HYDROSTATICS

 This is the study of pressure and fluid at rest.

Fluid
 Is any substance that flows and offers little resistance to a change in its shape.
 Both liquid and gases are considered fluids.
 Experiments show that fluid at rest exert pressure in all directions and the same
at all points at the same level.
 It also shows that fluid pressure is dependent on its depth and density.

Pressure
 It is the ratio of the magnitude of a force applied perpendicular to a surface and
the area over which the force is exerted.

P = F_
A

The unit for pressure is: N/m2 or Pa

Some other Unit used: atm (atmosphere), mmHg (millimeter of mercury), torr
(torricelli), psi (pounds square inch)

Conversion: 1 bar = 1 x 105 Pa

1 atm = 760 mmHg = 760 torr
= 1.013 x 105 Pa
= 14.7 psi
= 101.325 kPa

Example: A woman weighing 500 N wears a pair of shoes that touches the ground over
an area of 0.003 m2. What pressure on her shoes is produced on the ground?
Solution:

P = F_
A
= 500 N__
0.003 m2
= 166,666.67 N/m2 or Pa

Exercises: A force of 3.2 N is needed to push the nail out of a 2.8 mm diameter nail
embedded in a tire. To what gauge pressure must the tire be inflated so that the nail is
tend to push out of the tire? Answer: P = 5. 2 x 105 N/m2
Pressure in Liquids
 A liquid exerts pressure because of its weight.
 Pressure inside a volume of liquid depends on its depth, h, below the surface and
the liquid density, ρ. The deeper it is, the greater the weight of the overlying
liquid and thus the greater the pressure. Also, the denser the liquid, the greater
the pressure, too.

Pressure Formula in Liquids

Since; ρ = m/V
m = ρV V = Ah
= ρAh

Since; F = W and; P = F/A then,

P = W = mg = ρAhg
A A A

P = ρgh

Example: An aquarium was filled with saltwater and a depth of 0.50 m. What is the
pressure of the liquid. ρsw=1030 kg/m3

Solution:

P = ρgh = (1030 kg/m3)(9.8 m/s2)(0.50 m)

= 5047 N/m2 or Pa
= 5.047 kPa

Exercises: If a rectangular vessel 2 m long, 1 m wide, and 4 m high is filled with water
(ρ = 1000 kg/m3), what is the downward force of the water and the pressure at the
bottom of the container? Answer: F = 78400 N P = 39200 Pa = 39.2 kPa

If the atmospheric pressure or surface pressure of the liquid is present, the total pressure
at certain depth h is;

PT = Patm + Ph
or
PT = Psurface1 + Psurface2 + …

Patm à 1atm = 101324 Pa

= 760 torr = 760 mmHg
= 14.7 psi
Atmospheric Pressure - sometimes called barometric pressure, refers of course to the
prevailing pressure in the air around us. It varies somewhat with changing weather
condition and it decreases with increasing altitude.

Vacuum Pressure – is used to refer to a space that has a pressure less than atmospheric
pressure (-Pvac.).

Absolute Pressure – uses absolute zero, which is the lowest possible pressure and the
pressure that would exist in a perfect vacuum, as it base (i.e. zero reading)

Pabs = Patm + Pgauge

Pabs = Patm + (-Pvac.)

Gauge Pressure – is measured with atmospheric pressure as it base.

Example: If fluid pressure is 6.7 kPa above standard atmospheric pressure. Find the
absolute pressure.
Pabs = Patm + Pgauge
= 101.325 kPa + 6.7 kPa
= 108.025 kPa

Note: Sometimes absolute and gauge pressure are indicated by appending “a” and “g”
respectively. If no “a” or “g” or other indication is given, pressure usually a GAUGE
PRESSURE.

Example: An open vessel contains carbon tetrachloride (ρ = 1500 kg/m3) to a depth of 2

m and water above this liquid to a depth of 1.30 m. What is the pressure at the bottom?
Answer: P = 143465 N/m2 or Pa or P = 143.465 kPa

Exercises: If the pressure at a point in the ocean is 1400 kPa, what is the pressure 30 m
below this point? ρsw=1030 kg/m3 Answer: P = 1702.82 kPa

Exercises: A rectangular tank 6 x 8 ft is filled with gasoline (ρsw= 680 kg/m3) to a depth
of 8 ft. The pressure at the surface of the gasoline is 101.324 kPa. Find the pressure at
the bottom of the tank and the force exerted on the bottom. Answer: P = 117.32 kPa
F = 523360.59 N

Exercises: The gauge at the suction side of a pump shows a vacuum of 25 mmHg.
Compute the absolute pressure in kPa if the barometer reads 755 mmHg.

Exercises: Determine the absolute pressure in kPa corresponding to a vacuum of 30

mmHg when the barometer reads 750 mmHg.
Exercises: At ground level, the atmospheric pressure is 101.325 kPa at 15 0C. Calculate
the pressure at a point 6500 m above the ground, assuming no density variation of air
which is 1.293 kg/m3.

Measurement Pressure Differences

A manometer consists of a U – tube containing a liquid (either mercury or water). It is

used to measure differences in gas or liquid pressure.

When both arms of the U – tube are exposed to the atmosphere, the surfaces of the fluid,
X and Y (see figure above), are at the same horizontal level since the same atmospheric
pressure is exerted on both surfaces. If one arm is connected to a gas supply, the gas
exerts a pressure on the surface X. This will cause level Y to rise until the pressure at Z,
which is at the same horizontal level as X, becomes equal to the gas pressure.

The height difference YZ tells how much greater the gas pressure is than the
atmospheric pressure. In the example shown above, the pressure difference is 100 mm
of Hg. If the atmospheric pressure is 760 mmHg, then

Pgas = 760 mmHg + 100mmHg

= 860 mmHg

Exercises: A U – tube with some mercury at the bottom is set up vertically and 120 mm
of water is added into one arm of the tube. Methylated spirit is then added carefully into
the other arm of the U –tube until the mercury levels are the same in both arms. It is
observed that the level of methylated spirit is higher. What is the density of methylated
spirit if the methylated spirit column is 150 mm high?
Exercises: Ina U – tube, the right hand arm is filled with mercury, while the other arm is
filled with a liquid of unknown density, the levels being as shown in the diagram. Find
the density of the unknown liquid.

Pascal’s Law

Pascal’s law was developed by French mathematician Blaise Pascal, states that “the
pressure on a confined fluid is equal in all directions and in all parts of the container
regardless of the shape or angle situated it.” The same manner if added pressure is
applied anywhere to a confined fluid, the pressure is transmitted unchanged or
undiminished throughout and to any portion of the containing vessel.

Hydraulic Press

A simple hydraulic press consists of a cylinder that contains two pistons, one smaller
than the other. The cylinder is filled with a fluid. A force added to the smaller piston is
transferred through the fluid to the larger piston. The force increases in direct proportion
to the ratio of the area of the larger piston to the area of the smaller piston. Automobile
brakes and dentist chairs operate on the principle of the hydraulic press. Pressure
applied to the brake pedal is transmitted through a liquid to brake lining, which press
against the car’s wheels. This principle of transmission of fluid pressure, states that the
pressure intensity at any point of a fluid at rest is transmitted without loss to all other
points of the fluid. The effect of friction is merely to increase the effort F, required to
hold the load above the theoretical value. The principle of transmission of pressure does
not depend on the fluid being incompressible.
The illustration of hydraulic press is shown in figure below. A piston of small cross
sectional area (a) is used to exert a small force (f) directly on a liquid such as oil. The
pressure (p = f / a) is transmitted through the connecting pipe to a larger piston of area
(A). Since the pressure is the same in both cylinders;

p=P

f =F
a A

For the force on the larger piston,

F = fA
a

Thus, the hydraulic press is a force multiplying device with a multiplication factor equal
to the ratio of the areas of the two pistons.

Example: In a hydraulic press, the area of the smaller piston is 19 cm 2 and that of the
larger piston is 645 cm2. The force exerted on the smaller piston is 450 N. (a) what force
exerted on the larger piston? (b) what pressure is exerted on the smaller piston? Ans. F
= 15,276.32 N P = 236,842.11 Pa

Exercises: A hydraulic lift has two circular pistons of diameters 10 cm and 1.5 m,
respectively. Determine the force needed on the smaller piston to enable the larger
piston to lift a car weighing 20,000 N.

Exercises: In a hydraulic press, the small cylinder has a diameter of 8.0 cm, while the
large piston has a diameter of 20.0 cm. If a force of 500 N is applied to the small piston,
what is the force on the large piston, neglecting friction?

Exercises: In hydraulic press, two pistons have areas of 2 cm 2 and 10 cm2, respectively.
The pressure on the small piston is 272 kPa. (a) what is the pressure on the large piston?
(b) what is the force acting on the large piston?
HYDRODYNAMICS

- this is the study of fluids in motion.

Two Types of Fluid Flow

1. streamline flow / laminar flow – It is in this flow where every particle of fluid
that passes a particular point follows the same path. The imaginary line where
particles move is called the streamline.
2. turbulent flow – the motion of fluid is agitated and disorder. The molecules of the
fluid form whirlpool patterns called eddies.

Flow Rate of Liquids

The rate of flow of a liquid through a pipe depends upon the volume of liquid tranported
per unit time. In equation;

R = Vol
t

where: R = rate of flow of the liquid in m3/s

Vol = volume of the liquid in m3
t = time of flow in s

There could also be another way of determining the flow rate of a certain liquid. This is
with the consideration of the cross-sectional area along the pipe.
From the equation: R = Vol
t
And: Vol. = Ah where: h = d

Hence: R = Ad
t

And: v = d
t

Therefore: R = vA

where: R = rate of flow of the liquid in m3/s

v = velocity of the liquid in m/s
A = cross-sectional area of the pipe in m2
Example: Fluid flows through a pipe 10-cm diameter an average velocity of 6 m/s.
What is the rate of flow of the fluid?
Given:dia. = 10 cm = 0.1 m
A = πr2 = 7.85 x 10-3 m2
v = 6 m/s

Solution:
R = vA
= (6 m/s)(7.85 x 10-3 m2)
= 0.05 m3/s

Exercises: Fuel oil flows through a 5-m diameter pipe at an average velocity of 2.8 m/s.
Find the rate of flow of the fuel oil.

Exercises: A 0.3 m diameter pipe is used in MV Williams. What is the rate of the fluid
flow in it, if the fluid’s speed is 5 m/s?