Centrifugal Pumps 2

Centrifugal pumps: Definitions – Formulas and Conversions
The following, definitions, formulae and rules cover most that is needed to know about
centrifugal pumps, others will be introduced when necessary:
Head
If you point the discharge of a centrifugal pump straight up into the air it will pump the fluid to
a certain height or head called the shut off head. This maximum head is mainly determined by
the outside diameter of the pump's impeller and the speed of the rotating shaft. The head will
change as the capacity of the pump is altered.
The head is measured in meters. It is important for you to understand that the pump will pump
all fluids to the same height (air or sulfuric acid, it doesn't make any difference) if the shaft is
turning at the same rpm. The only difference between the fluids is the amount of power it takes
to get the shaft to the proper rpm. The higher the specific gravity of the fluid the more power
(amps) required.
Capacity
The amount of fluid the pump will move is determined mainly by the width of the impeller and
the shaft speed. Capacity is normally measured cubic meters per hour (m 3/hr) or liters per
minute (l/min)
Best efficiency point (B.E.P)

There are two definitions of a pump's best efficiency point:
1. The point where the power going into the pump is the closest to the power coming out
2. The point where the pump shaft experiences the least amount of vibration.
Wattage
The amount of power going into the pump, excluding the power going into the driving unit.
Specific Gravity (S.G.)

A measure of the weight of a liquid compared to that of pure water at 4°C. Water is assigned a
value of 1.0. If the product floats on this water the specific gravity (S.G.) is less than one. If the
fluid sinks in fresh water the specific gravity is more than one.
Velocity
A measure of how fast the fluid is moving. Velocity = meters/second.
Gravity (g)
Acceleration due to the attraction of the earth on any body. g = 9,8 meters/ sec2.
Pressure
The force exerted per unit of area. It may be described as the intensity of a force at any given
point on the contact surface.
Pressure = Force = N = Pa
Area M2
Pressure can be measured in many ways such as Bars, Kg/cm2, kPa or PSI
1 Bar = 1 Kg/cm2 = 100kPa
In the imperial system pressure is measured in Pounds per Square Inch or PSI.
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Atmospheric Pressure
The earth is surrounded by an envelope of air that extends upwards some 80km or more (this is
now estimated to extent up to 1000km but in such a rarified state that it has no influence in our
calculations). The pressure exerted by this air mass is known as atmospheric pressure. The
atmospheric pressure will obviously vary with altitude, decreasing as the altitude increases.
Barometers are instruments that measure atmospheric (or barometric) pressure.
Pressure Gauge
An instrument used to measure fluid pressure in a closed vessel
Absolute and Gauge Pressure

Absolute pressure is understood to be the total or true pressure of a fluid whereas Gauge
Pressure is the pressure indicated by a gauge. Gauges are calibrated to read zero at atmospheric
pressure and therefore only indicate the difference between the total pressure in the vessel and
the atmospheric pressure. (The air gauge at petrol station indicate the pressure inside the tyre
and will show zero when not connected to an inflated tyre). When the fluid pressure is greater
than atmospheric pressure, the absolute pressure is determined by adding the atmospheric
pressure to the gauge pressure. When the pressure of the fluid is less than atmospheric
pressure, the absolute pressure is found by subtracting the gauge pressure from the atmospheric
pressure
Matter and Molecules

Matter, everything that has mass or occupies space, is composed of molecules. The molecule is
the smallest stable particle of matter into which a substance can be subdivided while still
retaining its original identity. However all molecules are made up of atoms.
States of Matter. Matter can exist in three different phases or states, viz solid, liquid and gas
or vapour. E.g. Water is a liquid but this same substance can exists as ice which is a solid, or as
steam, which is a vapour or a gas.
Liquid
A liquid is any physical substance which will freely take the shape of its container, yet its
molecules strongly attract each other and cannot be compressed.
Vapour
A vapour is any physical substance which must be enclosed in a sealed container to prevent its
escape into the atmosphere. A vapour will take up the shape and space of its container and can
be compressed or decompressed. Vapour can occur inside a liquid.

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Abbreviation and conversions
Atm Atmosphere = 760.0 mm Hg = 101.325 kPa = kg/cm2

mm Hg Millimeters of Mercury
Pa Pascal
kPa kilopascal
torr (Torricelli) another symbol for mm Hg
K Kelvin bases on “absolute zero” at -273 oC
o
C Degrees Celcius
psi Pounds per square inch (psi/14.7 = Atm)
To covert kPa to PSI simply divide the kPa amount by 7 (or more accurately 6.9)
Converting Head to Pressure
Head (meters) x S.G.= Pressure (bars)

10.2
Pressure to Head
Head (meters) = Pressure (bars) x 10.2

S.G
Millimeters of Mercury x 0.014 = Meters of Liquid
SG
Velocity to Head
V2 = head
2g
Flow to kW
102kg/sec = 1kW
Rules
Velocity + Pressure = a constant

This means that if the velocity of the fluid increases, the pressure will decrease. If the flow
decreases, the pressure will increase. Flow often changes in a pump meaning that the pressure
is changing also.
Velocity x Area = a constant

If the area inside of a pipe decreases, the flow through the pipe will increase as it passes
through the restriction. The two numbers multiplied together always result in the same number.
Inside a centrifugal pump there are passages of various areas and hence various velocities and
pressures.
Pressure x Area = a force.

Force is measured in Newtons (kilograms x gravity). Force can deflect the impeller and
rotating shaft so that the pump's wear rings will come into contact, or the rotating mechanical
seal will hit something that can open the faces or damage a component. It is important to keep
the forces equal around an impeller to prevent shaft deflection.

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The Affinity Laws
These laws are called “affinity” because they bring in the relationships and connections
between the various pump characteristics.
Suppose you wanted to change the amount of fluid being pumped; you could
 Regulate the discharge of the pump

 Change the speed of the pump
 Change the diameter of the impeller
The first method is only suitable if you wanted to reduce the flow and if you had no interest in
the pressure, so we will only study what happens when we change either the pump speed or the
impeller diameter and examine how other characteristics are going to change alongside
(affinity). Since changing the diameter of the impeller (see below) or its speed will have
practically the same effect, we can limit the discussion to the speed change.
New speed = x
Old speed
for example, if we change from a four pole to a two pole motor 1500 = 0.5
3000
Capacity changes directly with x
If we had 50m3/hour we will now have 50 x 0.5 = 25m3
Head changes with x2

If we had a 40 metre head we will now have 40 x 0.52 = 10m
Wattage changes with x3

If we needed a 10kW motor at 3000 rpm we would now need 10 x 0.53 = 1.25kW at 1500rpm
It should be noted that these laws only apply where the diameter changes by not more than
10% as otherwise the pump characteristics change drastically
The following relationships are not exact but they do give a good indication as how speed and
diameter changes affect the pump functions.
Net Positive Suction Head Required (p.21) changes with the x2
In the example above a 4m NPSHR will require a 4 x 0.52 = 1m at half speed
Friction Loss (p.18) in the piping changes with about 90% x2
In the example above a 20m loss at 3000rpm would have 20 x 0.52 x 0.9 = 4.5m

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Bernoulli’s Equation
Bernulli’s famous equation has been formulated in many different ways:
First we have to revise some basic laws: (m is the mass, g is the acceleration due to gravity, U
is the speed, V is the volume and p is the pressure, Q is the flow, P is the absolute pressure, γ is
the specific weight)
Potential Energy Ep mgh

Kinetic Energy Ek ½ mU2
Pressure/Flow Energy Ep PV = Pmg
γ
Bernulli simply stated that the head or pressure is equal everywhere in a piping system and this
is always a combination of the dynamic and static head. Mathematically we can put it as
follows:
Ep + Ek +Ep = mgh + mU 2 + = Pmg = constant

γ
If we divide by mg we obtain: P + h + U2 = constant (Bernulli’s Equation)

γ 2g
The above refers to a perfect fluid under constant flow (the flow rate in a pipe section is
constant)
1
1 2 2
Bernulli’s equation for a constant flow in the pipe above can be written
P1 + h1 + U12 = P2 + h2 + U22
γ 2g γ 2g
The speed increases and the pressure decreases and viceversa.

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Specific Speed
Specific speed is a term used to describe the geometry of a pump impeller. People responsible
for the selection of the proper pump, for their application, can use this Specific Speed
information to:
Select the shape of the pump curve.
Determine the efficiency of the pump
Anticipate motor overloading problems.
Predict N.P.S.H. requirements.
Select the lowest cost pump for their application.
Specific speed is defined as "the speed of an ideal pump geometrically similar to the actual
pump, which when running at this speed will raise a unit of volume, in a unit of time through a
unit of head".
The performance of a centrifugal pump is expressed in terms of pump speed, total head, and
required flow. This information is available from the pump manufacturer's published curves.
Specific speed is calculated from the following formula, using data from these curves at the
pump's best efficiency point (B.E.P.) (p.17 &20):
Specific Speed (Ns) = N √Q
H3/4
N = The speed of the pump in revolutions per minute (rpm.)
Q = The flow rate in liters per minute
H = The total dynamic head in meters
Specific Speeds in rpm

20000
4000
500
Radial Flow Mixed Flow Axial Flow

Vane
The above diagram shows the gradual change from Radial flow which develops pressure
mainly through centrifugal action to the Axial flow whose impeller mainly develops its head
by the lifting action imparted by the vanes.
As an example, let us make a calculation of Ns using the following: Head H 95m, Flow Q
500m3/hr at a speed of 1450 rpm
Ns = 1450 √500 = 1065

953/4
From the chart above you would guess that this is a radial flow pump but a large because of its
flow specifications.

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In general the higher the specific speed the higher the efficiency (p17 & 20)
90
80
70
60
50
40
1000 2000 3000 4000
Specific Speed
Curves have also been drawn showing the relationship between specific speed and most other
values, as follows:
Hd Hd Hd Legend
Hd Hd
Hd Head
P P P Q Capacity
P P
kW P Power Required
η η Efficiency
η η η η
Q Q Q Q Q BEP
Ns
Points to note:
Gradient of Head to Capacity curve increases as Specific Speed increases
At low specific speeds power consumption is lowest at shut off and rises as the flow increases
which means that these pumps could be overloaded at high flow rates
At medium specific speeds the power curve is practically flat which means that the motor
speed can easily be chosen to run at the BEP
At high specific speeds the power curve is very steep with maximum power required at
minimum flow. These pumps should never be started with closed discharge valve

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Efficiency
First we have to have a look at some other definitions which we have not yet encountered.
Useful Power (Nu) is the quantity of power which the pump transfers to the liquid in a unit of
time (i.e. the power we get out of the pump) and is defined as follows:
(Nu) = Q x H x γ
where Q is the flow rate in m3/sec, H is the head in meters and γ is the specific weight in kg/m3
of the liquid.
Since 102 kg/sec = 1kW, we get

(Nu) = Q x H x γ kW
102
Absorbed Power (Na): In providing power to the to the liquid, the pump incurs some losses:
Mechanical losses due to the moving parts, Hydraulic losses due to friction, turbulence, etc. All
these losses absorb some power and diminish the efficiency of the pump. If there were no
losses the pump would be 100% efficient.
Efficiency is the ratio between the power we get out of the pump and the power we put into the
pump. It is a number which is called efficiency when it is expressed as a percentage.
Let us look at an example
H = 35m
2m
Capacity 110m3/hr
SG of liquid: 1
Using the formula above, the Output Power is 110 x (35-2) x 1000 = 9.89kW
3600 x 102
If the manufacturer’s specifications rated the pump at 15kW then the efficiency would be
9.89/15 = 0.66 or 66% efficient.
As a matter of fact this type of efficiency is pretty normal in commercial pumps.

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Friction Losses along piping and fittings.
Many people have tried to devise a mathematical equation to predict the losses along pipes and
fittings of different sizes, lengths and material, as well as the medium being carried, but none
have been successful. Here we present some acceptable (?) charts obtained using fresh water at
15O C
For steel pipes multiply by 1.3 – For cast iron multiply by 1.7 -

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Reading pump curves
CAPACITY
By looking at the above illustration, you will note that we have plotted the head of the pump
against its capacity. The head of a pump is in meters and the capacity in liters per minute or
cubic meters per hour.
According to the above illustration this pump will pump a 40 capacity to about a 110 head, or a
70 capacity to approximately an 85 head.
The maximum head of this pump is 115 meters. This is called the maximum shutoff head of
the pump. Also note that the best efficiency point (BEP) of this impeller is between 80% and
85% of the shutoff head. This 80% to 85% is typical of centrifugal pumps, but if you want to
know the exact best efficiency point you must refer to the manufacturers pump curve.
Ideally a pump would run at its best efficiency point all of the time, but we seldom hit ideal
conditions. As you move away from the BEP the shaft will deflect and the pump will
experience some vibration. You will have to check with your pump manufacturer to see how
far you can safely deviate from the BEP (a maximum of 10% either side is typical)
Now look at the following illustration:
The additional curves show the B.E.P. of the pump for different impellers

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kW
CAPACITY
The above graph shows the power consumption at various capacities and impeller diameters.
Each of the lines represents an impeller diameter. The top line would be for the 13 impeller the
second for the 12.5 etc.
If we were pumping a capacity of 65 with an 11.5 impeller it would take about 20 kW.
Most pump curves show the percent of efficiency at the best efficiency point. The number
varies with impeller design and numbers from 60% to 80% are normal.
When you will look at an actual pump curve you should have no trouble reading the various
heads and corresponding capacities for the different size impellers. You will note however, that
the curve will usually show an additional piece of information and that is NPSHR which stands
for net positive suction head required to prevent the pump from cavitating.
Depending upon the pump curve you might find a 3.0 meter NPSHR at a capacity of 110 m 3/hr
for a 330 mm diameter impeller.
It should be noted that the manufacturer assumed the pump would be pumping fresh water at
20° C and the N.P.S.H Required was tested using this assumption. If you are pumping water at
a different temperature or if you are pumping a different fluid, you are going to have to add the
vapour pressure of that product to the N.P.S.H. Required. The rule is that Net Positive Suction
Head Available minus the Vapour Pressure of the product you are pumping (converted to head)
must be equal to or greater than the Net Positive Suction Head Required by the manufacturer.
Suppose we wanted to pump some liquid Butane at 0 o C with this pump. If we look at the curve
for Butane on a vapor pressure chart we note that Butane at 0o C needs at least 1 Bar to stay in a
liquid state. To convert this pressure to head we use the standard formula:
Head = Pressure (Bars) x 10.2

S.G.
The S.G. of Butane at 0o C is 0.6 Therefore Head = 1.0 Bar x 10.2 = 17 m

0.6
This figure must be added to the NPSHR to ensure the pump works effectively.

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Total System Head
“Head " is a very convenient term in the pumping business. Pressure may not be as convenient
a term because the amount of pressure that the pump will deliver is dependent upon the weight
(specific gravity) of the liquid being pumped and as you know, the specific gravity changes
with the fluid temperature and concentration.
Each liter of liquid has weight so we can easily calculate the kilograms per minute being
pumped. Head or height is measure in meters so if we multiply these two together we get
kilogram meters per minute which converts directly to work at the rate of 610 kgm/min = 1
kilowatt. (or 102 kgm/sec depending on your preference).
If, in your specific location, you are more comfortable with metric horsepower units you
should know that 735.5 watts makes one metric horsepower.
Static
Discharge
Head
Closed
Static
Suction
Head
If you will refer to the above drawing you should get a clear picture of what is meant by static
discharge head. Note that we always measure from the center line of the pump impeller to the
highest liquid level
To calculate head accurately we must calculate the total head on both the suction and discharge
sides of the pump. In addition to the static head we will learn that there is a second head caused
by resistance in the piping, fittings and valves called friction head and a third head caused by
any pressure that might be acting on the liquid in the suction or discharge tanks including
atmospheric pressure. This third head is called "surface pressure head" or manometric head.
Once we know all of these heads it becomes simple. We subtract the suction head from the
discharge head and the head that is remaining will be the amount of head that the pump must
be able to generate at its rated flow. Here is how it looks in a formula:
System head = total discharge head total suction head or H = hd hs
The total discharge head (hd) is made up of three separate components:

hd = hsd + hpd + hfd
 hsd = discharge static head

 hpd = discharge surface pressure head
 hfd = discharge friction head

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The total suction head (hs) also consists of three separate components
hs = hss + hps -hfs
 hss = suction static head

 hps = suction surface pressure head
 hfs = suction friction head
As we make these calculations you must be sure that all your calculations are made in either
"meters of liquid, gauge" or "meters of liquid, absolute". In case you have forgotten "absolute”
means that you have added atmospheric pressure (head) to the gauge reading. Normally head
readings are made in gauge readings and we switch to the absolute readings only when we
want to calculate the net positive suction head available (NPSHA) to find out if our pump is
going to cavitate (p.23).
40m
2m
In the drawing above you will note that the discharge head is still measure to the liquid level
but this is below the maximum height of the piping. At first the pump will have to deliver to
the maximum height but once it has reached it, it will not have to continue delivering there
because of the siphon effect (p.30)
The maximum siphon effect head that can be obtained at sea level is given by the formula:
Head (meters) = Pressure (bar) x 9.8 For water at sea level this is 1 x 9.8 = 9.8 meters.
SG 1

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Let us do a head calculation on the system in the previous page.
We start with calculating the total suction head.
 The suction head is negative because the liquid level in the suction tank is below the
centerline of the pump: hss = -2 meters
 The suction tank is open so the suction surface pressure equals atmospheric pressure:
hps = 0 meters gauge
In these examples we will not calculate, but if you wanted to include this you can do it in one
of two ways:
 Refer to the appropriate tables and add up the K factors for the various fittings and
valves in the piping. Multiply these K factors by the velocity head that is shown for
each of the pipe sizes and capacities. This final number is then added to the friction loss
in the piping for the total friction head.
 Refer to the table that shows the equivalent length of pipe for each of the fittings and
add this to the length of the piping in the system to determine the total friction loss.
For this example we can take the total friction head on the suction side of the pump is:
 hfs = 1.5 meters at rated flow
The total suction head is going to be a gauge value because atmosphere was given as 0,
 hs = hss + hps -hfs = -2 + 0 -1.5 = -3.5 meters of liquid gauge at rated flow
The total discharge head calculation is similarly calculated.
The static discharge head is:

 hsd = 40 meters
The discharge tank is also open to atmospheric pressure, so:

 hpd = 0 m, gauge
For this example the discharge friction head is:

 hfd =7 meters at rated flow
The total discharge head is:

 hd = hsd + hpd + hfd = 40 + 0 +7 = 47 meters of liquid gauge at rated flow
The total system head calculation becomes:

 Head = hd-hs = 47- (-3.5) = 50.5 meters of liquid at rated flow
Our next example involves a few more calculations.

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135m
500mm
Hg
15m
12m
In this example we are going to pump condensate from a distillation tower under vacuum.
Again, to make the calculations you will need some pipe friction numbers that are available
from published tables. In this instance these numbers are given.
Specifications:
Transferring 300 m3/hr weak acid from the vacuum receiver to the storage tank
Specific Gravity of the acid = 0.98
Viscosity = equal to water
Piping = all 150 mm steel pipe
Discharge piping rises 15 meters vertically above the pump centerline and then runs 135
meters horizontally. There is one 90° elbow in this line
Suction piping has 1.5 meters of pipe, one gate valve, and one 90° elbow all of which are 150
mm in diameter-
The minimum level in the vacuum receiver is 2 meters above the pump centerline.
The pressure on top of the liquid in the vacuum receiver is 500 mm of mercury, vacuum.
To calculate the suction surface pressure we need to use the following formula:
Millimeters of Mercury x S.G. of Mercury = Meters of liquid

1000 S.G. of Liquid
Millimeters of Mercury x 0.014 = Meters of Liquid

S.G.

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Calculation:
The suction side of the system shows a minimum static head of 2 meters above suction
centerline. Therefore, the static suction head is:
 hss = 2 meters
Converting mm Hg to meters, the suction surface pressure is:
 hps = 7.14 meters of vacuum
The suction friction head fs, equals the sum of all the friction losses in the suction line.
Reference to appropriate tables will show:
Friction loss in 150 mm. pipe at 300 m3/hr. is 9 meters per 100 meters of pipe.
In 1.5m fs then is is = 0.14m
The tables also give the following equivalence figures
150mm elbow 3.4m
150mm gate valve 2.1m
Total loss in the suction fittings is equivalent to 5.5m of pipe
Loss in suction fittings = 0.5m
Total Friction loss on suction side therefore is 0.14 + 0.5 = 0.64 meters at 300m3/hr
 hfs = 0.54m
Now we will look at the total discharge head calculation

 Static discharge head hsd = 15 meters
 Discharge surface pressure hpd = 0 meters gauge
Discharge friction head hfd = sum of the following losses :

Friction loss in 150 mm pipe at 300 m3/hr, from the charts is 13.5m.
Friction loss in a 150mm elbow = 0.31m
 Discharge friction hfd = 13.5 +.31= 13.8 meters
The total discharge head then becomes:

hf = hsd + hpd + hfd = 15 +0 + 13.81 = 28.81 meters at 330m3/hr
The total system head calculation then becomes

H = hd –hs = 28.81 – (-5.78) = 35.59 meters at 330m3/hr

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Cavitation
Cavitation occurs when the pump suction is under a low pressure/high vacuum condition
where the liquid turns into a vapor at the inlet of the pump. This vapor is carried over to the
discharge side of the pump where it no longer sees vacuum and is compressed back into a
liquid by the discharge pressure.
When these vapour cavities form at the suction of the pump several things happen all at once.
 We experience a loss in capacity.
 We can no longer build the same head (pressure)
 The efficiency drops.
 The cavities or bubbles will collapse when they pass into the higher regions of pressure
(discharge side) causing noise, vibration, and damage to many of the components.
The cavities form for five basic reasons and it is common practice to lump all of them into the
general classification of cavitation. This is an error because we will learn that to correct each of
these conditions we must understand why they occur. Here they are in no particular order:
Vaporization
Air ingestion
Internal recirculation
Flow turbulence
The Vane Passing Syndrome
Vaporization.
A fluid vaporizes when its pressure gets too low, or its temperature too high. All centrifugal
pumps have a required head (pressure) at the suction side of the pump to prevent this
vaporization. This head requirement is supplied by the pump manufacturer and is calculated
with the assumption that fresh water at 20o Celcius is the fluid being pumped.
Since there are losses in the piping leading from the source to the suction of the pump we must
determine the head after these losses are taken into consideration. Another way to say this is
that a Net Positive Suction Head is Required (N.P.S.H.R.) to prevent the fluid from
vaporizing.
We take the Net Positive Suction Head Available (N.P.S.H.A.) subtract the Vapor Pressure of
the product we are pumping, and this number must be equal to or greater than the Net Positive
Suction Head Required.
To cure vaporization problems you must: either increase the suction head, lower the fluid
temperature, or decrease the N.P.S.H. Required. We shall look at each possibility:
 Increase the suction head

 Raise the liquid level in the tank
 Raise the tank
 Put the pump in a pit
 Reduce the piping losses. These losses occur for a variety of reasons that include:
1. The system was designed incorrectly. There are too many fittings and/or the
piping is too small in diameter.
2. A pipe liner has collapsed.

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3. Solids have built up on the inside of the pipe.
4. The suction pipe was flattened when it was driven over by a heavy vehicle.
5. A suction strainer is clogged.
6. Be sure the tank vent is open and not obstructed. Vents can freeze in cold
weather
7. Something is stuck in the pipe, It either grew there or was left during the last
time the system was opened. Maybe a check valve is broken and the seat is
stuck in the pipe.
8. The inside of the pipe, or a fitting has corroded.
9. A bigger pump has been installed and the existing system has too much loss for
the increased capacity.
10. A globe valve was used to replace a gate valve.
11. A heating jacket has frozen and collapsed the pipe.
12. A gasket is protruding into the piping.
13. The pump speed has increased
 Install a booster pump
 Pressurize the tank
 Lower the fluid temperature
1. Injecting a small amount of cooler fluid at the suction. This is
often practical.
2. Insulate the piping from external heat
 Be careful of discharge recirculation lines, they can heat up the suction fluid.
 Reduce the N.P.S.H. Required
 Use a double suction pump. This can reduce the N.P.S.H.R. by as much as 27% or in
some cases it will allow you to raise the pump speed by 41 %
 Use a lower speed pump
 Use a pump with a larger impeller eye opening-
 If possible install an inducer. These inducers can cut N.P.S.H.R. by almost 50%.
 Use several smaller pumps. Three half capacity pumps can be cheaper than one large
pump plus a spare. This will also conserve energy at lighter loads.
 It is a general rule of thumb that hot water and gas free hydrocarbons can use up to 50%
of normal cold water N.P.S.H. requirements, or 3 meters, whichever is smaller. You
should use this as a safety margin rather than design for it.
Air ingestion
A centrifugal pump can handle 0.5% air by volume. At 6% air, the results can be disastrous.
Air gets into a system in several ways that include:
 Through the stuffing box. This occurs in any packed pump that lifts liquid, pumps from
a condenser, evaporator or any piece of equipment that runs in vacuum.
 Valves above the water line.
 Through leaking flanges
 Vortexing fluid.
 A bypass line has been installed too close to the suction.
 The suction inlet pipe is out of fluid. This can occur when the level gets too low or
there is a false reading on the gauge because the float is stuck on a corroded rod.
Both vaporization and air ingestion have an affect on the pump. The bubbles collapse as they
pass from the eye of the pump to the higher pressure side of the impeller. Air ingestion seldom
causes damage to the impeller or casing. The main effect of air ingestion is loss of capacity.
Although air ingestion and vaporization both occur they have separate solutions. Air ingestion
is not as severe as vaporization and seldom causes damage.
P.O. Box 9766 Tel +27 11 882 1435
Internal Recirculation
This condition is visible on the leading edge of the impeller, and will usually be found at the
discharge tip working its way back to the suction. It can also be found at the suction eye of the
pump.
As the name implies the fluid recirculates increasing its velocity until it vaporizes and then
collapses in the surrounding higher pressure. This has always been a problem with low NPSH
pumps and the term specific suction speed was coined as a guide to determine how close you
have to operate to the B.E.P. of a pump to prevent the problem.
The higher the number the smaller the window in which you have to operate. The numbers
range between 2000 and 15000. Water pumps should stay between 2000 and 8000.
Here is the formula to determine the suction specific speed number of your pump:
Suction Specific Speed = rpm √capacity

Head3/4
rpm = Pump speed
gpm = liters per second of the largest impeller at its BEP
Head = Net positive suction head required at that rpm
 For a double suction pump the flow is divided by 2 since there are 2 impeller eyes
 Use pumps lower than 5200 and reject those over 8000 except for extreme
circumstances.
 Mixed hydrocarbons and hot water at 5500 to 7300 or higher, can probably operate
satisfactorily.
 High specific speed indicates the impeller eye is larger than normal, and efficiency may
be compromised to obtain a low NPSHR .
 Higher values of specific speed may require special designs, and operate with some
cavitation. Normally a pump operating 50% below its best efficiency point (B.E.P.) is
less reliable.
With an open impeller pump you can usually correct the problem by adjusting the impeller
clearance to the manufacturers specifications. Closed impeller pumps present a bigger problem
and the most practical solution seems to be to contact the manufacturer for an evaluation of the
impeller design and a possible change in the design of the impeller or the wear ring clearances.
Turbulence
It is best to have liquid flowing through the piping at a constant velocity .Corrosion or
obstructions can change the velocity of the liquid, and any time you change the velocity of a
liquid you change its pressure. Good piping layouts would include:
 Ten diameters of pipe between the pump suction and the first elbow.
 Back wall clearance distance to the centerline of the pump must be at least 0.75 of the
suction diameter.
 Bottom clearance should be approximately 30% the suction diameter

P.O. Box 9766 Tel +27 11 882 1435
The Vane Passing Syndrome
You will notice damage to the tip of the impeller caused by its passing too close to the pump
cutwater (p.4). The velocity of the liquid increases if the clearance is too small lowering the
pressure causing local vaporization. The bubbles collapse just beyond the cutwater and there is
where you should look for volute damage.
The damage is limited to the center of the impeller and does not extend into the shrouds. You
can prevent this problem if you keep a minimum impeller tip to cutwater clearance of 4 % of
the impeller diameter for impellers smaller than 355 mm and 6% for impellers larger than 355
mm.
The Siphon
When we were calculating a system head (19) we referred to the “siphon effect”. This is the
principle which is used when getting petrol from a petrol tank into an outside container. All
that one has to do is to suck out the air and then allow the atmospheric pressure, acting on the
surface of the liquid, push it up into the “vacuum” which you had created. All that is necessary
to keep the flow going is to ensure that the output level is below the level of the tank and that
no air goes back into the pipe. This had important implications in pumping applications.
Imagine you had to irrigate a field from a dam as shown below.
All you would need to do is use a small pump to suck up some water up to the top of the dam
wall and then let the atmospheric pressure do the rest. All you have to remember is that all the
air has to be removed from the piping and replaced by water.

P.O. Box 9766 Tel +27 11 882 1435
EXPERIMENTS AND DEMONSTRATION
Water: Should be treated with suitable conditioner to prevent rusting,

Flush: At least every six months
Drain: Valve V7
Tank Filling: Close drain valve V7 – remove the Pelton Turbine cover by lifting it and fill
with a hose pipe to above suction level of V5
Power: 380V
Ground: Rig must be earthed to a good ground
Pump Motor: Nominal 2900 RPM – Should be maintained near this with the variable speed
drive control. Note that reducing RPM actually causes increase motor load
and variable speed drive may cause to cut out.
Starting Reset (No 1 appears) then act on the control – Note the RPM indicator
To prevent cutting out, a head should be present at start up (See Cavitation) – This is
achieved by throttling V2 and V1 or V3 and V4 as preferred. The head is indicated on
Gauge G3. (1Bar = 10m - See page 12)
Suction Demonstrated by throttling the valves V5 and V6 from the Tank – The
vacuum is shown on the suction gauge G2
Cavitation Demonstrate by reducing Discharge valve – Note the Vapour forming on the
flowmeters. Also reduct the net available suction head by throttling V5 and
V6
Capacity Adjust the flow with V4 by first adjust flowmeter Rt2 to close to a main
graduation line, then adjust to the graduation with Rt1 – Read Rt1 plus Rt2.

P.O. Box 9766 Tel +27 11 882 1435
Experiments
The centrifugal pump rig is controlled with the Valve V1 closed although at some time this can
be used for fine adjustments.
Pump RPM
Power
Analyser
see
Appendix
General Pump Start/stop

ON/OFF and reset in case4
of overload
Pump Speed Pump ON

Control Indicator
The minimum speed has been set to about 900 RPM to prevent overheating. The pump control
has a built in acceleration ramp to prevent sudden changes so you should always wait for the
readings to settle before recording.
Obviously many experiments can be done, especially when considering the Centrifugal
Pump/Pelton Turbine combination but the main experiments are outlined in the following
pages.

P.O. Box 9766 Tel +27 11 882 1435
Always start the pump with Valve V1 closed and V2 cracked open in order to create a virtual
head.
The figures shown below are actual figures obtained in experimenting but equivalent values
can be obtained at other settings of your choice.
Cavitation Demonstration
Cavitation due to a reduction in the head of the pump

V1 Closed
V2 Crack Open
V5 Closed
V6 Fully Open
Switch on – Reset Pump and increase pump to about 2830 RPM
A head will show on G3 of about 3.45 Bars

The pump will draw approximately 0.4 kW
Reduce the head by opening V2 – Note that the RPM drops and kW increases
and at 2730 RPM the power absorbed is 0.6kW which is effectively an increase of 50% while
the RPM has only dropped by 3%.
Continue opening V2 until 2715 RPM.
A further reduction of the head will render the system completely unstable and it will feel as if
we are “pumping rocks”. Vapour bubbles can be seen in the rotameters and cavitation is
occurring due to lack of head available.
Cavitation and Net Suction Head Required.
V1 Closed
V2 cracked open
V5 Closed
V6 Open
Switch on – Reset Pump and increase pump to about 2840 RPM
A head will show on G3 of about 3.45 Bars

Close V6 until a vacuum of 0.1 Bars - head will be 3.4 bars an power absorbed 0.42
Continue closing V6 and draw up the table
Vacuum RPM Head kW
0.1Bars 2840 3.4 Bars 1.25
0.12 2840 3.4 Bars 1.25
0.13 2840 3.0 1.3
0.16 28409 Unsteady Unsteady
>0.16 Vapour bubbles noticed on the Rotameters – Noise – Cavitation is
taking place and NSHR for this pump is <0.16
Cavitation can take various forms such as bubbles in the liquid, holes or cavities formed on
solid surfaces and haphazard vapourisation in the turbulent flow. However the effect is always
the same and will cause premature machine failure and should be avoided at all times.

P.O. Box 9766 Tel +27 11 882 1435
Pump Curve – Head Vs Capacity (Q)
Adjust the system for a virtual head of 35m (3.5Bars) and a pump speed of 2910RPM
Draw the table
H Head (Bars) Q Capacity (l/m) kW RPM

3.6 3560 1.5 2910
3.2 5300 1.8 2910
2.9 6800 1.9 2910
2.5 8250 2 2900
<2 cavitates
35
30
25
1
20
3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000

P.O. Box 9766 Tel +27 11 882 1435

Centrifugal Pumps 2

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Centrifugal Pumps 2

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Centrifugal pumps: Definitions – Formulas and Conversions

Best efficiency point (B.E.P)

Specific Gravity (S.G.)

1 Bar = 1 Kg/cm2 = 100kPa

PERT INDUSTRIALS…….….for a better way to teach

Absolute and Gauge Pressure

Matter and Molecules

PERT INDUSTRIALS…….….for a better way to teach

Atm Atmosphere = 760.0 mm Hg = 101.325 kPa = kg/cm2

Converting Head to Pressure

Head (meters) x S.G.= Pressure (bars)

Head (meters) = Pressure (bars) x 10.2

Velocity + Pressure = a constant

Velocity x Area = a constant

Pressure x Area = a force.

PERT INDUSTRIALS…….….for a better way to teach

 Regulate the discharge of the pump

Head changes with x2

Wattage changes with x3

Net Positive Suction Head Required (p.21) changes with the x2

In the example above a 4m NPSHR will require a 4 x 0.52 = 1m at half speed

Friction Loss (p.18) in the piping changes with about 90% x2

PERT INDUSTRIALS…….….for a better way to teach

Potential Energy Ep mgh

Ep + Ek +Ep = mgh + mU 2 + = Pmg = constant

If we divide by mg we obtain: P + h + U2 = constant (Bernulli’s Equation)

The speed increases and the pressure decreases and viceversa.

PERT INDUSTRIALS…….….for a better way to teach

Specific Speeds in rpm

Radial Flow Mixed Flow Axial Flow

Ns = 1450 √500 = 1065

PERT INDUSTRIALS…….….for a better way to teach

PERT INDUSTRIALS…….….for a better way to teach

Since 102 kg/sec = 1kW, we get

Let us look at an example

PERT INDUSTRIALS…….….for a better way to teach

PERT INDUSTRIALS…….….for a better way to teach

Now look at the following illustration:

PERT INDUSTRIALS…….….for a better way to teach

Head = Pressure (Bars) x 10.2

The S.G. of Butane at 0o C is 0.6 Therefore Head = 1.0 Bar x 10.2 = 17 m

PERT INDUSTRIALS…….….for a better way to teach

System head = total discharge head total suction head or H = hd hs

The total discharge head (hd) is made up of three separate components:

 hsd = discharge static head

PERT INDUSTRIALS…….….for a better way to teach

 hss = suction static head

PERT INDUSTRIALS…….….for a better way to teach

We start with calculating the total suction head.

The total discharge head calculation is similarly calculated.

The static discharge head is:

The discharge tank is also open to atmospheric pressure, so:

For this example the discharge friction head is:

The total discharge head is:

The total system head calculation becomes:

Our next example involves a few more calculations.

PERT INDUSTRIALS…….….for a better way to teach

Millimeters of Mercury x S.G. of Mercury = Meters of liquid

Millimeters of Mercury x 0.014 = Meters of Liquid

PERT INDUSTRIALS…….….for a better way to teach

Now we will look at the total discharge head calculation

Discharge friction head hfd = sum of the following losses :

The total discharge head then becomes:

The total system head calculation then becomes