong as one composed of narrow ones .

Th ere is no steam dome Steam domes are expensive , weaken the

.

shell and O ften g ive trouble from leakage at the base added to this , they
,

are inconvenient in carriage as wel l as in revolv ing a boiler on its seat as ,

it is so m etim es desirable to do for repairs They are also inconvenient in .

coverin g the boiler over and in the great maj ority Of cases , if not in every
,

instance they are perfectly useless

, .

TO prevent pri m ing an internal perforated pipe is adopted in place O f

the dom e Under hydraulic pressure a steam do m e 3 feet in diam eter 110
.

Of an inch thick , and the whole Of the shell plate at its base cut away so ,

as to form an opening as large as itself , the flan ge at the b as e O f the dome

ripped at a pressure Of 150 pounds per square inch

, .

At a second trial , with a dome Of the same diameter , and a port ion
only Of the shell plate cut away the dome strained so much round its base ,

and caused such v iolent leakage th at a pressure Of m ore than 23 5 pounds

could not be Obtained At a third trial the steam dome having been
.
,

re m oved and reflx e d with stouter rivet heads SO as to resist the upward ,

strain that was induced , the flange on the bottom Of the dome ripped on
the centre line Of the boiler at a pressure Of 260 pounds per square inch
, .

I n this instance the workm anship was all good and sound ; but in some
cases where domes are attached with inferior reedy angle irons the weak
, ,

ening effects O f the domes must be much greater Steam domes clearly
k
.

est ablish a wea point in a sh ell and are better avoided , .

Th e m anhole is g uarded with a su bstantial , raised mouthpiece O f

wrought iron welded into one piece , flanged at the bottom and attached
k
,

to the boiler with a double row O f rivets , the thic ness O f the upper flange
being 5 Of an inch and Of the body 2 Of an inch This has been found to
, .

stand a test Of 3 00 pounds per square inch without the slightest indication
Of straining A raise d wrought iron m anhole mouthpiece is exhibite d
. It .

is t O O frequently the practice not to stren gthen manholes with any mouth
piece at all Many explosions have arisen from this cause , rents s t art ing in
.

the first place from the unguarded manhole , and then extending al l over
the boiler Th e loss Of stren gth is owing not si mply to the amount Of
.

metal cut away by the opening but also to the action Of the cover which , ,

in un guarded manholes is internal This intern al cover bears on a narrow .

edge of plating all round and is driven outward by the pressure Of the
,

st eam and also p ul led in the same direction by the b e l t s in tightening t h e

,

j oint In fact the cover acts as a sort Of mandrel , which , being forcibly
.

driven through the manhole splits the boiler Open A heavy hydraulic , .

test shows this action of the cover by curli ng t h e boiler plate up aroun d
the manhole Added to this the j oint is apt to leak a nd thus to induce
.
, ,

corrosion and thin the plate which not only re duces its strengt h but , ,

leads to extra force being appli ed to tighten the j Oint—several explosion s

have occurred after the j oint has been re m ade It h as been the general -

k
.

practice , until rec ently , to ma e the raised mouthpieces of c ast iron This , .
 82 S TE A M MA KIN G: OR, B OIL E R P RA CTI CE .

however is not wise for the high pressures now in use A raised manhol e
, .

mouthpiece having a clear openin g Of 16 inches , which is the usual size ,

involves a hole in the shell plate O f about 20 inches in di ameter Th e plate .

in which this hole is cut unless it be duly strengthened beco m es the

, ,

weakest part Of the boiler when the lon g itudi nal seam s are double rivet
ed, the f urn ace tubes sui tably strengthened with encircling rings , an d the
ends well st ayed 8 0 th at the stability O f the entire structure depends upo n
,

the mouthpiece if that fails the whole structure fails U nder these cir
k
.

c ums t an ce s it is e vidently unwise to ris the safety of the boiler on a piece

O f cast iron This view is confirm ed by the behavior of c ast i ron m anhole
.

mouthpieces under hydraulic pressure Several have fail ed under the or .

din ary test at the boiler mak er s yard , while at one O f the experimental
’
-

bursting tests a cast iron manhole mouthpiece , O f substantial pattern ,

measuring 13 inch thick in the lower fl ange and 1 inch in the body , ,

rent at a pressure O f 200 pounds per square inch , though the m etal exhib
it ed a good , sound fracture This speci m en is exhibited to the meeting
. .

It woul d appear that under pressure there is considerable upward

strain on the plates around the mouthpiece and that while wrought iron ,

mouthpieces are able to accom m odate themselves to this w ithout di s tress ,

cast iron ones are not These tests have Shown that wrought iron m anhole
.

mouth piec es are much superior to cas t iron and that the sooner cast iron -
,
-

ones are superseded by wrought iron ones the better - .

Th e mud h ole at the front O f the boiler beneat h the furnac e tubes is
-

also fitted with a substantial mouthpiece This in som e cases is external .

,

li ke the manhole mouthpiece and in others internal ; the intern al ones

,

have the advantage O f being less in the way In either case the surfaces at .

the j oint between the body O f the mouth piece and the c over are faced -

true so that t h e parts may be brought together metal to metal , .

Th e safety valve and steam stop val ve are so m etimes grouped upon
the m an hole m outhpiece instead O f bein g fixed direct to the shell This
- .

is done in order to redu ce the number Of openings on the principle that ,

the fewer holes made in the boiler the better This argument is plausible .

but fallacious ; the m an hole makes the largest opening and therefore
-

exerts the g reatest weakening effect T h e w eakest li nk in a chain is the

.

measure O f strength Of the whole so that fixing the steam stop valve and
,

safety valve di rectly to a boiler with suitable fitting blocks does not
weaken it Moreover for con v enience in attaching the fittings these
.
,

group m an hole mouthpieces are m ade Of cast iron which as al ready ex

- -
, ,

plained is O bj ectionable It is therefore recom m ended that m an hole

, .
-

mouthpieces should not be complicated by the addition Of the s afety

valves or other fittings but that each shoul d be fixed direct to the shell
,

independently Of the others .

B locks for t h e A t ct a hm en t of F i tti ng s — In Ol d fashioned practice the.

fittings were bolted di rectly to the cyli ndrical portion O f the shell This .

led to the wasting of the S hell through leakage at the j oints so that it has ,

l ong since been the practice to rivet short s tand pipes to the cylindrical
portion Of the shell , and bolt the fittings thereto , the j oin t surfac e between
 I N TE R N ALL Y F IRED S TA TI ON A R Y B OIL ER S .

th e flanges being planed up true The se stan d pipes , frequently termed

k
.

“
fi tt ing bloc s , are not only more convenient for the attach m ent Of the
fittin g s , but als o being rivetted to the plate and made Of substan tial sec
tion strength en t h e plate roun d the hole cut in the shell They are , as a .

rule , made of cas t iron , but it becomes a question whether with the high
-

pressures n ow in use th ey sh ould not be ma de Of wrought ir on At one Of .

the experimental bursting tests a fitting block for a 6 inch steam v alve
,
-

box was found to g ive way before any oth er part O f the boiler at a pressure
Of 27 5 poun ds per sq uare inch , though t h e flange was l g in ches thick the -
,

body 5 of an inch , and the metal sound .

S ea ms Of R iv e ts — T.hose running lo n gitudin all y in the cylindr i c al

shell are all double rivetted with g inch rivets spaced about 25 inches
- -

apart longitu di nally and 2 inches di agon ally Th e rem aining seams
.

throughout the boiler are single rivette d, only the rivets being spaced 2
-

inches apart To double rivet the transverse seams adds but little if any
.

strength to the boiler , though it increases its weight and cost It woul d .

appear that the strain upon the transverse seams Of rivets in a Lancashire
boiler is over estimated In a plain cylindrical b oiler without f urnace
- .

tubes the strain on the tran sverse seams Of rivets is precis ely half that on
,

t h e longitudinal seams .

By the introduc t ion O f the furnace tubes not only is the longitudin al
strength increas ed but at the same time the area O f the ends upon which
t h e steam acts is diminished al so
, SO that in the Lancashire boiler the
.

s train on the transverse seam s Of rivets is less than hal f that on the longi

t udinal seams Th e force O f this reasoning, however is sometimes dis

.
,

put e d and tie rod s are introduced to support the tran sverse seam s O f rivets
in the shell B ut in the hydraulic bursting tests with the tie rods removed ,
.

the long itudin al seams Of rivets w ere found to fail in every cas e before the
t ransverse seams which never showed the sli ghtest signs O f distress and
scarcely leaked a Single drop , wh ile some Of the longitudinal seams under
severe pressure leaked profusely .

Th e riveting is done by machine in preference to han d in the cyl in

drical shell , in the furnace tubes and as far as practicable in the flat ends .

In t h e exp e rimental bursting tests the machine work proved much tighter
than the hand work Th e rivet holes in the angle irons T irons , and
.
,
-

flanged seams are drille d ; those in the plates are p un ched by most m akers ,
though by so m e the holes are drilled throughout and the practice of drill ,

ing is strongly advocated by them In investigating an explosion that oc

.

curred at Blackburn in 1874 t h e mean tensile strength in twelve tests Of a

, ,

solid plate was found to be tons per square in ch , and in four t e sts O f
a p unched plate tons , showi ng a loss by punching Of tons per
square inch or about 5 per cent Th e question Of drilling versus punch
, .

ing an d also Of the pitch and di am eter O f rivets , is one that deserves fur
,

th er consideration , and it may be added that a boiler 7 feet in diam eter,

1
k
and m ade Of plates 1 5 inch in thic ness having the longitudinal seam s,

double riveted with i inch rivets space d 3 inches apart longitudi nally , in
-

ste ad Of 2§ inches as usual , was found tig ht at a hydraul ic pressure O f 120

 84 S TE A M MA K IN G .
“
OR , B OI LER P R A CTI CE .

pounds per square inch Th e edges of the plates at the longitu din al
.

se ams Of rivets are p l aned an d caulked tightly insid e as well as out , though
in many cases caulking is superseded by fullering .

Ma teria l As a rule boilers made under the inspect ion Of the Manches
.
-

ter Steam U sers Association are Of iron in the shell while steel plates are
, ,

very frequently introduced in the furnace tubes for a length Of 9 feet over
the fire and sometim es from one end Of the boiler to the other F or th e
, .

furnace tubes steel plates have been found to g ive g reat satisfac t ion but a ,

little suspicion has been entertained with regard to their use for shells ,

seeing that the plates are then in extension and that a sm all flaw through ,
“ ”
brittleness m ight extend till it produced serious consequence s B est bes t .

plates fro m first class m akers are always recomm ended more i m portance
-
,

being attached to ductility than to their tensile strength B rands how .

,

ever are uncertain and it is thought desirable that a co m plete system Of

, ,

testing should be adopted , and that before a boiler is made one plate out
O f the set proposed to be used should be tested as a check the inves ti ,

g ation having special reference to ductility L owmoor rivets are recom .

mended and are frequently used .

E QUIPME N T .

Fi t ting s .
—Th e fittings are 8 0
arrange d that all those requiring frequent
access are i mm ediately within reach O f the attendant when stan di ng in
front O f the boiler Th e feed is introduced on one side Of the front end
.

plate a bout 4 inches above the level O f the furnace crowns an internal dis ,

persing pipe being carried along inside the boiler for a length Of about 12
feet and perforated for the last 4 feet Of its length On the opposite side
,
.

O f the front end plate is fixed the scum tap to which is connected a series ,

of sedim ent catching troughs fixed inside the boiler In the centre of the .

end plate are two glass water gauges one acting as a check upon the ,

other a pointer being fixed to Show the correct height at which the water
,

should be kept Im mediately above the water gauges is a di al pressure

.

gauge and above that a dead weight safety valve Thus whenever the
,
.
,

attendant opens th e furnace doors to charge the fires he has the height Of
the water and the pressure Of the steam di rectly before h im U nder h is .

feet is the blow out tap and behind h im the coal supply so that every
-
,

th ing is ready to hand He has not to clim b a ladder to reach the water
.

gauges or ascertain the steam pressure nor to m ount on the top of t h e ,

boiler in order to regulate the feed supply A handle for reg ul ating the .

dam per is frequently brought to the boiler front On the top Of t h e .

boiler are two safety valves one a dead weight valve Of external pendul ous
,

construction the other a low water valve B ut convenience Of m anipul a

, .

tion is not the only reason for this arrangem ent of fittings and if the feed ,

be cold and be introduced near the bottom Of the boiler it is apt to induce
local contraction an d thereby strain the tran sverse seams Of rivets near the
bottom Of the shel l , but when introduce d near the sur face Of the water and
the blow out tap and lowering t h e water level to with in about 6 in ch e s
-

of the furnace crowns T O overload this valve without in creas ing the
.

weight outside would necessitate getting inside t h e boiler and wedging

down the dead weight U nder such circumstances the appli cation O f the
.

hand to the extern al lever when steam was up would at once Show that
, ,

something w as wrong and even if this were not detected the external
,

dead weight v alve if free would com e to the rescue while it wo uld be seen
at a glance if this were overloaded It is someti m es re c omm e n d e d t o have
. .

safety valves under lock and key but it is preferred by the writer to have
,

them thoroughly open so that their pub licity may be their protection
, .

While it is fully adm itted that no arran gement of safety valves can be con
structed which cannot be tampered with by s illed malice it is thought k ,

th at the combination Of the two valves j us t described forms a very safe

arran gem ent .

Fu rn a ce Mo u n t in g s —T h e furnace mouthpieces are Of wrought iron ,

. -

finished O ff with a neat brass beading and kept within the circle O f the
rivets SO as to leave these exposed to v i e w Th e fire doors are fitted with .

a Sliding vent ilating grid on the outsi de and a perforated box b afil e plate ‘

on the inside t h e agg regate area Of the air passages being about 50 square
,

inches for arch d oor or about 3 square inches per square foot O f fire grate .

Th e fire g rate is 6 ft long with three bars in three e qual lengths about
inch thick an d spac ed 3 Of an inch apart for windage T h e bearers consist .

O f two wrought iron bars carried on wrought iron brackets riveted t o the
- -

sides O f the furnace tubes T h e standard length O f grate is 6 feet but a

.
,

shorter one is productive O f econom y though the concentration Of the fire

,

is more trying to the boiler and has been found where the feed water has ,

not been good to injure the furnace plates and render it necessary to
,

len g then the grates .

B ri ckwo kr a n d Fl eu s —Th e boiler is set on side wall s an d rests on fire

.

brick setting blocks presenting a bearin g surface 5 inches wide T h e side

, .

fi n es are 6 inches wide at the top carried up to the level O f the furnace
crowns or a few inches above and down to the le vel O f the bottom O f the
shell T h e bottom fine has a width equal to the rad ius O f the boiler and a
.

depth Of about 2 feet Th e dimensions admit O f ample room for in s pec

.

tion B y keepin g the wi dth O f the bottom fi ne equal to the radius of the
k k
.

boiler the angle that the bearing surface Of t h e seating bloc s ma es with
the horizon is 3 0 for any diameter O f shell
°
.

T h e fl ame i m m ediately after leaving the furn ace tubes passes under
the bottom Of the boiler an d returns to the ch imney along the side fi nes .

T his is not the course approved by Mr P ole in his treatise on the Corn is h
.

“ ”
P um ping Engine published in Tre dg ol d on the Steam En g ine in 1 844, in ,

which the setting Of the Cornish boiler is spoken O f as foll ows

“
Th e heated current first i m pinges on the top O f the tube over whi c h
“
the highest and therefore the hottest portion Of the water is lyin g it then ,
“
p asses alon g the Side fin es , where it finds the surfac es cooler than before ,
“
and last Of all it traverses under the bottom O f the boiler where the cold
est water will always be By this means the fire current as it grad uall y
.
 IN TE R N A LL Y F I R E D S TA TI ON A R Y B OIL E RS .

“
cools is like wise g radual ly brought to ac t upon cooler water and thereby
,
“
the best opportunity is afforded for the extract ion of t h e free caloric it
“
contains Th e descending motion Of the fire current as it cools in the
.

“
fin es O f the Cornish boiler is upon statical principles m uch more natural
“
and more calcul ated to prevent the unnecessary discharge O f heat into t h e
“ ”
chim ney than the ascen di ng principle Of the ordinary boil ers .

Al lowin g the last heat howe ver to travel under the shell does not pro
, ,

mote the circul ation Of the water or at all events but slowly so that in
, ,

getting up steam the top Of the boiler becomes hotter than the bottom
’

from which strain in g ensues If in addition to this the feed water when
.

cold be pumped in or near the bottom O f the boiler the strainin g at the
tran sverse seams O f rivets is intensified P ossibly the Lancashire boiler is .

more subj ect to straining and seam rendin g at the bottom Of the shell
than the Cornish as there is a g reate r body of dead water lyi ng there in
th e L ancash ire boiler in addition to which the rate Of combustion per
,

square foot O f fire grate is much more rapid in the L ancashire di strict than
that generally adopted in Cornwall In consequence O f seam rents c c .

curring at the bottom O f L ancashire boilers when the las t heat is carried
undern eath the plan O f pas sing the flam e under the bottom immediately,
,

on l eaving the furnac e tubes and al so of in troducing the feed water near
,

the surface has b ecome the general practice .

T h e question of economy is met by the use Of feed water heaters con

sisting Of a number Of water pipes place d in the main flue between the
boil er and the chimn ey and kept free from soot by an automatic scraper .

A good feed water heater will raise the temperature O f the water to about
T his answers two good purposes ; it economizes the waste heat escap
ing to the chimn ey an d thus reduces the coal consumption , while at the
sam e ti m e it prevents local coolin g thereby preventing straining and ,

saving repairs It has been found by experiment that passing the flames
.

from the furnace tubes around the outer shell instead O f direct to the
chi m ney adds but l ittle to the yield O f steam , thoug h it prom ot es econom y
O f fuel at the same tim e that it
, k
eeps the boiler at a more equable te mper
ature throughout
’

Th e flooring or hearth plates at the front Of boiler are se t so as not to

butt against the boiler which is too Often the case , but so as to be entirely
,

below it thus leavin g the whole Of the front end plate open to view
, .

Where there is a ran ge Of boilers these flooring plates extend throughout

the width Of the boiler h ouse an d being finished Off with a fender flange
where abutting against the boundary wal ls Of the building as well as
k
,

against the face O f the brickwor settin g they present a very neat appear ,

ance These plates are carried on a complete system Of framing and are
.

arran ge d for easy lifting Th e hearth pit beneath them is open from one
.
-

side Of the boiler house to the other and in this is laid the m ain feed pipe ,

as well as the discharge pipe from the blow out and scum This pit is about
‘

3 feet wide by 2} feet deep so as to af ford room for access : the flue doors
open into it Th e face Of the brickwork at the fron t Of the boiler is set
.

back 6 inches so as to leave the angle iron with its circle Of rivets perfectly
 S TE A M MA KIN 0 ; OR B OIL E R P R A 0 TI CE
. .

open Th e front cross wall beneath the boiler is recessed around the
.

blow out elbo w pipe S O that it may be free to move should settlement Of
-

the boiler take place .

Bo il er Coveri gn — Th e boiler is covered w ith an arch O f brickwork

.
,

leavin g a space Of about 2 inches between it and the plates and a layer Of ,

cork S h avin g s or a coating Of go od b oiler c om posi t ion or o t her suitabl e

non conducting subs t an c e is introduced into this space Openings fi n
-
.

ish e d O ff with bul l nosed bricks are worked round the fittings so as to
-
,

leave the ri ng Of rivets by which they are attached to the shell exp osed to
view S o m etimes the boiler is covered simply with a layer Of composition
.

which should not be carried over the flanges Of the fittings as is t O O O ften ,

the case but should be st e ppe d off by m eans O f kerb hoops dropped
,

around the flanges and a kerb cast iron no sing to guard the front angle iron - .

Co nn e c t ion s — Al l connections to boilers should be elastic so as to al

.

low O f their m ovem ent If the main steam pip e be carried across the
.

boilers and bolted direct to the j unction valve the j oints are strained by ,

the rai sing and falling O f the boilers as they are set to work and laid O ff .

To prevent th is a spring in g length should be introduced between the

steam stop valve and m ain steam pipe Where the m ain steam pipe has a .

considerabl e length to travel to the en g ine it should not be taken in a di ,

rect lin e but should be c arried round the boiler h ouse or be led in a horse
,

shoe Shaped course to g ive elasticity ; t h is is better than introducin g an

expansion j o int which is not reliable Some tim es expansion diaphragms .

are adopted but th e se when as much as 4 feet in diam eter have been

k
, , ,

nown to lead to the fractures they were intended to prevent the internal ,

pressure causing them to bulge outward when it was expected they would
allow the pipes to exp and and thr ust them inwards A case O f this sort has .

recently com e under the knowledge Of the writer in which the main j unc
tion valve was broke n O ff by the thrust occasioned by the bul g ing Of the
expansion diaphragm It is equally important that the feed connection
.

shoul d be elastic , and from the want O f elas ticity feed valve boxes have
been k now n to fracture F or this purpose a copper elbow connecting.

pipe is introduced between the m ain feed pipe and the stand pipe ; in some
cases a wrought iron horseshoe shaped pipe has bee n adopted instead
- -

with very satisfactory results .

Connections between the steam stop valves and m ain steam pipe are
fi e quen t l y made to incline upwards SO that the water may drai n bac to , k
the boilers This plan is , however O bj ectionable for when one Of the
.
, ,

boilers in a range is laid Ofl the connecting length beco m es filled with ,

water from condensation Ofthe steam which cool ing by radiation sets up , ,

a violent conflict with the steam whereby the pipes are so m eti m es frac
t ure d Th e action m ay be illustrated by the com m o t ion which occurs
.

within a locom otive tender when the steam from the boiler is turned into
it Further than this on opening the steam stop valve Of a boiler that has
.
,

been laid Off the water lying on the top O f the valve is apt to be carried
forward by the rush Of the stea m like a water hamm er and someti m es to ,

burst the pipe TO prevent this the steam pipe sho ul d drain towards the
.
 90 S TE A M MA K I N G; OR. B OILE R P R A CTI CE .

q uestion Of the utmost importance , namely, the one which the l ate Mr .

“ ”
R obert Stephenson defined as the administratio n of the steam an d
f uller information is yet needed as t o the com parative advantage O f work
ing steam on the compound or single c ylinder principle also as to the
k
,

value O f steam j ac ets as well as with regard to the initial and termi nal
pressures most conducive to econo m y These inquiries , though full O f in .

t e re st cannot be entered upo n in the present paper but one O f the ess en
, ,

t ial s to economy is the power Of raising high press ure steam stead ily and
s afely an d thi s may be accomplished by the us e O f the Lan cashire boiler
, .

ex ample taken for a Cornish boiler is one exh ibi t ed at D u ss eld orf
Th e
in 1 880 and subj ected to the compet itive trial held there I t is 7 fee t 25 in
, .

ches in di ameter and 3 1 feet 1 inch l ong Th e corrugated fine is 4 feet 3 .

inches in d iam eter Th e corrugations are probably exaggerated as the

.

” ”
usual practice is 6 x 1§ an d is nearly 10 inches from the shel l Th e set .

ting is peculiar in that the produc t s Of combus tion after leaving the flue
pass under the boiler and then return on the sides and top thus giving ,

dry steam Th e pit at the rear end is to hold ashes which are blown by
.

a steam j et out O f the flue while in steam Th e usual setting for the .

Cornish bo iler is Similar to the L ancashire .

This boiler g ave the best resul ts as to evaporative economy Of all tried
at D usseldorf .

Th e proportions Of this boiler are as fol lows

G r r uul
at e a ea s a

Sup er h
rr hr rub hd
A ea ov e
u rf
eat in g s
ri g e
a ce
.
.

rr hrr u hh d dm p r r l
A ea t o g flue
A ea t h o g s i e flue .

A ea t
h oug
Rat io eat in g s
u rf a
r e a t t ia
ace t o g at e

W rp
Rat io g rat e t o ai r S ace in g rat e
at e s
p
ac e

W h b lr
eig t Of oi e

evaporation reached at the trial was

Th e pounds O f ste am from
1 pound Of co m bustible at 7 5 pounds per square inch , with feed at 1 3 0 F
°
.

and a rate Of pounds O f water per square foot Of heatin g surface per
h our Th e side fi nes were then o mi tted and the boiler evaporated
.

pounds per square foot of fine surface and gave an evaporation O f per
pound of combustible T h e heatin g surface was then .times the grate .

Th e sam e m akers are n e w building this boiler with the centre O f the
fine not in the s ame vertical plane as the centre O f the boiler ; they cl aim
thereby an improved performance due to better circulation O f the water .

Th e L ancas hire boilers require no explanation after Mr F letcher s

’
.

pap er .

Th e fire box boiler at the mi nes Of the Calumet and Hecla Minin g Cc
- .
,
 92 S TE A M MA K I N G: OR . B OILER P R A C TI CE .

buil t from t h e designs Of Mr E D L eavitt is probably the m os t e x pen . . .

,

sive stationary boiler mad e but it gives a very high economi c evapora
,

tion when doing a good deal Of work and for steady work , night and day, ,

is probably a good investm ent .

Th e shell fi re box an d combustion chamber are O f the best quality

,
-

Siemens Martin steel which possess es an ultim ate strength Of about 65

-
, ,

000 pounds an elastic stren gth O f about

, pounds an extension O f ,

221 6 per cent with a reductio n O f area at frac ture O f58 per cent
3 . Th e me .

“
tal is therefore O f excellen t qu ali ty T h e stays and braces O f the B est .

“ ”
U lster iron Th e iron rivets are B urden s B est
’
. Th e rivet holes are .

punched Th e tubes are iron 3 ; in ches in external diam eter , and 45 inches
.

from centre to centre and 1 8 feet 1 inch lon g ; the tube sheets are i inch
k
-
,

thic . Th e inside fire box sheets and the combustion ch amber are 15 5
-

inch the external fire box fa and the shell fir Of an inch thick Th e
,
-
, .

shell is 7 feet in intern al diam eter and is butt j ointed with straps inside ,
-
,

3 O f an inch and out side,O f To O f an inch in thickness Th e junction Of .

shell and fire box is strengthened by ins ide and outside sheet on the
-

ring of t h re at plates Th e transverse seams are double rivette d to the

.
-

butt straps and over the fire box the sheets are lapped Th e lo ngitudin al- .

s eams are treble rivetted to the butt straps , the outer row having fewer
-

rivets Th e rivets in the fire —

. box are 2 O f an inch in the Shel l {3 O f an ,

inch Th e stay bolts are R of an i nch in diameter and are spaced 4} inches
.

centres horizontal ly and 3 O f an inch vertically Th e fire box is double a .

-
,

water leg and two co m bustion chambers leading into a single cham ber
from which the tubes lead to a smoke box - .

Steam is taken by two slotted dry pipes through an 8 inch nozzle , and -

two 5 inch weight and lever safety valves are placed on a second 8 inch
- -

nozzle A man head on a nozzle g ives acc e ss above the tubes and one in
.
-
,

the smoke box below the tubes Th e crown of the furnace and c om b us
- .

tion chambers are slung by stays in a peculiar manner adopted to give ao ,

cess through them for inspection ; the heads are tied by l ight tie rods 1 ;
in ches round iron w ith swelled ends and held by nuts and washers F eed , .

is taken through the top O f the shell by a 1 5 inch brass pipe led through -

the water to the side O f the boiler .

Th e fire box rests on a cast iron ashpit and the shell is carried on
- -

three adjustable cast iron stands rest ing on ball s T wo boilers are con
- .

n ec t e d by a steam drum 24 inches in diam eter and about 1 6 feet long — the ,

boilers being set 14 feet centres .

Th e front h ead is tied to the first sheet O f the shell aroun d the tubes
by short bars and the upper portion O f both front and bac head is stiff
, k
e ned with angle and T iron bars - .

T h e boiler is covered with a coating O f plas ter of P aris and sawdust 25

inches th ick covere d with 1 inch Of the best h air felt and a pai nted can
,

vass cover T h e coal used is an inferior quality from O hio being in

‘

. ,

evaporative value about 7 0 per cent O f the best steam coal I t is intended . .

to use an artificial draft when desired al though the chimney is 150 feet ,

hi gh , and by this means to burn up to 40 pounds Of coal to the s quare

 96 S TE A M MA KIN G; OR . B OI L E R P R A CTI CE .

fe etof grate per hour Th e ev aporati on Of

. pounds Of water from and
at 212 per pound O f inferior coal is maintained regularly and a similar
°
,

pair of boilers at the L awrence Water Works gave evaporation from

Cumberlan d bitu mi nous coal .

S P E C I F IC A T IO N

F orGa l lowa y B oi ler (1 87 6 P a t en t ) , Edg em oor I ron Compa ny To Evap ora te .

50 Cu bic F eet of Wa ter p er H our F or Cry s t a l P l a t e Gla ss Co mpa ny,

.

Crys ta l Ci ty, Mo .

SHELL S . Th e shell to be 28 feet long by 7 feet diameter and to be ,

made O f best cold bl ast charcoal flang e plates i inch - -

th ick Th e long itudinal seams to be double rivetted an d

.
-

to be cross ed one half the length O f the plate S O as to

-

avoid a continuous l ine O f rivets Th e edges O f all the

.

plates to be pl an ed an d full ered , not caul k ed Front .

end O f shell to be provided with a sol id welded ring

Of angle iron 3 inches by 3 inches by b inch for attach
- -

ment Of the end .

FL U E S . Th e fi nes to consist Of two furn aces each 2 feet 95 inches

in diam eter form e d of soli d -welded rings Of best cold
blast charcoal fire box plates 3 of an inch thick T h e
- .

'

transverse seams to b e formed by fianging the plates an d

insert in g a solid welded ring between the two flanges .

Th e two furn aces to un ite behind the fire bridges into one
fine Of best cold bl ast charc o al flan g e plates made in ac c or
dance with above mentioned patents Th e fine being
- .

hollowed on its lower side to g ive more room for clean

ing and examination the necessary strength bei n g O b
,

t aine d by bring ing the tubes nearer together at their

lower ends and thus avoidin g the necessity of Obj e c
,

t ion abl y thick plates which would otherwise be required

for this part This fine to be supported by means Of 33
.

patent Gall oway Cone Tubes ha v ing a diameter Of 10§

inches at the top and 55 inches at the bottom , the whole
O f these tubes to be interchangeable and to have all their

flanges square to the centre line O f the tubes , thus put

ting less strain upon the iron ih their manufacture and
thereby allowing a better j ob to be m ade .

EN D -P L ATE S . Th e boiler ends each to be made in one piece 1 3 Of an 9

inch thick O f the best cold blast charcoal flange iron

,
.

Th e front plate to be securely attached t o angle iron O f

shell and the back end plate to be flanged T hese end .

plates to be efficiently stayed by means Of s uitable gusset

pl ates , which sh al l be fastened by double angle iron t o -
 SECTION A L ELEVATIO N .

U PRIG HT BO ILER,

D ESI G N ED B Y THE H R RD ST EAM B OIL ER IN SPE CTION AND IN SU RAN CE COMP AN Y ,

H
A TF O
H R RD CON N DIAMETER H
H
A TF O , . 10 FEET L ON G , 54 IN C ES . EATI N G
SU RF ACE : S R
ELL , 4 S QU A E F EET ; T U B ES, 419 S QU A E R
F EET . E STIMATED H O RSE -
PO WR
E , 30
.
 i 00 S TEA M MA KIN 0 ; OR. B OILE R P R A CTI CE .

shel l Ofboiler These stays shal l not be brought down too

.

near t h e top Of furnace s but sufficient space shall be al

,

l o wed for expansion .

On e wrought iron manhole Of l arge si z e Shall be fixed on

-

the top Of boiler and one Of smaller size fixed on the

,

front end plate below the fines both to be rivetted on ,

and to be faced across the whole surface Of their flanges ;

cast iron covers for the same to be provided wi th suit
-

a ble bolts .

TE S TIN G .
B efore leaving the works the boiler shall be tested with
water pressure Of 100 pounds per square inch and a cer ,

t ificat e O f such test having been made shall be furnished .

MOU NTIN GS F OR B OIL E R .

FU R N A CE F IT A se t t ble fire frames and doors to be fitted on t h e

Of sui a -

T IN G S . front end Of the boiler and each door shall be provided

with a Sliding shutter for the admission Of a proper
q uantity O f air for t h e prevention Of smoke al so cast iron ,
-

hearth plates bearing bars fire bars Of suitable length

, , ,

cast iron damper and frame , and ash pit frame an d

- -

plates .

FU SIB L E P L U 6 8 . An approved fusible plug shall be pl ac ed on the top Of

each furnace .

BL O W - O F F 0 0 0K One blow Off cock to be supplied with solid bottom and

-

packed gland having a flange at each end ; al so a sui t

,

able elbow pipe to be furnished for attaching the cock to

the block previ ously rivetted on to the boiler .

FE ED VAL v E . A 2} inch check feed valve shall be provided , the val ve to

be loose from the spindle so as to act as a ch eck or non
return valve and to be set down by means Of a h and
wheel and screw .

SAF ET YV ALVE T w o 4- inch s afety val ves Of the most approved con st ruc
tion .

STE AM N O Z Z LE" On e 7 inch j uncti on valve fitted up with g un metal

- -

valve and seatings packed gland , hand wheel , etc

,
.

A cast iron an ti priming pipe to be fixed in side the

- -

boil er and attached to the lo wer end of the above valve .

On e set O f brass fittings for duple x glass water gaug e -

with two gl ass tubes for the same .

STEA M GAU GE . One 6 - inch steam press ure gauge of best construction .
 1 04 S TEAM MA K IN G: OR . B OI LE R P R A CTI CE .

drical furnace tube Of larg e di amete r and short length with back connec
tion and with small return tubes above According to the size Of boiler .

there are used one two three fo ur or six furnace tubes Th e single fur
k
.
, , , ,

nace is found inconvenient for cleaning as ta ing in t OO much cold air at

once loosing steam in the operation Th e siz e O f the boiler used has been
,
.

g raduall y increase d and SO al so the pressure until we find on shells 1 6 feet

in di am eter pressures as high as 90 p oun ds per sq uare inch carried as the
k
wor ing pressure .

SPE CIFI CATION S F OR L OCOMOTIVE B OIL ER OF EN GINE N O . 152 .

W AB AS H , ST LOUI S dz PACIFI C RAIL WAT

. .

Gen era l dim ens ions O f en g in e.

ylr rwh l d
C ind e
r 17 X 24 inc h es

l pr r
D iv ing
I n et po t s
ee s ia m et e .

. 1 56 X

E xhd hu br d
S t e am o t s
a s t p ort
X 16
3 X 16

kh dr y wh l
W i t Of i g e s
Ta n capacit .

h
W eig t on
wh r
iv ing ee s
W eig t Of eng in e it t h ee g a g es
. .

u o f w r
at e ”

l
B oi e r a nd fi re -
boa: of s t ee l . Tubes Of e ug h t- iron. F uel, s oft coa l .

h r d b r
D iam et e insi e ar e Of oi e l b l r 52 inc h es

d h
L e n g t Of fire - box

HH hh
W i t Offire - box
e ig t Of fire box at frb k
on t e nd . .

HH
1 60 t ubes 2 inc
eat in g s a e
c
h
eig t O f fire box at

i n fi
ur
d
ac

e box
-
end
r
o t si e d ia m e te , leng t h
uurfrf ub u ld ub r e ss t e a ea “
. .

l
eat ing s

rr rr rr
T ot a
F i e g at e a ea
ace t e s o t si e

h r urf
Fi e g at e a ea air opening s
Rat io eat in g s rr r
ac e t o g at e a ea

r wu dh r u d
Ra t io grat e a ea t o fine a ea
W at e capacit y i t t wo g a g es O h b
r 5 lfi- inc
.

a ov e c o rw n g a s or l . cu . ft .

Tot a .l
S t ea m cap ac it y n e sa m e con it io ns

SPE CIFI CATION F OR B OIL ER .

B oi l er .
—Straight top made throughout best h omo g eneous steel Of

plates {g inch thick (unless otherwise specified) and rivetted with 2 inch
l - -

ri v ets Spaced not ove r 15 inch between centers Al l longitudinal seam s .

doubl e rivetted and welted all circular seams single rivett e d and welted ,

around the bottom to above water l ine .

P res s ure —150 pounds per square inch .

Wais t —Inside diameter at sm oke box end 52 inches and at fire box
.
-

end 53 2 inches Side sheet Of fire box shell g inch in thickness and ex
.
- -
,

tending to the top form ing a butt j oint at crown and over these an extra
, ,

c rown Shee t g inch in thickness is placed , extending down far enough on

-

each side to receive all the fire box crown stays This extra crown sheet -
.

is rivetted to the side sheet on each si de Of the butt j oint formed by them
 IN TE R N A L L Y F I R ED B OIL ER S. E TC .

fro m flan g e and 4 inch ce ntres connects ring with shell while a row , 4
,
-
,

inch centres connects flange on shell to dome , .

B oi e S t y g
l r a in — Th e back head and front flue sheet are well stayed by
.

angle gusset braces made O f {f inch steel plates the double an gle iron ,

connections for these braces also being made Of the same mate rial as they
ans wer the purpose much better than if made Of merchant angle iron .

C l ea n i n g A r ra n g em en ts — Cylinder part O f boiler is fitted with a boiler

.

washer im m ediately back Of front flue sheet with a man hole j ust bac k Of -

was her for convenience in examining boiler cleaning plugs in corners O f ,

fire box hand hole plates in front leg ; and blow O ff cock in back end Th e
,
- - .

boiler was her con sists Of two horns curved to fit shell connected with noz
zle provided with chec valve passing through bottom Of shell flange and k
was her secured to same A set O f nozzles point upward , and another se t .

backwards Th e boiler is al ways was hed o ut under pressure and th en

.

when em pty
Th r o tt l e —B al anced poppet throttle valve Of cas t iron
. Thro t tle pipe - .

of cast iron with flang e or water shed on outside Of it D ry pipe Of

- .

wrought iron 6 inches inside diame ter

k
.

G r a te s — Oi cast iron rocking finger bar pattern arranged to wor

.
-
,

from cab fingers 91 inches long from centre of bar to e nd O f fin gers Ash
, .

p an fitted wit h d ouble damp ers Al l steam u sed except for ru nning
. the
engine is taken from a brass stand with one Opening from boiler provided
with check valve opened by an eccentric an d which closes by the pressure ,

inside unless h eld open, wh ich would happen if by accident the stand was
knocked Ofl .

F eed Wa ter —Supplied by two N O 16 Rue inj ectors in the cab one on
. .
,

each side O f boil er water enters on shell 22 inches from front head
,

through check valves .

CON SOLID AT ION L OCOMOTIVE

” "
D ESCRIPTI ON OF B OIL ER F O R F OR TH E
MI SSOU RI PACIFI C RAIL ROAD .

Shmll dr lm rl u h lld mmll k h

e , ia et e t si e s a est s eet 56 ; s e , eng t , 12 ft sp in
o hh ll l wr uh h . h
t ick ness -
ln

h k at e
ub h d h
ia , st ee ; s e Of s o e box E - ih t ick ; o g t iron .

h
.

T ic n ess , t e s eet s . 36 inc .

b r w
k h h fire - box , si e s eet s
fire - b ox , c o n s eet s

M r l Hm u l
fire - box , ac s eet s

N ummb r r uub d ub
at e
e Of t
ia .

es .
o og eneo
. 1 98
s s t ee

h
.

hr k
D ia et e o t si e of t
T ic nes s
y l ( u d .
es .

No 1 1, B
. G
inc
. W .
es

h
.

Hr d y b l u d )
F i e - box s t a bo t s , o t si
ea sta
)
o t s , (o t s i e
e 34 inc
1
.

rw
C own b ar
C o n s t ay s
6 X §§
76

were g enerally rectangular in form with stayed

Th e Older marine boilers
furnaces and present typ e h as developed from them Th e only division O f
, .

thes e boilers which we can make is bas ed on the number Of furn aces and ,

whether they are fired from one or both .

41 0 S TEA M MA KIN G: OR. B OIL E R P RA CTI CE .

S T EEL BO ILER,

Built by t he l
Wa lse nd S l ipway C ompany, N e w c ast le upon T yne
- -
.
 IN TE R N A LL Y F I RED B OILER S. E TC .

TR AN s R SE SE CTI O N T H R O U G H F U RN A C E S AN D TUB ES .

I
Feet

W Mm

—
N orm T h is l l ppl
sca e a s o a ies t o c u ts p
on o posit e p ag e .
 “
Of three placed in the ste amsh ip Ass yrian Monar ch Th e boiler is 12 ft .
’
.

3 in in diameter and 1 8 ft 6 in long , with corrugated furnace tubes 3 ft

.
, . .
, .

9 in di ameter , the latter O f D on iron , the remain der is O f steel , by Messrs

. .

J ohn B rown 85 Company , She ffield Th e shell plates are {3 O f an inch , the .

en d pla tes 3} O f an inch above and 3 O f an inch b elow an d the tube plates , ,

are 3 O f an inch and the corru g ated tubes and com bus tion ch ambers are 3
,

inch in thickness Th e double rivett ed longitudinal se a ms have l inch

.
- -

holes and {Lg inch rivets , - inche s centres Th e butt straps are 9 inches .

while the thickness is for those Of the central ring {3 of an inch inside , ,

and of an inch outside , and for the t wo end rings 34 O f an inch inside ,

and O f an inch ou t side Th e other two rings have 36 Of an inch inside .

,

and R, O f an inch outside Th e ring seams have 4 3 inches thick Th e . .

rivets 1 inch in 1 35 inc h holes and 3 3 inch centres double rivetted N one - .

of the holes are punched , b ut when possible , drilled in place after the
sheets are bent an d put together Each ring Of the shell is made O f thre e .

pl ates Th e flange plate s are all annealed after flan g ing Th e long stay
. .

rod s of wrought iron , the upper row 2} inches and the lower row at inches
in diam eter Th e wash er plates are 9 inches in diameter and 33 O f an inch
.

thick , rivetted to the end plate s Th e screw bolt s tays are 1 } inch exter .

nal , 1155 inch e fle c t iv e diam eter O f stee l screwed into the plates an d with
nuts also at eac h end There are 388 wrought iron tubes . inches e Xt er
nal di ameter 6 ft 7 in long 44 are stay tubes 22 inches inside di ameter
, . .
, ,

being 338 O f an inch thick under t h e threads These are screwed and .

headed over in the b ack tube plates while they have nuts inside and out at
the other end .

Th e grates are 5 ft 6 in long and have an area each sq ft in eac h

. .
, . .

furnace or sq ft for one boiler and sq ft in al l Th e tube sur

. .
, . . .

face in each boiler is 2140 sq ft , and the total heating surface is 2601 sq . . .

ft or 7 803 sq ft for the three boilers Th e pressure allowed by t h e B oar d

. . . .

O f Trade and L loyd s is 80 poun ds per square inch

’
.

T h e machinery and vess el were built by Earle s Shipbuilding and En

’

g i n ee rin g Company of H ull for the R oyal E xchange

, Shipping Company , ,

O f L ondon fo r the N e w York and L ondon trade in 1881

, .

T h e last exam ple Of marine boilers which we gi ve is one O f three , ,

oval ones for the steam ship Mexican Th e three are set athwart ships with
“
.
-

th eir c e nter lines fore and aft Th e boilers are each 12 feet 10 inches wide .
,

1 6 feet 6 inches high and 1 7 feet 6 inches long an d work at 9 0 pounds, ,

pressure There is one stack and each boiler h as three furnaces at each
.
,

end feet i ches diam eter Th e furnace tubes are O steel 1 6 inch thick ,
3 4 n f 1 .
-

an d corrugated on F ox s patent There is p l aced over the center boiler a

’
.

steam drum 21 feet long and 5 feet diameter There are in each boiler 440 .

tubes 6 fee t 9 inches between tube sheets 3 ; inches outside diameter

, , ,

N O 8 wire gauge
. Th e stay tubes are 3 1 inches with en ds swelled to 3 3
.
,

inches Th e ring sheets are g inch steel and are in length in order ,
. -
,

3 feet 22 inches 3 feet 1 03 inches 4 feet 71, ; in ches 3 feet 1 03 inches and 3 , , ,

feet 22 inches Th e top end plates are fl inch with a re enforce O f - -

k
.
,

g-
in c h shown by
, dotted li nes Th e end tube plates ar e f inch t hi c .
-
,
 S TE A M MA KIN G: OR . B OIL E R P RA CTI CE .

TOP V W
IE .

BOTTOM V W
IE

T HE LAT T A BO ILER .
 THE D E SI GN , CON S TR UCTI ON , E TC .

sep arate circulating pump discharg ing a mixture O f steam and water into
,

the upper p art Of the shell which thus acts as a sep arator the water fall
, ,

ing through the steam to the lower p art of the shel l T h e pipes are kept
.

cle an by the active current induced by the p ump From thirty to forty.

gallons Of water are used at a time A variable exhaust from the engine
.

controls the draft , an d the extent Of pipe surface gives a very ra pid for
mation O f steam Th e engines are gu aranteed to throw water in four
.

minutes from the lighting O f the fires with cold water, .

Th e H e rre sh ofi Manufacturing Co m pany O f Bristol R I have used a

, , . .
,

form Of boiler for s mall steamboats which di ffe rs from the L atta in
,
“

us ing a spiral coil O f welded pipe a ve ry great i m prove m ent over the
,
“
j ointed form shown in the L atta and the use Of a sm all separator in
, ,

st ead Of the shell which can hardly be called an i m provement for small
,

shells These boilers have been m easurably succe s sful with good water at
.

sea but we know of only three tri ed in W estern waters A sm al l one on

,
.

the Upper Missouri was successfully used by the U nited States Engineer De
p a rt m e n t for a small boat while
, the other t w o one at the Sabula D raw
,

B ri dge and one in St L ouis did n ot give satisfacti o n soon burning out
, .
, , .

“
Th e smal l bo ilers the L atta shell and the Herresh ofi coil wo uld prob
, ,

abl y work well for continuous service with good wate r but for bad water ,
“
th eir use w il l be restricted to emergency duty .
 C H APT ER V I

THE D ESI GN , CON STRUCTI ON AN D STRE N GT HO F B OIL ERS .

Th e features which are m o st important appear to be t o provide

1
. Safety ; or st ren gth .

2
. D ura bility ; or strength in the fut ure .

3. Convenience in cl ea ning and inspection .

4. Capacity to do the required work We place th is las t as requiri ng

.

less attention than the others .

Th e strength O f cylindrical shell s is a very si m ple m atte r from the

proportion T h e thickness Of the shell is to radius Of the shell as the
.

pressure inside th e shell is to the tension around the shell Th e thick .

ness an d radius being in inches the pressure in pounds per square inch
, ,

the tension wil l be in pounds upon a square inch of section Th e tension .

along the shell is one half that around the shell -

.

Th e thickness diameter and pressure allowed by law on steamboats in

,

the U nited States is given in the accom panying extracts from the laws O f
the U nited States relative to the inspection Of steam boats t aken from ,

pam phlet form laws governing the steamboat inspection service Re .

“
vised statutes Ofthe U nited States dated , 1882 and from the General rul es
, ,

and Re g ulations Of the B oard of Supervi sing Inspecto rs Of St eam Vessels ,

revised to 1880 .

TITL E LII . RE GU L AT IO N OF STE AM VE SSEL S . H

C APTE R I IN SPECTION .

SE CTI O N 43 99 Every
vessel propelled in whole or in part by steam
.

shal l be deemed a steam ve ss el wi t hi n the meaning Of this title .

SE C 4400
. Al l steam vessels navigating any waters Of the U nited
.

States which are co m mon high w ays O f co m merce or open to general or

competitive navigation excepting public vessels Of the U nited States ves ,

sels Of other countries and boats propelled in whole or in part by steam for
navigating canals shall be subj ect to the provisi ons O f this title .

SE C 4418
. T h e local inspectors shall also inspect the boilers O f all
.

steam vessels before the same shall be used and once at least in every year ,

thereafter They shall subj ect all boilers t o t h e hydrostatic pressure and
.
,

shall satisfy themselves by thorough exam ination that the boilers are wel l
m ade O f good and suitable m aterial ; th at the openings for the passage O f
,

steam and water respectively and all pipes and tubes exposed to heat are
, ,

O f proper di m ensions and free from O bstructions ; that the spaces between

and around the fines are sumc ient ; that the fines are circular in form ; th at
 122 S TEAM MA KIN G: OR, B OIL E R P R A C TI CE .

AN ACT , Relating to the L imitation of St eam P ressure of Ve ss els U sed

Exclusivel y for T owi n g an d Carryin g Freight on the Mississi ppi River
and its Tributaries .

B e it ena ct ed by t h e S ena te a nd H ous e of R epres enta tives f t he Uni ted

o

S ta t es in Cong res s as ss emble d

“
That the provisions of an act entitled An Act to P rovide for the Bet
ter Security of Life on V e s sels P rop e lled in Whole or in P art by Steam ,

etc approved Feb 28 1 87 1 so far as they relate to t h e l im itation of s t e am

.
, .
, ,

pressure of steam boats used exclusively for towing an d carryin g freight

on the Mississippi ri v er and its tri butaries are hereby so far m odified as ,

to su bstitut e for su c h boats 150 pounds Of steam pressure in pl ace O f 1 10

pounds as provided in s aid act for the st andard pressure upon stan dard
,

boilers of 42 inches di ameter an d of plates one quarter O f an inch in -

thickness ; and such boats may on the written permit of the supervising ,

inspector of the dist rict in w hich such boats shall carry on th eir business ,

be permitted to carry steam above the standard pressure O f 1 10 poun ds ,

but not exceeding the standard pressure of 150 pounds to the square inch .

Approved J an 6t h 1 87 4 .
, .

SE C 4419 On e of the safety valves m ay if in the opinion O f t h e

. .
,

local inspectors it is necessary to d o so an d the steam registers sh all be ,

taken wholly from the con t rol of all persons engaged in navigating such
vessel and secured by the inspectors
,
.

SE C 4426 Th e hull and boilers of every ferry boat canal bo at yacht

. .
, ,

or other sm all craft of like ch aracter propell ed by steam Shall be inspecte d

under the provisions of this title Such ot her provisions of law for the .

better security Of life as m ay be applicable to such vessel s shall by the

regul ations of the board O f supervising inspectors also be required to be ,

compl ied with before a certificate of inspection sh all be g ranted and no

such vessel shall be navi gated without a licensed engineer and a licensed ,

pilot .

SE C 4427 Th e hull and boiler of every tug boat towing boat an d

. .
,

freight boat shall be inspect ed under the provisions Of th is title , and the
inspector shall see that the boilers machinery and appurtenances of such ,

vessel are not dangerous in form or work m anship an d that the safety ,

valves gauge cocks low wate r alarm i ndi cators steam gauges and fusible
, , ,

plugs are all attached in conformity to law ; and the omc ers navigating
such vessels shall be licensed in conformity with the provision s Of this
title and shall be subj ect to the same provi sions O f law as o fficers navi
gating passenger steam ers .

SE C 4428 Every boiler manufactured t o be used on steam ves se ls and

. .

made of iron or steel plates sh all be constructed of plates that have been
st am ped in accordance w ith the provisions of the title .

SE C 4429 Every person who constructs a boiler or steam pipe con

. .

n e c t in g the boilers to be u sed on ste am vessels Of iron or steel plates

, ,

which h ave not been duly stamped and inspected according to the provi
 , k
sions of this title or who nowing uses any defective bad on faul ty iron , ,

or steel in the construction of such boilers or who drifts any rivet hole to,

m ake it come fair ; or who delivers any such boiler for use knowing it to
be imperfect , in it s fin es , fianging rivetin g, bracin g , or in any other of its
,

parts shall be fined

, one half for the use of the informer
- .

N othing in this title shall be so construed as to prevent from being

used on any steamer an y boiler or steam g enerator which may not be
, ,

construct ed of rivetted iron or steel plates , wh en the board Of supervising

inspectors have sati sfactory evid ence that such boiler or steam generator
is equal in strength and as safe fro m explosion as a boiler Of the best qual
“
ity constructed of rivette d iron or steel plates [ P rovided however , that .
,

the Secretary of the Treasury may grant permis sion to use any boiler or
ste am g enerator not constructed of ri v etted iron or steel plates upon the
certificate of the supervising inspector of the district wherein such boiler
or generator is to be used , an d other satisfactory proof that the use O f
t h e same is safe and e fll cient , said perm it to be valid until the next regu
‘

lar mee tin g Of the supervising inspectors who shall act Amend
ment passed Aug 7 t h 1 882 .
, .

SE C 443 0 Every iron or ste el plate used in the construction of steam

. .

boat boil ers , an d which shall be subj ect to a tensile strain shall be ih ,

spe c t e d in such m ann er as shall be prescribed by the B oard of Superv is

ing Inspectors and approved by the Secretary of the T reasu ry so as to ,

enable the inspectors to as certain it s te nsile strength h om og eneonsne ss , ,

toughness and ability to withstand the effect Of repeat ed heating and cool
ing ; and no iron or ste el plat e Shall be used in the construction Of such
boilers which has not be en inspected and approved under the rules .

SE C 443 1
. Every plate of boiler iron or stee l made for use in the c on
.

struction of steamboat boilers shall be left visi ble when such plates are
worked into boilers with the name Of the man ufacturer , the place where
,

m anufactured , an d the number of pounds tensile strain it will bear to the

sectional square inch ; and ins pectors shall eep a record in their Omc e Of k
the stamps upon all boiler plates an d boilers which they inspect .

SE C 4432 Every p erson wh o counterfeits or causes to be counter

. .

feit e d any Of the marks or stamps prescribed for boiler iron or steel plates ,

or who designedly stamps or caus es to be stampe d falsely any such plates ,

and every person who stamps or marks or causes to be stamped or ,

marked any such iron or steel plates with the nam e or trade mark O f
another with the intent to mislead or deceive shall be fined one
half to the use Of the informer , an d may in addition thereto at the dis
cretion Of the court h e imprisoned not exceeding two years
k
.
,

SE C 443 3
. T h e wor ing steam pressure allowable on boilers con
.

structed of plates inspected as required by this title when single rivetted ,

-

shal l not produce a strain to exceed one sixth of the tensile strength of-

the iron or steel plate s of which such boilers ar e con structed ; but where
the longi tudinal laps of the cylindrical parts of such boilers are double
rivette d , and t h e rivet holes have been fairl y drilled instead of punched
k
,

an addition of 20 per centum to the wor ing pressure provi ded for single
 1 24 S TE AM MAKIN G: OR . B OIL E R PRA CTI CE .

r ivetting may be a llowed P r ov ide.d Tha t al l other

, part s O f such boiler s

shall correspond in strengt h to t h e additional allowances so m ade and no ,

split c au l king sh all in any cas e b e pe rmitted .

SE C 4434
. N O boiler t o w hi ch the heat is applied to t h e outside of t h e
.

shell thereof shall be constructed Of iron or st e el plates O f more than 11066

k
,

of an inch in thic ness , t h e ends or heads O f t h e boilers only excepted ;

and every such boiler employed on ste am ves se ls navi gating rivers flow
ing into the Gulf Of Mex ico , or their tri butaries shall have not less than
3 inches space between and around its inte rn al fines .

SE C 4435
. Th e feed water shall be delivered in to the boilers in such
.

manner as t o prevent it from contracting the me tal or otherwise in

j uring the boil ers An d when boilers are so arranged on a vessel t hat
.

there is e m ployed a water connecting pipe through whi ch the wat er m ay

p as s from one boiler to another there shall also be provi ded a similar
,

steam Connection havin g an area O f opening into each boiler Of at least a

square inch for every 2 square feet O f e fie cti v e heating surface contained
in any on e of the boilers so connected half the fine and al l other fire sur
,

faces being computed as e flect iv e Adequat e provisions shall be mad e on

.

al l steam vess els to prevent sparks of flames from being driven back from

the fire doors into the vessel .

SE C 443 6
. Every boiler shall be provided with a good , well co n
.

structed safety valve or valves O f such n um ber , dimensions an d arran ge

ments as shall be prescribed by the B oard of Sup ervising Inspectors and
Shall be also provided with a sumc ie n t number of g aug e coc ks an d a relia

ble low water indicator that will give alarm when the wate r fal ls be low its
prescribed limits ; and in ad di tion thereto there shall be insert ed in a
,

suitable m anner in the fi nes crown sh eets or ot her parts of the boiler
,

most exposed to the heat Of the furnace when the water falls below it s
prescribed lim its a plug of good B anca tin .

SE C 443 7
. Every person who intention al ly loads or obstructs or
.

causes to be loaded or obstructe d in any way or manner the safety valve ,

of a boiler or who empl oys any other m eans or device whereby the boiler
may be subj ected to a g reater pressure t han the amount al lowed by the
certificate of the inspec t ors or who intentionally deranges or hinders the
operation of an y m ac h inery or device em ployed to denote the state O f the
water or ste am in any boiler , or to give warning Of approaching danger ,
or who intentionally permits the water to fall below the presc ribed low
water line O f the boiler and every person concerned the rein d irectly or
,

indirect ly shall be g uilty of a m isdemeanor and sh all be fined $200 a n d

,

may also be imprisoned not excee ding five years .

1 26 S TEA M MA KIN G: OR . B OI LER P RA OTI C E .

TABLE or PRESSU RES, Era , Com m .

“M ’
‘
TEN m m m m m
ST R
SILE
EN G TH .
SIL E
R
ST EN G T H .
SIL E
STREN G TH . R
ST EN G TH
S IL E
. ST REN G TH
SIL E
.
SI LE
R
S T EN G T H .

1 -6, 1 -6 , 1 -6. 1 -6, 1 - 6, 1 - 6,

3 .s

5 3
.

GI 57 Q
5
5:
8
g “
a u a

3 B
3 U W
8 a
E
‘ ‘
0
4

2
3 3 7 3 2
a A
: a 8. 8 8
74 7 2
. 88 3 1
98 9 1 1 18 69 . 127 82
100 . 9 1 66
. 100 . 120 . 108 33 9 9 1 16 66 13 9 99 .

90 6 7 99 63
. 126 8
186 13 1 88
126 . 147 1
176 . 6 2 190 21 .

16 7 . 39

149 46
. 196 64 176 6 2 211 94 190 21 228 26
. . . .

. 1876 109 36 .

. 21 72 . 9 1 87 . 49 80 2 . 113 74
. 122 49 .

. 23 79 . 86 9 6 . 82
. 26 86 . 8 104 . 16 12 84
11 .

. 26 81 2 5
. 90 . 27 108 . 32 99 3 36
. 29 108 7 4 . 132 9 1 167 08
. 3 126 108 6 . 130 2 .

. 33 114 58. 13 7 49
. 15 1 2 4 16 6 .

. 35 109 3 7 13 1 24 . 121 52. 145 83 174 99

. .

. 3 75 156 24.

. 187 5 69 44 7 6 38
.

21 7 1 29
. 85 54. 7 7 77.

. 23
. 25 69 44 92 59 .

. 26
. 29 128 88
. 3 125
. 33 146 66. 158 88
. 35 97 . 66 1 29 62 1 18 82
. . 155 54. 16 8 5 1
104 16 . 152 7 7 138 88
. . 150 46
.

. 1 875 52 03 62 49 75 .

. 21 63 . 58 33 69 99 84 .

. 23 69 . 63 88 76 65
. 25 75 . 69 44 83 32 9 7 22 3 16 66
. 26 65 . 76 . 72 8622 66
. 29 72 5 87 . 80 9655 66
. 3 125 86 8 104 16 124 99 1 12 95 . .

. 33 66 109 99 100 83
. 109 99 13 2 1 19 16
. . .

. 35
.
87 5 105
. . 1 16 . 66 116 66 13 9 99 . . 13 6 1 1 163 3 3
. 3 75 9 3 7 5 1 12 5
. . 104 16 124
. . 99 114 58 137 49 125
. . 150 13 5 41
. . .

. 187 5 56 8 56 . 81 73 86
.

. 21 53 .63 63
. 23 58 .69 69 63 88 97 57
. 25 75 75 6 9 44
. 26 78 7 8 7 2 22 78 . 78
. 29 87 87 80 55 95 2 .

. 3 125 71 . 94 69 86 89 94 . 69 113 62 .

. 33 83 33 99 99 9 1 66 109 99 99 99 120
. 35 88 38 106
. . 05 9 7 22 116 66 106
. . . 127 27 1 14 89 13 7 86 123 73 148 47
. . . .

. 375 102 26 94 69 1 13
. . 62 104 16 124 99 1 13
. . . 62 147 72 13 2 57 . .

'
. 18 75 3 9 06
. 46 87 ; 43 4
. . 47 7 4
. 57 28
. 52 08
. 62 49 . 56 42 6 7 7 0 6 0 76
. . .

1
. 1
47 9 1
I
.
 THE D E SI GN . CON S TR UU TI ON . E TC .

TABL E OF P RESSU R ES , E TO .
, CONTINU ED .

TEN TEN T EN T EN TEN TEN

SIL E
S TB EN G TH .
SIL E
R
ST EN G T H .
SIL E
STB EN G TH .
SIL E
R
ST E N G T H .
SIL E
R
ST EN G T H .
SIL E
S I REN G TH .

a 1 1 - 6, 1 1 - 6, 1 - 6,

Q-l
O

8 8
3 5
“5
6
a $1 8
7
15
:
. 25
. 26
. 29 87 2 6 104 7 1
. 3 1 25 7 8 12
. 33
35
. 3 75 104 16 9 6 48 114 6 7 104 16 124 99

187 5
21
. 23
. 25 6 9 44
. 26 50 . 60 .

. 29
. 3 125 9 3 48 112 1 7
. 33
. 35
. 3 75 72 11

. 1875 48 86 58 03
. 21 45 . 50 . 60 . 54 16 6 4 99 58 33
. 23 59 3 2 71 18 63 65
. 25 44 64 5 4 56 59 5 2 64 48 7 7 37 69 44
. 26 67 05 8 0 46 72 22
. 29 57 53 74 8 89 76
. 3 125 62 81 84 80 6 96 72
. 33 65 47 86 42 85 1 1 102 13 9 1 6 6 109 9 9
'
. 35 75 . 69 44 9 1 65 90 27 108 32 9 7 2 2 11 6 66
3 75 74 4

. 187 5 48 6 8 I
.

. 21 35 . 42 . 54 44
. 23 55 37 66 44 59 62 7 1 54
. 25 60 18 72 21 64 81
. 26 52 9 6 63 55 57 77 62 59 75 1 67 4
. 29 70 8 64 44 69 81 83 77 75 18
. 3 125 76 38 69 44 75 23 90 27 81 01
. 33 55 . 66 . 80 66 73 33
. 35 69 99 84 25 101 1
. 3 75 62 5 75 . 97

. 1875 42 31
. 21 32 81 39 37 43 75 52 5 47 39
. 23 35 93 43 11 47 91 57 49 51 9
. 25 39 06 46 87 52 08 62 49 56 42 67 6 7
26 40 62 48 74 54 16 64 99 58 78
29 45 31 54 37 60 41 72 49 65 45
3 125 48 82 58 58 65 1 78 12 70 52
33 51 56 61 87 68 75 82 5 7 4 47
35 54 68 72 91 87 49 78 99 85 06 102 07
3 75 58 58 78 12 93 74
 128 S TE A M MA K I N G: OR B OIL ER P R A OTI OE
. .

TABLE OF PRE SSURES

A ll w
o d
ed un er t h e Provisions of t h e S
V db
is ] Act of Cong ress rel ating t o t h e
y F Limi t ation

the M
is sissi pp
of St eam Pres s ure of essel s us e x ol us iv el y t or Towing and Carr ing
i Riv er and it s Tri ut arie s A rov ed J anuar 6, 1874 . pp y .
reight on

68 .
33
.
8 83
£3 3 3 g
3 3
$
51
fl
81
F
84
F
34
P
34
F
34
9

21 9 23 711 8 63
11

38
.

30 9 9 11011 1 87

3
2
‘
1 8 23 111 3
-
m s aq on1 9 7 A g g

21 9 20 111 8
3 0 8 9 11011 1 07

1 3 119 171 8 6
11
-
19 9 9 110 0 1 88 53;
1 3 19 111 9 56
-
1p s aq ou1 93
£3
,
c~
l
1 3 29 111 9
-
19 Ge rm a n-
8
33
8L 3 .
F
1 3

The ab ov e b d dp pb d b d h
pq dd hb z b h d
t a l e g iv es t h e s t eam - re ss ure al l ow e on oil ers us e on freig t and t ow

b
m
and 25 of a n inc
. t ic
b h h
in g s t e a ers , t h e s t an ar
k py
res s ure
.
eing 16 0 oun s for a

by poil er 42 inc es

k
iam et e r,

d d by d
T o find t h e re s s ure re uire on ot er si e oil ers, (not g iv e n

d
in t h e a ov e t a l e , ) m ul t i l
ia m e t er .
t h e t hi c nes s and ivi e t h e ra ius, or h al f t h e
 13 0 S TEA M MA KIN G: OR B OILER P R A CTI CE
. .

tead of punched , and the longitudi nal lap s of their cylindrical parts
‘

double -rivetted in t he m a nner p res cribed by l aw

, .

Th e pre ssure for any di mension of boilers n ot found in the above

b
t a le can be as certained by the foll owing rule , viz :
,

Multiply one sixth (A) of the lowest tensile strengt h foun d stamped on
-

n
a y pl a te in the cylindric al shel l by the thickne ss — e xpressed in in ches or
—
p arts of an inch oi the thinnest plate in the same cylindrical shell and
di vide by t h e radius or h alf di ameter—al s o expressed in inches—an d t h e
,

sum w ill be the pressure allo w able per sq uare inch of surface for single

rivetting to whic h ad d 20 per centum for do uble rivetti ng etc

,
-
, .

Th e hydrostatic press ure applied under the above t able an d rule , ,

must be in the proportion of 1 50 pounds to the square inch t o 100 pounds

to the square inch of the working pressure al lowed .

Where flat surfaces ex is t the inspector m ust satisfy himself th at t h e

,

bracing an d all other p art s of the boiler are of eq ual stren g th w ith the
shell and he must also after applying the hydrostatic test thoroughly
b
, , ,

examine every p art of the oiler to see th at n o weakn ess or fracture h as

been cause d thereby Inspectors must see th at the fin es are of proper
.

thickness to avoid the dan ger of collapse Flues of 16 inches in diameter .

,

m ade after J uly 1 1 87 7 m ust not be less th an 1 6 of an inch in thickness ,

, ,
5

an d in proportion for fines of a g reater or less di ameter .

RU L E 3 Every iron or steel pl ate intended for the construction of

b
.

oilers to be used on st eam vessel s shall be stam ped by the m an ufacturer

in the fol l ow ing m anner , v iz at the diagon al corners at a di stance of
.
, ,

abo ut 4 inches from the edges an d als o at or near t h e centre of the plate ,
,

with the n am e of the man ufacturer the place w here m an uf actured and , ,

the number of pounds tensil e strain it w ill bear to the section al square
inch
b
.

When a sheet of boil er iron is found y the inspector w ith one or more
.

stamps upon the same the ins pectors sh all in every such case be governed
, ,

an d rate the tensil e strength of iron in accord ance w ith the lowest stamp

fo und upon the same .

I RU L E 4 Th e m anner of inspecting and testin g bo iler plates intended

.

to be used in the constr uction of m arine boilers by the United States ia ,

spectors s h all be as follows viz :

b b
, ,

Th e inspectors sh al l visit places w here m arine oilers are eing con

structed as often as possibl e , for the p urpose of ascertaining an d m aking
,

a record of the stamps upon the m ateri al its thickness an d other q ual ities , , .

To ascerta in the tensile strain of the pl ates the inspectors sh all cause a
piece to be taken from each sheet to e tested the area of w hich sh al l b ,

eq ual one quarter of one sq uare inch on all iron 1 6 of an inch thick an d
- 5
, ,

u nder ; a n d on al l iron over 5

13 of an inch thick the are a sh all equal the
square of its thickness ; an d the force at w hich the piece can be parted in
the direction of the fibre or g rain represented in pounds avoirdupois ,

the forme r m ultipl ied by fo ur the latter in proportion to the ratio of it s

,

are a—sh all be deemed the tensile strain per sq uare inch of the plate fro m

w hich the sampl e was taken ; an d sho ul d the tensile strength as certain e d
 THE D E SI GN , CON S TR UCTI ON , E TC .

by the test eq ual th at marked on the plates from w hich the test pieces
were taken the said p l ates m ust be allowed to be used in the construction
,

of marine boilers ; provided always th at t h e s ai d plates possess the other

qualities required by l aw , viz homogeneousness to ughness , an d abil ity
.
, ,

to w ithstand the effect of repeated heating an d cooling ; b ut should these

tests prove the m ark s on the said pl ates to be ov erst am ped the lots from ,

which the test plates were taken m ust be rej ected as failing to h ave the
strength stamped thereon B ut nothing herein sh all be so construed as to
.

prevent the m an ufacturers from restamping such iron at the l owest tensile
strain indicated by the sampl es provided such restamping is done previ
,

ous to the use of the plates in the m an ufact ure of m arine boil ers .

T o ascertain the d uctil ity an d oth er lawful q ualities : iron of

pounds tensil e strength an d under sh al l show a contraction of area of 1 5
, ,

per cent an d each addition al

.
, pounds tensile strength sh all show 1
per cent addition al contraction of area up to an d including
.
, T S . .

In the foll owing table will be found the widths—expres s ed in hun

dredt hs of n nc
a i h —th at w ill equal one quarter of one sq uare inch of sec
-

tion of the vario us thicknesses of boil er pl ates Th e signs

, (pl us ) an d
.

(min us) indicate th at the n umbers against which the signs are pla ced
are a trifle m ore or l es s b ut will not , in an y instance exceed fot o of an
,
’

inch .

T h e gauge to be employed by in spectors an d others , to determine the

thickness of bo iler plates , an d the widths in the t a le , will be any stand
- b
ard American gauge furnished by the Tre as ury D ep artment .

Al l samples intended to be tested on the Riehl e

Fairbanks or other , ,

reliable testing m achine must be prep ared in form , according to the above
,

di agram , viz 8 inches in lengt h , 2 inches in width , out out at their centres
.
,

in the manner indicated .

 13 2 S TE AM MA K IN G: OR . B OIL E R PR A C TI CE .

RU L E 5 . hull s and boilers of all t ug to w ing an d freight boats

Th e , ,
-

sh al l be inspecte d in accord ance w ith section 59 (s ection 4427 R evised ,

Stat utes of the ac t afore said b ut ste am reg istering gauges sh all not be ,

required on t h e above n amed steamers -

.

RU L E 6 Th e feed w ater sh all not be admitted into an y boiler , on

.

board of any steam vessel s ubj ect to the j urisdiction of this board at less ,

temperature th an one h undred (1 00) degrees F ahr for l o w pressure or .

-

condensi ng boilers an d one h undred an d eighty (1 80) degrees Fahr for

, .

high p ressure or non condensing boilers ; nor sh all cold w ater be admitted
-

into any s uch boilers w hile the w ater is at a l ess temperature th an the
surro undin g atmosphere .

All tests m ade of boil er m ateri al m ust be recorded upon a t able of t h e

foll owing form :

TEN SILE TE ST S O F SAMPL E S OF MATERIAL IN TEND ED T O B E E MPL OYED

IN T HE CON STRU CTI O N OF B OIL E RS O F STE AM VE SSEL S MAD E ON
TE STIN G MAC H IN E .

s l .
f
e a a n x o
i
l
r e e

t
p e e k

sm sm tm
a ,

a a
a e d
e l
r e
e p r
nh a

m
s
e d
o t y n
t hts
h e a
e t u
l

b
e b h f R EMARKS .

a n o a

tsm
o c
l
u i i
.

h
r
o
p w e
d h
e c

p c n n
i
k

t
m m s
hws
i
a o e
c r n

tm hs
r i
a f p a
S T
I

RU L E 7 . Whenever steamers us e a press ure upon their boilers ex

c e e d in g 6 0 po unds to t h e sq uare inch they sh all be inspected as high ,

press ure s te amers an d design ated as such .

RU L E 8
. . In spectors s h al l not all o w the us e of vertical tub ul ar boilers ,

on w aters flow ing into the Gul f of Mexico un l es s th e water l ine of t h e ,

boil er is the l aw ful di s t ance above the upp e r end of t ubes an d fire l ine .

RU L E 9 . Stand pip e s us ed on high pre s s ure We s tern river steamers

sh al l b e co n struct e d of i ron tested an d st amp e d as req uire d by l aw ; but ,

w hen a st e ame r is to be n avigated in s al t w aters an d in the opinion of th e , ,

s upervising inspector cast iron m ay be emp l oye d w ith gre ater safety he
, ,

m ay al l ow s tan d pipes con structed of c as t i ron to b e used on steamers of

t h e l att e r c l as s .
 134 S TE A M MA KIN G: OR B OIL ER P R A CTI CE
. .

purchase r an acceptable guarantee t hat the same will work correctly , and
according to the l aw an d rule one ye ar ,
.

R U LE 3 4 Al l ste amers sh all h ave inserted in their boil ers plug s of

.

B anca tin at least i inch in di ameter at the smallest end of the intern al
,
-

opening , in the fol low ing m anner to wit : Cylinder boilers with fiues
,
-

sh al l h ave one plug inserted in one fin e of each boiler ; an d also one plug
inserted in the shell of each boiler from th e in side , immedi ately before
the fire line , an d not less th an 4 feet from the forw ard end of the boi l ers
b
.

All fire box boilers sh all h ave one plug inserted in the crown of the ack
connection or in the highest fire surface of the boil er The s e plugs in
,
.
,

external diameter, must correspond in size to a 1 inch gas or steam pipe -

screw t ap .

RU LE 3 5 Al l st e amers h aving one or t w o b oilers sh all h ave three

b
.

s uitable gauge cocks in each boiler T hose h aving three or more oilers
.

in battery sh all h ave three in e ach outside boil er an d t wo in each rem ain
ing boiler in the b attery ; an d the middle gauge cocks in al l boilers sh all
not be less th an 4 inches above the top of the fines tubes , or crow n of the ,

fire box
- .

RU L E 3 6 Safety v al ves to be att ached to boilers , intended for steam

.

vessels b uilt six months after the approval of this r ule , sh all h ave an area
of not less th an 1 square inch to 2 square feet of the grate surface when ,

t h e common safety valve is employed .

But w hen safety valves are to be used the lift of which w il l g ive an ,

effective are a of one h al f of th at d ue the di ameter of the valve , the area

-

required sh all not be less than one h alf of 1 square inch to 2 square feet
-

of the grate s urface .

Th e v al ves shall be so arranged th at each boiler on the stea m vessel

sh all h ave one sep arate safety val ve , unless the arran gement is such as to
preclude the possibility of sh utting off the communication of any boil e r
w ith the s afety valve or valves employed This arr angement sh all als o .

apply to the lock up s afety valves when they are employed

-
.

Th e lock up s afety valves sh all be such as are approved by t h e Board

-

of Supervising Inspectors , and of s uch dimensions as the inspectors m ay

deem necessary .

Th e term refl ective a rea employed in this rule h as reference to the

opening obtained by the l ift .

Th e first section of this rule applies to valves construct ed in m ateri al ,

workm anship an d p rincipl e , according to the draw i ngs for a s afety val ve
,
'

printed with these rules an d all common le ver safety v alves to be here
,

s r appli ed to the boilers of ste am vessels must be so construc t ed .

When this construction of a s afety v alve is applied to the boilers of

steamers n avigating rough waters the link m ay be connected direct wi th
,

the spindle of the valve ; provided al ways th at the fulcrum or points upon ,

w hich the lever rests are m ade of steel knife or sh arp edged an d h ard ,
-
,

ened ; in this case the short end of the l ever sho ul d be attached directly to
the valve cas ing In al l cas es the link requires but a slight movement ,
- .

not exceeding 5 of an inch .

 THE D E SI GN . CON S TR UCTI ON . E TC .

Referring to the report on safety valve tests , conducted under the eu

t h orit y of the Board of Supervisors the construction of valves which will ,

apply to the se co nd section of this rul e is describe d .

All the points of bee fi n g on lever must be in the s ame p l ane .

Th e dist ance of the f ul crum must in no case b e less th an the di ameter

of the valve openi n g
- .

Th e length of the lever should not exceed the distance of the fulcrum
mul tiplied y 1 0 b
b
.

T h e width of the earings of the fulcrum must not be less th an three

fourths (2) of one inch .

Th e l ength of the ful crum link sh o uld not be less th an four (4) inches .

Th e lever an d ful crum l ink must be m ade of wr o ught iron or steel , -

an d the knife edged fulcrum points and be arings for the points must be
-

made of steel an d h ardened .

Th e valve valve seat an d bushings for the s t em or spindle must be

, ,

m ade of composition (g un metal ) w hen the v alve is intended to be at

t ach e d to a boiler using salt w ater ; b ut w hen the val ve is to be attached
to a boiler using fresh water and generating steam of a high pressure , the
,

p arts n amed with the exception of the bushin gs for the spindle m ay be
, ,

m ade of cast iron .

Th e v alve m ust be guided by its spindl e both above and below t h e ,

g ro u nd se at an d above the lever , thro ugh s upports either m ade of compo

sit ion (g un metal ) or h us h e d w ith it

b
.

Th e spindle should fit l oosel y in the earings or supports .

When the val ve is intended to be applied to the boilers of steamers

navigating rough w aters the fulcrum link m ay be connected directl y w ith
,

the spindle of the valve ; providing alway s th at the knife edged fulcrum -

points are made of steel an d h ardened an d that the obj ect so ught by the ,

link is obtained viz the vertical movement of the val ve unobstruc t ed by

, .
,

any l ateral movement

b
.

In al l cases the w eight m ust e adj usted on the l ever to the pressure
of steam required in e ach c ase by a correct steam gauge attached to the
boiler Th e weight must then be securel y faste ned in its po sition an d the
.

lever m arke d for the p urpose of fac ilitating the replacing of the weight
,

should it be necessary to remove the same .

RU L E 3 7 All steam gauges heretofore in use on steamers sh al l be ad

.

missibl e by the inspectors an d other steam gauges hereafter m ade of, ,

e q ual merit sh al l be allo w ed

, .

R U L E 38 Th e appliances in use on st eamers con structed prior to the

.

28t h of February 1872 for determining the height of w ater in the boilers
, ,

sh al l be considered reli able low w ater gauges .

RU L E 39 Eve ry device or appl iance on board of ste amers which is by

.

law or in the di scretion of the inspec t ors t aken from the control of all
, ,

persons n avigating t h e s ame sh al l be sec ured as the supervising inspector

,

of the district m ay direct , w ith the approval of the Secretary of the

Tre asury
b
.

R U L E 40 There must be me ans provided in al l oilers using the low

.
 13 6 S TE A M MA KIN G: O R B OIL ER P R A C TI CE
. .

water gauges which are operated by means of a oat inside the same to fl
fl
,

prevent the oat from getting in to the steam pipe .

In app l ying the hydrost atic tests to boilers with a ste am chimney , the
“ ”
t est gauge sho ul d be applied to the w ater line of such boilers .

It sh all be the duty of local inspectors to report at the end of e ach

year to their s upervising inspectors the n um er of boilers inspected y , b b
them in their local districts .

Al l horizontal cylindric al boilers used on steamers n avigating the

fl
waters o wing into the G ulf of Mexico , sh all be provided with a reli
able low w ater gauge .

RU LE 41 Al l boilers , or sets of boil ers employed on board of vessels

.
,

subj s e t to the provisions of the ac t of Congre s s relating to ste am vessels ,

approved F e bruary 28, 187 1 for the p urp o s e of generating steam , shal l
,

h ave attached to them at le ast one gauge th at will correctly indi cate the
press ure of steam .

REL ATIN G T O D I SCIPLIN E .

RU LE 56 It sh all be the d uty of an engineer, when he as s umes ch arge

.

of the boil ers an d m achinery of a steamer , to forthwith thoro ughly exam

ine the same an d if he finds any p art thereof in b ad condition c aused by
, ,

negl ect or in attentio n on the p art of his predece ssor he s h all immediat ely ,

report the facts to the local inspec t ors of the distric t who shall there
b
,

upon inve s tigate the m atter , an d if the former engineer h as been c ulp a ly
derelict of duty t hey sh al l suspend or revoke his l icense .

IN STRU ME N TS, MAC HN

I E S, AN D E QU I PMEN TS APPROVED F OR U SE ON

STE AM VE SSE L S .

N ora -
Onl yh pt os e ert a in in g to b oil ers are h ere gi v en .

STE AM P U MPS .

L andse l l
’
s double suction steam siphon presen t ed by H S L an ds ell
- -
, . .
,

N ew York .

Coll s single suction steam siphon presented by Mr 0 0 11 Pittsburgh

’
-
, .
, .

A Sl ut h ouer N ew Philadelphia O hio , fire an d bilge p ump

.
, ,
- .

Col l s improved steam siphon p ump

’
-
.

Sh errifi s ste am -siphon p ump

’
.

D E VI CE S F OR RE MO VI N G SED IMEN T FROM B OIL E RS .

Sediment gitator presented by B W R eynolds ,

a , . . E vansville , In dian a .

John C McLaug h l in Pittsburgh Pennsylvani a

.
, , .

Arm st rong s s vor te x ski m mer

’
- .
 13 8 S TEA M MA KIN G; OR , B OILER P RA C TI CE .

EXTRACTS FROM EN GLIS H BOARD OF TRAD E RULES .

In Great Britain station ary oilers are built under the inspection of
, b
the Boiler Insurance Comp anies , and in some to w ns are subj ecte d to mu
nicipal reg ulations Locomotive boilers are usually designed by the Sup
.

e rint e n de nt of Machinery an d less commonly by the m an ufacturer than in

,

this co untry Marine boilers are subj ected to the control of the Board of
.

Trade if the vessels are designed to carry twelve or more p assengers b ut

, ,

freight steamers are not subj ect to government inspection b ut usual l y to ,

Lloy ds inspection We take extracts from the rules of the Board of Trade
.

in sufficient n umber to show h ow the strength of the shell is determin ed .

When cyl indric al boil ers are m ade of the best materi al w ith all rivet ,

holes drilled in place an d al l the seams fitted w ith double b utt straps each
, ,

of at least 5 the thickness of the plates they cover an d all t h e seams at ,

least double rivetted w ith rivets h aving an allo wance of not more th an 75
per cent over singl e shear an d provided th at the boilers h ave been op en
.
,

to inspection d urin g th e whole p eriod of construction then 5 m ay be used ,

as the fac t or of safety Th e tensile strength of the iron is to be taken as

.

eq ual to pounds per sq uare inch w ith the g rain an d pounds ,

across the g rain .

Th e boilers m ust be tested by hydraul ic pressure to twice t h e w ork

ing pressure in the presence an d to the s ati s faction of the Bo ards sur
, ,
’

v e yors B ut w hen the above con di tions are not complied w ith the addi
.
,

tions in the fol lo w ing scale m ust be added to the factor 5 according t o
, ,

the circumstances of each case .

R E F E RE N CE AMO U N T
REAS ON F OR SU CH IN CR E AS E IN FA CTO R
L ETTER S TO AD D
.

When all the holes are fair and in the l ong it udi
nal seams but drilled o ut of p l ace after ben di ng
, .

When al l the hol es are fair and go o d in the l on g i

t udi nal seams but drilled out of pl ace before bend
ing .

When all holes are fair an d good , b ut are p unched

an d not drilled after bending .

When the hol es are fair an d good , but are p unched

an d n ot drilled before bending .

When the hol es in the longitudin al seams are not

fai r an d good .

If t h e holes in circumferential seams are fair an d

good but dril led out of pl ace after bendin g

, .

If the hol es in the circumferenti al seam s are fair

an d good b ut dr illed out of p l ace before ben din g
, .

d b Al l ow anc e s E , J ,
!
W
, and X, m ay be increase

ou t ful or uns at isfact ory .

d k
if t h e w or m an shi p or mat erial i s
 THE D E SI GN , CON S TR UCTI ON . E TC .

E XTRACTS F ROM E N GL IS H B OAR D OF TRADE RU L ES —C ONTINU ED .

R EF E R E N CE AMO U N T
RE AS O N F OR S U C H IN C R E A S E IN FA C T O R
L ETTE R S AD D
.
. TO .

If the holes in the circumferenti al s eams are fair

an d good b ut are punche d an d not drilled afte r

bending .

If the holes in t h e circumferential seams are fair

an d good , but p unched an d not dril led before

bending .

If the holes in the circumferential seams are not

fair and good .

If the longitudin al seams are double rivetted l ap

j oints an d not double covered butts
, .

If the longitudin al seams are treble rivetted l ap

j oints an d not double covered butt straps .

If a singl e b utt strap double rivetted be used in

the lo ngitudin al seams .

If a single b utt strap tre ble rivetted be used in the

l ongi tu din al seams .

If the longitudin al seams are single rivetted either ,

l ap singl e or double b utt straps being used .

If the circumferential seams are single b utt straps

do uble rivetted .

If the circumferential seams are singl e rivetted

single butt straps .

If the circumferential seams are double b utt straps

single rivetted .

If the circumferential seams are doubl e rivetted

l aps .

If the circumfere ntial e ms

s a are sin gle ivetted
r

laps .

Wh en the circ umferenti al seams are l ap and the

straps of plates are not entirel y over or under .

When the boiler is long and fines are used or w hen ,

it is fired from both ends this does not affect P , ,

R, an d S .

If the seams are not properly crossed .

If there is dou t b bo a ut the metal being of the best

q uality .

If the whole process of construction is not open

to inspection
d
.

d b
"All ow ances E , J W, an d X, m ay be increa se
1
.

ou t ful or un s at isfact ory .

if t h e w orkm h p a ns i or m at erial is
 140 S TE A M MA KIN G: OR B OIL E R P RA C TI CE
. .

It is usually stated on the authority Of Sir Wil li am Fairbairn th at a sin

gle rivetted j oint h as 56 per cent O f the strength Of the sh eet and th at a
-
.
,

doubl e rivetted l ap h as 7 0 per cent O f the strength Of the sheet Under

- . .

these circumstances it c an easily be seen th at 6 x is w h at is

“ ”
taken as the factor of safety by the Board of Supervising Inspectors ,

an d th at for ste ady press ures this is eno ugh Extern ally fired boi l ers buil t .

on these rul es are more durable th an if b uilt with a factor of s afety O f 6

, b
or 8 for the metal does not urn or the seam s leak so readily Se ams leak .

ing in the furn ace cause rapid corrosion .

D K C l ark concl udes fro m some experiment s by B runel th at for

. .

wrought iron plates an d rivets taking the solid p l ate as 100 t h e stren gth
-
, ,

of j oints in pl ates less th an a, of an inch thick except in the first cas e , .

were as follo ws :

b
D ou l e -riv et t e db h ut t w it t wo s t ra p s

Singl e -riv et t e d h
l ap
ap .

w it
.

sing l e w el t

Concerning the stren g th O f rivetted j oints we g ive some conc l usions ,

draw n by Professor A B W Kennedy on steel plates and rivets from ex

. . .

perim e n t s made in 1881 an d taken fro m his p aper read before the Inst it u
,

tion of Mech anical Engineers , and to be found in Eng ineer ing vol xxxi , , .

p 427 e t seq
. . .

For single ri vetted l ap j oin t s the best proportions are

-

D iameter of rivet X thickness Of plate .

Pitch diam eter .

For do ub l e rivetted -
l ap j oints :

D iameter of rivet thickness of plat e .

Pitch d iameter .

Th e ivet to be g, Of an inch small er than the hole Th e conclusio n

r .

w as th at with steel plates and rivets the di ameter an d pitch for single
rivetted laps w as such as w o uld excl ude their use for long itudin al seams ,

an d th at w ith more th an éinch p l ates the di ameter O f the rivet gets too
-

l arge and the strengt h of the ioin t is thereby red uc ed Th e strength O f a .

single rivetted l ap O f the proportions given above is 55 per cent an d the

-
.
,

doubl e rivetted l ap is 7 7 per cent O f the p l ate Th e strength O f the plates

-
. .

w as po unds ten sile and the rivets pounds she aring stress
, .

We give in more det ail some experiments made by Messrs Max Eyt h .

an d D avid Greig at an e arli er d ate th an those of Professor Kennedy , as af

fording comparative data for iron and steel .

 1 42 S TE AM MAKIN G: OR , B OIL ER P RA C TI C E .

TAB L E IV .
—Sh earin ¢ of Riv et s .

(Riv et s , BIS-inch d ia m et er . Hol es , -

inc hd iamet er . Area s h eare d , sq . in ) .

IN TON S OF P OU N D S .

Mat erial Kin d of Wor k q

h
. .

Sh ear uare
ggg
s
S ear on Piec e Av erage
i
. .

Yor kh s ire Iron .

Steel

T ABL E V .
—Shearing of St eel Riv et s .

(Riv et s, -
inoh d iam et er . Hol es , - inc hd iam et e r . Area s h eare d , sq . in )
.

KIN D O F WR O K. L e t t e r. Act ual S h ear . Av erage .

per
Ton s
s q
of 2240
uare
lbs
inc h
.

St eam Riv et e r

y y
St at ionar H draulic .
25 7 5
°

b Hy
Port a l e draul ic .
1 7 63

Pow er L h ig t Bl ow .
1 6 88
. 22 7 8
.

Th e press ures on the he ads Of g rivets were

H ydd
St eam
raul ic
b y
St a t ionar
Hy
LH h y
raul ic Port a l e
P ow er ig t Bl ow
Pow er eav Bl ow
.

TABLE VI .
—S h earing of St eel Riv e t s .

(Riv et s, -
inc hd iam et er . Hol e s ,
-
inc hd iam et er . Area s h eare d , sq . in )
.

N um b er . Press ure on Riv e t Hea d . Ac t ua l S h earing .

Poun d s .
 THE D E SI GN , CON S TR UC TI ON , E TC .

TABLE VII .
—Riv et Tes t s .

(Riv et s, -
inc hd iam et er . Hol e s , -
inc hd iam et er . Area s h eare d , sq . in )
.

KIN D OF WR O K
yd yd
.

St eam . H raul ic . H raul ic . Pow er . Pow er .

Pre ss ure on hea d . 83 280 863 60 4201 8 69384 115640

k
B rea ing s t rain of sa m p le . 427 17 39 49 1 3 7 811 3 7341 3 9 424

Sh earing st rain of sa mp le . 36885 3 6885

F rict ion of sam p le

F ric t ion of s t rain on one s ur

fac e

CONCL USI ON S D RAWN F ROM VERY E XTE N D E D E XPE RIMENT S, B Y

D AVID GREI G AN D MAX EYTH . OF L EED S .

“ ”
AB STR ACTED F ROM EN G INEERIN G , P . 581, J U NE 27 , 1879 .

“
It wo uld be prem ature to take any Of the conclusions w hich can be
“
drawn from the above tests as fi n al as in all practical questions e x peri , ,
“
ence wi l l h ave to supplement experiment before any absol utel y defin ite ,
“
results are arrived at B ut a few facts m ay be pointed out which seem
.
,

to be cl e arly indicated by the resul ts O f the tests an d which at least Show ,

“
the direction in w hich further investigation m ay be usefull y cond ucted ,
“
an d w here practic al improveme nts are speci ally req uired .

“
T here is no doubt w h atever th at the m an ufa cturers of stee l are now
, ,

able to produce a m ateri al as homogeneo us an d reli able as the best iron .

Th e absence of l amin ation m akes it in this respect even superior to iron ,

“
for a str uc ture lik e a boiler in which the plates are , as a rule , exposed to
,

“
strains in every di rection .

“
B ut this res ul t h as been obtained by reducing the h ardn ess of steel
“
to a minimum which m ateri all y reduces its incre ased usefulness Th e
, .

“
tensile shearing stren g th of the materi al supplied for th ese tests by some
“
“
O f the most experienced m akers of steel an d by them n o do u t con sid , b ,

ered the best for the p urpose h as in these experiments proved to be not,
“
more th an 16 per cent above th at Of the iron , and the w ant O f h ardness
.

“
(as distinct from tensile strength ) h as proved to be a very se rio us d isad
“ “
vantage in boiler w ork Wh at the trade n ow requires is a return to a
.

“
h arder material O f increased tensil e strength w itho ut l osing the homo ,
“
g e n ie t y w hich
, a t p resent is O bt ained at the expense O f h ardness It ca n .

“
scarcely be doubted that the increasing experience in the manufacture of
“
steel which h as already overcome so m an y an d such serious difl c ul t ie s
, ,
“
will in time meet this req uire ment .
 144 S TE AM MA K IN G: OR B OILER P R A C TI CE
. .

“
Th e well know n fact of the superiority Of rivetting by m achinery
-

“
over h and rivetting h as been again demonstrated most conclusively
-
, ,

while the experiments h ave sho w n th at the effects of steam rive tting is
to say the l e ast of it not inferior to hyd raul ic rivetting as far as the qual ity O f
,
“
the rivet is concern ed b ut th at the hydraul ic rivetting is distinctly superior
“
as to its e fie ct s on the plate which is less inj ured by the s l o w pressure of
,
“
the hydraulic ram .

A n umber o f c urious facts referring to rivetted j oints were indicate d

“
by the tri als Steel sho w ed in this respect a decided supe riority ove r
.

“
i ron beyond the proportion due to its g reate r tensile an d shearing strengt h ,

the average strength O f all the steel se ams broken being 6 0 per cent of .

th e sol id p l ates th at of iron on l y 54 per cent

, This proportion w as still .

more striking in al l l ap j oints in which the gre ater stiffnes s Of the m a ,

“
t e ris l prevented the inj urious bending of the p l ates in the l ine of the
rivets this being no doubt the chief caus e of the great weakness of this
,
“
kind O f j oint .

“
Th e expe riments further show that the pl ates invariabl y lose p art Of
“
their ten sile strength in the section of solid materi al left betw een the
“
rivets of a se am , this loss being g reatest in l ap j oints It is al so greater .

in p unched than in drilled p l ates (iron as w ell as stee l ) an d greater in ,

“
p l ate s rivetted together by steam th an in those rivetted by hydraulic ,
“
press ure .On the other h and , the stre n gth O f ri vets ag ainst shearing
“
is gre ater th an its no rm al figure especi all y in l ap j oints , .

“
Th e usefulness Of do uble rivetting appe ars to be m ainly due to the
fact th at it more e ffectually prevents l ap j ointed p l ates from ben di ng
under stress At the same time t h e zi g z ag rivetting generall y adopted ,
.

“
in do ubl e rivetting increases the tensile resist ance of the m aterial b e
,

t w een the rivets considerabl y beyond its normal figure .

“
B utt j oints w ith a cover on one side of the pl ate only gave no adv an ,
“
tage at al l the cover beh aving simp l y as an intermediate p l ate at t ached
,

to the t w o m ain pieces by an ordin ary l ap joint A m arked improvement .

“
could no do ubt be Obtained by giving the cover g reater thickness so as
, , ,

p revent its bending .

“
Th e most e fie c t iv e seams as to tensile strength w ere of co urse butt , ,
“
j oints w ith t w o covers as not on l y do they nearly do uble the she aring
,
“
strength of ea ch rivet but they entirely prevent the bending of the m ai n
,

pl ates Th e m ain fact resul ting from the tests of p a rts O f boil ers an d
.

“
comp l ete boilers under hydraul ic press ure w as the impo s sibility of burst
“
ing an ordin ary rivet se am in this w ay the compression Of the rivet an d ,
“
the elongation O f the rivet hol e res ulting invariabl y in leakage whi ch , ,

prevented the neces s ary pres sure from being obtained Each rivet b e .

“
comes its o w n s afety v al ve an d the strain put on the weakest p art Of the
,

structure never reached more th an 7 0 per cent of the breaking strain

, . .

“
This is the point where addition al h ardness O f the m ateri al w o ul d be
most useful as it w o uld prevent the Opening of the rivet holes w hich
, ,

n o w m akes a boil er useless long befo re the bre aki n g strain is re ached .

“
On the question of the durabi l ity of boil e rs it is prob ably impo ssible
 146 S TE A M MAK I N G; OR , B OILER P R A C TI C E .

“
to throw m uch light by experiments Here practi cal exp erience is the
.

on l y reli able guide and every w ell authenticated example is of some

,
“
val ue Th e p aper m ay therefore be concluded w ith the mention of one
.

such example which presented itself for careful examin ation during the
“
last few weeks Tw o boilers si mil ar in const ruction t o those e x perim en
.

“
ted upon were constructed by Messrs John Fowler Comp an y, in the
.

“
Spring of 1868 one being entirely of steel an d the other of iron
, They .

“
w ere used for the two engines of a steam plo ughing tac kle an d h ave j us t ,
“
returned for rep airs to the m an ufacturers after eleven ye ars of work , dur
“
ing which they h ad been provided with n e w fire boxes in 187 4 - .

“
D uring the whole time these bo ilers h ad to go through the severes t
“
work an d treat ment to which boil ers can be exposed using every variety ,
“
of the worst water travel ling over the ro ughest roads and being exposed
,
“
to every sort of weather witho ut extern al protection Both boilers al so .

“
h ad to do ex actly the same amount of work an d to undergo the same
“
hardships as neither O f the t w o en g ines can work without the other Th e .

“
result is most st riking Th e steel boiler h as never gi ven any trouble an d
.

“
is no w by far th e be st O f the two A fe w c ases of this description sho uld
.

fin ally settle the q uestion as to the superiority of steel in this respect .

N ote the c oncl usion regardi n g l eak age under pressure : it is exactly
wh at the Lancashire boil er experiment disproved when the m ateri al w as ,

wro ught iron We suppos e the quantity of water which can be furnis hed
- .

in a given time is the most important element in this question .

With regard to all flat surfaces under pressure the usual practice is to ,

stay or t ie the flat surface either to the shell or to some other more or less
ad j acent p ar al l el or ne arly p ar allel flat surface S ometimes the flat sur .

face is stiffened by rivetting an angle or T iron on it an d O ften the ties used

-
,

are att ac hed by me ans O f tee or angl e irons to the flat surface or to the ,

shel l When th e flat surface is exposed to the fire it is usual to screw the
.

tie bol ts di rectl y into the sheet .

Th e conclusions arrived at by a Bo ard of Engineers who mad e nu

m erous experiments at the Washington N avy Yard are as follo w s taken ,

from report of the B ureau of Ste am Engineering United Stat es N avy , for ,

1879 :

F OR PL ATE S AND TIE B OL TS SCREWE D T H EREIN

Thickn ess O f sheet D iameter. of bolt . Th rea ds per inch . Bolt proj ected .
 THE D E SI GN . CON S TR UCTI ON . E TC .

F OR PL ATE S AN D TIE B OL TS SCREWED THEREIN

IF R IVETT ED TO CO NE HE AD S . I F NU T S AR E U SED .

D i ameter O f b ase
Bre adth of ann u
Dish
glp
t a
Promotion of h e ad l ar bearing sur
of cone
.

e
face
.

For t h e bursting pressure in pounds per square inch multiply t h e

s quare O f the q uotient arising by dividi ng the thickness of plate by the
,

di stance ap art center to center of bolt by t h e constan t which follows

, ,

ppp
For iron l a t es an d iro n ol t s bb 192 000

pp
F or s t eel l at es a nd iron ol t s

b b
F or s t eel l at e s and l ow s t ee l ol t s
h
pp p
F or iron l at es a nd iron ol t s w it
For co er l at es and iron bol t s .
nut s .

Th e large di ameter of bolt used is probably intended to resist corro

sion . In locomotive practice i inch bolts are used for fg inch sheet with
- i -

not more th an 5 inch centres It must not be forgotten that m uch of the
- .

strainin g an d leaking at stay bolts is cause d by the movements Of the

sheet by exp ansion an d th at the longer the bol t the le ss action O f this
,

kind takes place on the sheet .

Th e proportion of eye bars for tie st ays was determined by the same
-

Board but the resul ts are not in h armony with the practi ce of bridge
,

builders in the use Of eye bars an d we shall therefore t ake the latte r as
-
,

safer practice .

Th e proportions found safe by experim ent on full size eye bars are -
,

that the s um of the section al areas of metal on each side of the eye shoul d
be 50 per ce nt in excess O f th at in the body of the bar, an d th at there
.

sho uld be be h ind the eye in a pl ane through the cen t re of the bar, metal

enough in the section to equal th at in the body .

On the strength of fines against extern al p ressure little is really known .

Sir Willi am F airbairn m ade some experiments on thi s m atter an d to him ,

is due t h e rul es c ommonly used given hereafter Mr D K Clark g ives

, . . . .

other v alues , an d a controversy took p l ac e a fe w years ag o on the s ubj ect

in the columns of E ng in eering , an d we ad d a few experiments made by the
m anufacturers O f the Fox Corrugated Flue Th e boilers tested by the .

Lancas hire Steam Users Ass ociation an d by John Elder dc Co which w e

’
, .
,

g ive in the ne xt chapter , s h ow flue s stronge r th an sh e l l w hich is t o be de ,

 14 8 S TE A M MA KI N G; OR, B OIL ER P R A CTI CE .

sired Th e corrugation s certainly h ave g reat ly increase d the stre n gth of

.

such flues b ut at prese nt s uch corrugate d fin es are m ade o nl y by one firm

,

in Engl and an d by one in Germ any It h as been propos ed to m ake tubes Of

.

cone frustra w ith fl ange and rin g j oints making a di fference Of say 4 t o 6 ,

inches for each foot in lengt h By th is device sheets of i inch thickness

.
-

could be use d up to 4 feet di amete r for hig h pressures There are h ow .

,

ever, no data upon this m atte r We add the experiments on full siz ed
.
-

flue s an d boilers in the next ch apter .

Fairbairn s rul e is th at the collapsing pressure in pounds per square inch

’

is equal to times the pow er of the thickness in inche s divided by

the product of the di ameter in inches times the unstayed lengt h in feet .

Fairbai rn s rule as us uall y g iven is the coll ap sing pressure in po unds

’

per square inch is equal to times the square O f the t hickness in in

ches divided by the prod uct O f the diameter in inches tim e s the unstayed
length in fee t .

D K CL AR K
. .
’
S R ULEs .
—For tubes up to 6 inches , coll ap sin g pressure

thickness x Over 6 inches , c ol lap sin g pressure

thickness Some exp eriments made in Washingto n

in 1874 agreed with th e Fairbairn rule and di d not give much increas e of
,

strength from an Adamson j oint .

Clark states the average compress ion on the metal of the tube for col
lap s ing is abo ut 2 ton s per square i n ch and th at the influe n ce O f le ng t h is
,

unce rt ain .
 150 S TEA M MA KIN G: OR B OIL ER P RA C TI CE
. .

TAB LE B .
—C orrug at ed Fl ue .

(Corrug ations 6 p it c h, 1 d pm
ee , et al t hick ) .

a
z d dm m b b
Hori on t al ia et er e fore

1)
z dm
m p
Ve rt ical ia et er efore

V p
H ori ont al ia et e r be fore re s s ure
ert ical dia et e r be fore re ss ur e

D EP LECTI ON S ET
'
. .

P OU N D S P ER
S QU AR E IN C H .
POSITI ON
T UB E .
IN

Hori z ont al . Vert ica l . Horiz ont al . V

ert ical .

g av e w ay , t he w el d p rov e d im p erfec t

Another t ube of same di mensions failed with poun ds .

TESTS MAD E BY THE MAN C H

E STER STE AM U SERS ASSOCIATI ON UPON A
’

L AN CAS H IRE B OILE R .

EXTRACT F ROM “
E N GIN EERIN G,
"
P . 234, MAR C H 24, 1876 .

Th e
proposition to construct an experimen t al boiler t o b e tested by
“
hydraulic pressure up to the burstin g point , w as s ubmitted to the Asso
“
ciat ion by their Exec utive Committee thro ugh t h eir chief en g ineer s re
’

“
port as far b ack as the month of J une 1 874 Its desirabil ity appeared
, , .

evident to the committee e speci al l y with regard to the weaken ing efie ct
,
“
of openings c ut for m an holes ste am necks etc w hich it w as firm l y be
-
, , .
,

“
l ie v e d tended more to the rupture of boiler shells th an w as usually ad ,
“
mit t e d .

“
It w as therefore arranged th at a proper boiler should be constructed
“
O f the di am eter adop t e d in daily practice , an d of the usual thi ckness
“
O f pl ates with actual man hole mouth piece etc such as are com mon so
-
, .
, ,
“
that the ultim ate test should be decisive .

“
With this O bj ect then in view they h ad a boiler con structed 21 feet ,

long, by 7 feet diameter inside the inner plate of shell with t wo furn ac e ,
 D E SI GN A N D C ON S TR C CTI ON C ON TI N UE D , E TC .

“
tubes 2 feet 9 inches inside diameter, with flanged seams each ring be ,
“
ing w elded up s ol id so th at there w oul d be no rivets or l ap j oints in the -

“
flue Th e shel l plates were {w inch thick the ends w el ded up so l id were
.
,
“
i inch thick and the furn ace t ube s O f éin ch p l ate the material through
-
,
-
,
“
out being O f best best Sn e d s h il l i ron Al l longit udin al j oints were do uble .

“
rivet ted an d circumferenti al ones single rivetted R ivet hol es were .
-

“
punched Th e rivets were 23 inches centre to cen tre an d the holes a m ean
.

“ ”
di ameter of {g inches - .

In the fi rst experiment the boiler w as complete ; the m an hole ; mouth -

piece O u second plate from b ack w as of wrought iron as recommended by -

the Associ ation the cast iron pipe for bl o w Off elbo w to attach to w as also
,
- -

as usual w hi l e the gusset s tays an d l ongitudin al st ays w ere such as pro

,

v id e d for 7 5 pounds w orking pressure Th e front m an hol e w as p l aced on .

-

the inside of the front plate an d furn ished with usual door and cross bar -

fi ttings Th e wro ught iron neck on the top of the central sheet w as the
.
-

speci al O bj ect of the first experiment Th e hol e in the sheet w as 1 7 inches .

in di ameter and the neck 16 inches inside by 1 12 inches high c overed

, ,

wi t h a w rought iron plate ; the neck wa s fl anged an d hel d on by 3 2 rivets

-
.

C areful records w ere taken of the beh avior of all p arts of the boiler as the pres
s ure rose Th e fiat ends were carefull y gauged to ascertain at what pres
.

sure an d to w h at extent they gave away an d if any perm anent set re ,

m ained aft e r the pressure w as relieved Th e furn ace flue s w ere careful l y .

gauged Th e length O f the shell w as measured by rod s fi xed at one end

.

an d free at the other h aving pointers at several places, Th e circumfer .

ence w as m eas ured by t w o encircling steel b ands p assed around the boil er
an d weighted at e ach end so th at by horizontal lines drawn across them
, ,

the l east e n gl arg e m e nt could be rendered clearly v isible .

Th e fi rst rupt ure took pl ace at the base of t h e w rought iron neck , w ith
250 po unds pressure ; up to this point there w as no movement of the ends
beyond a sl ight perm anent set which did not increase by which fact t h e ,

sufficiency of the gusset stays to secure the ends was cl ea l y sho wn r

.

Th e boil er h aving been rep aired by rivetting a thick pl ate over the
hol e whence the neck h ad been rem oved w as furnished with a cast iron ,
-

m an hole mouth piece of the usual form

- - This casting w as 1 inch thick , .

8 i n ches high an d 1 68 inches inside di ameter upon a 20 inch opening

,
-
.

Th e casting w hich w as so und , gave w ay with 200 lbs per square inch p res
, .

sure For the third experiment , a dome 3 feet in di ameter w as used only a
.
,

sm all portion of the shell h aving been cut away, but with 23 5 po unds the
base leaked so th at no increase could be O btained Th e base being sti ff .

ened by the us e O f rivets with heavier heads rupture Of the dome fl ange
took place w ith 26 0 pounds N o signs of troubl e h ad been noted in the.

fines an d ends nor an y strain , .

Th e fi fth test w as m ade with a single rivet t ed j oint in a longitudin al

seam w hich le aked with 250 pounds an d no increase of pressure could be
, ,

O bt aine d w h ile the doub l e rivetted se ams h ad al l rem ained tight

, .

Th e sixth test w as m ade with the ordin ary oval m an hole in the shell ; -

it was 17 inches by 13 inches an d no strengthening ring w as used Every , .

 15 2 S TE A M MA KI N G: OR B OIL E R P R A C TI CE
. .

thing w as n e w O f co urse and in proper order , but the he ad bl ew out of the

,

shell w ith 200 pounds .

Test seven w as to see if a rent co ul d be m ade with the le aky seam O f

the single rivetted j oint with augmented p umping pow er ; the sheet gav e
,

w ay along t h e se am an d extended into b oth adj acent ring sheets w ith 275
pounds Th e si ngle rivetted seam w as m achine work A d oubl e rivetted
. .

hand m ade seam w as then compared w ith the m achine work , g iving way
-

with 3 00 pounds while the m achine w ork remai ned intact

, .

When the boil er w as again made good a somew h at unexpected frac

fl
,

ture took place at the c ast iron ange connection for the blo w o ff w hich
- -
,

gave w ay at 3 00 po unds te aring the shel l : after re fiairing this the fin al

, ,

te s t w as m ade when the centre seam at the bottom and middl e of the
,

boil er g ave w ay w ith 3 10 poun d s per square inch Th e calculated strengt h .

Of the doubl e rivetted se am s w as 3 20 pounds Th e whol e of t h e w ork .

w as done by Mr Thomas Beeley , of Hyde Junction Iron Works , near

.

Manchester .

“ ”
F ROM EN GIN EERIN G , PAG E 47 , J U L Y 21 . 1 876 .

Experiments
made by Messrs John El der Comp an y to test the ulti .
,
“
mate stren gth O i a boil er an d super heater removed from the S S Ban - . .

”
righ of the Aberdeen
, London Ste am N avigation Comp any .

Th e boil er w as one of a p air which with t h e super heater h ad been ,

-
,

six ye ars in service an d w h ich were to be replaced by new ones

, .

GE NERAL DE SCRIPTI ON .

ship contained t w o boilers fire d from both ends , the products Of

Th e
combustion being led over them in a fine Of sheet iron p assing up -

through the fine of a super heater or steam drum form ing the lower part
-

O f the funnel Th e boil ers w ere made in the ye ar 1 87 0, an d were removed

.

after being w orked h ard an d contin uo usly for six ye ars About three years . .

ag o both boi l ers an d super he ater underw ent extensive rep airs -
Th e .

pl ates under an d at the side of the bridges the low er screwed stays , the ,

first row of l ongit udin al stays over the t ubes an d the t ubes being re ,

moved Th e shel l at bottom an d on each side of the water l ine sho win g
.
-
,

pitting w as lined with i ron pl ates bol ted on inside Th e fine O f the s uper
,
.

heat er w as then entirely renewed Th e dimensions of the boilers were as .

follo ws :

B OIL ER .

Mean
L dh m h
ia et er of s el l h
e ng t of s el l

bh p d
D iam e t e r of furn aces (6 in n um er) b
hh kk
D iam e t er of t u es out s i e (404)
T ic ne ss of s e l l l at es
b p p .

h kk
T ic n e ss of t u e l a t es

b
T ic ne s s of furn ace t o s an d fire -
Thi c n es s of furnace ot t om s
.

b ox e s .
 154 S TE A M MA KIN G: OR B OIL E R P R A OTI CE
, .

extended through a sh ee t an d t h e next seam on one e nd , and th rough the

,

front angle iron an d t ube plate on the other Th e impress ion w as th at it .

began on the do uble rivetted seam Th e rivett ing w as ch ain n o t zigzag .

, .

Th e tensile strength of the p l ates determined by Mr Kirk al d y w as from .

,

to po unds Th e fail ure in the superheater w as with

.

pounds nearly an d in the boiler with poun ds tension

b
, , .

N ext in import ance to the strength of a boiler is its dura ili ty and it ,

h as been said th at durabili ty is a funct ion of accessibil ity : be this as it

m ay it is cert ain l y extremely important to provide an access to all parts
,

O f a boiler both inside an d out for the purpose O f inspection an d cleaning ,

which sometimes requires the use Of a scraper or even a chi sel to detach
scal e .Th e destruction of a boil er may be caused by co rrosion from the
outside or from the inside by overheating caused by scal e or by low w ater
, ,

or by the movements an d strain caus ed by ch anges O f temperature .

Intern al corrosion is us ually caused by chemical action of substances

held in solution by the water Th e action of oxygen in causin g pitting or
.

small spots of rus t is com mon in boilers which us e w ater from surface
,

condensers especially when the boiler is l aid off freq uentl y an d emptied
,

O ften W ater condens ed in heating buildings abso rbs much O f the air
.

which comes into the pipes whenever the pressure fall s below the atm os
p h e re a n d su
, ch boilers are best kept ful l of w ater when not in use .

In boilers supplying st eam to engines there is Often tro uble from the ,

O il brought over from t h e cylinder either from the condenser or from an ,

open heater an d then decomposed by the heat into some one or more of
,
“
the fatty acids Th e us e Of only mineral Oils in the cylinder w ill pre
.

vent most of this ac tion w h ile in some cas es lu brication of the cyl inders
,

h as been abandoned altogether generally for the p urpose O f preventing ,

fo aming in boilers w hich are cr o w ded to the exte nt O f their cap acity .

Extern al co rrosion occ urs usual l y at places where le akag e of water or ,

s te am running over the pl ates is exposed to the action of the fire , It ap .

pe ars th at mild English steel is more l i able to intern al corrosion than

wro ught i ron Intern al corrosion is Often met by h an g ing in the boilers
- .
,

under w ater pieces of zinc w hich as the w eaker me t al seem to be attacked

, , ,

in p reference to the iron In cases w here the corrosion is from bad .

water advice should be sought from a competent chemist Th e strain ing

, .

effect d ue to ch ange of temperature is sometimes enough to prod uce rup

ture in a new boil er when this is not properl y al l ow ed for in desig ning For .

th is reason one head of the Lancashire boi l er is attached by an extern al

“ ”
angle iron ring in order th at the en d m ay bre ath
-
, out w ard more freel y .

If w e l ook at the head as s t rained a moments consideration w ill Sho w that ,

it acts as a beam A given ch ange Of l engt h of shel l comp ared with

.

t ubes will cause a strain which carries inversel y as the square Ofthe di s
tance bet w een the tube and shell an d di rectly as the thickness of the ,

head ; or if the he ad be so rigid th at the yielding occurs in the shell in

,

ste ad Of the head , the resul t is the same If the strain exceeds the limit .

of elasticity an d is repeated O ften enough the destruction of the sheet by .

g rooving is only a m atter of time Th e United S t at e s l aw prohibits t h e .

 D E SI GN A N D CON S TR UC TI ON C ON TIN UED , E TC .

pl acing Of tubes in extern al ly fired boilers within 3 inches of the sh e ll and ,

this is ho w ever more a precaution against scal e fi lling this up solid th an

, , ,

against exp ansion In our opinion the fines of all boilers should not be
.

place d within 4 inches of the shel l wh en the he ads are i inch thick and ,
-
,

t h e distance sho uld be increas ed with the thickness of the he ad .

Where there is a tendency to work Open the material or to grooving as

fl
, ,

at the he ad an g es , an d where there is no inj urious chemic al action of

the water or deposit , a tough steel an ge wi ll resist fracture better than

‘
fl
an iro n On e ; but if it once gets broke n the s te e l will go fas ter than the

iron wil l .

O S
n t ee l — Mr Wm Boyd con cluded from e x periments mad e before
. . .

the construction of the boiler referred to in a p aper read at the Instituti on

of Mechanical En g ineers and afterwards p ublished in E ng ineering p ages ,

310 an d 3 20, for April 1 9 , 1 87 8 for m arine use as follows,

1 . steel plates can be h ad of un iform and reliable m aterial in

Th at
l arge quantities .

2 Th e m aterial is inj ured nearly one third, if in p unch ing , the di e

.
-

is fu inch l arger th an the p unch

l - .

3 It is not h urt by drilling

. .

4 Th e qual ity is res t ored by annealing

. .

5 D rilled holes are to be preferred

. .

6 Especial care is needed in st aying flat surfaces

. In a p aper by Mr . .

W P arker Chief Engineer an d Surveyor for Lloyds R egister, vi de E ng i

.
,

neering for J une 7 , 1 87 8 p 461 he says O f m arine steel boilers

, , .
,

“
N ow
th at we h ave a m ateri al that gives us a boiler about 3 0 per cent .

stronger th an an iron boiler Of the same scantlings and as it seems pos ,

“
sible th at we m ay be able in the immediate future to di spense entirely
with longitudin al rivetted se ams by h aving the shells rolled an d as there ,
“
h as also been a furn ace introduced which can w ork at twice the pressure
“
of the ordin ary pl ain fine , it does appear to me th at w e h ave s ucceeded
“
in a great measure in removing the Ol d conditions that h av e mili tated
“
ag ainst m uch higher pressures being O bt ained , and th at we appe ar to be
“
now in a position to m ake a fresh dep arture in the direction Of still
“
greater pressures If t h e improvements w hich I have i ndicated , prove ,
.

“
as I h ave little doubt they wi ll prove s uccessful we sh all h ave gained an , ,
“
ad vantage represented in the aggregate by an incre ase of about 80 or 90

per cent O f the working pressure In other word s w e will be able to .

work the present form Of boil er at 16 0 pounds or 1 7 0 pounds per square

“
inch an d although the resultant economy will not be so great as th at
,
“
which attended the increase at one step from 3 0 po un ds to 6 0 pound s w e ,
“
m ay con fi den tly an ticip ate th at it w il l be sufficient to give a gre at im
“
p e t us to steam n avigation advancement in which h as lately been so
,
“ ”
much retarded by the high consumption of fuel .

In the United States the use of steel is for station ary boilers extend , ,

ing rapidly , and there is l ittle el se used for the shells an d fire boxes of -

b
locomotive oilers , tho ugh for stay bolts and rivets iron is still preferred; ,
 S TE A M MA KIN G: OR B OIL E R P R A 0 TI CE
. .

w hil e for b oat s Mississippi Rive r, it is now much us e d , as sh owing

on th e
higher pressure to be carried
b
.

We give some conclusions drawn for water tube oilers by one of the
bes t auth orities b ut they embody our v i ews for al l boilers
b
, .

With regard to water -tu e boilers , Mr Robert Wilson concludes that

b
.

the points to e att ended to are :

1 . TO kee p the j oints out Oft h e fire .

2 . To prot ect the furn ac e t ub e from cold air wh e n t h e fire - door is

opened .

3 . To provide against t h e delivery of c old feed dire ctly into the fur
n ace tubes .

4 . provide a proper circulati on to carry the ste am from t h e sur

To
face s where it is formed .

5 To provide p as sages of am ple size for the upward currents of

.

steam an d water which must be s ep arate d from downward currents of

,

water .

6 To provide p assages of ampl e size for the steam an d w ater be

.

tween the vario us sections Of the bo iler in order t o equalize the pressure
an d w at e r level in al l .

7 To provide ample surface for the steam to leave the water quietly
. .

8 T o provide a suf
. ficientl y larg e reservoir for the steam to prevent
the water being drawn out of it s prop e r place by suddenly opening a
steam or safety val ve - .

9 To pro v ide against the flame taking a shor t cut t o the ch imney ,
.
-

an d impinging against tubes containing steam only .

CIRCULATI ON OF WATER .

very important matter is the movement of the m ass O f wate r as a

'

A
whole in the boiler caus e d by the action of the heat an d the formation Of
,
“
steam It h as been sai d by good a uthority , t h at it is no exaggeration t o
.

“
say th at the e ffi cie n cy an d safety O f a s team boiler dep end as much upon
“
the e fi cie ncy O f the water circul ation as they do upon the strength and ,
“ ”
disposal Of the m ateri al O f the boiler .

In a p l ain cylinder boiler we have a furn ace hotter at one end t h an

the oth er hence the water rises over the fire to a higher level th an it h as
,

elsewhere an d flows down to the back end along the surface At t h e rear
,
.

end it p asses verticall y downward an d there fore sends , by inerti a the solid ,

matter carried with it to the bottom , or to the fin es where a greater in crus

t at ion takes place th an else where With the tubul ar and fine externally
.

fired boil ers the hottest p art of the shell except directl y over the fire is
, , ,

at the highest portion exposed to fl ame an d as this surfac e is ne arly v e r ,

tic al a large amount of steam an d water rises close to the shel l and if a
, ,

cen tral sp ace is left between the tubes the bul k of the water will descend
in the mi ddle Of the b
oil er T his h as in one in stance of which we h av e
 15 8 S TEA M MA KIN G: OR . B OIL ER P RA CTI CE .

FOR CL ASS .

D . K C l ark from ex amin ation

. boiler tri als concludes as foll o ws :
Of

Th e water evapor ated per square foot of g rate per hour , it when the f uel ,

per square foot of grate f is given is , ,

“
u a r’
b 1 where r n umber , square feet O f heating s urface per
square foot of grate and a and b are constants with different value for dif
,

fere nt classes of boilers and fuels as foll ows : ,

FO R EN GLI SH SOFT COAL . a

For s t a t ione r
b y b oil ers

LL p
F o r m arine
b boil ers
F or ort a l e oil ers
oc om ot ive , Coal
oc om ot iv e , Co e k
He s ays the rate of fuel per square foot Ofgrate sh oul d n ot b e l ess than
given belo w , in order to apply the above :

St at ionar
Marin e
y
b
LL mm
Port a l e
oc o ot iv e , Coal
oco v
ot i e,
 D E SI GN A N D C ON S TR CC TI ON CON TI N UED , E TC .

R educing to the same b asis

E = b +
'

_ F b + a S
’
expressions
F E

which are radicall y unlike and cannot well be h armonized except th at in

either cas e it m ay be seen th at the more heating s urf ace per pound of fuel
burned the better economic perform ance while the latter shows that a re,

duction of grat e area will improve the evaporation , as r and f are incre ased
together .

This is true only within cert ain limits , as it is diffi cult to burn more
th an a certain quan tity Of coal per sq uare foot of grate per hour without
increase in the draft .

Of thes e t w o form ul as th at of Clark seems more nearly to apply to the

,

experimental data; although his constants meet with great ch ange Th us .

from the experiments upon the Wab as h Rail way with co al from Central
Il linois , Clark s con stan ts become for locomotives
’

a :

' 7 "
an d E
20 f
‘

Th e propor tions of heating surface per square foot of grate i s usually

taken as the governing element and to Chief Engineer Isherwood is due
,

the first demonstration th at boilers m ay be made too l arge for the p urpose
,

of e conomic ev aporation Lately Mr Alfred Bl ech yn de n h as m ade an ex

. .

tended m athematical investigatio n of the subject and he concludes th at ,

for land boilers an e fil c ie ncy O f is desirable , and for yachts an d boat s

intended for speed w ithout counting freight , th at with fuel to be h ad at
inter vals the desirable efficiencies are as given below in the t ables
D E SIR AB LE E FF ICIE N CIES F OR VARI OU S PRE SSU RE S , AN D TIME S BE TWE EN
COALIN G , F OR O RD IN ARY MARIN E B OILE RS —ORD IN ARY D RAF T .

PRESSU RE .
N U MBE R OF D AY S F OR WH H
IC COAL I S C A RRIED .
 16 0 S TEA M MA K IN G: OR B OILE R P R A C TI CE
. .

STEAM J ET D RAFT .

PRESSU RE .
NU MB E R OF DAYS FOR WH HIC RRIED
CO AL I S C A .

Mr Bl ech ynd en s expressions become too complex w hen the val ue of

.
’

freight is taken into acco unt an d w e give a simpler if less exac t investiga
,

tion as an example of the method to be p ursued .

Ordin ary boil ers w eigh on board say 40 po unds per sq uare foot of heat
ing s urface , costing not far from $4 Allowi ng for interes t on first cost
.

an d rep airs , together 80 cents per ann um , or 20 per cent

, Freight pe r ton .

per w orking year m ay be assumed as $50 or $1 per ann um per square foot
,

of heating s urface , m aking an ann ual cost per square foot of heat ing sur
face of
Suppose f uel costs $4 per ton an d the bo at is un der weigh 50 days
per year then for eac h pound of fuel per hour urned there is expended
, b
$2 per y e ar and the freig h t val ues are if f uel is taken every day
,
If ,

freight can be take n on board every ho ur the average val ues m ay b e taken
as h alf th at g iven or 60 cents in p l ace of

Suppose th at from the engine power desi red we know that we h ave t o
evaporate po unds of w ater per hour w e make out the fol lowi ng table
by the aid of the Rankine formul a reversed :

E A F
’

EB _E . t ak 1n g A B = 09 .

we h ave then S
 S TEA M MA KIN G: OR B OIL ER P RA CTI CE. .

t urn tube type is common with good water while the Cornish an d Lan
cash ire are alm o st unkno w n an d from their cos t and t h e higher pressures

b
us ed are not likel y t o ecome favorites w ith the Uni t e d States .

For h ard steady work where land is w orth li t tle the single cylin d er t ype
h as many good points For high pressures the water t ub e type is in many
.

places a favorite Th e inte rnally fired boilers of the locomotive ty pe usu

.

all y give high e vaporative results but are h ard t o keep clean .

T h e extern ally fired return t ub ular wi th ce ntral gangway see ms to

combine more good features for less money t h an m any other types an d
wi thout the gan g way is pro bably more used in th e U nited St ate s th an any
other With t w o to fiv e fiue s is the standard river practice for the Mi ssis
.

sippi and tributaries

b
.

Th e choice of m arine types is governed y t h e room at dispo sal as t o

b
whether a single or dou le fire room can be h ad
b
.

A p roperly construc oiler req uires a very great inte rnal pressure
to burs t it A 3 6 inch s hell 1 inch thick and 10 feet long , w ith ordinary
.
-

rive t ting h as 18 s quare inches of metal , which requires at least

,

pounds per square inch tensile st rength in all 450 t one or 416 pounds per
b
, , ,

square inch to burst it ; and y t h e Unite d States Law is all ow ed 125 pounds
per s quare inch pressure ; or on a t ow bo at on the Mississippi River a
pressure of 1 7 5 pounds to the square in ch .

With this m argin of strength the occurrence of violent explosions h as

been t aken to j ustify the hypoth esis of some violent intern al action and as
b
,

there are prob a ly more cases of quiet failure th an of violent explo sion ,
there h as s eemed a certain probability in this view A simple rupture at .

tended by the lo ss of s t eam an d w ater under ordin ary working can occur
onl y from a purely local failure of a s eam , or rivet , ei t her from orig in al
defect in mate rial or manufacture or from subsequent inj ury , an d such
,

cases seldom attract public attenti on

b
.

Th e fail ure of oilers , whether violent or qui et , h as be en attributed t o

st eadil y accumulated pressure ; steam formed from sudden con t act of
water w ith red hot m e tal ; e l ectrical action ; the de compos ition of water
or steam into hydrogen and oxygen , etc Let us first cons ider overheat
b
.

ing Although it is possible for boilers to e exploded in consequence of

.

the form ation of steam by the contact of w ater with very hot plates , yet
b
overhe ating can n ot e taken as the only cause or even the general one , of
b
,

explosions , for there is too much evidence that oilers do explode wit h
plent y of wat er in them B urnt iron is easily re cog nized an d it s abs ence
.

is good evidence of a sufficient quantity of w at er .

Admi tting the cas e of overheat ing it is doubtful whether the form ation
,

of steam would cause an expl o sion for the actual quantity of heat w hi ch the
,

metal can hold is not cap able of very m uch work in th e w ay of g e nerating
ste am as may be best seen by an example comp uted by the aid of our
,

table of the properties of steam Suppose a boiler wi th a w ater sp ac e of

.

100 c ubic feet an d a ste am sp ace of 40 c ubic feet becomes short of wate r ,
an d by red ucing the water to 9 0 c ubic feet , incre asing of course the steam

sp ac e t o 50 cubic feet , a surface of 1 00 square feet of f inch plate weighing

 DE SI ON A N D CON S 113 U0 TI ON C ON TI N UED E TC . .

po unds is uncovered ; th at the steam pressure is 1 00 pounds per square

inch , and th at the iron plates uncovered rise to F ho t ter th an the .

ste am an d w ater or to F wh at w il l be the consequence of p umping

, .
,
°
in 1 0 c ubic feet of w ater at 1 00 F in fi v e min utes ? .

T h e condition of things at first is : 9 0 c ubic feet of w ater at say 6 0pounds ,

is pounds of w ater X 3 08 units 1 6 63 200 units ; 50 c ubic feet ste am X

density po unds ; p ou n d s X 11 84 units 1 557 0; total 1 67 877 0 .

Th e heat stored in the hot iron is at best 1 000 po unds X 1 000 X °

the
spec i fic heat or say 111 000 units If this w ere al l to be put into the steam
, .

it w ould superheat it to a very g reat de g ree an d undoubtedly raise the

pressure beyond the b ursting pressure Let us examine this by steps , first .

supposing no fresh w ater to h ave been added an d th at the pressure h as ,

raised to 1 10 po unds At that time there will be present as ste am

.

50 x
Th e p d p d
oun
oun s , and
s of w a t e r is
it s
no w
h eat at 1 186 unit s
at 344
°
F . a nd the h
is
eat is 3 1 5 unit s

F orm erl y
So t h ere h as b een a dd de from t h e iron 3 9071

If however the 1 0 cubic feet of w ater h ave al l been pumped in t h e ac count

, , ,

w il l be very di fferent At 110 poun ds we h ave 40 cubic feet of steam

.
,

40 x
6000 p d
oun s o f w at er at
p d
oun s at
3 15
1186 unit s will giv e

d
D e uct 600 p d oun s of w at e r fee d from 32 t o
°
not furnis hd e 600 X 68

Original l y .
1 86 26 7 3
16 7 87 7 0

7 2900

being in excess of that stored in the iron say 7 0 per cent showing th at a rise , ,

of pressure in fi v e minutes of over six pounds t o sev e n pounds is not at al l

likel y . It h as how ever bee n taken that there w as no heat from the outside
, ,

c oming in an d t his is not l ike l y to h appen ; still this al so fairl y represents

,

t h e c as e w hen an en g ine is at w ork an d the fire is in such condition th at

the reg ul ar suppl y of heat is j ust eno ugh to furnish steam for the engine .

Suppose the engine is using horse po w er w i t h pounds of w ater -

an hour in fi v e minutes it w ill us e 3 00 pounds an d the regul ar heat from

,

t h e fire is to be est im ated 1 184 6 8 uni t s 1 1 16 units X 3 00 poun ds

3 34800 w hich if ad ded t o our 11 1000 stored makes up 449 000 uni t s or eno ugh
,

to raise the pressure to say 1 40 pounds if the boiler h as no outlet L et us .

ex amin e it At 140 po unds w e h ave

.
 16 4 S TEA M MA KIN G: OR . B OIL E R P R A C TI CE .

40 X
6 000 p d
oun s of w at er at 33 1 un it s
d
p oun s of s t e am at 119 1 uni t s

d
D e uct as b efore not furnish e d

283 019

wh ich is l es s t h an the supply 449000 an d the pressure will rise higher . Let
us try it at 1 80 pounds :

6000 p d
St eam 40 x
oun s of w at er at 3 5 1
p d oun s of s t e am at 119 7

212673 3

Ofl mm ny e o o o o o o o 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

407 163

Being nearl y the amoun t at h and the pressure w ill go above this point a ,

fe w pounds an d is undoub t edl y a d ange ro us pre ssure on an ol d or w eak

,

ened boil er b ut could not be re ached w ith a proper an d e fie c t iv e safety

,

v al ve in operat ion .

We w ill next consider the question of electri cal action w h ich is often
brought forw ard supported by the Armstrong generator F araday found
,
.

in his examin ation of Armstrong s app aratus that the boil er h ad to be in su ’

l at ed the ste am w et an d t h e nozzl e s of boxw ood

,
He concl uded that the .

product ion of el ectricit y w as not due t o any change of stat e of the l iquid in
the boil er an d t h at t h e s ame resul ts co ul d b e obtained by moi s t com
,

pressed air Without going furt her w e can say no one h as sho wn h ow a boil
.

er can be exp l oded even by any q uantity of el ectricity even if it w ere there ,

as w ith t h e e xcell ent conduct ion of the q uantit ies of iron around it anythin g

like a s udden di sch arge w ould be impossibl e We w ill l e ave thi s th e ory .

t o tho s e w h o p refe r myste ry an d w h o are re ady t o se e in e l ectric ac tion a ,

cause rather th an an e ffect of things not otherw i s e e xp l ained .

Th e d e composit ion ofste am into hydroge n by t h e absorption of oxyge n

by red h ot iron is an experiment w hich require s v e ry di fferent condition s
from the ordin ary w orking of a boil er an d even granted t h at w e h ad a ,

boil e r ful l of w ate r an d hydrogen g as und er pre ssure w e do not see h ow an y

am o unt of air con t aining the fre sh oxyge n n e ce ssary for an y exp l o s ion co ul d

b e introduc e d W e mi ght as w el l expect an ordin ary g as ho l der t o e xp l od e

.

from the same cause We concl ude t hen th at d e c om posit ionp an n ot occur in
.

the ordin ary workin g o f a boil er an d if it did no expl osion w oul d fol l ow nu ,

less mi x e d w it h oxygen an d if so mixed in t h e pre se nce of st eam no c om b us

,

tion co ul d take pl ace an d if no steam w ere p resent w e migh t expect onl y a

,

quiet combustion as the air w as forc e d in t h e ignition coming from some ,

red h ot pl ate A piece of burnt iron is evidence of shortness of w ater an d

.
 166 S TE A M MA KIN G: OR . B OIL E R P R A C TI CE .

were set up at Sandy Hook at the entrance of N ew York Harbor an d three ,

of the boil ers w ere burst as foll ow s

Th e first w as a fire box boiler 28 feet long wi th shell 6 feet 6 inches di
am e t er an d b arrel 20 feet 4 inches l ong Th e t w o furn aces w ere 7 feet l ong
.

w i t h flat arches an d w ith 4 inch water sp ace al l around an d w ater l e g betw een
the furn aces Th e products of combus tion p as s ed through a throat to a
.

combustion ch amber 19 inche s long an d then th rough 10 fine s of w hich t w o

,

w ere 1 6 inches an d the other eight 9 inche s in diameter an d 15 feet 9 inches

long . Th e b ack connection w as 3 2 inches in lengt h w ith a 4 inch w ater
sp ac e behind it T h e return tubes above w ere 12 in n umber an d 85inch es in
.

di am et er and 22 feet long to the smoke connect ion w hich formed the ba se
, ,

of t h e stack 2 feet 8 inches in di ameter s urrounded by a steam chimney 4

feet in di ameter and 10 feet 10 inche s abov e the shell of the boi l er Th e .

g r a t e ar ea w as 3 85 sq uare feet a n d the tota l hea ting s urface w as squ a re

feet ; the flat surfaces w ere stayed w ith screw bol ts at 7 inch centers This .

boiler w as one of a p air buil t in 1 856 and h ad been 13 years in service the ,

last inspection certificat e allowed 40 pounds pres s ure In S eptem ber of 187 1 .

this boiler h ad been t ested by hydrostatic p ressur e to 66 po unds pressure ,

w hen one of t h e st ay bolts p ull ed through ; af t er rep airs it w as tested to 82

pounds , and af t erwards steam of 60 pounds h ad been made in it O n N o .

v e m b er 22 187 1 the w at er standing 1 2 inches over the fin es a he avy w ood

, ,

fire w as m ade in t h e furn ac e s an d steam raised to 50 po unds w hen the p arty

re tire d to the gauges a di stan ce of 250 feet behind screens ; at 9 0 pounds
,

le akage occurred , an d at 9 3 po unds the connection betw een the shell an d

dome or st eam chimney failed on the top of the shel l an d the steam p as s
ing o ff the pressure failed an d no explosion took place
, .

Th e next experi ment w as m ade w ith a sm all fiat stayed box 6 feet long . ,
“
4 feet high an d 4 inches thick m ade of t w o s heets of {5 inch best fiang e fi re
”
box iron from the Abbot Iron Comp an y Th e edges w ere rivetted through .

a b ar w ith 2 i n ch rivets 2 inch centers the st ay bol ts w ere 82 inches l ong

, ,

9 186 inch centers w ith the ends slightly rivetted over It h ad c arried 13 8 . ,

pounds hydrostatic pressure w itho ut di fficul ty It w as set on edge in .

brickw ork an d was about 5 ful l of w ater Th e pre ssure ros e in 3 3 min utes
.

from 0 to 167 pounds when a viol ent expl osion took place the bolts p ul l in g ,

through the plates wi thout inj ury to the threads .

T h e next d ay a rectangular boi l er w as t e sted 15 feet 5 inches long 12 feet

, ,

2 inches wi de an d 8 feet 6 inches high for h alf the length from the front and
, ,

a foot less for the rem ainder Th e furn ace an d combustion ch amber ex
.

tended 14 feet 8 inches to the rear of the b ack connection an d w as 1 1 fee t

5 inches wide T h e b ack connection w as 1 8 inches in len g th and the t ubes
.

were 12 feet in l ength t o the smoke connection 2 inches in di ameter an d 3 84 ,

in n umber Th e w ater legs w ere stayed by 1 inch screw bol ts 12 inches by

.

8 inch centers
- T h e sides an d ends by ti e s 1 3 rods 28 inch e s by 1 2 inch
. . ,
“
centers Th e furn ac e cro w n and top by cro w foot b ars 5 inch by 2 inches
.
,

12 inch by 1 7 inch centers Th e shel l w as of N o 3 iron singl e rivetted an d

. .

there w as a dome in the middle of the top 6 fe et in diameter an d 8 feet 8

inches in height This boiler w as built in 1845 an d after a service of 25
.
 D E SI GN A N D ooz vs TR U0 TI ON CON TI NUE D . E TC.

ye ars was taken o ut Th e last inspec t ion al lo w ed a pressure of 3 0 pounds

. .

Fort y t wo pounds of water pressure broke a crow n brace an d at 60 po unds

-

1 2 of these braces failed ; after rep airs it carried 59 po unds of w ater an d 45

pounds of steam safely T h e furn ace was fil led w ith as m uch w ood as
.

wo ul d b urn freely an d the pressure rose in 13 minutes fro m 295 poun d s to

53 5 po unds w hen it b urst w ith a violent explosion , t h e boiler being torn
,

in many places the dome rising to above 200 feet in the air and to a dis
,

tance of 450 feet .

Th e conc l usions re ached by Professor Th urston are for stay bolts the
greatest di stance from centre to centre in inches should be 3 65 times the
thickness of plates divided by t h e square root of the pressure Th e l atter .

sho uld be multiplie d by the fac tor of safety desired w hich in this case
,

should not be less th an 6 (Th e Unite d States N avy use

. Th e di ameter
of screw bol t s should be twice the thickness of the sheet with 5 inch added .

Th e concl usions draw n are as fol lows :

1
. A viol ent explosion may t ake plac e in a boiler w hen there is plenty
of water in it .

2
. A moderate pressure of steam may produce a terrifi c explosion
w hen there is p l enty of water .

3
. Th at a boil er m ay explode under steam at a l ess pressure th an it
h as stood from wa ter pressure without app arent inj ury .

Th e above conclusions are not new but this w as the first experimental
demonstration of them though the first and third h ad been proved by
,

facts.

We add to these a fo urth which is : A rupture w il l be followed by re

,

lief of press ure with or without explosion as the fracture is ex t ended or

restricted .

Implicit con fidence cannot be placed in the hydrostatic pressure t est ,

but it shoul d be followed with c aref ul inspection assisted by the sound of

a blow struck w ith a l ight h ammer Man y boilers h ave exploded when cor
.

rosi e n h as reduced the metal to such a thi ckness that a smart blow from a
round ended h ammer w oul d h ave gone through the sh eet w h ile the boiler
-
,

h as shown tight when under hy drostatic pre ssure .

 C HAPT ER V III .

MISCELL ANE OU S B OILE RS —C H OICE OF B OIL E R F ITTIN GS AND APPUR

TE N AN CE S .

As we h ave seen , each t ype of boiler h as its distinctive features . Those

w ith large grates are suited for a cl ass of f uel which require s air in close
c ont act an d room for evaporation o f the w ater w hich is contained therein
,

t h e g rate b ars are oft en repl aced by a p l ate w ith or w ithout perforations .

Saw dust an d fi n e chips or sh avings are b urned on a cl o s e plate We t fuel .

requires room and is usuall y some kind of refus e w hich is to be got for
“
l o w co s t Crushed sugar c ane refus e or b agass e w as p robabl y the first ex
.
, ,

ample of this kind for t h e saw mill f urn aces w ere more general l y fi red with
,
-

edgings an d sl abs th an with saw dust Spent t an bark h as been us ed in the .

t anne rie s an d m uch time an d money h as been sp e nt in imp rovement

, .

Th e mo st common refuse fuel is th at from the t h rashing m achine b e —

ing the c h aff aft e r r e m oval o f the grain These machines are usual ly .

driven by a port abl e en g ine an d the fu el is oft e n mixe d , .

R efus e coal is al so a fu el wh ich engage s a gre at deal of attention and ,

th us very many att e mpt s h ave been m ad e t o d e vise a f urn ace for universal
us e. With s oft co al l i t tl e troubl e is met w ith exc e pt from t h e e arthy mat t er
an d clink e rs the l att e r are a n uisance an d r e quire some tro ubl e in man age
,
“ ”
ment Co k e dus t or bre e ze burns w ell w ith a forced draft , and refus e
.
, ,

anth racite if b urned w ith a moderat e rate of combus tion if not di sturbed
, ,

b urns w el l for a certain time Th e re moval of ash and e arthy m atter makes
.

it diffi cul t to k e ep up the fire .

Large fin e s are re quire d for fuel w hich h as an excess of hydro c arbon -

in order to ke e p t h e g as from gettin g chill ed an d to g ive time for com ,

b us t ion Sm al l fiue s require constant c are to k e ep them from sil ting or

.

sooting up With a strong d raft l e ss tro ubl e is experience d b ut w i t h good

.
,

p roportions an d an an t h racit e fire flue s n e e d not b e s w e pt ofte ner t h an

, ,

once a w e e k w hil e w ith t h e poorer kinds of w e s tern co al an d the same

, ,

boil er onc e in tw enty fo ur hours w oul d not b e exces s ive c are

,
- .

Th e w at e r circul ation steam an d w at e r room h ave al l their infl ue nce

,

in affe c t ing t h e durabil ity of the boil er an d m any forms of boi l ers w hich ,

h a v e b e e n succ e ssful in a fe w i s ol ated c as es or eve n in m any c ase s con , ,

fi ned t o one loc al ity w o ul d if e rected in dif ferent circ umstances prove an
, ,

e ntire fai l ure .

Th e q ual ity of the w ater — the ch aracter of material hel d in s uspen sion
,

an d sol ution is o ne of the mo s t import ant factors in m aking choice of a

,

boil er as al so t h e usage w heth e r con stant o r inte rmitt ent an d w hether

, , ,

uni form or v ari e d w h i l e it is at w ork , T h e opportunities afi ord ed for ex .

amin ation an d c l e aning are als o to be considered .

c orrosion or m ay if of
, cient thickness , caus e the me t al of t h e boiler
suf
fi
t o become overhe ated Some subst ances which are soluble in water at
.

ordi n ary temperatures an d even at 21 2 F are in soluble in water at higher

°
.

temperatures and are of course precipitated in fine powder thi s pow

, , ,

der falls to the bottom in quie t water b ut is kept in suspension and rises,

to the surface in places w here it is suflic ient l y agitated N e w combin ations .

are often formed with the mere dirt w hich h as been there all t h e time in
mech anical suspension Oil and g rease returned from the en g ines by an
.

open heater or a conde ns er is a new element , especiall y at high tempera

-

t ures . Sul ph ate of lime is actual ly less soluble in water of high tempera
tur e an d at 50 pounds pressure above the atmosphere is entirely insol uble
,
.

C arbon ate of lime held in solut ion in w ater containing carbonic ac id an d

bi carbon ate of lime deposit carbon at e of lim e as the temperat ure of
-

the water rises by driving out the carbo nic acid an d y se parating in t o b
c arbonate of l ime .

T he se two s ubst ances form the b as is of most kinds of s cale ,

—a

t hi rd being simply earthy or sandy m at t e r met wi th in the water .

If the ebulli t ion be strong enough to keep m ost of this deposit in suspe n
sion at or near t h e top of the water it m ay e removed by a surface , b
bl ower ; or if a closed feed heat er be used the feed water m ay be raised by
the use of l ive steam nearly to the temperature of the boiler an d the de
posit all owed to settl e to the bottom or ot her surface of the heater and re
moved by blow ing or w as hi ng out C are should be tak en t o wash out w ith
.

warm water if possible .

It wo uld se em at first sight th at distilled w ater as t h e return water

from a b uil ding heated by st eam or by a surface conden se r would be ex
ac t l y w h at w as required , but in eit her case the air w hich will ente r the

pipes w hen the press ure falls belo w t h e at mosphere induces pitting an d ,

unless the cylinder oil b e mineral e ven at ord in ary pre s sures w e find th at
, , ,

it deco m po s es and fatty ac i d s are for med which act very rapidly , .

Wit h the p urificat ion of water before usage we h ave l ittle t o do By .

t h e ad dition of quicklim e many e vils are removed , but in most cas es noth
ing can be done We h av e then after con si dering the water t o determin e
.

what m ay be done If the water contain only a sm all port ion of imp urity
.
,

which will form s cale , al m ost any imagined form of boiler may be succe ss
fully used .

We have kn own inst ances w here locomotives fed w ith surface water in
rocky di stricts in N e w England h ave run for twenty years without having
a tube removed whi le in central Ohio there are regions in which at the

b
,

end of six months hal f the tu es would h ave to be renewed if care were not
taken in washing out and cle an ing and it us ed to be said th at the w at er of
,

Bitter Creek would cause an engine t o leak in a fort night when the Union
Pac ific R R first reached t h at reg ion
. . .

Among the forms of boil ers which can be used wit h only the best water ,

is one first invented by Ogle an d aft erwards modified by Prosser Tw o set s .

of t ubes were used—a long an d short —an d four t ube pl at es t h e tube w hich ,

reached from the first to t h e fourth tube sheet pas sed thr o ugh the sh ort
 176 S TE A M MA KIN G: OR B OILER P R A C TI CE
. .

Th e form of the line of pipe h as re ce ived many ch an ges Perkins h as a .

’

cylindrical spiral ; w i t h Elder a conic spiral ; w ith He rre s h off a combin ation
of cyli ndri cal conic an d flat s piral s With Benso n an d Bell eville a series of
, .

nearl y horizontal pipes one over the other connected at al tern ate ends
, , .

Th e form of receiver used w as a vertical cylinder by Elder Benson an d ,

He rre sh off w hile Bellev ill e uses a ho rizontal cyli nder for a ste am drum
,

connected w ith a vertical cy l inder used as a m ud drum from w hich t h e -

,

blow ofis are led

-
Lat ta uses for his receiver a vertical an n ular space b e
.

tween t w o shell s the furn ace an d coils of pipe being ins ide the inner one
, .

Ben son Latt a an d H e rresh ofi use an independent circ ulating pum p

, , .

Bell evill e in the small boilers bl o w s ofi directl y w hile El der proposed as a ,

circulator a small screw propeller driven from outside .

With good w ater the cost of blo w in g aw ay the surplus feed is sm all as
b
this w ater h as not een ev aporated but in some c as es a surface condenser ,

even without an air pump is used in order to secure a supp l y of good w ater ,
for exampl e at sea w ith sm all boats an d engines Th e cost in fuel of blo w .

ing ofi into this reservoir is of course l ess Th e quantity of excess re

, , .

quired v aries with the intensity of t h e combustion an d appears not to ex ,

c e e d one h al f more th an t h e feed the w aste of he at is then not l ikely to

-
,

exceed 1 2 per cent w hen the surp l us is bl own aw ay and 8 per cent w hen
.
, .

the feed is returned to t h e b al ance raising it to a high te mperature With a .

circulating p ump very little h e at is lost With water containing only or .

din ary imp urities these cl asses of boil ers m ay be used advantageousl y the ,

excess being t hrown away ; b ut with sandy an d m uddy water it is alw ays
found that the w ater brought in the feed pipe to a boil e r begins to de
posit soli d m atter o utside the boiler an d to fill up the pipe until the opening
,

is j ust enough to supply w h at is needed As feed pi pes are usual l y m any .

times the size required for this p urpo s e (a 2 inch pipe ofte n closi ng up to -

less than 5 of an inch ) it is readily seen th at if the feed be introduced as ,

it shoul d be theoretically at the coolest p art of the pip e this m ay

, ,

easil y h app e n to the coil pipe itself an d then th at some accident all y l arge,

portion of m ud accumul ating during a short ce ssation of w ork w oul d either ,

close or so nearly cl o s e the already contracted p assage an d the por

, ,

tion of pipe expos e d to the greatest heat of the f urn ace w ould b urn before
the obstacle w o uld w ash thro ugh A boiler containing a large ody of . b
w ater is not so soon subj ected to the risk of burning .

A second class of pipe boilers is one in which the circ ulation is pro
v id e d for only by gravi t y As exampl es of th is w e h ave the B abcock an d
.

Wilcox (already ill ustrated ) ; the l arger Bellevi l le an d the Heine R oot and , ,

Firmenich , w hich w e give Th e l atter h as for it s prototype a com

.

b in ation of c urved pipes each a se mi circle uni t ing t w o straight pipes of

,
-
,

greater di ameter at t h e top an d bottom of the combin ation the w hole b e ,

ing th at t w o horizontal cyl inders are j oined at many points by rings in

vertical planes the cylinders being at the top an d bottom of the verti cal
,

di am eter of the ring s Th e fire w as made in the inside of the arrangemen t

.

resting on the rings as g rate bars an d the feed water introduced into t h e
,
 48 0 S TEA M MA K IN G: OR. B OIL ER P R A CTI CE .

b
lower straight pipe ranching to t h e ring pipe s, an d being evaporated
therein , an d st eam taken from the upper s traigh t pipe .

Of course with poo r water a st eam drum above h ad to be provi de d so

that the water line came above t h e rings and a circulation ei t her t hrough
the pip es or ext ernal pipe s added therefore .

With the larg er B ellevill e boilers the feed is in troduced i n to a vertical

drum an d then crosse s the steam drum in a k in d of trough to the vert ical
m ud drum , whence it p asse s down t o the di st ri uting drum
- With the b .

exception of the pas sage across t h e steam drum whereby the water gets
h ot enough t o render the sulph ates and carbonat e s of lim e insol uble an d ,

the ad di tion of a circulating pum p , the arrangemen t is i dentical with that

b
of Ben son Bell evill e circulates y g ravity and the clai m is th at from four
.

to eight times the wat er evaporat ed is circulated Heine also use s t h e e n .

cl osed feed heater in the same way, only the outs ide mud drum is not us e d -

b b
,

the low offs being taken from t h e enclose d ch am er

-

b
.

We give a ske tch of O gle s boiler wi t h cuts of Heine s as ui lt at

’ ’

St Louis ; the lat e st type of Bellevi lle s an d R oot s , an d a sketch of one of

’ ’

b
.

Herresh offs sm aller oilers —the fee d be ing into the outside of the fl at
’

top coil an d then do w n the spiral s to wards the fire and then out t o the
,

separator In many cas es a turn or two of pipe in the furn aces is added
.

after the steam leaves the sep arator to d ry or s up e rhe at the ste am ,
A .

“ ”
s e cond coil of spiral pipe was added on t h e outside of the b eehive coil
in order to increas e heating surface , an d other coils h ave been added till
one of the l att er boilers is as follows : A coil of smal l pipe fed at the bot
tom p asses up close to the sheet iron shell three fiat shell s come next -
, ,
“
follow ed by a single beehive coil Th e Latta boil er , w e h ave al ready il
.

lustrated an d we ad d a cut of Firm en ich s Bellevill e s an d R oot s boilers ’ ’ ’

b
.
,

h ave een very extensively used in cert ain localities Herre sh ofi an d Latta
have h ad great success with special application s—o ne to steam yachts and
.

launches the other t o fire engines

, .

Closely al lied is the boiler now us ed by Loftus Perkins the descendant ,

of Jacob Perkins who l eft N e w b uryport , Mass

, for England, and who was .
,
'

the origin ator of many things sinc e claimed as novelties , some unsuccessful ,
as the ste am gun w hich he used with the spiral pipe oiler so me since b ,

successful as the soft iron toothless disc now used for cutting steel rail s
, ,

col d w hich he however only tried on files hardened

b
.
, , ,
“ ”
Th e oiler used on the ste amer An t hracite , consiste d of 1 40 horizon
t al pipes in 1 0 layers 14 in a l ayer horizontally an d 1 0 in a l ayer vertically
, ,
.

These are united vertically by short nipples of small pipe and at the ,

top e ach of the 14 pipes of the t ap layer is connected at the mi ddl e of its
length to a transverse pipe of larger di ameter, ac ting as a steam drum .

Th e furn ace is ma de of s even rows of pipes across the b ack transversely to

upper gro up seven row s on e ach side , an d completed ro w s across the
,

front two row s being sep arate d in t h e centre , and t w o shortened rows
l eaving an opening for fire door Th e boiler is only used with distilled
,

water a n d the first though t we h ave is , that with the smal ln ess of the ris
,

ing pipes an d the l ack of special provi sion for circ ula tion or re turn of wat er
 MI S CE LL A N E O US B OILE R S, E TC .

“
to the t ubes around the furn ace we shoul d expect a very m arked foam
b
,
”
ing which w as found to be the case at the trial made y a Board of
United States En gineers United States N avy
, .

We als o g ive a sketch of an element of se ction of Kel ly s boiler ’

.

EL E MEN T o r A SE CTI O N Em
’
or r s B O IL ER .

Hardly t o be distin g uished from the w ater tube , or tubulo us boilers ,

come the section al boilers such as Sheph erd s and Cadiat s already men
’ ’

b
, ,

t ion e d , the most prom inent among them eing the Harrison which is ,

m ade of cast iron gl obes united in straight li nes by necks fl anges and ,

bolts Each line of globes is thus a straight tube w ith altern ate e nlarge
.

ments an d contractions and the boiler is subj ect to the incidentals of

,

al l the others of the t ub ulo us cl a ss Th e j oints are of course much

b
.
, ,

more n umerous th an with wroug ht iron tubes , but they are cl ai med to e
-

easier to m ake and to remain in better order A great n um er of th ese

. b
boil ers h ave been in satisfactory use in the eas tern p art of the United
States and elsew here
, .

We m ay then sum up as follows : After a desirabl e and counting al l

b
,

thin gs an economi cal evaporation h as een decided upon , an d the g rate

,
 184 S TEA M MA K I N G: OR. B OIL ER P R A CTI CE .

area defined from the fuel con sum ption , t h e heating surface may th en e b
comput e d an d t h e re sults comp ared with the availa le experien ce T hat b
b
.

form of oiler which can b e con structed and se t in operation for the least
money , without lowering t h e qual ity of the material an d workmanship ,
an d witho u t in t er fering with the q uality o f the fuel an d water —ih brief
it s d ura il it y , —
b
,

is the on e t o be recommended .

APPU RTENAN CE S TO A BOILE R .

b
In operating oilers a m ul tit ude of fittings an d tools are required .

First , as to the furn ace Th e firem an h as to use a shovel for coal an d

‘

for sh avi ngs a k ind of p ush hoe ; for wood his han ds only in getting the
fuel on to the fire Th e choice of a shovel depends much on the man
b
.
,

b ut a road fiat on e seems favo rable to spread the fuel uniformly ; as t h e

coal is t h rown forward th e shovel is struck on the threshold of the fire
do or in a p e culiar manner which j erks the coal up ward an d assists in the
operation Th e other fire tools are the poker, the rake a kind of hoe ,
.
,

a sl ice bar for running up through the g rate , an d a flat bar for lift ing

b
from a ove t h e grate ; the others are added as circ um s tances require A
b b
.

shovel for removing as he s will proba ly e required in addi tion to th at

us ed for firing .

To reg ulate the air supply a d amper must be used , plac ed on the
door in the flue or in the smoke connection , an d this is either w orked
b y h and , or automati cal l y Th e fire door is usuall y s uppl ied by a regist er
.
,

which is some t imes arranged to be s et wide op e n by the ac t of closin g the

door, when a weigh t fall ing agains t a das h pot gradual ly closes it again .

T hi s w as one of the earliest attempts to prevent smoke A s win g ing pl ate .

damper in the stack is sometimes connected with a loaded diaphragm or ,

to a pist o n in a cyli nder working against a spring , or even to a common

safety valve lever When t h e pre ssure of steam rises the movemen t of
.
,

the di aphr agm or pisto n , sui tabl y multiplied turns the d amper an d ,

reduce s th e draft As the pre ss ure falls the dam per is opened by the
.

reverse action .

In supplying feed water to the boiler a check v alve is placed c on v en -

ientl y close to the shell or point of attachment for the point of attac h
, ,

ment of the feed pipe is peculi arly liabl e t o be strained by ch anges of tem
p era t ure of the feed w ater as well as the fire conseq u ently an extr
, a li a il ity b
to leakage exists ; an d from the fact that this connection in a station ary
b oiler is usual ly in t h e furn ace , a g reat deal of corrosion t akes pl ace , an d
is to be expec t ed at t h is p art Th e j oint is usual ly m ade by screw in g the
_
, .

pipe int o a flange secured to the shell by bolts or rivets If anything .

h appens to the feed w ater app aratus such as the leak age of a valve , or an y
,

thing which requires disconnecting the feed pipes this check v alve
b
,

en a les it to be done without delay It al so acts as a guard and reli ef to

.

the disch arg e valves of the p ump .

 186 S TEA M MA KIN G: O R B OILER P R A C TI CE
. .

When a feed wat e r h eat e r is used it may be placed between the pump
-
,

an d boil er or the p ump m ay be pl ac ed between the heat er an d boiler ; in

,

the form e r case any ordin ary form of fee d pum p m ay be employed but
b
,

the feed w ater must e sep arate from the exhaust steam used for heating ,
for the feed water m ust be at the bo iler pres sure w hile the exh aus t steam ,

is of course near the atmospheric p re ssure By using a j et of fine steam to .

“
rais e the upper portion only of the water which is in the heater the lime ,

salts m ay be rendered in s olubl e and can b e caught in a q uiet pan or bl own

, ,

ofi at the s urface This is Stron g s heater N o economy of fuel is obtai ned

’
. .

by t h e use of live steam its efiect is the p urification of the w ater On the
, .

other h an d if the feed w at er pass first into t h e heater any kind of a h eater
,

m ay be employed ; but t h e p ump v alves m us t be prep ared to take hot

water and it is desirabl e to h ave the feed water s upplied to the force
,

p umps from a higher l e v el so th at no attempt at suction m ay be req uired

, ,

for the water gives c d steam in large volumes at a ve ry slight red uction
’
.

below the press ure of the atmosphere and filling t h e p ump chambers , , ,

in t erferes with its satisfacto ry working .

We give a few forms of heat e rs us ed but do not think it advisable to ,

enter more fully into the subj e ct In a great portion of t h e w est ern prac
.

tice a closed cyl inder se t ho ri zontall y is used w hich is filled w ith the feed ,

water to about half ; the exh aust s team fro m the en g ines is then passed over
the surface of the wat er w hich is hel d by blad es from being taken alon g w ith
,

the steam , for the exh aust steam often leaves the cylinder at a pressure of
7 5 po unds to the inch With the heater j ust described t w o sets of p umps
.

are employ ed one to lift from the g ro und , or w ell t o the heat er a w ork

b
, , ,

w hich m ay be omitted if the s uppl y e high eno ugh an d the other a force ,

pump fill ing by gravity from the heater usually placed above the p um ps ,
, ,

an d forcing into the boil er Th e favorite western arrange m ent is a be am

.
,

cran k an d fiy w heel en g ine workin g two l ifting p umps on one s ide and
-
,

t w o force p umps on the other side of the be am the feed being carried ,

through the hollow columns w hich suppor t the heater T h e whol e .

“ ”
arrangement goes by the n ame of doctor Although the m achi n e c an .

h ardl y be surp as sed for general ugliness of appearance , yet it is em inentl y

ad apted to the w ork t o be done and all attempts to drive it from the
, oats b
on the river and its vicinity h ave fail ed for it represents a lon g e x pe ri
, , ,

ence w ith a pecul i ar set of con di tion s .

Th e feed p umps used are either attached to the m ain engine or ,

driven by an in dependent steam en g ine , and in no one point of practice

is there more universal disagreem ent on the two sides of the Atlan tic .

In Engl and an d E urope the attachment of the p ump to the eng ine is a
matter of co urse an d even the smal l est engines are provided with them :
b
,

it is only in l arge engines driving mil ls or w here a n um er of engines

, ,

are empl oyed or th e w ater is used for something el se th at an indepe n dent

, ,

p umping engine is used Th e argument which c an not be contradi cted is

.
, , ,

that it costs less s t eam hen c e fuel , to do the work of p umping is but a sm all
, ,

5 per cent if t h e wat e r used be 30

addition to the work of the en g ine 30 6 , .

pounds per horse power per hour an d the steam pre ssure 100 pounds above
,
 MIS CEL L A N E O US B OI L ER S, E TC .

the atmosphere , an d varying di rectly with the ste am pressure an d t h e

—
economy of the en g in e than by a sm al l non exp anding slow w ork ,
-
,

in g engine In the United States this was al so t h e practice but at present

.
,

the use of the independent en g ine is universal an d it is beginning to be ,

introduced into Engl and from this co untry Th e chief m erit is in it s being
.

able to run when the e n gine is sh ut do wn an d to vary the quantity of feed

,

while the uniformity of sp eed of the en g ine

is not interfered with . Th e form e r adds to
the security of the boiler if the engine
be suddenly stopp e d , for the w ater suppl y
w ill not stop with a big fi re w hen of ,

course the suppl y should be moderated ,

b ut from being almost the first thing to be
looked after it b e comes a very second
ary m atter As in a
. good engine a hors e
pow er can be fur h ished from the boiler

at a cost of from 20 to 3 0 pounds of w ater

per hour, while with the smal l one as fre ,

quently m e t with this , cost amoun ts to from

60 to 1 00 or say, three
, times as much for the
indepen dent en g ine . Let us see w h at this
gives : With a boiler e v a p o r at i o n o f 6
pounds of water for 1 po und of ste am we ,

see th at it might take 1 7 poun ds of f uel for

the w orst case we hav e sup p o sed
against 3 for the best engine a di fiere nce of ,

14 pounds per ho ur , or 140 pounds per day

for each horse power required If the st e am .

i 100 po nds we h ve lbs x 23 0

'

p re s s ure s u a 20 .

feet, foot pounds per horse

power per hour an d , if the engine indi
cates 1 00 horse pow er , w e sh all h av e 460 X
1 00, or foot pounds as the energ y ,

required t o pump the feed for an hour .

N ow , a horse power is 550 foot po unds ex

e rt e d for a second , or a min ute or ,

for an hour . T his is about one

fourth a horse power , w hich wo ul d require
about one fourth - of the 140 po unds 3 5 ,

po unds of co al a day
, , assumed to be the
greatest difierence in S ECTI ON OF CRAN K AND FLY
W cost likely to be met
,

H EEL FEED P U MP
with or say 40 as a
, limit an e x p e n s e
.

ran gin g from 3 to 25 cents a day according to the price of fuel

,
.

If on the other h an d the mai n engin e requires 40 pounds of water

, ,

per horse power per hour, the quantity required for our 100 horse engine ,

w ith 1 00 pounds of s team w il l be tw ice as gre at or about one h al f a

, ,
-

horse power ; an d if now w e have a fee d pump of proper proportions ,

 188 S TE A M MA KIN G: OR . B OIL ER P R A C TI CE .

we h ave for h al f a horse po wer 3 0 l s of wat er, and for a oiler evapora
- b b
b
, , .

tion of 9 in pl ace of 6 pounds of co al , use d y t h e indepen dent e ngin e

, .

An e ng ine using 20 lbs of wat er gives the same re sult , viz 11 lbs per
. .

day difie re n c e i n plac e of 40 l bs Th e convenience and securi t y of a se p

.

arate pump would seem to far outweigh thi s slight e conomy .

Of the multitude of steam p ump s mad e we find two class es the di rect
fl
,

ac ting an d the cran k and y whee l Th e lat t er are more economical in .

usin g st eam as the steam m ay be use d exp ansively

b b
, ,

but it m ay e dou te d if the addition al couplin gs

caused by the greater
b
do n ot over al an ce this
economy claim ed can not
j ust investigated where
to the main engine
numbe r of connect ions
,because , of course , the
reach that which we h ave
, the pump was attac h e d
b
.

With the choice of a oiler feed pump we

sh all h ave little to do .Th e cost an d co s t of re ,

p airs, or coll ectively the , ann ual c os t of the p ump

is t h e item to be gov em ed by an d this varies ,

necessarily in difi erent localities an d at di fferen t

times This is not always
. an e as y m att e r t o do but ,

we h ave seen th at the di fiere nce amo ng them

b
m us t e of comparative unimportance and we
b
,

sh all dismi ss the su j ect without attempting to

m ake a choice among the man y excellent machines
in the market .

We ill us trate only one form of pump , not

m ade in this country as , simple and se emi ng well
adapted t o an y work

fl
.

Th e us e of a j et or stream of ui d ac ross the

l ine of motion of another EL VATI ON or onm x u m stream of E ui d to com fl
m uni cat e motion from FLY EEL ram) P U MP - WH
the first stream to the .

second stream h as long been known A stream .

of water acting at high pressure 400 l bs in a 2 i nch pipe upon a secon d , .

,
-

stream h ad the power to lift a colum n of water 120 feet in a 6 -inch pipe
b
, ,

ringing with it an immense quantity of sand an d gravel We have here

b
.

a convincing example of one stream contri uting eno ugh of it s energ y t o

move the other t w o one of water an d one of san d while the resulting
, ,

velocity is that due to the energ y of the first stream acting upon th e
whole mass A second example which we will di scus s later, is a j et of
.
,

st e am to set a current of air in motion .

Th e us e of a j et of steam for moving a s t ream of water ori gin ate d th e

steam syphon and v arious other form s of the st eam j et pump , a useful
,

adj unct to locomotives in a new co untry

b
.

T h e energ y of motion of a ody is well known to be the product of

its mas s by the h alf square of its velocity hence it is p ossible t o com
b
,

m unicat e to a body of l ittl e w eight a large amount of energy y movi ng it

fast eno ugh , an d in fact the energ y of motion w ould onl y be limit ed y b
 190 S TE A M MA KIN G: OR , B OI LE R P RA CTI C E .

b
ple of increase of energ y y increase of m ass or velocity h as been applied
by increas ing the mass of steam used until we find that not onl y can a
fe w pounds w eight of steam put into a boiler a good m any more poun d s of
water at a much higher temperature than it h ad but th at in a non con ,
-

de nsing engine it is po ss ible by us ing the exh aust steam in p art to ut

, , p
into the boiler at a m uch higher pressure an d te mperature a weight of ,

wat er which is stil l g reater th an th at of the steam moving it .

F O R CI N G F O R C IN G

I NI LDW O VI RPLO

S T AT I O N AR Y . L O C O MO T IVE .

INJ EC T O RS .

When the inj ector first mad e it s appearance it w as by m any , con sid , ,

ered as almost a p aradox especial ly by those wh o looked at the question

,

as one of hydr ostatics only Th at steam from a boiler could put w ater
.

b ack into it at the s am e pressure an d overcome the friction of the p ass

,

ages w ithout the aid th at a ste am p ump h ad of a dif

ference of piston areas ,

w as to them a p uzzle Th e use of exh aust steam at atmospheric pressure

.

for the p urpos e of p utting water into a boiler at a pressure of 150 pounds
per square inch w o uld be to such minds utterly incomprehensible We .

think there are two classes of instrumen t s made for the di fference in steam
pressures below an d above 60 pounds differing in area an d di sposition of
,

the p as sages .

As this modific ation is one of the latest so it is not one of t h e most ,

important for we h ave seen th at the cost of the feed water put into the
,

boilers w as from one fo urth to one third of 1 per cent N o w a horse

- - .
,

po w er with the best engine an d boiler, non condensing engine , runs -

from 25 to 3 5 lbs of coal per hour a v alue by the w ay corresponding to an

.
,
 MI S CE L LA N E O US B OI L E R S E TC . .

a verage bet ween the 5 an d 5 of 1 per cent given above t h e former being .
,

taken for a conden sing engine usi ng 20 lbs of water , the latter 25 lbs .
, .
,

g iving with 10 for evaporation 25 lbs of coal per ho ur per indic ated
,
.

hors e power If n e w the en g ine r uns 500 indic ated horse power 24 hours
.
, ,

24 X 500 X 7 X 5
i n the day we h ave Th e q uanti ti es are then
,
x 2400 2 ,

24 hours per d ay .

500 horse po w er .

7
the average bet w een 5 an d 5 per cent
2400
.

2 the 25 lbs of coal required for one horse pow er

. .

This costs from 5 to 25 cents per day or from $15 to $7 5 per ye ar the , ,

feed water being delivered at a temperature of abo ut 150 F an d the

°
.
,

cost of a heater being s aved in addition We see therefore th at the feed .

, ,

water c an easil y be put into the boiler an d as we h ave seen el sewhere , , ,

al l th at c an be s aved from the expense is so m uch net gain w hile it is ,

evident from our investigation th at more can be saved by the use of ,

an d then t aking out

°
a firs t cl as s he ater leaving the water say at 200 F
-
, , .
,

w h at mused by the p ump , th an by an exh aus t inj ector as this m odifica ,

tion is known .

Th e us e of an inj ector h as this to recommend it th at the feed water ,

can not be introd uced into t h e boiler cold or n e arly so but m ust be ,

warmed by contact with the steam an d the val ue of this h as been al ready ,

sho wn In sm all boilers where no heater is used an exh aust inj ector is
.

better th an a p ump an d so is an ordinary inj ector ; but the former incl udes
,

in itself an exh aust h eater saving a portion of heat from the exh aust ,
,

besides t aking the power as heat al so , whi le with the common inj ector the
heat for pow er an d raising temperature are both derived from the live
steam in the boil er Th e latter portion of he at is of course , directly
.
,

returned to the boiler without loss , b ut th at for power is necessari l y ex

pended As to the amo unt of power used by p ump an d inj ector comp ared
.

with each other it would seem th at t h e p ump is most efficient There

,
.

h ave been many comparat ive tri als of p ump and inj ector but the results ,

h ave usually been unsatisfactory from contained discrep ancies We may .

,

how ever s um up our impressions as fol lows :

,

For en g ines with condensers , either a p ump or common inj ector m ay

be used .

For engines with j et condensers an inj ector is to be preferred to a ,

p ump as the temperature of the feed is necessarily m uch higher th an the

,

hot well This preference is not because of econ omy of f uel b ut d ura
.

bi l it y of the boiler .

For n on condensing engines in order of choice a p ump an d first

-
, ,

class heater an exh aust inj ector a common inj ector

, , .

Th e exh aust inj ectors h ave not yet been used eno ugh to develop their
full cap abilities b ut there is no reason to doubt th at in a few years the
,

same con fi dence sh o uld be felt in them as in the older forms .

 19 2 S TE A M MA KIN G: OR . B OILE R P R A CTI CE .

We ill ustrate only a si mpl e form of inj e ctors , in sections ; thes e are
not made in this country .

Th e appli cation of a s te am j e t t o induce a current of air for draft is

nearly as ol d as the loc omotiv e wi th which it origin ated an d to w hich its
use now is alm os t re stricted and to bo ilers of t h e sam e class where a sud
,

de n c all for st eam can be rapidl y met In the most simple form a pipe is
b
.

led from the oil er t o the stack , if of iron if not , to som e of the fine s or
,
”
t ubes whi ch is termi n ate d by a reducer with short nipple ; a 1 p ipe with
,
” ”
a 3 or 5 nipple , sufflcin g to raise the gauge from 2 to 9 0 lbs in 7 mi nutes
0 .

for a 100 horse power en g ine .

Th e chimney us ed in thi s case w as 18 inches di ameter and 25 feet high .

For p l ain j ets an d nozzles of this clas s in open cylinders , Mr J A . . .

Langridge, Member Instituti on of Civil Eng ineers concludes essential ly ,

1
. Th e ac tion is due the fri ct ion of one fl uid on the oth er an d that by ,

div iding the j ets the surfac e of contact of the fluids is much increased for
the sam e m asses of fluid ; or t h e same draft may be produced with less
ste am .

2
. Th e e fie ct of the draft is increase d by lengthening the chimney ,

but t h e efie ct is sm al ler from four di ameters to eight di ameters than less
. b
th an four diam eters A ove eight there is a fall ing off .

3
. He s tates that the draft measured in inches of water inches of ,

diameter and pounds per s q uare inch above the atmosphere m ay b e com ,

put e d as follows :
D raft eq uals 3 7 tim es the fifth power of the third root of the di ameter
of the blast pipe , times t h e fourth power of the fifth root of the pressure ,
b
di vided y the square of t h e di ameter of the chimn ey .

Very much better results are obtained by g iving proper form to the
nozzle an d guidi ng surfaces around the j ets .

Blow c d val ves are us ed at the bottom and surface ; the former are
-

used interm ittently , an d as their us e includes runn ing out all the water in
the b oil er when it is desired to remove it , they are quite l arge , and shoul d ,
as before noted h av e s lidi ng gate with room for m ud Th e attachment to
fl
.
,

the shell of such a l arge pipe should be by ange Th e upper blow ofl .

-

us ually takes it s wat er from s uch a place in th e boiler that a well defined
down current fol lows a horizon tal one At this angle the water is com .

p aratively qui et Another method is to provide an inside pan where t h e

.

w ater is shielded from up ward streams and bubble , where the scum on the
surface may h ave a chance to form Sometimes a drum out side the boiler
.

is connected at two points with this pan an d the circulati on set up by

difieren ces of temperature brings the water out with its imp urities ;
the latter h ave time to settle , or if not cooled s ufi cient l y, rem ain at the
surface an d are there removed Th e action of a surface blow of
. f m ay -

be intermittent or constant In the latter case a loss of heat occurs which

.

we have full y dis cussed in thi s chapter .

Gauge cocks are put in at di flerent levels near the water li ne Th e .

lowest is usually put in so th at a full gauge of water lies over the danger
p oint, or hi ghest metal exposed to the di re ct ac ti on of the hot gas on t h e
 S T E AM G A U G E S .

F O R GE D W R O U GHT IR O N MAN H O L E AND C O V ER .

C O R RU G A T E D FLU E .
 MI S CE L L A N E O US B OIL E R S , E TC . 19 5

second return thereof Th e cock s are in n umber from two up three or

.
, ,

four in all , being the common n umber Th e upper one is placed at as high
.

a level as it is tho ug ht c an be used w ithout fo aming In addi tion one or .

,

t wo glass t ube s are sometimes used Th e brass fittin g s in which the latter
.

are inserted should be provided with four val ves one be tween the glass ,

and boi l er at e ach end of the tube and one at e ach end in t h e line of t h e
,

tube s o it c an be cl e an ed by washing from either end an d a rod c an be r un

,

t h roug h it Th e tube is p acked in place by g um washers and double nuts

. .

Speciall y soft gl ass h as to be used , a n d g re at c are t aken not to scratch the

gl ass or a break is sure to h appen By sh uttin g off t h e glass from the
, .

boiler it c an e as ily be replac ed .

We illustrate a combin ed gauge glass an d gauge cocks .

A float inside the boiler attac hed to two arm s on a spin dl e p assing
throug h the head of the boiler in a properly p acked box varies with the ,

water an d shows its position by a needle attached to the spindle Th e .

constant fluctuations of these instrum ents show them to be in w orking

order b ut the gauge cock should be used every hour
, .

Safety valves are lo aded by dead weight weight an d lever direct , ,

sprin gs a n d spring an d lever

, Th e v alves are usuall y plain con es b ut of
.
,

l ate years the port ion beyond the cone h as been m odifie d in a m anner
,

e asily seen from the ill ustrations .

Th e m ost important adj unct of a boil er is the pre ss ure gauge .

Pre ssure gauges are made either with di aphragm , as a spring ag ainst
which the steam presses or by a flatten ed curve d t ube which tends to
,

become circul ar in section with increase of pressure .

Th e last adj unct of a boiler is t h e m anhole an d its cover an d the h and

holes Th e common form is t oo well k now n for description , b ut we give
.

an illustration of a forged wrought iron fi t t ing with cover bolted on a ,

ground j oint In this co untry such a forging woul d be found difficult

.
,

“ ”
b ut we h ave a few m ade of g un metal or g un cast iron , .

In conclusion we give in addition to the m any c ases among our boiler

,

ill ustrations a drawing of one of the corrugated fiues or furn ace tubes
, , .