Point of View

These columns of ICJ offer an opportunity to the engineering

fraternity to express their views on the current practices in
design, construction and management being followed in the
industry.
To share your opinion with our readers, you may send in your
inputs in about 1500 words via e-mail to editor@icjonline.com

Applications of structural engineering

in projects and other associated issues
– A brief review
K.K. Ganguly

An attempt has been made to review the type of design It is interesting to mention that the structural design in
and construction that are being done in some specific all the cases have been carried out with close interaction
areas other than major industrial applications. This with the architects and engineers of other services. It
covers different forms of construction with various types may be noted that structural morphology was given top
of materials. Structural applications are also included priority for all the applications mentioned here
to some limited extent. Some photographs have been
included to explain innovative structural applications. A few photographs (Figures 1 - 31) of different projects
Special use with respect to structural morphology are also presented. These are chosen from non-industrial
are highlighted briefly and the important issues in projects (i.e. not from industrial projects like power
engineering buildings in the built environment are plants). It will be interesting to note the structural
discussed apart from fire engineering and connected morphology as demonstrated by the architects in the
items. Facade engineering and hybrid construction is also different projects. Structural forms and shapes are
referred. Repair and restoration of structures especially generally different in each project in order to meet
heritage structures is an important responsibility of the requirements and to produce innovative design.
structural engineers. Some comments on restoration of
structures have been made. Finally, specific comments
are given about future trends highlighting structural
safety, ready mix concrete, high strength concrete, self
compacting concrete, decorative concrete, admixtures,
recycling of wastes, etc. It is commented that both
architects and engineers will have to work together to
produce purposeful and innovative design for modern
buildings. The education and training of engineers is
also touched upon. The review of different structural
engineering applications and associated issues as
presented here is limited and restricted to a few specific
areas only as per the liking of the author and hence
cannot be treated as complete by any standard.

JANUARY 2008 The Indian Concrete Journal 41

 Point of View
The photographs have been selected carefully to
present various structures from different parts of the
country. These structures have been built by different
contractors.
Industrial and other projects
A brief review of different structural engineering
applications in industrial projects has been made in
the past.1 The basic layout of a power plant is normally
developed by mechanical/electrical engineers using
equipment manufacturer’s guidelines/requirements
and with the help of architects/planners who are
responsible for the development of the total master
plan of the project. The basic dimensions of the plant,
therefore, are related to the layout of major equipment,
the operational requirements and maintenance. The
architects have limited freedom regarding the layout of
the plant buildings of such projects. After carrying out
1 or 2 such projects, the job may become repetitive in
most cases and the challenges to a structural engineer
may also be restricted. Furthermore, references from the
past and similar projects may be used by the consulting
houses wherever possible to cut down the design time.
Incidentally, the cost of civil and structural items is less
as compared to equipment cost. Hence, the attempts
for innovative design to reduce civil/structural cost are
not there and not important.Therefore, opportunities
for refinement of structural analysis and design may
be limited. In some cases, however, bigger structural
dimensions may have to be provided when the loading
data including other details are not properly available
at the time of designing the structure. Hence, structural
design work may not be very challenging as the structural
design may have to be carried out using higher loads
intentionally. The question of economy on structural
items may be missing in industrial projects due to
various reasons and the emphasis is on the completion
of the structural design quickly. This situation may not
42 The Indian Concrete Journal JANUARY 2008
be encouraging to the structural designer which may
demotivate him/her.
In non-industrial projects such as university complexes,
hotels/resorts, hospitals, housing projects, commercial
complexes, etc. the architects normally play a major
role in the development of the layout, building form,
aesthetics, etc. The cost of architectural finishes along
with services may also be very high in such projects.
The challenges are more here for the structural
designer and there will be pressure to cut down the
dimensions of structural elements for visual and other
requirements and to produce economical design for
different structural schemes. The services of structural
engineers are more demanding and more appreciated in
this case as compared to industrial projects. Engineers
and architects are dependent on each other to design
and construct innovative modern buildings. Structural
engineers must learn to work with the architects in
harmony for creative and innovative design. Each
profession has different skills and carries different
responsibilities. Structural engineers would have to learn
to work in multi-disciplinary teams having different
professionals and understand how others think and
work. Architectural creativity must be supported by
engineering skill to produce innovative design. The
clients should be convinced that the innovation will
be worthwhile and cost effective. The engineering
 Point of View
before deciding on the design of buildings in the built
environment. The following points are relevant
argument should not come in the way of architectural
solutions. Mutual respect and appreciation between
architects and structural engineers will be required
as there will always be an engineering solution to a
good architecture. Best buildings can be designed and
constructed from a symbiotic relationship between
architects and engineers. Structural engineers have to
shoulder a bigger responsibility of the work both in
design and construction to produce a safe and durable
structure at the end.
Engineering buildings in the built
environment
It is very important to assess carefully the present
situation that is developing on our planet earth
1. Continuous supply of irreplaceable construction
materials and the use of cheap non-renewable
energy is going on. This condition cannot continue
forever.
2. Population growth is very high and it is now over
6 billion and likely to be 9 billion by 2050. Some
researchers have estimated the above figure to
be more2. The rate of increase is about 80 million.
extra persons per year worldwide. This is the most
serious problem on our hands.
3. Carbon dioxide loading is an indicator of
pollutant potential. As per current estimate it is
about 5.5 t of CO2 per person per year for USA,
2.7 t for Europe and 0.8 t for China.2
4. Building activities would have to take into
account the geographical imbalance of wealth
and population.
5. It is reported that 70% of our forest has already
been destroyed and going by the current rate,
100% destruction might take place by the year
2027.
6. Global warming is already taking place and
according to some estimates, the temperature rise
in next 100 years may be in the region of 5.8oC.
It is also suggested that after 2020, (i) winters
will be reduced in length (ii) summers will have
more hotter spells with periods of drought (iii)
JANUARY 2008 The Indian Concrete Journal 43
 Point of View

separation to provide the required time. The design of the

structures must consider fire load cases also along with
normal working loads for obtaining the best solution.
This may vary from a simpler prescription identifying
required thickness of applied fire protection to steel or
cover to reinforcing bars in concrete to more complicated
analytical calculations using whole frame action with
real fire loads for design. The degree of complexity will
increase depending upon the particular circumstance
and objectives of the particular design. The structural
performance under fire may not be the direct measure
of protection of life or protection of property. The other
considerations such as provision of sprinklers to reduce
the spread of fire, increased ventilation to lower fire
temperature, corner columns and beams cooler than
internal columns and beams, providing safe means of
escape, etc., also will have influence on fire design.

Simpler prescribed rules will be easy to operate and

guidance may be obtained from national building
standards and manufacturer’s literature. Alternatively,
tidal heights will increase (iv) wind speeds will designing for less stress level for normal working
be variable and may be stronger.3 load condition and keeping provision for higher fire
performance against fire loads is also a good option.
We cannot pass on our planet in this condition to our The other option will be complex and the engineers will
children and grandchildren. We must save the planet need additional knowledge of ventilation condition, fire
for our future generations. loads and knowledge of high temperature performance
of the structural material including lining if any with
The challenges before the engineers/architects are (a) adequate analytical skill. To study the provisions of
better whole life performance (b) to use less primary both passive and active fire protection systems in
materials (c) to use less non-renewable energy (d) buildings becomes important. The post fire assessment
wasting less (e) causing less disturbance to natural should cover possible cause and duration of fire, overall
environment (f) to reduce the burden on the planet and stability, strength and robustness of the structure, defects
working out solutions that fulfil social, environmental and damage to the building, fire safety provisions after
and economic criteria. Hence, it is important for the fire, serviceability and durability aspect. Proposals for
engineering and management team to work together on strengthening and repair work, etc, also will have to be
all issues covering conception, planning, modelling and considered. It seems that fire engineering for structures
calibration, construction, operation and use. will be more detailed in the future at least for important
buildings.
Fire engineering for structures
Following recent fires in various parts of the world, the
performance of structures during fire has become a very
important design issue for engineers. The real structure,
however, will behave differently from a simple beam
commonly tested in a furnace for obtaining data for fire
design. The actual structures will have in-built secondary
load paths which are often mobilised during fire when
structural deflections are larger4. Fire engineering is a
multi-disciplinary activity but the structural engineers
have to play a major role. It is important to adopt
performance based design approach against fire loads
for the structures. Previous designs were primarily based
on the control of the structure for non-combustibility and

44 The Indian Concrete Journal JANUARY 2008

 Point of View

Hybrid construction Accommodation of floor movement c) Accommodation

of other movements.
Hybrid construction utilising different materials
especially precast and in situ concrete has been in
The use of stones and glass curtain walls with different
use for some time. The structural engineers generally
types of fixing arrangement are quite common. The
will need more experience in such technique specially
complexity of façade design has to be understood
for the performance of joints and their detailing. A
especially when glass and stone panels are adopted.
few aspects such as aesthetics, function, speed, safety
In recent years, the use of coloured aluminium sheets
integration, buildability, etc. will need very special
in façade design is gaining popularity. Other materials
care. Hybrid concrete construction may in some cases
include metals, plastics, timber, ceramics, polymers and
be more expensive than conventional in situ concrete
fabrics. The external envelope takes most of the wear, the
or structural steel frames with concrete decks.5 High
cladding or roof will be subjected to risk from premature
standard of finish is possible with precast concrete
failure well before the service life of the structure. One
elements and the same may be accommodated to the
has to be careful about leakage problems through the
structural forms. Composite action should be considered
for economy.

Façade engineering
Façade is the envelope of the building and it is generally
composed of all exposed walls, roofs and floors. The
engineering relates to various aspects and parts of the
envelope design and creating an innovative look at
the end. Façade engineering presents more challenges
to the structural engineer to maintain the aesthetic
look of the building and the safety of cladding system
adopted. The cladding and main structure interaction
is very important and it is primarily related to, a) Load
transfer – Apart from vertical loads, horizontal loads
from wind and seismic forces will also be applicable b)

JANUARY 2008 The Indian Concrete Journal 45

 Point of View
joints especially in the case of glass and stone panels6.
The provision of cleaning and maintenance of the
façade materials should be given due importance in
the design.
The use of computers for engineering
calculations
Nowadays, software packages are used for all structural
engineering design activities. It is observed that a shift
in emphasis from design calculations to structural
modelling has taken place7. This may lead to, in some
46 The Indian Concrete Journal JANUARY 2008
cases, inappropriate modelling and wrong results at the
end. The use of computers have definitely cut down the
time consumed for design computation which was a
major time consuming factor for the structural designer
in the past. The engineering calculations may be treated
as a series of modelling exercises and may be broken
down to, (a) an engineering model representing the
physical existence (b) a conceptual model that allows for
material and structural behaviour (c) a computational
model (a description of the structural arrangement in a
form suitable for computer analysis).7
 Point of View
Each stage should be checked against acceptance criteria
and final outcome should be assessed against overall
modelling review. The guidelines published by the
Institution of Structural Engineers, London related to
use of computers for engineering calculations may be
referred.7
The responsibility of checking the modelling exercise
should not fall on the analyst. This review should
be done in-house by a senior engineer. In large and
important projects such responsibility may be given to
an independent consultant also. The engineering model
will consider the overall geometry of the structure, all
load bearing components with dimensions, supports,
materials used and loads including lateral loads. Non-
structural components are not considered but their
effects are assessed and considered in the calculations.
The detailed analysis of the model is carried out using
the theory of analysis, material behaviour, boundary
condition, loads and the geometry of the structure.
3D modelling for analysis and design and the use of
software packages have led to a tremendous increase in
the productivity in the design office which until recently
was unimaginable8. This, in turn, has given engineers
the opportunity to provide better services and a better
final product to the clients.
Construction materials
Different materials for construction have been tried by
engineers and architects over the years. Out of these
concrete and structural steel have been mostly used.
Other materials include brick, stone, timber, glass and
different composites. Figure 21 shows a combination
of load bearing rammed earth construction with
JANUARY 2008 The Indian Concrete Journal 47
 Point of View
timber roofing. This application has been done by
the architect in the north-eastern part of the country.
Timber trusses were preferred to suit local conditions.
Fly ash and lime-sand bricks have also been tried in
many projects in recent years. Figures 24, 25, 27 and
28 show the use of compressed earth blocks (CEB) in
place of conventional burnt bricks. The compressed
earth blocks have been produced with the help of hand
operated machines. Different types of arches, domes etc.
have been constructed using compressed earth blocks as
shown in Figures 16, 17, 25, 27 and 28. Applications of
ferrocement roofing units have been shown in Figures
16, 24, 25 and 27.
Structural detailing
Simple and practical detailing should always be aimed
for during design. Aesthetically, detailing should be
presentable and must avoid clumsy joints. Special
emphasis has to be put on seismic detailing in order
to provide ductile behaviour. Column-beam junctions
will need additional care to ensure flow of concrete
between bars especially when ductile detailing has
been done for confinement of concrete. Often the details
for joints are not shown fully in the drawings to cut
48 The Indian Concrete Journal JANUARY 2008
down time. Proper seismic detailing will be essential
to control damages to the structure. Providing correct
cover to reinforcement during construction is very
important for structural performance especially with
reference to strength, durability and fire. Some concrete
structures may not achieve their intended design lives
due to deficiencies of cover actually provided during
construction. Due to inadequate cover, structures may
have to be demolished prematurely or may have to
undergo expensive repair and protection work. It is
reported that for an external concrete wall sheltered from
rain and having 30 mm cover will provide 135 years of
protection to reinforcement but 10 mm of cover will only
give 10 years of life for the same wall.9
Spacers and chair as per BS:7973 may be considered for
construction.10 Plastic and cementitious spacers and
wire chairs are recommended for use. It is important
to specify the use of the same in the specification and
to show the correct type of spacers and chairs in the
drawings, i.e., at least the standard details for easy
understanding and use in construction.
The major comments made after Chi-Chi (Taiwan)
earthquake in 1999 are – improper lap splices of rebar,
column tie hooks without 135o bend and poor concrete
quality control at job site. 11 These are the typical
comments after examining the earthquake damages of
structures and are applicable in our country also. Care
should be taken by the site engineers to ensure that the
construction is done correctly as per the drawings.
Repair and restoration work
Structural engineers have to play an important role
in restoration work. Using nondestructive test (NDT)
methods, the causes for damage are studied initially. The
engineers then develop a suitable technical specification
and methodology for carrying out restoration/
 Point of View

retrofitting work. Injection grouting, replacement or

anticorrosive treatment to rebars, use of bonding aids,
jacketing to structural members, patch repair, applying
special coating/treatment to protect structures against
harmful exposure/environment, water proofing, etc.
are often adopted.

Various materials are available and the engineers

have to be careful to select the right one after detailed
investigations and as per the requirements. More care
will be necessary for underwater repair work and
repairing of large floors. For repairing/restoring heritage
structures, clients and government authorities may insist
upon the use of original materials for the repair work.
Materials like polyurea has been used in pharmaceutical
and other industries to seal fine cracks and to maintain
dust free environment. FRP composite systems are also
being used in our country for strengthening structural
elements. Brief comments are made below on externally and durability12. Carbon, glass and aramid fibres are
bonded FRP systems. generally used in the composite materials. Proper
detailing and installation of FRP systems is important to
Externally bonded FRP systems for prevent debonding failure modes. It is not recommended
to use this system for compressive reinforcement.
strengthening concrete structures
Mechanical and other forms of anchoring systems may
Composite materials made of fibres in a polymeric resin, present problems due to the brittle and isotropic nature
are known as fibre reinforced polymers (FRP) and this of composite materials. FRP systems are expected to be
material may be used to strengthen concrete members.12 damaged in fire. This system should not be applied on
The method is an alternative to traditional strengthening concrete members containing corroded reinforcing bars
systems like steel plate bonding, section enlargement, or deteriorated concrete unless the substrate is repaired
external post tension, etc. The advantages of adopting properly.
FRP system over traditional methods are – (a) light
weight (b) relatively easy to install (c) non corrosive. While using FRP systems for repair/retrofitting work,
care should be taken to verify the following :
The constituent materials include resin primer, putty,
adhesives and fibres. The long term performance of 1. Existing dimensions of structural members
FRP systems is not yet available. ACI committee : 440
suggested reduction factors for various environments 2. Location, size and cause of cracks and spalls
to take care of the effects of long term degradation

JANUARY 2008 The Indian Concrete Journal 49

 Point of View
3. Location and extent of corrosion of reinforcement
steel
4. Quantity and location of existing reinforcement
steel
5. Compressive strength of concrete
6. Soundness of concrete at all areas where FRP
system is to be bonded to the concrete and
especially concrete cover.
Site supervision
Generally, as per contract, consulting engineers are
requested to do only periodic supervision and not
constant monitoring to cut down costs by saving the
fees paid to him/her. The structural engineer from the
consulting house may visit the site as per the contract
and site requirements. Hence, continuous supervision
may be missing if the structural engineer is from the
design office of a consulting house. However, proper
supervision and project management is required from
the consulting house in case of large industrial or
power projects. It is vitally important for the structural
designer to supervise continuously the construction
of different structural elements that he has designed.
This will provide valuable experience to the structural
engineer and help him to become a better designer.
Further, the structural engineer is made aware of the
cost aspect, variation of quantities (due to incomplete
details in some cases), non-scheduled items (due to
changes done later), etc., thus giving him/her insights
into the practical aspects of construction and design. The
structural designer is not supposed to just carry out an
analysis mechanically by using a software or provide
reinforcement details as per the computer output. The
50 The Indian Concrete Journal JANUARY 2008
art of economical structural design has to be learned and
developed in stages through experience.
Education and training of engineers
We have to initiate rigorous training programmes for
the young and fresh engineers in order to make them
fully prepared to cope with the requirements of design,
construction and project management. This is not being
done seriously at present. A lot more will be required
to train our engineers.
Employers are always looking for experienced engineers.
With our university education it has been noted that
engineers are not fully prepared and they have to
actually learn from senior persons, the different aspects
of analysis, design and detailing of structures. There is
a tendency among young structural engineers to learn
structural engineering software packages with a lot of
interest but there is not much interest to understand the
behaviour of structures and to check the acceptability of
the results generated by the software. It is very important
to check the computer output before acceptance of
the design. Fresh engineers should be exposed to the
practical aspects of design and detailing. To carry out
the analysis of an idealised structure using a software
package is only a small (but very important) part of the
total work. The structural engineer has to visualise and
understand the complete behaviour of the structure.
He/she should largely and will be able to check some
salient parts of the computer output with some simple
calculations or by some other software packages to
eliminated design errors.
We have to reexamine the nature of education and
training that is being offered to our students so that
they are given proper knowledge ad skills to cope
with the challenges of the modern times. The potential
employers including consulting houses must spend
time and money to formulate training procedures for
 Point of View

chemicals is also dangerous as it may be more harmful

to people as compared to buildings. Much will depend
on the size of the bomb, type of explosive and how it
is detonated.

Blast on buildings
The ideal shape of a building against blast is the circular
shape.13 Balconies are desirable as a clean and smooth
facade amplifies the blast forces. The provision of
a central core may provide space for shelter during
emergency. Stone claddings in buildings may not
perform satisfactorily in a blast. Replacement of stone or
glass after damage especially in a multistoreyed building
is not an easy task. If glass can be replaced from inside
it will save money.

our young engineers. They must be encouraged to stay
in the profession and carry out their work efficiently in
a competitive market.
Blast on glass
Glass is often used in the facade of a building. This
is a high risk material and can cause a lot of damage
when exposed to a bomb blast. Flying glass pieces are
responsible for most injuries. The type of glass used
in the building is important. A blast can destroy all
the windows in a building while leaving the structure
undamaged. Hence, care should be taken to ensure
that glass and the frame remain intact and withstand
the blast. Unprotected annealed plain glass will break
from a blast at a distance of 100 m away and cause
potential injury upto 50 m from the place of explosion.

Future trend
Some of the future trends are briefly highlighted
below:

Design for security13

In recent years design for security has taken a prominent
place especially for buildings. Architects and engineers
have to understand the different aspects with respect to
the safety of the building components. Some basic issues
associated with building design are briefly mentioned
blow.

Blast
Blast pressures decrease significantly with distance. A
blast within 5-10 m can cause damage to modern framed
buildings and major damage to load bearing masonry
building. A canopy at the entrance can trap and enhance
blast pressure.

Bomb threats
This can cause significant local damage. Car and lorry
bombs can damage nearby structures also. The use of

JANUARY 2008 The Indian Concrete Journal 51

 Point of View

of material aggregates in the manufacture of concrete

blocks. Crushed concrete rubble, after being separated
from other construction and demolition wastes and
Toughened glass on the contrary will offer twice the sieved, can be used as a substitute for natural coarse
protection of plain glass. Laminated glass can also offer aggregates in concrete. Generally, the fine fraction is
not commonly used due to its higher contamination and
good performance with proper frame design.
water absorption levels. Recycled wastes have been used
in our country for the construction of roads. We have
Structural safety
to devise methods so that more recycled materials are
Periodic inspection of the structure covering salient load available and used in projects with confidence.
bearing elements is crucial in identifying weak areas and
thus would help avoid catastrophic collapse that may High strength concrete
take place later. Based on the inspection it is necessary
The use of high strength concrete will reduce structural
to provide warning to engineers to carry out preventive
dimensions and lead to economical design. 1 The
measures quickly. Inadequacy in the structure may often
definition of high strength concrete as per ACI code
manifest initially as serviceability losses and may finally
states that the compressive strength of high strength
lead to collapse from corrosion of reinforcement, spalling
concrete should be at least 42 Mpa. We should use high
of concrete and large deflections. Errors in calculations
strength concrete in our structural design. With the
may lead to safety values much less than intended.
improvement of cement quality now, it is not difficult
During construction, situations may arise where safety
to produce concrete of M 30 - M 40 strength quite easily
will be in jeopardy. In such cases, detection by alert
at most construction sites in our country. Concretes
engineers in advance will help in averting catastrophic
with compressive strength around 140 Mpa have been
failure and ensure safety.
produced in USA15. In such a scenario, there is no point
Recycling of wastes into aggregate for
construction
Engineers have attempted to use waste materials for
construction especially from the building industry
by recycling the same. This approach is particularly
important as the raw material stock is dwindling
rapidly. Attempts have been made in Hong Kong
to produce paving and partition blocks by recycling
construction waste and waste glass.14 A mechanised
moulding method is used for producing the concrete
paving and partition blocks. The method uses, recycled
aggregates from construction and demolition waste,
and waste glass as 50 - 100% replacement by weight

52 The Indian Concrete Journal JANUARY 2008

 Point of View

while completely filling up the formwork of different

shapes and even around congested reinforcement. The
placing of this type of concrete is noiseless as vibrators
are not required for compaction. Portland cement is often
partially replaced by ggbs or Pfa for technical and
economic reasons. Fillers must be carefully selected after
studying their effects on water demand for determining
flow characteristics and workability retention. Modern
superplasticiser such as poly carboxylated ethers (PCEs)
are particularly relevant to SCC. At similar water-
cement ratios, the characteristic strengths and strength
development will be similar to that of traditional
concrete.16

Concrete admixtures
The use of admixtures in concrete design and construction
has increased steadily over the years. The advantages
of using an admixture in a concrete mix has been well
understood by engineers. It is expected that admixtures
will be used more and more in concrete construction
in the future. In the UK, according to the current
statistics, over 75% of ready mixed, site mixed and
precast concrete now contains an admixture.17 The
percentage of admixture usage, in concrete construction
is comparatively low in our country. However, the use of
the same is increasing slowly. With the changes in design
requirements, it seems admixtures would be a normal
in designing structural elements now for M 20 grade of
concrete. For producing high strength concrete (above M
- 40) with controlled water cement ratio, silica fume, PFA,
GGBS, superplasticiser, etc., may be required depending
on the requirements. Ready mix concrete produced
using the local raw materials may be considered for
consistent supply and economy. Contractors must be
familiar with the techniques associated with placing
the material when ready mix concrete is used. Quality
assurance is a must and the quality control lab must be
able to analyse it. Engineers are expected to be familiar
with the knowledge of production of high strength
concrete consistently at site.

High strength concrete is often referred to as high

performance concrete (HPC) since it has been found
to be not only stronger but also more durable. HPC is
a material with low water/binder ratio (0.3 - 0.4) and
needs to undergo sufficient water curing to control its
dimensional stability.

Self compacting concrete

Self compacting concrete (SCC) is getting popular in
the construction industry. SCC in its plastic state flows
under its own weight and maintains its homogeneity

JANUARY 2008 The Indian Concrete Journal 53

 Point of View

constituent of concrete in the future. The important

points for consideration are:

1. Economical - Mix design can be optimised

2. Placing - Helps to provide required consistency,

compatibility, cohesion, setting and strength
development.

3. Customisation - Helps to produce concrete that

will meet special needs with reference to placing
or performance.

4. Durability - Ensures that intended design life will

be met as per requirement.

5. Environmental - Helps to reduce different

negative aspects of health and safety normally
associated with construction especially during
placement. It also reduces the environmental
impact of concrete constructions.

One type of admixture may not meet all the above

requirements and as per the requirements, more than
one admixture may be necessary. With the advances
in technology and especially the introduction of
polycarboxylated ethers (PCEs) based plasticisers and
superplasticisers has made a remarkable change in
the performance of admixtures. Previous generations
of cement dispersants were mainly based on ligno
sulphonates or sulphonated melamine or naphthalene
formaldehyde condensates.

BS:5075 has been withdrawn and replaced by European
Standard BSEN:934-2. All admixture types are not covered
by BSEN:934-2. The cement and concrete associations in
U.K. are working to cover the following:
1. underwater concrete admixtures
refined and carefully controlled at each stage before
and after delivery to the admixture manufacturer.
The manufacturers should provide more technical
information and details to the engineers and also
provide specific assistance that may be required during
finalisation of the mix design.

2. shrinkage reducing admixtures Ready mix concrete

3. corrosion inhibiting admixtures
4. pumping aids
5. segregation reducing admixtures
6. foaming admixtures
7. semi dry concrete admixtures
One of the main purpose of using ready mix concrete
is to maintain the quality of construction. Its use in
different construction sites is increasing fast. Ready
mix concrete ensures good quality concrete from all
contractors including the small ones who are unable to
arrange concrete from batching plants in their project.
Suitable use of admixtures helps in transporting concrete
to a long distance. The advantages of using ready mix
concrete are18:

Admixtures are probably the least variable concrete 1. Economy - The cost/m3 would be economical as
constituent. Components are either synthetic or highly locally available raw materials are likely to be
used for production.

54 The Indian Concrete Journal JANUARY 2008

 Point of View
2. Ensures strength requirement - The design
requirements will be met with confidence. Higher
grades of concrete can be used by the engineers in
the design for slender and stronger structures.
3. Easy and safe use - By using ready mix concrete
it will be possible to ensure the speed of
constructions, workability and better hygienic
conditions.
4. Versatility - It adopts the specific needs of
different work sites.
5. Service - The service would be regular and
uniform to maintain the schedule as worked out
for the construction. Pumps, conveyors, etc aid
the use of ready mix concrete at site.
6. Quality - Ready mix concrete guarantees quality.
The constituent materials are subjected to quality
checks first and rigorous quality control checks
are carried out throughout the manufacturing
and delivery process.
7. Delivery - The deliveries of ready mix concrete
can be taken from ready mix plants or the
concrete can be delivered to worksites by concrete
mixer trucks. The speed of delivery is as per the
customer’s needs. The use of ready mix concrete
keeps the work place clean. Dirt, congestion and
noise would be at minimum level.
Ready mix concrete offers different varieties of mix
design. It can utilise different types of filler, cement and
binders to produce special concrete as per the customer’s
requirement. To optimise cost it will be necessary to have
uniform and high quality concrete for durable and better
structures as per specification.
Use of fibres
The use of fibres in cement concrete and mortar has been
proved beneficial. Steel, acrylic, polymer, glass, carbon,
polypropylene and natural fibres etc. are commonly
used. These fibres control /eliminate development
of shrinkage cracks which may normally develop/
appear during concrete curing stage. If such cracks in
the concrete can be prevented, then entry of water/
moisture through the cracks would also be controlled.
Hence, the corrosion of primary reinforcing bars would
be reduced. It is also reported that flexural strength of
concrete increases with the addition of fibres. The fibres
may be 12 mm long for concrete and 6 mm long for
plastering work. The manufacturer’s recommendations
are to be followed for best results. Application of high
performance wire-drawn steel fibres 60 mm long and
0.9 mm. in diameter has been done in floor slabs of
multistorey buildings.19 The use of flat polymer fibres
40 mm. long has been done in composite steel deck floor
construction in a multistorey residential complex.20 It
has been observed that composite steel deck floors made
with concrete reinforced with synthetic macro fibres can
be completed quickly and at a cheaper price than with
the more traditional methods.
Decorative concrete
Coloured concrete has been covered in detail in various
literature. It is possible to get coloured concrete from
ready mix concrete plants also, with a wide range of
colours that are consistent from batch to batch, permanent
and durable.21 Pigments in powder and liquid form have
been tried in the past and there were problems associated
with uniformity in the colour of concrete, water demand,
strength and durability. The present colouring system
contains particles that are granular and they easily
disperse into the mix. It often acts as a water reducing
agent and hence less water is required for its production.
The colourant is conveniently packed in water-soluble
bags, each of which will produce one cubic metre of
coloured concrete for a given cement content. This way
it will be easy to produce consistent, uniformly coloured
concrete covering a wide range of colours.
It is expected that the use of coloured concrete will
give architects/planners enough opportunities to go
for decorative concrete that will blend and improve the
built environment.
Conclusions
A brief review associated with the applications of
structural engineering in non-industrial projects
has been presented. A few relevant items on design
covering fire engineering in buildings, façade design,
hybrid construction, etc. are mentioned. Issues related
to repair and restoration work and especially the role
of FRP systems in strengthening reinforced concrete
structural elements are referred. Structural engineers
have to produce safe and economical design with
proper structural detailing so that the structures can be
constructed with minimum difficulties. It is commented
that architects and structural engineers are required to
work closely for creative/innovative designs associated
with modern buildings. The structural engineers in a
project are responsible for design and construction of
safe and serviceable structures through efficient project
management. The services that a structural engineer
JANUARY 2008 The Indian Concrete Journal 55
 Point of View

offers are challenging and commendable and he/she can
surely claim to be an important member of the project
team. Education and training of our engineers would
play a very important role in meeting the demands of
15. Daniel Jansen, and Herman Protze, Removing barriers to high strength
concrete in Boston, Concrete, July-August 2001.
16. Rob Gaimster, and John, Gibbs, Current practice sheet No. 123 – Self
compacting concrete, Concrete, July-August 2001.

the future. Structural security and safety, fibre reinforced
concrete, ready mix concrete, use of re-cycled materials
and fibres, and SCC would be key components in the
design and construction of structures in the future.
Acknowledgement
The author would like to thank the management of
17. Dransfield, John, Admixture current practice - Part 1, Concrete, September
2006.
18. Report on ready mix Concrete, i-Structure, June-July, 2006
19. Robery, Peter, Construction of composite floor slabs using steel fibres in
reinforced concrete, The Structural Engineer, December, 2002.
20. Perry, Bruce, Synthetic macro-fibre concrete in composite steel deck floor
construction, Concrete, September, 2006.

Development Architects Private Ltd. (DAPL) for their
encouragement. The author expresses his gratitude and
appreciation for the opportunity of working with DAPL
and the representatives of the clients and contractors on
different projects whose names have not been mentioned
specifically.
21. Christie, Iain, Adding colour to concrete, Concrete, July/August 2001.
Dr. K.K. Ganguly, PhD (London), is a director
at Development Architects Private Ltd, Kolkata.
His areas of interest are design and construction
of industrial and non-industrial projects apart
from teaching and research.

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56 The Indian Concrete Journal JANUARY 2008