GIS - UNIT 1 syllabus - OU

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/06/gis-unit-1-syllabus-ou.html

GIS-Unit 2-Syllabus-OU

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/06/ou-gis-unit-ii.html

GIS-Unit 3-Syllabus-OU

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/06/gis-unit-3-syllabus-ou.html

GIS-Unit 4-Syllabus-OU

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/09/gis-unit-4-syllabus-ou.html

GIS-Unit 5-Syllabus-OU

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2016/07/gis-unit-5-syllabus-ou.html

References

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/06/references.html

Maps

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/07/maps.html

Maps - Basic components, Types of maps & Map analysis

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2016/07/maps-basic-components-types-of-maps-map.html

Uses and limitations of paper maps

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/07/uses-and-limitations-of-paper-maps.html
Characteristics of maps and map projections

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/07/characteristics-of-maps-and-map.html

Salient features of selected projections

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/07/salient-features-of-selected-projections.html

Definitions of GIS

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/08/definitions-of-gis.html

Application of GIS in Agriculture

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/07/application-of-gis-in-agriculture.html

APPLICATIONS OF GIS IN SOIL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/08/applications-of-gis-in-soil-resource.html

References

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/06/references.html

GIS OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/09/gis-objective-questions.html

GIS- Basics

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/09/gis-basics.html

Birth and History of GIS

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/09/birth-and-history-of-gis.html
Map projections and spatial referencing

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/09/map-projections-and-spatial-referencing.html

Data types used in GIS

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/09/data-types-used-in-gis.html

Data formats in a GIS

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/09/data-formats-in-gis.html

Data structure in a GIS

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/09/data-structure-in-gis.html

Data compression in GIS

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/10/data-compression.html

Digital Elevation Data

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/10/digital-elevation-data.html

Cartographic database

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/10/cartographic-database.html

Conversion of existing digital data

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/10/conversion-of-existing-digital-data.html

Remotely sensed data

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/10/remotely-sensed-data.html
Object Structural Model in GIS

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/10/object-structural-model-in-gis.html

Conflation, edge matching and editing operations in GIS

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/10/conflation-edge-matching-and-editing.html

Analysis functions in GIS

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.com/2015/10/analysis-functions-in-gis.html

Cartographic modeling by GIS analysis - procedure with an example

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/10/cartographic-modeling-by-gis-analysis.html

Raster Data Analysis

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/10/raster-data-analysis.html

GIS and Knowledge Based Systems

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/10/gis-and-knowledge-based-systems.html

Classification of GIS models

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/10/classification-of-gis-models.html

Digital Elevation Data

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.com/2015/10/digital-elevation-data_12.html

Editing functions in GIS

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/10/editing-and-query-functions-in-gis.html
Diagram of a Networked Database Structure

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/10/diagram-of-networked-database-structure.html

A heirarchical database structure based on a simple map

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/10/a-heirarchical-database-structure-based.html

Diagram Showing Vector Topology

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/10/diagram-showing-vector-topology.html

Diagram depicting vector and raster representations of map features and their linkage to the attribute
database

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/10/diagram-depicting-vector-and-raster.html

Diagram depicting linkage between Spatial data and Attribute data in a coverage

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/10/diagram-depicting-linkage-between.html

Diagram showing the conceptual data model

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/10/conceptual-data-model.html

Map Annotations

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/10/map-annotations.html

Conflation in GIS

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/10/conflation-edge-matching-and-editing.html

Transformation in GIS

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.com/2015/10/transformation-in-gis.html
Spatial Analysis in GIS

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.com/2015/10/spatial-analysis-in-gis.html

Connectivity functions

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.com/2015/10/connectivity-functions.html

Analysis of non spatial attribute data

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/11/maintenance-and-analysis-of-non-spatial.html

Important objective questions

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/11/important-objective-questions.html

Cost-Benefit analysis of an investment in GIS

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.com/2015/11/cost-benefit-analysis-of-investment-in.html

Text patterns and line styles

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/11/text-patterns-and-line-styles.html

Sampling GIS data

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/11/sampling-gis-data.html

Types of errors in GIS data, their elimination and accuracies

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/11/types-of-errors-in-gis-data-their.html

Components of data quality

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/11/components-of-data-quality.html
Graphic symbols

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/11/graphic-symbols.html

Types of errors in GIS

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/11/types-of-errors-in-gis.html

Neighbourhood operations

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/11/neighbourhood-operations.html

Record overlay

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.com/2015/11/record-overlay.html

Modelling in GIS

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/12/modelling-in-gis.html

Simple analysis in GIS

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/12/simple-analysis-in-gis.html

Output formatting

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2015/12/output-formatting.html

Map transformations

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2016/07/map-transformations.html

Electromagnetic radiation and its characteristics

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2016/07/electromagnetic-radiation-and-its.html
Software Scenario Functions: Visibility Analysis

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.com/2016/08/software-scenario-functions-visibility.html

Interaction of EMR with the Earth's surface

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.com/2016/08/interaction-of-emr-with-earths-surface.html

Types of Sensors

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.com/2016/08/types-of-sensors.html

Diagrammatic representation of types of sensors

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.com/2016/08/diagrammatic-representation-of-types-of.html

Remote sensing data products

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2016/08/remote-sensing-data-products.html

Interpretation of remote sensing data

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2016/08/interpretation-of-remote-sensing-data.html

Characteristics of Indian Remote Sensing series of satellite

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2016/08/characteristics-of-indian-remote.html

Software Scenario Functions: Environmental modelling

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.in/2016/08/software-scenario-functions.html

Software Scenario Functions: Watershed Modelling

http://mjcetce409.blogspot.com/2016/08/software-scenario-functions-watershed.html
GIS - UNIT 1 syllabus - OU
Map, definitions, Representations - Point, Line, Polygon, Common Coordinate Systems, Map
projections, Transformations, Coordinate system, Map analysis, History of development of GIS,
Standard GIS packages.

Applications of GIS: Soil and water resources, agriculture, land use planning, geology and municipal
applications, using GIS for making decisions under uncertainity.

GIS-Unit 2-Syllabus-OU
Data Entry, storage & maintenance: Data types, Spatial and non spatial (attribute) data, Data structure,
Data format, point, line, vector-raster-polygon, - object structural model - filters and files, data in
computer, keyboard entry, manual digitizing, scanner, remotely sensed data, existing digital data,
cartographic database, digital elevation data, data compression

GIS-Unit 3-Syllabus-OU
Data analysis and modelling: Spatial analysis, data retrieval query (SQL), Simple analysis, Record
overlay, Vector data analysis, Raster data analysis, modelling in GIS, Digital Elevation Model, Cost and
path analysis, knowledge based systems

GIS Analysis: Organizing data for analysis, Classification of GIS, analysis function, maintenance and
analysis of spatial data, transformation, conflation, edge matching and editing. Maintenance and
analysis of non spatial attribute data, editing and query functions.

GIS-Unit 4-Syllabus-OU
GIS Analysis Functions for Integrated Analysis of Spatial and Attribute Data: Retrieval and
classification functions: Overlay operations, neighbourhood operations, connectivity functions, output
formatting, map annotations text patterns and line styles, graphic symbols, cartographic modeling by
GIS analysis procedure with an example.

Presentation of geo-data and analysis: Types of output data - Types of errors elimination and
accuracies-sampling-components of data quality

GIS-Unit 5-Syllabus-OU
Introduction to remote sensing: Electromagnetic radiation, Characteristics, Interaction with Earth's
surface, Sensor types, Satellite characteristics, IRS series, Data products, Interpretation of data.

Software Scenario Functions: Watershed modelling, Environmental modelling and Visibility analysis.

References
Below listed are a few websites:

qgistutorials.com
spatialthoughts.com
paulbolstad.net
learnpracticalgis.com
giscommons.org
gis.stackexchange.com
spatialanalysisonline.com
gislounge.com
gis.harvard.edu
teachgis.org
ncgia.ucsb.edu
freegis.org
mapcruzin.com
gistutor.com
learninggis.com
wiki.gis.com

Reference books used to teach this course:

Introduction to Geographical Information Systems - Heywood, Cornelius, Carver

Concepts and Techniques of Geographic Information Systems
- C.P. Lo, Albert K.W. Yeung
Textbook of Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System - M. Anji Reddy
Principles of Geographic Information Systems - An Introductory Textbook
-Rolf A. de By, Martin C. Ellis, Yola Georgiadou, Richard A. Knippers, Menno-Jan Kraak, Mostafa
M. Radwan, Yuxian Sun, Michael J. C. Weir, Cees J. van Westen, Wolfgang Kainz, Edmund J. Sides
Geographic Information Science - Wolfgang Kainz
How is the real world represented in GIS - Katy Bregazzi
An Introduction to GIS - David J Buckley
Coordinate systems and Map projections for GIS - D.H. Maling
Remote Sensing and GIS - B. Bhatta
Introduction to Geographic Information Systems - Chang, Kang-Tsung
Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems - Michael De Mers
Ten Practical Applications of Geographical Information Systems - Ian Allen
Understanding Map Projections - Melita Kennedy
Campbell JB, 2006. Introduction to Remote Sensing. New York: Guilford Press. 4th Ed
Longley PA, Goodchild MF, Maguire DJ and Rhind DW, 2005.
Geographical Information Systems and Science. New York: Wiley. 2nd Edition
Longley PA, Goodchild MF, Maguire DJ and Rhind DW (eds.), 1999.
Geographical Information Systems: Principles, Techniques, Management and Applications. New
York: Wiley.
Albrecht J, 2007. Key Concepts and Techniques in GIS. London : SAGE Publications.
Chrisman N, 2001. Exploring Geographic Information Systems. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 2nd
Edition
Jensen JR, 2004. Introductory Digital Image Processing: A Remote Sensing Perspective. New Jersey:
Prentice Hall. 3rd edition.
Lillesand TM, Kiefer RW and Chipman JW, 2004. Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation.
Chichester: Wiley. 5th edition.
 Richards JA and Jia X, 2006. Remote Sensing Digital Image Analysis: An Introduction. Berlin:
Springer. 4th edition.

AUTHORS:
Ian, Heywood, Cornelius
Carver
Goodchild
Bradley O. Parks
Steyart
DeMers
Dangermond

WEBSITES:
http://anitagraser.com/
http://free-gis.com/
http://www.qgis.org/en/site/
http://grass.osgeo.org/
http://www.freegis.org/
http://www.osgeo.org/
http://www.bookfinder.com

GRASS-KNOPPIX (Bootable CD)

Asian Institute of Technology bootable CD of GIS - AIT-STAR CD
http://www.academia.edu/1436198/2004_FOSSGRASS-STARCD
http://fossgis.blogspot.in/
http://live.osgeo.org/en/index.html

This list is by no means comprehensive and is only indicative.

Maps
"A map is a set of points, lines and areas that are defined by their spatial location with respect to a
coordinate system and by their non-spatial (aspatial) attributes." A map legend links the non-spatial
attributes to the spatial attributes.
A map is an abstraction of the real world
A map is a graphical representation at a certain level of detail which is determined by the scale. A map
is a graphical representation of location of geographic features both 'explicitly' and 'relative' to one
another

Map sheets have physical boundaries and features spanning two maps have to be cut into pieces.

Cartography is the art and science of map making.

A map is a 'model' of the real world

Each feature is defined by:
- its location in space (with reference to a coordinate system) and
-its characteristics (attributes)

A very important factor in the production of maps is scale or representative fraction (R.F). Map scale is
a ratio of the distance on the map to the actual distance on the earth. This implies that a small scale map
represents a large area on the earth and vice versa.
A map is simply an abstraction of the complex real world.

There are three types of maps. They are listed below:

General purpose maps: These maps do not show any feature with special emphasis. They usually
show roads, power lines, transportation routes, water features, etc.
Special purpose maps: They are made for special purposes such as ocean charts for navigation,
cadastral maps to show property ownership details, etc. They are usually of large scale implying that
the show a small portion of the earth.
Thematic maps: These are maps that have a particular geographic theme. In a GIS, roads, rivers,
vegetation, contour elevations, etc are categorised separately and stored in separate map themes or
overlays. There are two different types of thematic maps.
Choropleth map: These maps contain differential zones. The different zones are used to represent
different classes in a theme. Ex: Census tracts, Average income, Percentage female population,
mortality rate, etc
Isopleth map: These maps contain imaginary lines to connect points of equal value (isolines).
These maps can be drawn for variables such as temperature, pressure, rainfall and population density.
An example of an isopleth map is a topographic map showing contours.

Maps are classified based on:

-Scale (Large scale, Medium scale and Small scale)
-Content and purpose (Physical maps, Cultural maps)
-Thematic content of GIS coverages (Vegetation maps, Transportation maps,
Land use/Land cover maps, Remotely Sensed Imagery)

Thematic maps are portrayed as:

-Prism maps
-Choropleth maps
-Point distribution maps
-Surface maps
-Graduated circle maps
-Hydrogeomorphological maps, etc

A 'map legend' links attributes to geographical features

Spatial data is 'graphical'

Aspatial data or non-spatial data is text (Eg: Attributes)

In GIS, the attribute data is loaded into a database and linked to the graphical features

Maps represent SNAPSHOTS OF THE LAND AT SPECIFIC MAP SCALE.

Map portrays three kinds of information about geographic features:

-location and extent of the feature
-Attrubutes of the feature
-Relationship of the feature to the other features (Explicit or Implicit)

GIS distinguishes between spatial and attribute aspects of geographic features.

THE IDENTIFICATION OF RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN FEATURES, WITHIN A COMMON

THEME OR ACROSS DIFFERENT THEMES, IS A PRIMARY FUNCTION OF A GIS

All geographic features on the Earth's surface can be characterised and defined as:
-points,
-lines and
-areas

Point is defined as a single location in space (Eg: (x,y))

Line is described by a string of spatial coordinates (Eg: River, Roadway, Pipeline, etc)
Areas are described by a CLOSED STRING of SPATIAL COORDINATES (Eg: Forests, Soil
classification areas, administrative boundaries, climate zones, etc)

Polygon data is HOMOGENEOUS in nature and thus CONSISTENT THROUGHOUT.

Every geographic phenomena can in principle be represented either by a point, line and or area.

-IDENTIFIER accompanies all types of geographic features

-LABELS distinguish geographic features of the same type.

-EACH LABEL is UNIQUE and provides a mechanism for LINKING the feature to its attribute data

-Every feature on the Earth is represented on the map by using a SYMBOL

-The manner in which geographical features (ENTITIES) are represented on the map is DEPENDENT
ON SCAPE. This is called SCALE RELATED GENERALIZATION.

-Map scale = (Distance on map) / (Distance on Earth)

Note: Units for distance in BOTH numerator and denominator SHOULD BE SAME

-REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION = R.F.

-Distance represented and map scale are inversely proportional
-Small scale map shows less detail and covers large area and vice-versa
-Accuracy of a features location is FUZZIER at small scale maps than large scale maps.

-AS SCALE INCREASES, SIZE OF FEATURES DECREASES CAUSING:

disappearance of features
features may change from line to point
features may change shape (less detailed and more generalised)
some features may appear

Maps - Basic components, Types of maps & Map analysis

Basic components of a map:
The basic components of any map are listed below:

The Title of the map indicates what the map is trying to show
The Key explains the symbols shown in the map
The Scale gives the relationship between distance on the map to the actual distance on the Earth.
Tha map shows the Latitudes (parallels N or S of the equator) and Longitudes (meridians E or W of
the prime meridian)
Compass rose showing the directions on a map.

The types of maps are:

Physical map
Political map
Thematic map
Cartogram and
Flow-line map

Map Analysis involves answering questions based on:

Title of the map

Type of map
Location of an object, area or phenomena
Meanings of the symbols and inferences from patterns
Relationship between locations and events over a period of time
The main idea or theme being represented by the map.
Uses and limitations of paper maps
USES OF MAPS:

Maps have been used since time immemorial for navigation and military purposes.
Maps are used to organise geographic data.
Ex: Topography,
Natural resources (thematic maps contain information about a specific theme - geology, soils,
roads, ecology, hydrology, etc)
Political (Abstract boundaries for public, private, national and international levels)
Information types - Qualitative (Ex: land use classes) and Quantitative (Ex: depth to bedrock)
Map types - Choropleth (areas of equal area separated by boundaries (landuse)) and isolines (or
contours)

LIMITATIONS OF PAPER MAPS:

Maps have to be genaralised to make them readable. Important details may be lost for site specific
analysis.
Small scale maps representing large areas must be represented on a large number of map sheets
making viewing and analysis difficult
Data retrieval is difficult
Printed maps are ""static
Combining different thematic maps for land suitability or spatial analysis is very difficult
Map updation is a tedious process
New technologies for gathering information are better accommodated in digital systems
Complexity of urban and natural resource problems increases the need for sophisticated analysis
techniques.
With the availability of low cost digital computers and greater access to data, the shortcomings of
paper maps can be overcome easily using a digital GIS.

Characteristics of maps and map projections

Characteristics of maps:

Maps are always concerned with TWO elements of reality:

Location (spatial data) and
Attributes (aspatial or non-spatial data)
Maps are reductions of true surfaces. They are two dimensional representations of the earths surface
drawn to scale.
Maps are usually outdated representations
Maps are ALWAYS STATIC VERSIONS
Maps cannot be updated. Updation requires preparation of a new map.

A map is a traditional method for storing, analysing and presenting spatial data

Topology is based on the geometric relationship of objects in a map

The purpose of a map is to turn data into information that will be communicated to the user.

Scale is defined as the ratio of a distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the ground. The
units for distance should be the same.

THREE BASIC SYMBOL TYPES used are point, line and areas. They are used to represent real world
features. The method used to represent a spatial feature DEPENDS ON THE SCALE USED.
The relationship between scale and detail is called SCALE RELATED GENERALIZATION.

PROJECTION
-The Earth appears flat at close range
-The Earth is roughly SPHERICAL (as displayed in satellite images)
-Cartographers developed a set of techniques called "MAP PROJECTIONS" to depict the spherical
earth in two dimensions with reasonable accuracy.

Imagine a football (inflated) with the image of the Earth on it = 3D representation of Earth
Now deflate the football = 2D representation of Earth

Projection is the process of placing a light bulb in transparent globe on which OPAQUE Earth features
are placed and projecting the feature outlines on a 2D surdace surrounding the globe. The globe could
be projected on:
-a flat piece of paper
-surrounding the globe in a cylindrical fashion or
-surrounding the globe in a cone

Each of the above three projections form a projection family called:

-Planar projection
-Cylindrical projection
-Conical projection and
-Azimuthal projection

-Projections are not absolute accurate representations of geographical space. The characteristic of maps
that must be retained for accurate analytical operations dictate which projections must be used.

-IT IS IMPOSSIBLE TO PRESERVE ALL PROPERTIES AT THE SAME TIME WHEN

PERFORMING A MAP PROJECTION.

When performing a map projection, selection of a map projection will be based on what property needs
to be preserved. The properties that need to be considered are:
-angles
-shapes
-distances
-directions and
-areal sizes

Angular conformity / Conformal / Orthomorphic projection MAINTAINS correct angular

correspondence. This leads to:
-Distortion of areas
-Incorrect measurement

-Equal area / Equivalent projections preserve areas

-Equidistant projections preserve distances

There is NO IDEAL MAP PROJECTION

A map projection can be defined as representation of meridians and parallels portraying the curved
surface of the datum surface on a two dimensional plane.
The two surfaces should have a one to one correspondence with each other.
Origin is generally chosen as the intersection of CENTRAL MERIDIAN with CENTRAL PARALLEL.

Map projections transfer the spherical earth onto a two dimensional surface thereby approximating
the true shape of the earth. This introduces errors into spatial data.
A projection is a method by which the curved surface of the earth is represented on a flat surface by
using mathematical transformations between location of places on earth and their projected locations
on the plane.
When curved surface of the earth is shown on a plane, DISTORTION IS INEVITABLE
Distortion is LEAST when the map shows SMALL AREAS and MAXIMUM when the map shows
ENTIRE SURFACE OF THE EARTH.

Projections are broadly classified into:

EQUAL AREA PROJECTIONS (display correct area)

CONFORMAL PROJECTIONS (display correct shape/directions) and
EQUIDISTANT PROJECTIONS (display correct distance)

Equal Area Projections (EAP) are used for estimating resource, forest coverage, etc in a region.
Conformal Projections (CP) are used in navigation purposes requiring accurate directions.
CP are also called orthomorphic projections
Ex: Lambert Conformal Conic and Transverse Mercator
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) is a special case of transverse mercator

Examples of Non-Conformal Projections are:

Polyconic
Cassini
Alberts Equal area, etc

Important projections for mapping in India:

Polyconic projection
Lambert Conformal Conic projection
Transverse mercator projection
Universal Transverse Mercator projection and
Cassini projection
All geographic surfaces are in TWO tangible formats:
-Discrete: They occupy a given point in space and time (Trees, Houses, etc)
They have zero dimensionality BUT some spatial dimension

-Continuous: They possess infinite number of possible height values distributed without interruption
across the surface (Cliff,trenches, ridges, hills, etc)
They are described by:
-Citing their locations
-The area occupied by the feature and
-Their orientation with the addition of the third dimension

-Topographic map shows BOTH DISCRETE and CONTINUOUS information

-Elevation is shown as a series of contour lines

-Man-made features are shown by a lines and shapes

-Different kinds of information that is stored in various ways is called THEME

-DATUM PLANE is the reference surface from which all altitudes are measured. Usually, Datum plane
= Mean Sea Level (MSL)

-ELEVATION or ALTITUDE is the vertical distance between GIVEN POINT and DATUM PLANE.

-Height is defined as the vertical difference between an object and its surroundings.

-Difference in elevation of an area between tops of hills and bottoms of valleys is known as relief of the
terrain.

-A point of known elevation and position is indicated on a map by the letters B.M (Bench Mark) with
the altitude given to the nearest foot.

-A map line connecting points representing places on the Earth's surface that have the same elevation is
called CONTOUR LINE.

-Contours represent the THIRD DIMENSION on a map

-The difference in elevation represented by adjacent contours is called CONTOUR INTERVAL.

-Maps are an important for of input to a GIS and a common means to portray the results of analysis
from a GIS

-The TWO FUNDAMENTAL ASPECTS OF REALITY that maps and GIS are connected with:
-LOCATIONS and
-ATTRIBUTES
using these, several TOPOLOGICAL and METRIC properties of a relationship can be defined. Eg:
-Distance
-Direction
-Connectivity
-Proximity, etc

SYMBOLOGY:
-Artificial works shown in BLACK
-Water features (streams, swamps and glaciers) shown in BLUE
-Relief shown by contours in BROWN
-Major highways shown in RED
-Areas of woods, orchards, vineyards and scrub shown in GREEN.

-SRS SPATIAL REFERENCING SYSTEM

-GCS GEOGRAPHIC COORDINATE SYSTEM
-RCS RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEM
-NCS NON-COORDINATE SYSTEM
-SGS SPHERICAL GRID SYSTEM
-CRS COORDINATE REFERENCING SYSTEM

Longitudes = Meridians (Drawn pole to pole)

Longitudes start at GREENWICH (England) also called PRIME MERIDIAN
(Numbered East to West)
Corresponding meridian on the opposite side of the globe is called:
INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE
Latitudes lie at RIGHT ANGLES to lines of longitudes and run parallel to each other.
Latitudes = Parallels

Transformation of 3D space to 2D map distorts atleast one of the following:

-SHAPE
-AREA
-DISTANCE or
-DIRECTION

Angular conformity / Conformal / Orthomorphic projections MAINTAIN correct angular

correspondence
This leads to:
-Distortion of areas
-Incorrect measurement

Equal area / Equidistant projections PRESERVE AREAS

Equidistant projections PRESERVE DISTANCES

The three projections mentioned above are MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE

THERE IS NO IDEAL MAP PROJECTION

To transfer the image of the Earth with its irregularities on to a plane surface of a map, THREE factors
are involved are:
-GEOID
-ELLIPSOID or ELLIPSOID WITH DATUM
-PROJECTION

The geographical relationships of the Earth in three dimensional form is transferred into two
dimensional plane of a map by a process known as "MAP PROJECTION"

-ALL projections developed, fall into one of the following categories:

-CONIC PROJECTION
-CYLINDRICAL PROJECTION and
-PLANAR PROJECTION

-Every flat map MISREPRESENTS the Earth in some way. NO MAP CAN TRULY REPRESENT
THE SURFACE OF THE ENTIRE EARTH.

A map or parts of a map can show one or more, but NEVER ALL of the following:
-True shapes
-True direction
-True distance
-True areas

A combination of any two of the above projections forms a hybrid projection

-CONIC PROJECTIONS are suited to map areas having EAST-WEST extent. Ex: USA, Canada,
Peoples Republic of China

If a sheet of paper is laid tangentential to a point on the globe and the geographical features of the globe
are transferred on it, the projection obtained is called, AZIMUTHAL PROJECTION. In this projection,
straight lines intersect the designated center point and parallels appear as concentric circles around the
center point.

ADLER has named FIVE BASIC CRITERIA for CLASSIFICATION OF MAP PROJECTIONS.
-Nature of projection surface as defined by geometry
-Contact of projection surface with DATUM surface
-Alignment of projection surface with relation to the datum surface
-Cartographic requirements and
-Mode of generation of DATUM SURFACE and coordinate system

TO MAINTAIN ACCURACY:
-The Earth is a SPHERE for small scale maps and
-The Earth is a SPHEROID for large scale maps

In an ellipsoid or sphere, the latitude and longitude are mentioned in degrees, minutes and seconds of
arc.
The plane system of rectangular X and Y coordinates is referred to as EASTING and NORTHING
respectively

Commonly used map projections are:

-MERCATOR
-TRANSVERSE MERCATOR
-OBLIQUE MERCATOR
-POLYCONIC PROJECTION
-LAMBERT CONICAL ORTHOMORPHIC PROJECTION
-GRID SYETEMS
-LAMBERT GRID SYSTEM FOR INDIA
-UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR (UTM) GRID

Salient features of selected projections

SALIENT FEATURES OF POLYCONIC PROJECTION

All parallels are projected without distortion (Scale is exact along all parallels)
Parallels are arcs of circles but they are not concentric
It is neither conformal nor equal area
Central meridian and equator are straight lines; All other meridians are complex curves
There is NO DISTORTION ONLY AT CENTRAL MERIDIAN
It is used in India for all topographical mapping on 1:25,000; 1:50,000 and 1:250,000 scales

The disadvantages of this projection are listed below:

It can have a rolling fit only

Meridians and parallels do not intersect at right angles
Inability to show seamless data in a rectangular coordinate system

The polyconic projection is not being used for mapping anywhere in the world except India and a few
adjacent countries.

SALIENT FEATURES OF LAMBERT CONFORMAL CONIC PROJECTION

It is a conical projection
It is conformal
Parallels are unequally spaced arcs of concentric circles, more closely spaced near the center of the
map
Meridians are equally spaced radii of the same circles, thereby cutting parallels at right angles
Scale is true just along two standard parallels or along just one
 Intersection of central parallel and central meridian is the origin of rectangular coordinate system
Central meridian is Y-axis and a line perpendicular to it is X-axis
A large value is given to the origin so that ALL coordinates for the projection are POSITIVE
The origin assumes a value (0,0) is also known as 'FALSE ORIGIN'

SALIENT FEATURES OF TRANSVERSE MERCATOR PROJECTION

It is a widely used conformal projection

It is a cylindrical projection
It is conformal
The central meridian, each meridian 90 degrees from the central meridian and equator are straight
lines
Other meridians and parallels are complex curves
Scale is true along central meridian or along two straight lines equidistant and parallel to central
meridian
Scale becomes infinite 90 degrees from central meridian
It is used extensively for quadrangle maps at scales 1:24,000 to 1:250,000
It was presented by lambert in1772
It is not used in India but extensively used in USA
The State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS) is based on the Transverse Mercator Projection in USA
for states with North-South extent
It is used for quadrangle maps in the USA
It is used for army map service in the USA
Ordnance Survey of Great Britain switched to transverse mercator from cassini
It is used in Canada in three zones.

SALIENT FEATURES OF UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR PROJECTION

It is a particular case of transverse mercator projection

Transverse mercator in this projection is 6 degrees wide
Reference ellipsoid for North America was given by Clark in 1866
Central meridian is the origin for the longitude
Equator is the origin for the latitude
Unit for distance is metre (m)
False northing is 0m for northern hemisphere and 10,000,000m for southern hemisphere
False easting is 500,000m
Scale factor at central meridian is 0.9996
Zone numbering begins at 1 for zone between 180 W and 174 W and increases to 60 for zone
bounded by meridians 174 E and 180 E (Each zone 6 degrees wide)
Latitude limits 80 N and 80 S
Nearly 60 countries use this projection as the general use projection within the country
It is NOT the universal projection for all countries.
In India, it is used by NAVAL HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS for their maps and charts
Conversion among coordinate systems are carried-out mathematically using map projection equations
and their inverses.

Definitions of GIS
DEFINITIONS OF GIS

Toolbox based definitions

(i) GIS is a powerful set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will, transforming and displaying
spatial data from the real world (Burrough 1986)
(ii) GIS is a system for capturing, storing, checking, manipulating, analysing and displaying data which
are spatially referenced to the Earth (Department of Environment 1987)
(iii) GIS is an information technology which stores, analyses and displays both spatial and non-spatial
data (Parker 1988)

Database definitions
(i) GIS is a database system in which most of the data are spatially indexed and upon which a set of
procedures operated in order to answer questions about spatial entities in the database.
(Smith et al 1987)
(ii) GIS is any manual or computer based set of procedures used to store and manipulate geographically
referenced data. (Aronoff 1989)

Organization based definitions

(i) GIS is an automated set of functions that provides professionals with advanced capabilities for the
storage, retrieval, manipulation and display of geographically located data.
(Ozemoy, Smith and Sicherman 1981)
(ii) GIS is an institutional entity reflecting an organizational structure that integrates technology with a
database, expertise and continuing financial support over time. (Carter 1989)
(iii) GIS is a decision supporting system involving the integration of spatially referenced data in a
problem solving environment. (Cowen 1988)

Application of GIS in Agriculture

Information management plays an important role in improving farming practices and consequently
increase agricultural production. In-fact, the practice of agriculture is spatial in nature. The biological
and physical aspects of agriculture create spatial variability. Owing to this variability, the occurrence
and distribution of insects along with plant pathogens and diseases that result in decreased crop yield is
random. Another word used to describe this variability is, 'patchiness'. Plant disease management
practices can be improved by putting epidemiological information and other farm information using a
GIS.
Precision farming is based on combining GIS with sophiticated hardware for geographically referenced
yield data and variable rate applications of fertilizers and other farm chemicals.
Spatially referenced information provides a gateway to farmers, pest control advisors, extension
workers and others to evaluate plant disease problems in a spatial context
GIS relates the data collected by GPS to other sources of geo-referenced information. GIS posseses the
ability to integrate layers of spatial information and uncover relationships that were otherwise not
obvious.
The process of transforming one layer of spatial information to match a second layer is called
registration.
GIS has been applied in agriculture for the spatial analysis of insect pests, weeds and plant diseases.
Since the field of agriculture is primarily spatial in nature, GIS is the appropriate technology to manage
the related spatial data.
However, analysis using GIS should be invariably compared with conclusions from a general
knowledge of the problem and recheck the methodology and data if there is a major variation with what
is generally expected.
GIS risk assessment maps based on a gaussian process regression of field observations were part of a
tomato virus management program at the regional scale in Mexico.
Soil structure and chemistry information is linked to a point theme that is displayed as an overlay with
field boundaries (polygon features) and roads (line features). The points are colour coded according to
the percent total sand in soil. Using GIS, the data can be linked to points using a coordinate system.
The 'x' and 'y' coordinates of a point are determined using GPS readings. These points are overlaid on
similarly referenced linear and polygon features.
The availability of GIS software, capable of producing attractive maps provides an opportunity to
visually communicate plant disease situation to a variety of audiences. GIS output can be used by
decision makers to stimulate coordinated action allowing available resources to be focussed on the
most significant problems.
GIS is particularly useful in identifying recurring patterns of plant disease and other problems like
insect and weed infestations.
The association of environmental factors, landscape features and cropping patterns combined with the
recurrence of disease or other problems can be readily communicated to decision makers.

GIS can be used as an agricultural land use planning tool. If soil information is linked from an aerial
photograph to a topographic base map and this is added to several other data layers and images like
interpretation maps, flood frequency maps and run-off maps, the soil-based GIS would make the
decision-making process more accurate, automated and efficient. GIS allows visualization of
information in new ways that reveal relationships, patterns and trends not visible easily.
Geographic Information Systems have become an essential and efficient toolkit in all aspects of
agriculture from farm management and resource conservation to a wide range of agribusiness
applications.
Precision farming is an integrated agricultural management system that incorporates state-of-the-art
agronomic knowledge, information from multiple sources, and the global positioning system,
geographical information system, yield monitor, variable rate, and remote sensing technologies.

Precision farming allows producers to make management decisions about discrete areas of the field,
with the goal of optimizing the crop response based on the production potential and constraints of the
specific region. These techniques help in providing good quality land for future generations while
preserving the land’s potential for multiple uses, and implement techniques that increase agricultural
energy efficiency.
Precision farming can be used to improve fertilizer, seeding, and irrigation rates as well as improved
targeting of insecticides and herbicides toward pests. Precision farming techniques are used for
improving agricultural efficiency through improved nutrient management. Efficient nutrient use can be
improved by adjusting application rates using GIS based precision estimates of crop needs. GIS can be
customised to enter soil data and create yield maps. This can be used to generate fertilizer prescription
maps and related reports for site-specific management. GIS is bieng used extensively around the globe
as a tool that helps in increased agricultural yield. The spatial analytical tools related to agriculture in
GIS are, hydrology parameters, groundwater and data interpolation calculation tools. These tools can
be used to adopt efficient sampling strategies and increase profitability. Grid sampling (GIS tool) can
be used to reveal soil fertility patterns in farm fields. A latest development in this regard is the Web Soil
Survey (WSS), an interactive online interface providing user defined reports and GIS ready spatial
data. Managing data in a GIS ultimately produces a map that helps in visualization of the data.

Precision manure application using GIS and GPS helps farmers to avoid overlapping or missing
application areas. GIS also helps in avoiding application of manure in environmentally sensitive areas,
turning the applicator off when stepping out of the boundary area and varying the application rate based
on projected crop nutrient needs at different locations across fields. The value of manure as a crop input
is diminished by improper application. While lack of application of manure causes nutrient deficiency
resulting in reduced crop yields, excessive application of manure also results in low crop yield due to
excess vegetative growth resulting in increased crop diseases. Geospatial technologies (GIS, Remote
Sensing and GPS) can help in implementation of efficient manure management practices like,

determining optimum amount of manure to apply at specific locations in fields for specific crops and
yield goals,
applying prescribed rates and
when and where manure was applied.

GIS has been used as a decision support tool for a soil-based automated variable rate irrigation
sprinkler system. GIS has also been used for soil salinity mapping. GIS can be used to create Soil
Organic Carbon (SOC) maps. Thus, site-specific management and assessment would be very difficult if
not impossible without GIS mapping and tools. GIS tools can be used to improve distribution of
manure nutrients at the national, local and field scales as a means to minimise environmental
contamination. GIS plays an important role in managing nutrient imbalances. GIS can be used in
conjunction with modelling to understand how crop selection and soils interact to effect environmental
outcomes across an agricultural landscape. For example:

a public drinking water supply faced with increasing nitrate in groundwater source and
planning of a new biomas conversion facility to produce renewable fuels from grain or cellulosic
feedstock.

In the above cases GIS can be used to help the audience gain new understanding of the problems and
visualise how to circumvent the problem by growing different crops. In the first case, a soil map can be
used to extract soil characteristics and individual polygons of GIS coverages are used to produce final
map products depicting areas of high, moderate and low nitrate leaching risks.

APPLICATIONS OF GIS IN SOIL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Soil is a natural resource that is fundamental for all human uses. Soil is primarily used for agriculture
and soil erosion plays a major role in causing serious disruption in agricultural activity. Soil erosion
occurs mainly due to natural disasters like floods and droughts. Prevention and mitigation are effective
ways to manage this problem. GIS in conjunction with the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) can
be used to evaluate the risk area of soil erosion. The USLE is the most commonly used estimator of soil
loss caused by overland erosion. It is used in most parts of the world including India.
The assessment of soil erosion using GIS according to the flowchart shown below:

Each of the USLE factors with associated attribute data is digitally encoded in a GIS database to
eventually produce five thematic layers. These are the spatially overlaid to produce a resultant
polygonal layer. Application of the USLE model to the resultant layer yields a soil erosion map with
classes of soil loss. Thus GIS can provide detailed information to locate areas that are at a risk of soil
erosion and areas that are suitable for agriculture.

References
Below listed are a few websites:

qgistutorials.com
spatialthoughts.com
paulbolstad.net
learnpracticalgis.com
giscommons.org
gis.stackexchange.com
spatialanalysisonline.com
gislounge.com
gis.harvard.edu
teachgis.org
ncgia.ucsb.edu
freegis.org
mapcruzin.com
gistutor.com
learninggis.com
wiki.gis.com

Reference books used to teach this course:

Introduction to Geographical Information Systems - Heywood, Cornelius, Carver

Concepts and Techniques of Geographic Information Systems
- C.P. Lo, Albert K.W. Yeung
Textbook of Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System - M. Anji Reddy
Principles of Geographic Information Systems - An Introductory Textbook
-Rolf A. de By, Martin C. Ellis, Yola Georgiadou, Richard A. Knippers, Menno-Jan Kraak, Mostafa
M. Radwan, Yuxian Sun, Michael J. C. Weir, Cees J. van Westen, Wolfgang Kainz, Edmund J. Sides
Geographic Information Science - Wolfgang Kainz
How is the real world represented in GIS - Katy Bregazzi
An Introduction to GIS - David J Buckley
Coordinate systems and Map projections for GIS - D.H. Maling
Remote Sensing and GIS - B. Bhatta
Introduction to Geographic Information Systems - Chang, Kang-Tsung
Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems - Michael De Mers
Ten Practical Applications of Geographical Information Systems - Ian Allen
Understanding Map Projections - Melita Kennedy
Campbell JB, 2006. Introduction to Remote Sensing. New York: Guilford Press. 4th Ed
Longley PA, Goodchild MF, Maguire DJ and Rhind DW, 2005.
Geographical Information Systems and Science. New York: Wiley. 2nd Edition
Longley PA, Goodchild MF, Maguire DJ and Rhind DW (eds.), 1999.
Geographical Information Systems: Principles, Techniques, Management and Applications. New
York: Wiley.
Albrecht J, 2007. Key Concepts and Techniques in GIS. London : SAGE Publications.
Chrisman N, 2001. Exploring Geographic Information Systems. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 2nd
Edition
Jensen JR, 2004. Introductory Digital Image Processing: A Remote Sensing Perspective. New Jersey:
Prentice Hall. 3rd edition.
 Lillesand TM, Kiefer RW and Chipman JW, 2004. Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation.
Chichester: Wiley. 5th edition.
Richards JA and Jia X, 2006. Remote Sensing Digital Image Analysis: An Introduction. Berlin:
Springer. 4th edition.

AUTHORS:
Ian, Heywood, Cornelius
Carver
Goodchild
Bradley O. Parks
Steyart
DeMers
Dangermond

WEBSITES:
http://anitagraser.com/
http://free-gis.com/
http://www.qgis.org/en/site/
http://grass.osgeo.org/
http://www.freegis.org/
http://www.osgeo.org/
http://www.bookfinder.com

GRASS-KNOPPIX (Bootable CD)

Asian Institute of Technology bootable CD of GIS - AIT-STAR CD
http://www.academia.edu/1436198/2004_FOSSGRASS-STARCD
http://fossgis.blogspot.in/
http://live.osgeo.org/en/index.html

This list is by no means comprehensive and is only indicative

GIS - objective questions

A map is a/an MODEL/ABSTRACTION of the real world

A map legend links ATTRIBUTES to geographic information
SPATIAL DATA is always graphical
Attributes are also called ASPATIAL data or NON-SPATIAL data
EASTINGS refer to X-coordinate
NORTHINGS refer to Y-coordinate
POINT is a single location in space
Areas are described by A CLOSED STRING OF SPATIAL COORDINATES
The manner in which ENTITIES or geographical features are represented on a map is DEPENDENT
ON SCALE
LABELS distinguish geographic features of the same type
 Every feature on the Earth is represented on a map using a SYMBOL
A small scale map covers a LARGE area
A DATABASE is a repository capable of storing large amounts of data
CARTOGRAPHY is the art and science of making maps
As scale decreases, size of the features may decrease causing:
DISAPPEARANCE OF FEATURES
REPRESENTATION OF FEATURES MAY CHANGE
FEATURES MAY CHANGE SHAPE
SOME FEATURES MAY APPEAR
AZIMUTHAL projections are also called planar projections
Scale factor is a ratio of ACTUAL SCALE to PRINCIPAL SCALE
All geographic features are in TWO tangible forms
In any projection, the parallel on the development surface that maintains true scale is called
STANDARD PARALLEL
CONFORMAL projections are used for NAVIGATION purposes requiring accurate directions
Conformal projections are also called ORTHOMORPHIC projections
DATUM is a set of reference values that serve as a reference for mapping
GIS is primarily a DECISION SUPPORT SOFTWARE within a SPATIAL framework
A topographic map is a COMPOSITE of different kinds of maps
In a projection, distortion is least when the map shows SMALL areas and maximum when the map
shows LARGE areas
Representative fraction for reference globe is called PRINCIPAL SCALE
Principal scale is the ratio of RADIUS OF EARTH to RADIUS OF GLOBE
Scale factor is the ratio of ACTUAL SCALE to PRINCIPAL SCALE
The two tangible forms in which all geographic features exist are DISCRETE and CONTINUOUS
Different kinds of information that are stored in various ways is called a THEME
Difference in elevation of an area between tops of hills and bottoms of valleys is known as RELIEF
of the terrain
A point of known elevation and position is indicated on a map by the letters B.M. meaning BENCH
MARK with altitude given to the nearest foot
CONTOURS represent the third dimension on a map
The difference in elevation represented by adjacent contour lines is termed as CONTOUR
INTERVAL
The art and science of map making is called CARTOGRAPHY
Lines of latitude are called PARALLELS and lines of longitude are called MERIDIANS
A cylindrical projection yields a RECTANGULAR graticule whereas a conic projection yields a
FAN shaped graticule
CONIC projections are suited to map areas having EAST-WEST extents
TRANSVERSE MERCATOR projection is suited to map areas with NORTH-SOUTH extents
The three important components of GIS are:
COMPUTER HARDWARE
SOFTWARE APPLICATION MODULES and
ORGANIZATION
Three popular GIS software application packages along with their vendors are:
MGE/MGA system - INTERGRAPH CORPORATION
 ARC/INFO - ESRI
SPANS - TYDAC
GIS uses a database approach because of:
CONVENIENCE
REDUCED DATA REDUNDANCY
STANDARDIZATION &
SHAREABILITY
Output from a GIS is normally:
MAP
TABULAR DATA or
REPORTS
POINT is the basic building block from which all spatial entities are constructed
A closed ring of coordinate pairs defines the boundary of a POLYGON/AREA
TOPOLOGY is concerned with connectivity between entities
The three elements of topology are:
ADJACENCY
CONTAINMENT and
CONNECTIVITY
The four prominent applications of remote sensing and GIS in agriculture are:
CROP HEALTH
PRECISION AGRICULTURE
COMPLIANCE MAPPING &
YIELD ESTIMATION
GIS - Basics
Geographic Information System is an interdisciplinary field of knowledge, comprising geography,
digital cartography, computer science, mathematics, image processing, pattern recognition, digital
photogrammetry and remote sensing.

GIS can be defined as a system of systems collecting, processing and analysing spatio-temporal
information regarding the Earth features. It involves people preparing the data, the system (input and
output devices, computing platforms and networking) and the users using the system.

Operational Information Systems (urban planner, agriculture and land management systems, etc)
spatio-temporal data collected over a period of time is required to be processed. These systems DO
NOT exploit the TIME CRITICALITY associated with spatial data. Processing of spatio-temporal data
is done by GIS.

GIS emerged primarily due to necessities arising due to use of digital maps in civil and military
applications. It has left a positive impression on varied fields such as operation planning, situation
representation and terrain feature measurement. However, the primary force that led to the development
of GIS as an information system was thematic cartography (composition of maps based on a particular
theme, collaborative visualization of operation information and application specific map generation ).

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a set of digital ideas and concepts designed to provide
answers to questions based on mapped data. It helps in analysing mapped data to understand
distributions and explain these patterns. It can be used to make predictions of future distributions and
effects.

GIS is a modern enabling technology. Its applications are used in a wide range of disciplines.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are tools that process spatial data into information. This
information can be used to make decisions about some portion of the Earth.

GIS is difficult to define as it involves integration of several subjects. There is no absolutely agreed
upon definition of a GIS. The definition of a GIS depends on the person or organisation using it.

David Rhind defines GIS as a “computer system for collecting, checking, integrating and analysing
information related to the surface of the Earth.”

GIS can be though of as a series of sub-systems within a larger system. According to this definition,
GIS has the following subsystems:

A data input subsystem that collects and preprocesses spatial data from various sources.
A data storage and retrieval subsystem that organises spatial data in a manner that allows retrieval,
updating and editing.
A data manipulation and analysis subsystem that performs tasks on the data, aggregates and
disaggregates, estimates parameters and constraints, and performs modelling functions
A reporting subsystem that displays all or part of the database in tabular, graphic or map form.

Map is the fundamental tool for analysis of spatially related data.

Analysis subsystem is the heart of the GIS.
In GIS, all data are explicitly SPATIAL.
In GIS, every feature on the Earth is considered to be either a 'POINT', 'LINE' or 'AREA'.
POINTS are said to have 'zero dimensionality'.
LINE objects are “one dimensional”.
Objects that occupy both length and width are called “AREAS”.
AREAS are a series of lines that start and end at the same location.
Adding the dimension of height to areas explains the existence of SURFACES.
Point features are discrete while surface features are continuous.
The non-spatial (aspatial) information that help in the description of features in space are called the
feature's ATTRIBUTES.
The measurement framework for geographic data is called, “GEOGRAPHIC DATA
MEASUREMENT”. One level of measurement is the “NOMINAL SCALE” (named). Another level of
measurement is the “ORDINAL SCALE”. Comparisons can be made ONLY in the “INTERVAL
LEVEL OF DATA MEASUREMENT”.

The most useful level of data measurement is “RATIO”. The ONLY level of data measurement that
allows a direct comparison between two spatial variables is “RATIO”.
A primary purpose of GIS is to analyse the relationship of objects in space.
The important terms related to spatial patterns are: “PROXIMITY”, “REGULAR PATTERN”,
“RANDOM PATTERN” and “DISPERSED PATTERN”.
The powerful capabilities of modern GIS include the ability to ILLUSTRATE, QUANTIFY and
DESCRIBE spatial associations and thus allow examination of mechanisms that cause these
associations.
GIS helps identify spatial patterns and explains pattern interactions.

Birth and History of GIS

The primary force behind the development of GIS was thematic cartography. visualization and
generation of application of application-specific maps. Traditional cartographic processes were human
intensive, inflexible and error-prone. With the arrival of new technologies like surveying using GPS,
aerial photography and photogrammetric interpretations of remotely sensed images the manual
cartographic process was replaced by digital cartographic process resulting in reduced dependence on
human skill and eliminating errors in the process. The basic concepts of digital cartography can be
traced to the work done by the Land Inventory Branch of the Canadian Government and the
HARVARD lABORATORY FOR COMPUTER GRAPHICS AND SPATIAL ANALYSIS. Commercial
GIS like ARC/INFO and Geomedia suit of solutions considered to be the first generation GIS were
launched by Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) and Intergraph respectively. Other
popular GIS softwares are Geographic Resource Analysis Support System (GRASS), Quantum
Geographic Information System (QGIS), System for Automated Geoscientific Analysis (SAGA) and
many more available in the public domain for free.

GIS helps answer questions about:

-Locations
-Patterns
-Trends and
-Conditions

Before the advent of GIS, the analysis of the large volumes of spatial data coupled with time
constraints and limited techniques made this process very difficult or impossible. GIS techniques help
in quick remodelling for modifications in the geographic context. The end product of a GIS is map used
for public appraisal and feedback. One of the most convenient aspects of a GIS is that it permits
repetition of the analysis of a problem for a modified set of conditions on the same base map to
evaluate options in a detailed and scientific manner.

GIS can also be used as a tool for policy formulation.

GIS can be used for environmental management problems and is currently being used by
environmental managers all over the world.

GIS is a computer system covering three main components:

-Hardware
-Software module and Appropriate procedures
- Proper organizational context (Trained personnel)
GIS uses spatially referenced or geographical data. It performs management and analysis tasks on these
data. Output of GIS is mainly in the form of maps, graphs, text and summary statistics. GIS is used to
add value to spatial data.

GIS software has been designed to handle spatial data. Spatial data are characterised by
-information about position
-connection with other features and
-details about non spatial characteristics

The method of representing geographic space occupied by spatial data as a series of thematic layers is
known as LAYER-BASED APPROACH.

Features in the real world are expressed in the computer as discrete objects. This method is known as
OBJECT-ORIENTED APPROACH.

All geographic features are classified into THREE TYPES for entry into a GIS. They are:
-POINTS
-LINES &
-POLYGONS or AREAS

Data input and updating are the most important, expensive, complex and time-consuming part of a GIS
project.

The ability of GIS to transform spatial data and perform spatial analysis distinguishes it from other
types of information systems.

Aronoff (1989) classified GIS analysis procedures into three types:

-Storage and retrieval
-Constrained queries and
-Modelling procedures (what-if scenarios)

Data layers in a GIS contain data of ONLY ONE ENTITY TYPE. (Point or line or area data)

GIS has become an accepted tool for the management and analysis of spatial data.

All GIS are computer representations of some aspect of the real world.

The simplified view of the real world adopted by GIS is often termed as a model.

Data is simply a collection of alphanumeric characters with no meaning. Data to which a context is
added becomes meaningful. Hence, Information is data to which meaning and context are
added(Hanold, 1972). Data can be PRIMARY or SECONDARY. This data has three dimensions:
-Temporal (WHEN the data was collected)
-Thematic (describing the CHARACTER) and
-Spatial (WHERE the object or phenomena occurs)
In GIS, the thematic data are generally referred to as NON-SPATIAL or ATTRIBUTE DATA

Distinction between thematic and topographic maps is that thematic maps display data related to a
particular theme such as soil, geology, geomorphology, landuse, population, natural resources, etc
while topographic maps contain a diverse set of data on different themes. For example: land use, relief
and cultural features may appear together on the same topographic map. Unwin (1981) argues that "a
topographic map is simply a composite of different kinds of maps".

Topology is simply the geometric relationships of objects.

The method chosen to represent a spatial feature depends on the scale of the map. The relationship
between scale and detail is called SCALE RELATED GENERALIZATION.

Map projections and spatial referencing

Map projections transfer the spherical earth onto a two-dimensional surface. This process introduces
errors. Depending on the projection method chosen, there might be a distortion in directions while
distances are displayed accurately. Sometimes, shape may be preserved at the expense of accurate area
estimates. Different map projections have been prepared for different parts of the world for mapping
different sized areas and for different applications. There are hundreds of different map projections.
The results of analysis will be affected in different ways by different map projections.

Depending on the development surface, map projections can be classified into:

Conic projection, Cylindrical projection and Planar or Azimuthal projection families as shown below.

One of the
functions of a GIS
is to allow the
integration of data from different sources, the ability to ALTER projections is a fundamental ability of
many GIS. There are hundreds of different map projections and some GIS provide the capability to
reproject data for most of these.

SPATIAL REFERENCING
A referencing system is used to locate a feature on the Earth's surface (3 dimensional) or a map of the
Earth (2 dimensional). Several methods of spatial referencing exist and they can be grouped into three
categories listed below:
-Geographic Coordinate System (GCS)
-Rectangular Coordinate System (RCS) and
-Non-Coordinate System (NCS)

The only true GEOGRAPHIC COORDINATES are LATITUDE and LONGITUDE

Lines of longitude are also called MERIDIANS

The arbitrary choice for a central line of longitude is that which runs through the Royal Observatory in
Greenwich, England. It is also called PRIME MERIDIAN.
The meridians are widest apart at the Equator and closest together at the Poles
The relative distance between lines of longitude where they intersect lines of latitude is ALWAYS
EQUAL.
lines of latitude lie at right angles to lines of longitude and run parallel to one another
The latitude with the greatest circumference is called the EQUATOR (Central parallel) and it is
equidistant from the poles.
At the poles, the lines of latitude are represented by a single point - the pole.
Using the lines of longitude and lines of latitude, ANY POINT ON THE EARTH's SURFACE can be
loacated in degrees and minutes.

All features on the Earth can be located relative to one another and the distance between them can be
calculated.

The shortest distance between TWO points on the Earths surface is known as GREAT CIRCLE
DISTANCE.

Examples of RCS are:

-UK Ordnance Survey's National Grid and
-Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) plane grid system

Non-Coordinate Systems provide spatial references using a descriptive code rather than a coordinate.
Examples are postal codes used throughout the world. While some of the codes are fully numeric (U.S.
post codes, Indian PIN codes), others are alphanumeric (U.K. post codes). The advantage of this
system is that it is used by the postal department and hence continuously maintained and updated. In
the wester

A Geographic Coordinate System (GCS) defines locations on the Earth using a three dimensional
spherical surface. A GCS includes:
-An angular unit of measure
-A prime meridian and
-A datum (based on a spheroid)

The longitudes and latitudes encompass the globe forming a gridded network called a GRATICULE

The equator defines the line of ZERO latitude. The prime meridian defines the line of ZERO longitude.
The point where the zero latitude and zero longitude intersect defines the origin (0,0)
Circles with the same radius as the spherical Earth are called GREAT CIRCLES. ALL MERIDIANS
AND THE EQUATOR ARE GREAT CIRCLES.

Although the Earth is assumed to be roughly spherical for most practical considerations, with all its
irregularities due to the various natural landforms, it is now a well accepted fact that the shape of the
Earth is an OBLATE SPHEROID.

The Earth is sometimes assumed to be SPHERICAL to make mathematical calculations easier. For a
small scale map (1:5,000,000) the difference between a sphere and a spheroid is not detectable.
However, for large scale maps (1:1,000,000) a spheroid is necessary to accurately represent the of
shape of the Earth.

A spheroid is defined by:

-semi-major axis 'a' or
-semi-minor axis 'b' or
-flattening

flattening (f) = (a-b)/a flattening is a small value; hence 1/f is generally used.

Flattening ranges between 0 and 1. Flattening of the Earth is approximately 0.003353

Square of the eccentricity is similar to flattening and describes the shape of a spheroid

e2 = (a2-b2)/a2

Data types used in GIS

Data types: GIS data is of two types.
i) Attribute data and
ii)Spatial data
Attribute data refers to the properties of spatial entities. It is also called aspatial data or non-spatial data
or tabular data. Attribute data is defined as data that describe the characteristics of spatial features.
Spatial data refers to location and is an element of reality. Spatial data is defined as data that describe
the geometry of spatial features.

Data structure: The basic data structures for GIS are:

i) Vector
ii) Raster
iii) Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) and
iv) Tabular information (attribute table)

Vector data structure consists of points, lines and polygons.

Points are a pair of (x,y) coordinates to specify a single location
Lines are defined by a set of coordinate pairs.
Polygons are sets of coordinate pairs that define the boundary of an enclosed area.
In vector data layers, the feature layer is linked to an attribute table. An individual feature is linked to a
row (record) in the attribute table.

In a Raster data structure, the world is represented by an array of gridded cells. In this type of data
structure, a point is described by one cell, a line or a polygon by a zone of cells. A raster grid can store
values that represent categories. A grid attribute table has a value and a count field. The value field has
a number representing information regarding the grid cell. The count field shows how many grid cells
have the same value.
Grid cells can also store continuous values like elevation.
The main source of raster data is digital image photo or satellite imagery.
An example of raster analysis is neighbour cell analysis.

Comparison of Vector and Raster data structures

Vector data structures are used for:
i. Features with discrete shapes and boundaries
ii. Database management, Database query and reporting
iii. Network analysis and
iv. Generating high quality maps
Raster data structures are used for :
i. Continuous surfaces that change gradually over space (Eg: Soil, Land cover, Vegetation, Pollution)
ii. Spatial analysis and modeling (Eg: Agricultural suitability)

Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) It is a three dimensional data structure for representing surfaces.
Examples of vector elevation data are:
i. Contour lines and
ii. Spot height points
Vector elevation data is good for visualization but cannot be used for analysis unless it is converted into
a TIN.
TIN data structure is used for modeling small areas with high precision elevation data. It can use
multiple data inputs. A TIN data structure provides more efficient storage than DEM or contour lines. It
can be used to model:
i. Roads and road-cuts
ii. Dam construction and
iii. Urban flood modeling
A TIN is very effective in case of availability of high precision data.

Attribute Table is a flat file with columns and rows.

A row consists of ALL geographic features pertaining to a certain entity
A column consists of an item of information about a feature
The common attribute field types are:
i. Numeric (integers or decimals)
ii. Text (strings)
iii. Date and
iv. Binary Large OBject (BLOB)

Data formats in a GIS

The vector formats used in a GIS are listed below:

Postscript is a page definition language that is usually used to export or print a map. It supports
graphics in both vector and raster formats.
Digital Exchange Format (DXF) is an external format used for transferring files between computers
or between software packages. It is produced by AutoCAD. It does not have topology, but offers good
detail on drawings, line widths, styles, colour and text. DXF is typically constructed in 64 layers and
each layer consists of different features allowing the user to separate features. The main disadvantage
of this format is that it lacks topology and spatial analysis.
Digital Line Graph (DLG). These are distributed by the government and features are in separate files
that most GIS packages will import. Extra data manipulation is often necessary. DLGs consist of line
work with contour lines removed.
TIGER (Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing system) was designed for
use with the 1990 U.S. census. In this system, points, lines and areas can be explicitly addressed. It
does not rely on adjacency information or graph theory. Real-world features such as meandering
streams and irregular coastlines are given a graphic portrayal that is more representative of their true
geographic shape. TIGER files are useful in non-census related research.
Shapefile A shapefile is a vector data format for storing the location, shape and attributes of
geographic features. A shapefile is stored in a set of related files and contains one feature class.
Scalable Vector Graphics An SVG is an image that is an extension of the XML language. Any
program that recognizes XML can display the SVG image. The scalable part of the term emphasizes
that it is possible to zoom-in on an image without loss of resolution. SVG files have the added
advantages of being smaller and arriving faster than conventional image files such as pdf, gif and jpeg
Arc-info coverage This is a data model for storing geographic features using ArcInfo software. A
coverage stores a set of thematically associated data considered to be a unit. It usually represents a
single layer such as soils, streams, roads or land use. In a coverage, features are stored as both primary
features (points, arcs, polygons) and secondary features (tics, links, polygons). Feature attributes are
described and stored independently in Feature Attribute Tables.
ArcInfo Interchange file (e00) An ArcInfo interchange file is also known as export file. It is used to
enable a coverage, grid or TIN and an associated INFO table to be transferred between different
machines. ArcInfo Interchange files have a .e00 extension which increments to .e01, .e02 and so on if
the interchange file is composed of several separate files.
Geo-database A geo-database is an object oriented data model that represents geographic features
and attributes as objects and the relationship between objects is hosted inside a relational database
management system. A geo-database can store objects, such as feature classes, feature data sets, non-
spatial tables and relationship classes.

The raster formats used in a GIS are listed below:

Standard raster format: Many of the formats are based on photographic formats. The file structure
has a header with a fixed length and a keyword to identify the format. In the header, the length of one
record in bits and the number of rows and columns can be found. Frequently the header has a color
table that specifies the colours to be projected.
Tag Image File Format: This format is associated with scanners. It can use run length and other
image compression schemes. It is not limited to 256 colours like a GIF.
 GEO-TIFF: As a part of header in TIFF format it puts lat/long at the edges of the pixels.
Graphic Interchange Format (GIF): This format for image files is widely used on the internet. It is
well suited for images with sharp edges and relatively few gradations of colour.
Joint Photographers Experts Group JPEG is a common picture format. It uses a variable resolution
compression system offering both partial and full resolution recovery .
Digital Elevation Models: DEMs have two types of displays - a 30 meter elevation data from
1:24,000 seven-and-a-half minute quadrangle map and 1:250,000 3-arc-second digital terrain data.
DEMs are produced by the National Mapping Division of United States Geological Survey.
Band Interleaved by Pixel (BIP) and Band Interleaved by Line (BIL): BIP and BIL systems are
produced by remote sensing systems. The primary difference between them is the technique used to
store brightness values captured simultaneously in each of several colours or spectral bands.
RS Landsat: Landsat satellite imagery and BIL information are used in RS Landsat. In one format,
using BIL, pixel values from each band are pulled out and combined. Programs that use this kind of
information include IDRISI, GRASS and MapFactory. It is relatively easy to exchange information
from within these raster formats.

Data structure in a GIS

Data Structure
-Information organization is concerned with the internal organization of data.
-It represents the user's view of data (conceptualizing of the real world)
-It is the lowest level of data abstraction, which can be done with or without any intent for computer
implementation
-It is expressed in terms of data models as shown below:
-The vector and raster methods of representing the real world are "data models"
-The relational, network, hierarchical and object-oriented databases are "database models" --- they are
the software implementation of data models

-Data structure represents a higher level of data abstraction than information organization as it is
concerned with the design and implementation of information organization.
-It represents the human implementation-oriented view of data
-It is expressed in terms of database models
(Data structure is software dependent).
-Data structure forms the basis for the next level of data abstraction in information system: file
structure or file format
-File structure is the hardware implementation-oriented view of data
-It reflects the physical storage of the data on some specific computer media such as magnetic tapes or
hard disk
-Hence, file structure is hardware-dependent
Descriptive data structures

Descriptive data structures describe the design and implementation of the information organization of
non-spatial data.
-As most commercial implementations of information systems today are based on the relational and
object-oriented database models, the data structures of these models are explained below:
- Relational data structure: the relational data structure is the table which is formally called a relation
(shown below).
-a relation is a collection of tuples that correspond to the rows of the table
-the number of tuples in a relation is called the cardinality
-a tuple is made up of attributes that correspond to the columns of the table
-the number of attributes in a tuple is called the degree
-each relation has a unique identifier called the primary key
-the primary key is a column or combination of columns that at any given time has no identical values
in any two rows - this means that the values of each row of the primary key are always unique
-this allows the use of the primary keys to relate data in different tables in data processing (shown
below)
-the primary keys in those tables are called foreign keys
-in order to enforce database integrity, relations are always normalized
-normalization is built on the concept of normal form
-a relation is said to be in a certain normal form if it satisfies a prescribed set of conditions (Date, 1995)
-at minimum, a relation in the relational database has to satisfy the conditions of the first, second and
third normal forms
-First Normal Form (1NF) --- a relation is said to be in 1NF if and only if its tuples contain no
repeating attributes (i.e. there must not be multiple values for a single entity which might theoretically
result from multiple sampling at a particular location)
-Second Normal Form (2NF) --- a relation is said to be in 2NF if it satisfies the condition for 1NF and
if every non-key attribute is irreducibly dependent on the primary key
-Third Normal Form (3NF) --- a relation is said to be in 3NF if it satisfies the condition for 2NF and the
non-key attributes are mutually independent

-Object-oriented data structure

Unlike the relational data structure, there is not a formalized object-oriented data structure; meaning
that different object-orientation implementations have different data structures
However, object-oriented data structure can be explained in generic terms using the concepts of object
identify, object structure and type constructors
The concept of object identity
-Each object in an object-oriented database is provided a unique system-generated object identifier
(OID)
-The OID is for internal reference by the system and is therefore transparent to the user
-The OID is immutable, i.e. its value remains unchanged
-Even when a particular object is removed from the database, its OID will never be assigned to any
new object
The concept of object structure
-The concept of object structure allows complex objects to be constructed from simple objects
-Each object is viewed as a triple (i, c, v) where
i = the object's unique identifier (OID)
c = a constructor (which indicates how the object value is constructed)
v = object value
Different object-oriented systems use different constructors, including: atom, tuple, set, list and array
An object value 'v' is interpreted on the basis of the value of the constructor c in the triple (i, c, v) that
represents the object
-if c = atom, then v is an atomic value (i.e. it is an indivisible value)
-if c = tuple, then v is a tuple containing one or more attributes with their respective OIDs
-if c = set, then v is a set of object identifiers (OIDs) for a set of objects of the same type
-if c = list, then v is an ordered list of OIDs of the same type
-if c = array, then v is an array of OIDs of the same type
The concept of type constructors
A type constructor is used by an object-oriented definition language (OODDL) to define the data
structure for an object-oriented database schema as shown in the figure below.

Graphical data structures

Raster data structure

In the raster data structure space is subdivided into regular grids of square grid cells or other forms of
polygonal meshes known as picture elements as shown in the figure below.
 Data compression
Data compression:
Data compression in GIS refers to the compression of geospatial data so that the volume of data
transmitted across networks can be reduced. A properly choosen compression algorithm can reduce
data size upto 5 - 10% of the original image and 10 - 20% for vector and text data. Such compression
ratios could result in significant performance improvement.
Data compression algorithms can be classified into lossless and lossy . Lossless compression
algorithms are those where the bit streams can be recovered to original data. These algorithms should
be used if loss of even a single bit may cause serious and unpredictable consequences.
Lossy compression algorithms should be used where a certain level of distortion can be tolerated. They
are used to achieve a higher level of compression.
Examples of lossless compression algorithms are:
-Huffman coding
-Arithmetic coding
-Lempel-Ziw Coding (LZC) and
-Burrows-Wheeler Transform (BWT)

Examples of lossy compression algorithms are:

-Differential Pulse Coded Modulation (DPCM)
-Transform Coding
-Subband Coding and
-Vector Quantization

Data compression refers to the process of reducing the size of a file or database. Compression improves
data handling, storage, and database performance.
Examples of compression methods include quadtrees, run-length encoding, and wavelets.

Typically, a GIS software refers to data compression as a process that removes unreferenced rows from
geodatabase system tables and user delta tables. Compression helps maintain versioned geodatabase
performance.
Digital Elevation Data
Digital Elevation Data (DED) consists of an ordered array of ground elevations at regularly spaced
intervals. The digital data for DED is extracted from the hypsographic and hydrographic elements of
the various scaled positioned data acquired from the region in question.

Cartographic database
Cartographic database:
A database containing x-y coordinates defining a geographical area. When combined with other data
(such as any of a wide variety of variables, such as income distribution, age, etc.), a cartographic
database can be used to map the distribution of that variable within a geographical region.

Conversion of existing digital data

An important technique that is becoming increasingly popular for data input is the conversion of
existing digital data. A variety of spatial data, including digital maps, are openly available from a wide
range of government and private sources. The most common digital data to be used in a GIS is data
from CAD systems. A number of data conversion programs exist, mostly from GIS software vendors,
to transform data from CAD formats to a raster or topological GIS data format. Several adhoc
standards for data exchange have been established in the market place. These are supplemented by a
number of government distribution formats that have been developed. Due to the wide variety of data
formats, most GIS vendors have developed and provide data exchange/conversion software to go from
their format to those considered common in the market place.

Most GIS software vendors also provide an ASCII (American Standard Code for Information
Interchange) data exchange format specific to their product, and a programming subroutine library that
allows users to write their own data conversion routines to fulfil their own specific needs. As digital
data becomes more readily available this capability becomes a necessity for any GIS. Data conversion
from existing digital data is not a problem for most technical persons in the GIS field. However, for
smaller GIS installations who have limited access to a GIS analyst this can be a major problem in
getting a GIS operational. Government agencies are usually a good source for technical information on
data conversion requirements.

Some of the data formats common to the GIS marketplace are listed below.

IGDS - Interactive Graphics Design Software (Intergraph / Microstation)

This binary format is a standard in the turnkey CAD market and has become a de facto standard in the
mapping industry. It is a proprietary format, however most GIS software vendors provide DGN
translators.

DLG - Digital Line Graph (US Geological Survey)

This ASCII format is used by the USGS as a distribution standard and consequently is well utilized in
the United States. It is not extensively used even though most software vendors provide two way
conversion to DLG.
DXF - Drawing Exchange Format (Autocad)

This ASCII format is used primarily to convert to/from the Autocad drawing format and is a standard in
the engineering discipline. Most GIS software vendors provide a DXF translator.

GENERATE - ARC/INFO Graphic Exchange Format

A generic ASCII format for spatial data used by the ARC/INFO software to accommodate generic
spatial data.

EXPORT - ARC/INFO Export Format .

An exchange format that includes both graphic and attribute data. This format is intended for
transferring ARC/INFO data from one hardware platform, or site, to another. It is also often used for
archiving.

ARC/INFO data. This is not a published data format, however some GIS and desktop mapping vendors
provide translators. EXPORT format can come in either uncompressed, partially compressed, or fully
compressed format

A wide variety of other vendor specific data formats exist within the mapping and GIS industry. In
particular, most GIS software vendors have their own proprietary formats. However, almost all provide
data conversion to/from the above formats. As well, most GIS software vendors will develop data
conversion programs dependant on specific requests by customers. Potential purchasers of commercial
GIS packages should determine and clearly identify their data conversion needs, prior to purchase, to
the software vendor.

Remotely sensed data

GIS and remote sensing data are linked as remotely sensed data, mostly in the form of aerial or satellite
images of a specified piece of land are used as input into GIS for manipulation and analysis. This in
turn is presented to policy makers for the formulation of policies in the context of development or
conservation of resources.

For many applications, remote sensing can be used effectively and efficiently to update GIS data layers.
These updated layers in GIS can be used to improve the interpretability and information extraction
potential of remotely sensed data.

GIS users require timely input data to optimise their systems for analysis and decision making. Usually,
raster data is preferred. GIS users require multiple multiple images from different regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum and/or different dates at scales ranging from local to global. Moreover, the
data might have a variety of spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions.

Maps are compiled using photogrammetric techniques to process remotely-sensed data and these maps
form the base upon which GIS applications are achieved. Remotely sensed data are also used to
measure several environmental parameters like: surface and cloud top reflectances, albedo, soil and
snow water content, fraction of photosynthetically active radiation, areas and potential yield of crop
types, height and density of forest stands, etc. Such data mapped and/or monitored over time form the
basis for monitoring.

Environmental planners, resource managers and public-policy decision makers are employing
remotely-sensed data within the context of GIS to improve the management of resources.

Remote sensing data are acquired by aerial camera systems and a variety of active and passive remote
sensor systems operating at wavelengths throughout the electromagnetic spectrum. Data acquired by
aerial camera systems can be scanned, converted into digital format and input into GIS.

Most satellite scanners are typically electro-mechanical scanners, linear devices or imaging
spectrometers that operate in either a 'sweep' (LANDSAT) or 'pushbroom' (SPOT) mode. These are
passive systems that record solar radiation reflected from Earth's surface.

Data derived from multi-spectral scanners can provide information on, vegetation types, its distribution
and condition, geomorphology, soils, surface waters and river networks.

Short Wave Infra-Red (SWIR) sensors record emitted energy from surfaces and have been particularly
useful for monitoring fires and studying areas of geothermal and volcanic activity. Thermal or Long
Wave Infra Red (LWIR) sensors are used for mapping ocean temperatures and study of the dynamics of
ocean waters and currents. Thermal maps are used to monitor urban areas, industrial sites,
manufacturing centers and agricultural fields.

Active systems operating in the visible spectrum use laser technologies (Ex: LIght Detection And
Ranging Systems (LIDARS)) mainly for oceanographic and forestry applications. Regardless of the
wavelengths they use, active systems DO NOT depend on the sun for image capture.

The following is a list of satellite based sensors currently providing operational raster remotely sensed
data for GIS developers and users:

LANDSAT programme: -
It has provided coverage of Earth for almost 25 years
It is the result of NASA Earth Resources Survey Program and several other U.S. government
agencies
It was originally known as Earth Resources Technology Satellite in 1972.
Four additional satellites have been placed in orbit since 1972 for providing continuous data for
use in a wide range of environmental applications
The first three LANDSATs had a Multi Spectral Scanner (MSS) as the primary sensor while the
next two had a high resolution scanner called the Thematic Mapper (TM)
MSS had a spatial resolution of 80m and images in the visible and near-infra Red region while
the TM had a resolution of 30m and images in the visible and thermal infra-Red band.
The LANDSAT programme established the operational viability of space-based remotely
sensed data
Satellite Pour I'Observation de la Terre:-
 SPOT is an operational, commercial remote sensing programme that operates on an
international scale.
SPOT satellites are owned and operated by a french space agency, Centre National d'Etudes
Spatiales (CNES).
Three SPOT satellites have been placed into orbit since 1986.
The mission objectives for SPOT are:
providing remotely-sensed data suited for land cover, agriculture, forestry, geology, regional
planning and cartography applications.
Data from the High Resolution Visible sensor (HRV) provide both multispectral coverage with
20m spatial resolution and panchromatic imagery with 10m resolution. This data is particularly well
suited for urban and cartographic applications.
Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer:-
The AVHRR sensor is carried aboard the USNOAA's (United States National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration's) Polar Orbiting Environmental Satellites (POES)
This program was established to provide data for use in meteorological applications.
The daily coverage provided by AVHRR has resulted in the data being used for many
operational land mapping and monitoring programs
AVHRR data are multispectral and the data have a resolution of 1.1km at nadir and an orbital
swath of 2600 km.
Marine Observation Satellite
Japanese Earth Resources Satellite
India Remote Sensing Satellite
European Resource Satellite
RADARSAT
High Spatial Resolution Satellites

Object Structural Model in GIS

DBMS (Data Base Management System) play an important role in GIS by forming a link between
spatial and aspatial data. DBMS provide access to data to multiple users at the same time, prevent loss
of data and provide security access. Currently available DBMS are generally based on the hierarchical
model, network model, relational model or their derivatives. Columns of the table are called attributes
and all the values of an attribute describe the set of all possible values. Rows are also called records,
tuples or relation elements.
However, the data model on which most relational DBMS are based do not meet the requirements of
modern GIS. GIS integrate data from a variety of sources into a single homogeneous system and hence
need powerful and flexible data models to meet the requirements of multiple tasks. For example:

Sophisticated treatment of real world geometry

Representation of data at different conceptual levels of resolution and detail
management of history and versions of objects
Combinations of measurements of different resolutions and accuracy

Conflation in GIS
Conflation is the action of unifying two distinct datasets into a new dataset. This may be relatively easy
to extremely difficult depending upon the complexity of representation and the size and quality of
datasets involved.

Conflation terminology:

'Matching' is the activity of identifying features or data elements that represent the same real-world
entity.

'Alignment' describes the degree to which the two features or data elements have coincident geometry

'Adjustment' is the alteration of geometry or attributes of matched features to align them.

The 'reference dataset' is the one which is to be conflated to. It is of greater spatial accuracy than the
'subject dataset'

The 'subject dataset' is the dataset to be matched or adjusted.

Conflation problems can be classified into:

-Horizontal
-Vertical and
-Internal

Horizontal conflation is the process of eliminating discrepancies along the common boundary of
datasets that are adjacent to one another. These include datasets containing data from same feature
classes. For example, aligning boundaries of adjacent coverages or edge-matching neighbouring
networks.

Vertical conflation involves matching or eliminating discrepancies between datasets that occupy the
same area in space. For example, road network matching between two representations of roads in the
same region.
Two important types of vertical conflation are:
-Version matching and
-Feature Alignment

In version matching, the input datasets consist of different versions of the same features. The conflation
process helps identify matching features. Attributes are transferred between matched features and
unmatched features are transferred completely. For example, matching different versions of road
networks for the same geographical area.

In feature alignment, the input data consists of features from two or more different feature classes that
have some defined relationship to each other. The conflation process is aimed at removing
discrepancies between datasets that falsify this relationship. For example, geometric alignment. A
specific example in this context is that of aligning boundaries of different kinds of feature classes such
as municipal districts

Internal conflation involves resolving features or element within a single dataset. For example,
coverage cleaning may require removal of overlaps in polygons within a coverage.

CONFLATION WORKFLOW:
The process of conflation can be broken down into the following sub tasks:
i. Data pre-processing: This step normalizes the datasets and ensures that they are compatible. This may
involve format translation and other basic preparation of the datasets. An example of data pre-
processing is to ensure that the datasets must have the same coordinate system.
ii. Data quality assurance: In this step, the internal consistency of the datasets is verified and improved
if necessary. Sometimes, conflation tasks require that datasets have an internal level of consistency. For
example, coverage alignment algorithms require that the input datasets are a clean coverage.
iii. Dataset alignment: In case the datasets are mis-aligned, an initial alignment process is required to
carry-out precise conflation. This alignment is coarse-grained in nature and does not align individual
features.
iv. Feature matching: This step involves matching of common features between datasets. After this
phase is performed, the discrepancies between datasets would have been identified and can be
visualised. It is used to provide statistical summaries of data quality.
v. Geometry alignment removes discrepancies between geometries
vi. Information transfer involves updating one dataset with information from the other. This
information can be either attributes or geometry to be added to an existing feature or entire features to
be added to the dataset.
SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF CONFLATION WORKFLOW
Analysis functions in GIS
GIS ANALYSIS FUNCTIONS
GIS analysis functions fall into four categories:

Retrieval/Classification/Measurement functions
Overlay functions
Neighbourhood functions and
Connectivity functions

Retrieval functions basically involve a selective search

Classification/Reclassification functions involve two operations:

Identifying a set of features as belonging to a group and

Defining patterns

Measurement functions measure distances, lengths, perimeters and areas

A selective search is an example of a retrieval function. It involves selection of attributes based on

graphic selection tools used to select areas in the map displayed.

Overlay functions could be:

Arithmetic
Addition
Subtraction
Multiplication
Division
Logical
Used to find where specific conditions occur (and, or, >,< etc)

Vector methods are good for sparse data sets while raster methods are easier for grid calculations

Neighbourhood functions
The basic functions that fall under this domain are:

Average
Diversity
Minimum/Maximum and
Total
The parameters that need to be defined to operate these functions are:
Target locations
Specification of neighbourhood
Function to be performed on neighbourhood elements
Search operation is one of the most common neighbourhood function
Neighbourhood function on a vector model is a specialised search function while on a raster model,
polygons are on a separate layer and points and lines are on a separate layer.
Theissen polygon operation
Cartographic modeling by GIS analysis - procedure with an example
CARTOGRAPHIC MODELING
Cartographic modeling involves the use of basic GIS functions in a logical sequence to solve complex
spatial problems.

It was developed to model:

Statement of conditions or assumptions

Land-use planning alternatives and

Applications that require integrated analysis of multiple geographically distributed factors

The term was coined by Dana Tomlin in 1983.

Cartographic modeling lies completely under the raster domain.
The nature of analysis is purely additive or subtractive and this complements the values assigned to
the raster format of the data
The digitised data is layered and these layers are combined to construct constraint maps that can be
analysed with reference to any specific geographic problem to arrive at the best alternative.

A cartographic model has the ability to form a logical sequence. The process of cartographic modeling
is characterised by working backward to insure that all data that will be needed are identified. This
helps to avoid collecting data that will not be needed. The process insures that any judgements to be
made are explicitly identified. Hence, subjective judgements are an integral part of cartographic
modeling.

Cartographic modeling is a common way of expressing and organising the methods by which spatial
variables and spatial operations are selected and used to develop an analytical solution within a GIS.

Cartographic modeling is based on the concept of data layers, operations and procedures. Cartographic
modeling capabilities are found in most GIS software.

Modeling is a logical or mathematical formulation that attempts to simulate some aspect of the real
world.

The five steps involved in cartographic modeling are listed below and elaborated subsequently:

Statement of problem or objectives

 Statement of conditions or assumptions
Methodology
Implementation and
Evaluation

Statement of problem involves dividing the problem into sub-problems. The objective provides a
direction and a clear end to the activity. It helps by the possible routes to solving for the objectives

Statement of conditions or assumptions includes the conditions of the problem. For example: current
state, background or case history of the problem. Assumptions in the model define the limitations of the
analysis. An assumption of most models is that the processes of the past will continue in the future.

Methodology involves:

Assembly of sub-models into a model, which can be sub-divided into:

Identification of sub-problems (analogous to the concept of divide and conquer)
Development of sub-models that address the sub-problems
Development of a strategy for integrating the sub-models
Developing a flowchart that shows the parts in the context of the whole
Identification of:
Data sets needed
Spatial operations
Non-spatial operations and
Interaction of spatial and non-spatial data

Implementation involves:
Implementing the model using the analytic tools available in GIS. It also involves implementation of
techniques to circumvent the limitations of the GIS system.

Evaluation
This involves testing the effectiveness of the model. If the model does not conform to expectations, its
assumptions and components should be re-examined and adjusted where necessary. The above
procedures should be performed in an iterative fashion until the objectives are achieved.

EXAMPLE

Problem: The municipal corporation of a city would like to measure the environmental equity as
compared to the siting of waste transfer stations
Restating the problem: Is one particular income class bearing the burden of waste transfer stations ?

Conditions and assumptions:

Impact of waste transfer sites on surrounding communities is negligible beyond 500m

Within 500m the effect is uniform
Income classes are distributed evenly throughout a census tract
Methodology:

Data sets needed

income by census tract
location of waste transfer sites
Spatial operations
points in polygon
buffer
overlay
Operations on attributes
select
reclass
calculate area estimates and
generate statistics

Implementation:

Outline for flow of implementation

select only waste transfer sites in the city
generate a 500m buffer around these sites
select income data from census data and reclass into three income classes: low, medium and high
add a field to hold the original area of each census tract prior to polygon intersection
recalculate the income classes based on percentage of census tract left in the intersected polygons.
Use the original area field that was brought along in the intersection
calculate the totals for each of three generated income classes for the entire city
generate pie charts for the number in each income class for:
the entire city and
affected areas
create a map showing output

Evaluation

The results obtained should be evaluated against the methodology used to test the validity of the
model.
The model should accurately represent the process being modeled.
A statistical analyses that includes both qualitative and quantitative observations should be
performed.
Based on the above listed criteria, changes to improve the model should be documented and the
modeling should be repeated.

Raster data analysis

RASTER DATA ANALYSIS

 Raster data analysis is based on cells and rasters
Raster data analysis can be performed at the level of individual cells, or a group of cells, or cells
within an entire raster
The type of cell value is an important aspect of raster data analysis
Various types of data are stored in raster format
Raster data analysis is software specific-raster data. Hence in order to use Digital Elevation
Models(DEMs), Satellite images and other raster data in data analysis, they must first be processed and
imported to software-specific raster data
The core of raster data analysis comprises of local operations that are cell-by-cell operations.
A local operation can create new raster from a single input raster or multiple input raster.
Converting a floating point raster to an integer raster is a simple local operation
Converting a slope raster measured in percent to one measured in degrees is also a local operation
Reclassification is a local operation that creates a new raster by classification. Reclassification is also
called as recoding or transforming
Local operations with multiple rasters are also known as compositing, overlaying or superimposing
maps
Map algebra is defined as local operations with multiple input rasters.
Local operations compute an output raster dataset where the output value at each location is a
function of the value associated with that location on one or more raster datasets
Focal or Neighbourhood functions produce an output raster dataset in which output value at each
location is a function of the value at a location and the value of cells in a specified neighbourhood
around that location
Zonal functions compute an output raster dataset where the output value for each location depends
on the value of the cell at the location and the association that the location has within a cartographic
zone.
Global functions compute an output raster dataset in which the output value at each cell location is
potentially a function of all the cells in the input raster datasets.
The two types of global functions are:
Euclidian distance and
Weighted distance
The raster calculator provides powerful tools in algebra syntax to perform mathematical calculations
using operators and functions. It can also be used to set-up selection queries or type spatial analyst
function syntax. Inputs can be grid datasets or raster layers, shape files, coverages, tables, constants and
numbers.
The raster calculator provides four groups of mathematical functions: Logarithmic, Arithmetic,
Trigonometric and Exponential.
The raster calculator allows boolean, relational and arithmetic operators
Raster data analysis also involves:
Terrain analysis
Contour
Slope
Aspect
Hillshade
Viewshed
Cut/Fill
 Hydrologic analysis
Basin
Fill
Flow accumulation
Flow direction
Flow length
Sink
Snap pour point
Snap pour
Stream link
Stream order
Stream to feature
Stream shape
Watershed
Reclassification is replacing input cell values with new output cell values. The reasons to reclassify
data are listed below:
To replace values based on new information
To group certain values together
To reclassify values to a common scale
To set specific cells to "NoData" or set "NoData" cells to a value

GIS and Knowledge based systems

GIS - KNOWLEDGE BASED SYSTEMS
A knowledge based system is a computer program that reasons and uses a knowledge base to solve
complex problems. The common theme that unites all knowledge based systems is an attempt to
represent knowledge explicitly via tools and rules as opposed to the methodology commonly adopted
by conventional computer programs. A knowledge based system has two sub-systems:

A knowledge base and

An Inference engine

Knowledge Based Systems (KBS) were first developed by Artificial Intelligence (AI) researchers.
Expert systems or Knowledge Based Systems try to simulate the human decision making process
manipulating data and knowledge through programmed logic. KBS functions can be integrated within a
GIS based spatial decision support system as a knowledge and model base.

Coupling a KBS enables a GIS to be knowledgeable about its constraints and potential as well as
become aware of the data source, context and use. Treating all data structures as component of an
object provides a facility for flexible analysis of data by KBS and GIS.

The coupling takes the form of exchanging files between GIS and a model where input, display and
output stages are the only uses of the GIS capability. The knowledge and mapping techniques are
encoded in the schematic inquiry of the KBS to follow through the decision making process involved in
mapping and prediction.

The content and priorities of expert routines and their rules represent knowledge. Their procedures and
rules form the basis of their action to achieve the goal. The priorities represent when to initiate a goal
satisfying routine.

The effectiveness of communication to the user of GIS coupled with KBS for describing a resource
would be greatly enhanced by the use of multimedia facilities.

Finally, the representation of a specialized field of knowledge using Knowledge Based (KBS) approach
provides a means of building linkages between skills of the subject specialist, spatial analyst and the
needs of the user.

Thus, this linkage helps provide answers to questions not easily answered by one discipline on its own.

Classification of GIS models

CLASSIFICATION OF GIS MODELS

GIS models have been classified by purpose, methodology and logic although the boundary of their
classification criteria has not been clear.

A GIS model may be descriptive or prescriptive: A descriptive model describes existing conditions of
spatial data whereas a prescriptive models predicts what the conditions could be or should be. As an
example, a vegetation map represents a descriptive model as it shows existing vegetation, while a
potential natural vegetation map represents a prescriptive model as it predicts the site that could be used
for vegetation without disturbance.
A GIS model may be deterministic or stochastic: Both deterministic and stochastic models are
mathematical equations represented with parameters and variables. While a stochastic model considers
presence of some randomness in one or more of its parameters, a deterministic model does not. Hence
the predictions of a stochastic model can have a certain amount of error.
A GIS model can be static or dynamic: A dynamic model emphasizes the changes of spatial data and
interaction between variables whereas a static model deals with the state of spatial data at a given time.
Time is important to show the process of changes in a dynamic model. Simulation is a technique that
can generate different states of spatial data over time. Many environmental models such as water
distribution have been effectively understood using dynamic models
A GIS model may be deductive or inductive: A deductive model represents the conclusion derived
from a set of premises. These premises are often based on scientific theories or physical laws. An
inductive model represents the conclusion derived from empirical data or observations. For example, to
assess the damage potential of a flood, a deductive model based on the laws of hydrology, geology, etc
may be used or an inductive model based on recorded data from past floods can relied upon.
A Binary Model is a GIS model that uses logical expressions to select features from a composite
feature layer or multiple rasters
Index model is a GIS model that uses the index value calculated from a composite feature layer or
multiple rasters to produce a layer with ranked data
 A process model is a GIS model that integrates existing knowledge into a set of relationships and
equations for quantifying the physical processes
A Regression model is a GIS model that uses a dependent variable and a number of independent
variables in a regression equation for prediction or estimation

Digital Elevation Data

Digital Elevation Data may refer to a digital elevation surface or elevation type as discussed below:

Digital elevation surface is one among the following five types:

Digital Surface Model (DSM) is the highest reflective surface of ground features captured by the
sensor. It includes, tree tops, roof tops, tops of towers, telephone poles and other natural or man-made
features. Photogrammetry, IFSAR, LIDAR and sonar can provide this type of surface however,
accuracy and resolution my vary with technology.
With sonar, DSM may include sunken vessels and other artifacts whereas the bathymetric surface
reflects the underwater terrain
With photogrammetry, LIDAR and IFSAR reflective surface includes passing cars and trucks not
normally considered a part of digital terrain model.
Digital Terrain Model (DTM) or Bare Earth Surface represents the surface of "bare-earth" after
removal of ALL vegetation and man-made features. Such surfaces are generally called Digital Terrain
Models (DTMs). Photogrammetry has traditionally generated DTMs when elevations are generated by
manual compilation techniques. Unless specified, bare-earth surface includes top surface of water
bodies.
Bathymetric surface represents the submerged surface of underwater terrain
Mixed surface is a hybrid of the above surface types. For example, coastal studies may require a
DTM of the bare-earth surface merged with the bathymetric surface. Multiple surface representations
are useful for a number of applications like, forest inventory studies that require a vegetation surface
and a bare-earth surface for the same site.
Point cloud elevation file is a raw data file containing single points with multiple elevations (Three
dimensional point samples). An example of a point cloud file is a LIDAR multi-return dataset where
there may be multiple z-values for each 'x' or 'y' coordinate.

Elevation types are discussed below:

Orthometric height is the height above the geoid as measured along the plumbline between the geoid
and a point on the Earth's surface, taken positive upward from the geoid. It is obtained from
conventional differential levelling where the survey instruments are leveled to the local direction of
gravity.
Ellipsoid height is the height obtained from GPS surveys, prior to corrections for the undulation of
the geoid. Ellipsoid heights are independent of the local direction of gravity.
Other types of elevation
Bathymetric depth is measured in terms of water depths expressed as positive numbers downward,
below the tidal datum.
Geoid height is the difference between the ellipsoid height and the orthometric height at a
specified location. It equals the undulation of the geoid.
 Errors in GIS
Editing is an important operation during the process of database creation. GIS provides tools for
examining coverages for mistakes. Errors may be introduced either from the original data source or
during encoding. The process of detecting and removing errors by editing is called cleaning. Errors
may be classified into:

Entity errors
Attribute errors and
Entity-Attribute agreement error

Entity error may be of the following three types:

Missing entities
Incorrectly placed entities and
Disordered entities

GIS systems should perform an operation to build topology after digitization process. Topology
provides explicit information about relationships between entities in the database. This allows
identification of types of errors in digital maps. Some of these errors are indicated by 'text-based error
flags' while others might have to be interpreted by visually inspecting the database statistics. Six
common types of errors are listed below:

Not all entities that should be present are entered

Extra entities have been digitised
Not all entities are in the right place or are of the correct shape or size
Some entities that are not supposed to be connected to each other are connected
Not all polygons should have a single label point to identify them
No entities should be outside the boundary identified by registration marks

A procedure for comparing the digitized entities and original map document is to produce a monitor
display or a hard-copy plot of the pre-edited database . GIS sometimes provide several symbols that
indicate errors.

Below is a detailed description of specific types of errors that are related to the six general types.

Nodes are often described as 'to nodes' and 'from nodes' and indicate overall extent of a line feature.
Nodes should not occur at every line segment along a line or a polygon. Nodes should not be used to
indicate points between line segments to indicate directional changes in line. Thus, false nodes or
pseudo nodes is the first form of error that occurs when a line connects with itself (island pseudo node).
Nodes are used to identify the existence of an intersection between two streets or a connection between
two features (Eg: Stream and a Lake). GIS should flag existence of pseudo nodes using a graphic
symbol. Pseudo nodes are NOT errors but only flags indicating the presence of potential problems.
Pseudo nodes occur often due to pushing the wrong button on the digitizing puck. Incorrect nodes can
be corrected by either selecting individually and deleting or by adding nodes where needed to convert
an island to a polygon that is attached to other polygons.
A dangling node is a single node that is connected to a single entity. Dangle nodes can result from:
failure to close a polygon
failure to connect the node to the object (undershoot) or
going beyond the entity (overshoot)
sometimes, the problem is due to incorrect placement of digitizing puck or small setting the fuzzy
tolerance distance.
In case of dangling nodes, a good practice is to overshoot than to undershoot as it is easier to find
overshoots than undershoots.
The two types of errors that can occur in case of label points in polygons are:
Missing labels and
Too many labels
Both the above errors are caused due to failure to keep track of the digitizing process. In most
cases, the error is caused due to:
Confusion
Disruption in digitizing process or
Fatigue
Such errors are easy to find and are indicated by a graphic device distinguishing them from other
error types.
Editing is simply adding label points where necessary and deleting label points wherever they are
not required.
Another common form of digitising error while using vector data model is treating each polygon as a
separate entity resulting in digitising adjacent lines between polygon more than once. Failure to place
the digitizing puck exactly at the correct location for each point along the line results in a series of tiny
graphic polygons called SLIVER POLYGONS. Sliver polygons can also occur due to overlay
operations.
The easy way to avoid sliver polygons during input is to use a GIS that does not require digitising
the same line twice. If a line is digitized twice, the presence of a dangling node confirms this and the
redundant line can be removed eliminating the problem.
Finding slivers in the absence of dangling nodes is very difficult. One way is to compare the
number of polygons in the digital coverage with that of the original input map.
Another problem related to polygons is the production of weird polygons.Weird polygons are
polygons with missing nodes. Frequently, this error is caused due to digitizing a point in the wrong
place or in the wrong order.
A simple way to avoid this problem is to number the input points or by establishing a set pattern
for the digitising polygons.

After editing the coverage to correct the errors the GIS software will have to rebuild the topological
structure on the basis of new entities. Finally, the new coverage must be saved.

Diagram of a Networked Database Structure

A Network Database Structure based on a Simple Map (Bernhardsen, 1992)
Diagram showing vector topology
Diagram depicting vector and raster representations of map features and their linkage to the attribute
database
Diagram depicting linkage between Spatial data and Attribute data in a coverage
Diagram showing the conceptual data model

Map annotations
MAP ANNOTATION

Annotation is a note added to comment or explain. In case of maps, it would be hard to understand the
information conveyed by them without proper annotations.
Annotation stored in the map document is referred to as map document annotation or graphic
annotation or map annotation.
There are two types of map document annotation.
-Data frame annotation and
-Page text or graphic text

Data frame annotation is stored in annotation groups

Text is stored in annotation groups which is a part of data frame

Each piece of text stores its own symbol. If there are too many pieces of text in the map, the files
become very large and give poor performance. In this case, geodatabase is a good alternative.
Each annotation group has its own reference scale which together with its symbol size determines
the size of text. The annotation group reference scales are editable
Data frame annotation is never feature-linked. Only geo-database annotation can be feature-linked

Page annotation
Page annotation is the same as data frame annotation except for the following points:

Text is stored in page space instead of geographic space (page coordinates are used instead of
geographic coordinates).
Page annotation is visible only in the 'layout' view
Newly placed text is placed on the page when in 'layout' view and no data frame has focus.

Transformation in GIS
A geographical transformation is a mathematical operation that converts the coordinates of a point in
one geographic coordinate system to the coordinates of the same point in another geographic
coordinate system.
Since geographic coordinate systems contain datums that are based on spheroids, a geographic
transformation also changes the underlying spheroid. There are several methods, which have different
levels of accuracy and ranges, for transforming between datums.
A geographic transformation always converts geographic (latitude–longitude) coordinates. Some
methods convert the geographic coordinates to geocentric (X,Y,Z) coordinates, transform the X,Y,Z
coordinates, and convert the new values back to geographic coordinates

Affine transformation is a geographic transformation that scales, rotates, skews, and/or translates
images or coordinates between any two Euclidean spaces. It is commonly used in GIS to transform
maps between coordinate systems.

In an affine transformation, parallel lines remain parallel, the mid-point of a line segment remains a
mid-point and all points on a straight line remain on a straight line.

Geometric transformation is the process of using a set of control points and transformation equations to
register a digitised map, satellite image, or an air photo to a projected coordination system.

Geometric transformation converts a newly digitised map into projected coordinates by a process called
map-to-map transformation. A remotely sensed image is converted to projected coordinates using
image-to-map transformation. This is also called georeferencing.
Different methods have been proposed for transformation from one coordinate system to another. Each
method is differentiated based on the geometric property it preserves and the changes it allows.
Transformation results in either:

Changes in position and direction

Uniform change of scale or
Changes in size and shape

Below are listed the various transformations and their effect on a rectangular object:

Equiarea transformation permits rotation of rectangle and preserves its shape and size.
Similarity transformation permits rotation of rectangle and preserves its shape but not the size.
Affine transformation allows angular distortion but preserves parallelism of lines
Projective transformation allows both angular and length distortions and thus allows the rectangle to
be transformed into an irregular quadrilateral.

Generally, Affine transformations are used for map-to-map or image-to-map transformations and
projective transformation is used for aerial photographs with relief displacement.

Spatial Analysis in GIS

SPATIAL ANALYSIS IN GIS

GIS is differentiated from other information systems due to its spatial analysis functions.
Spatial analysis functions are used to answer questions about the real world using GIS databases as a
model of the real world.
Spatial analysis techniques are used to create an image of reality that can be easily understood.
Basic spatial analysis can be performed at various levels:

Sorting data in attribute tables for presentation

Performing arithmetic, boolean and statistical operation on attribute tables
Compiling new data based on original and derived attributes or based on geographic relationships.
Within each level operations may be logical, arithmetic, geometric, statistical or a combination of
any of these four types.

The two fundamental functions of GIS are:

Generation of maps and

Generation of tabular reports

Spatial analysis requires logical connections between attribute data and map features. Spatial analysis
builds operational procedures on spatial relationship between map features.

Attribute query involves selecting information by the use of logical questions. When no spatial
information is required to ask a question, the query is considered an attribute query.

A spatial query involves selecting features based on spatial relationships. The answer to such queries
can be obtained by a hard-copy map or by using a GIS.

Basic GIS analysis involves attribute queries and spatial queries. Complicated analysis require a series
of GIS operations involving multiple attribute and spatial queries, alteration of original data and
generation of new data sets.

An effective spatial analysis uses the best available methods appropriately for different types of
attribute queries, spatial queries and data alteration.

The design of the analysis depends on the purpose of the study.

The use of GIS to inquire geographic features and retrieve associated attribute information is called
identification. This process generates new set of maps by query and analysis. Spatial analysis helps
make the new information clearer. GIS operational procedure and analytical tasks that are suited for
spatial analysis are discussed below:

Single layer operations are procedures that correspond to queries and alterations of data that operate
on a single data layer. For example, creating a buffer zone (silence zone) around all schools in a city is
a single layer operation
Multi layer operations are used for manipulation of spatial data on multiple data layers. For example,
the overlay of two input data layers produces a map of combined polygons.
Topological overlays: These are multi layer operations that allow combining features from different
layers to form a new map and give new information and features that were not present in the individual
maps.
Point pattern analysis deals with examination and evaluation of spatial patterns and processes of
point features.
Network analysis: It is designed specifically for line features organized in connected features and
typically applies to transportation problems and network analysis. For example: school bus routing,
walking distance, bus stop optimization, etc
Surface analysis deals with the spatial distribution of surface information in a three dimensional
structure.
Grid analysis involves processing of spatial data in a regularly spaced form.
Fuzzy spatial analysis is based on fuzzy set theory. Fuzzy set theory is a generalization of boolean
algebra where zones of gradual transition are used to divide classes instead of crisp boundaries. Fuzzy
algebra offers various other methods to combine different sets of data for landslide zonation map
preparation. Fuzzy logic can also be used to handle mapping errors or uncertainty.

Geostatistical tools for spatial analysis

Geostatistics studies the spatial variability of regionalized values. Tools to characterise spatial
variability are:

Spatial auto-correlation function and

 Variogram

Spatial auto-correlation examines the correlation of a random process with itself in space. Examples of
such phenomena are:
-Total amount of rainfall
-Toxic element concentration
-Elevation at triangulated points, etc
The spatial auto-correlation function depicted as a graph is called a spatial auto-correlogram and this
gives an insight into the spatial behaviour of the phenomena under study.

A variogram is calculated from the variance of pairs or points at different separation.

Spatial analysis is a vital part of GIS and can be used for many applications like:

Site suitability
Natural resource management
Environmental Disaster Management

Spatial Analysis is the heart or core of GIS because it includes transformations, manipulations and
methods that can be applied to geographic data to support decisions, reveal patterns and anomalies not
immediately obvious and add value.

Spatial analysis is a set of methods whose results change when locations of the objects being analysed
or the frame used to analyse them changes.

Spatial analysis can be:

Inductive: Examining empirical evidence and searching for patterns that might support new theories
or general principles
Deductive: Focussing on testing of known theories against data
Normative: Using spatial analysis to develop new or better designs

Analysis can also be carried out on attribute tables of a GIS by plotting one variable against the other as
a scatterplot and examining the dependence of one variable on one or more independent variables

Regression analysis can be used to find the simplest relationship and multiple regression can be used to
understand the effects of multiple independent variables.

Changing relationship between variables with space is called spatial heterogeneity.

One of the most powerful features of a GIS is the ability to join tables based on common geographic
location.

The point-in-polygon operation is used to determine if a point lies inside or outside a polygon.
The polygon overlay is similar to the point-in-polygon operation.

Overlay in raster is very simple. The attributes of each cell are combined according to a set of rules.

The ability to calculate and manipulate distances forms the basis of spatial analysis.

Distance along a route (represented by a poly-line) is calculated by adding the lengths of each segment
of the poly-line.

Since poly-lines short-cut corners, the length of a poly-line is shorter than the length of the object it
represents leading to slight discrepancy.

Buffering builds new objects by identifying all areas that are within certain specified distance of the
original object.

Point patterns can be identified as clustered, dispersed or random.

There are SIX CATEGORIES of spatial analysis:

Queries and reasoning

Measurements
Transformations
Descriptive summaries
Optimization and
Hypothesis testing

Queries and reasoning are the most basic analysis operations where GIS is used to answer simple
questions. No changes occur in the database and no new data are produced.

Measurements involve measurement of simple properties of objects such as length, area or shape and
relationship between pair of objects such as distance or direction.

Transformations are simple methods of spatial analysis that change data-sets by combining them or
comparing them to obtain new data-sets and finally new ideas. Transformations use simple arithmetic,
geometric or logical rules. They include operations that convert raster data to vector data and vice
versa. They may create fields from collections of objects or detect collection of objects in fields.

Descriptive summaries attempt to capture the essence of a data-set in one or two numbers.

Optimization techniques are normative in nature and are designed to select ideal locations for objects
given specific constraints. They are widely used in market research, package delivery industry, etc.

Hypothesis testing focusses on reasoning from the results of a limited sample to make genaralizations
about an entire population. Hypothesis testing is the basis for inferential statistics and forms the core of
statistical analysis.
Spatial analysis can be done by overlay analysis by overlaying land use and flood zone to determine the
residential parcels inside a flood zone area. This data can be used by insurance companies to target
their insurance sales.

Farmers can use interpolation to examine soil samples from a farm area.

Shop owners can establish their stores based on location (distance and density) analysis

Data types in spatial analysis

The three types of data used to characterize problems of spatial analysis are:

Events or point patterns: Examples of this type are: crime spots, disease occurrences, localization of
vegetal species, etc.
Continuous surfaces: Examples of this type are: geological maps, topographical maps, ecological
maps, etc.
Areas with counts: Examples of this type are: population surveys, health statistics, etc that are
demarcated by closed polygons (postal zones, municipalities, etc)

Problems of spatial analysis deal with environmental and socioeconomic data.

Basic concepts of spatial analysis

Spatial dependency is an important concept to understand and analyse a spatial phenomena.

"Everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things" -Waldo
Tobler (First law of Geography)
The computational expression of the concept of spatial dependence is spatial autocorrelation.
Statistical inference for spatial data: An important consequence of spatial dependence is that
statistical inferences on this type of data will not be as efficient as in the case of independent samples of
the same size.

Spatial interpolation is the process of manipulating spatial information to extract new information and
meaning from original data. GIS provides spatial analysis tools for calculating feature statistics and
carrying out geoprocessing activities as data interpolation.

The two widely used interpolation methods are:

Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) and

Triangular Irregular Networks (TIN)

Other interpolation methods are:

Regularized Splines with Tension (RST)

Kriging or Trend Surface Interpolation
 Connectivity functions
CONNECTIVITY FUNCTIONS
Connectivity functions examine relationships between objects in terms of adjacency and relative-
effective-distance. Operators associated with connectivity include:
-Network analysis
-Diffusion models
-Cellular automata and
-Agent based models

The two connectivity functions widely used in GIS are:

-Contiguity and
-Spreading

Contiguity analysis exploits the topological relationships between objects. It helps determine if two
objects are adjacent or if they share a node. Contiguity analysis also helps determine a pattern of
spread.
Grouping vector data is used to reclassify a map and dissolve polygon boundaries. Grouping is also
done on raster data but is less elegant than grouping operation on vector data.

Contiguity is used to measure shortest and longest straight line distances across and area and to identify
areas of terrain with specified size and shape characteristics.

Proximity Functions. The simple distance between features. Four parameters are used to measure
proximity are listed below
1. target locations.
2. unit of measurement.
3. a function to calculate proximity and
4. the area to be analyzed.

A common type of proximity analysis is the buffer zone.

Network Functions
A network is a set of interconnected linear features that form a pattern or framework. City Streets,
Power Transmission Lines, and Airline Service Routes are examples.
There are three principal types of GIS Analysis performed by Networking.
1. Prediction of loading on the network itself (prediction of flood crests),
2. Rate optimentation (emergency routing of ambulances), and
3. Resource allocation (zones for servicing rescue areas)

Networks analysis entails four components.

1. set of resources (goods to be delivered)
2. one or more locations where the resources are located (several warehouses where the goods are
located)
3. an objective to deliver the resources to a set of destinations (customer locational data base) and
4. Set of constraints that places limits on how the objective can be met (is it economically feasible to
deliver goods from one point to another)

Spread Functions
Spread functions help determine the "BEST" way to go from point A to point B

Seek or Stream Functions

Seek or Stream Functions refer to a function that is directed outward in a step-by-step manner using a
specified decision rule. This function can be used to evaluate erosion potential.

Intervisibility functions
This function is a graphic depiction of the area that can be seen from the specified target areas.
Intervisibility functions rely on digital elevation data to define the surrounding topography.

Analysis of non spatial attribute data

Non-spatial data or attribute data is that data that is independent of all location considerations.

The analysis module usually contain four important functions:

1. Selection is a simple operation, but it is important because all subsequent work is based on the
results of the selection process.
2. Manipulation has to do with aggregation, buffering, overlaying and interpolation.
3. Exploration is the first step in discovering any kind of pattern or cluster in a data set. Explorative
spatial data analysis (ESDA) uses the data in an inductive way to get new insight about spatial patterns
and relations - Spatial statistics such as Moran's I and the G statistics are important tools in explorative
spatial data analysis.
4. Confirmation is a set of tools for estimation of process models, simulation and forecasting.

Analysis in GIS is different from other statistical analysis since the attribute data establishes links to
maps for visual analysis. Before starting any analysis, the problem should be assessed and an an
objective should be established The following steps outline the basic procedure for geographical
analysis:

Establish the objectives and criteria for the analysis. Define the problem and then identify a sequence
of operations to produce meaningful results.
Prepare the data for spatial operations. Prepare all map coverages for the proposed data analysis. Add
one or more attributes to coverages in the database if necessary.
Perform the spatial operations and combine the coverages, e.g. creating buffering zones around
features, manipulating spatial features and performing polygon overlay.
Prepare the derived data for tabular analysis and ensure the feature attribute table contains all the
items needed to hold the new values to be created.
Perform the tabular analysis. Calculate and query the relational database using the model defined in
the first step.
Evaluate and interpret the results. Examine the results and determine whether the answers are valid.
Simple map displays and reports can help in this evaluation.
Refine the analysis if needed and repeat the analysis.
 IMPORTANT OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
Geographic coordinate systems contain DATUMS that are based on SPHEROIDS
An AFFINE transformation is commonly used in GIS to transform maps between coordinate systems
The process of converting a newly digitised map into projected coordinates is called MAP TO MAP
TRANSFORMATION
Image to map transformation is also called GEOREFERENCING
GIS is differentiated from other information systems due to its SPATIAL ANALYSIS FUNCTIONS
The two fundamental functions of a GIS are: (i) GENERATION OF MAPS and (ii) GENERATION OF
TABULAR REPORTS
Spatial analysis builds operational procedures on SPATIAL RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN MAP
FEATURES
If no spatial information is required to ask a question, the query is called an ATTRIBUTE QUERY
The design of analysis depends upon the PURPOSE OF STUDY
The use of GIS to inquire geographic features and retrieve associated attribute information is called
IDENTIFICATION
The tools that characterise spatial variability are: SPATIAL AUTOCORRELATION FUNCTION &
VARIOGRAM
Spatial analysis can be INDUCTIVE, DEDUCTIVE or NORMATIVE
The ability to CALCULATE & MANIPULATE DISTANCES forms the basis of spatial analysis
Point patterns can be identified as CLUSTERED, DISPERSED or RANDOM
The six categories of spatial analysis are: QUERIES & REASONING, MEASUREMENTS,
TRANSFORMATIONS, DESCRIPTIVE SUMMARIES, OPTIMIZATION and HYPOTHESIS
TESTING
The four interpolation methods are: INVERSE DISTANCE WEIGHTING (IDW), TRIANGULAR
IRREGULAR NETWORKS (TIN), REGULARISED SPLINES WITH TENSION (RST) and
KRIGING
Operators associated with connectivity are: NETWORK ANALYSIS, DIFFUSION MODELS,
CELLULAR AUTOMATA and AGENT BASED MODELS
The two connectivity functions widely used in GIS are: (i) CONTIGUITY and (ii) SPREADING
The four parameters used to measure proximity are: (i) TARGET LOCATIONS, (ii) UNIT OF
MEASUREMENT, (iii) FUNCTION TO CALCULATE PROXIMITY & (iv) AREA TO BE
ANALYSED
A common type of proximity analysis is ESTABLISHMENT OF A BUFFER ZONE
The three principal types of GIS analysis performed by networking are: (i) PREDICTION OF
LOADING, (ii) RATE OPTIMENTATION & (iii) RESOURCE ALLOCATION
INTERVISIBILITY FUNCTIONS rely on digital elevation data to define surrounding topography
A GIS application can be classified into: (i) FOUR DIMENSIONAL GIS, (ii) MULTIMEDIA GIS, (iii)
WEB GIS & (iv) VIRTUAL REALITY GIS
The four categories under which GIS functions fall are: (i)
RETRIEVAL/CLASSIFICATION/MEASUREMENT FUNCTIONS, (ii) OVERLAY FUNCTIONS,
(iii) NEIGHBOURHOOD FUNCTIONS & CONNECTIVITY FUNCTIONS
Vector methods of spatial analysis are good for SPARSE DATA SETS
Raster methods of spatial analysis are good for GRID CALCULATIONS
Examples of neighbourhood functions are: AVERAGE, DIVERSITY, MINIMUM/MAXIMUM &
TOTAL
Five steps involved in cartographic modeling are: (i) STATEMENT OF PROBLEM OR OBJECTIVES,
(ii) STATEMENT OF CONDITIONS OR ASSUMPTIONS (iii) METHODOLOGY (iv)
IMPLEMENTATION & (v) EVALUATION
Raster data analysis is based on CELLS & RASTERS
Reclassification is also called RECODING or TRANSFORMING
The two types of global functions are: (i) EUCLIDEAN DISTANCE & (ii) WEIGHTED DISTANCE
The four groups of mathematical functions provided by raster calculator are: (i) LOGARITHMIC, (ii)
ARITHMETIC, (iii) TRIGONOMETRIC and (iv) EXPONENTIAL
The four major reasons requiring reclassification are: (i) TO REPLACE VALUES, (ii) TO GROUP
VALUES, (iii) TO RECLASSIFY VALUES & (iv) TO SET SPECIFIC CELLS TO A VALUE
The two sub-systems in a knowledge based system are: (i) KNOWLEDGE BASE & (ii) AN
INFERENCE ENGINE
Knowledge based systems were first developed by ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE RESEARCHERS
A GIS model may be descriptive or PRESCRIPTIVE; DETERMINISTIC or stochastic; STATIC or
dynamic; deductive or INDUCTIVE
The five types of digital elevation data are: (i) DIGITAL SURFACE MODEL (DSM), (ii) DIGITAL
TERRAIN MODEL (DTM), (iii) BATHYMETRIC SURFACE, (iv) MIXED SURFACE and (v)
POINT CLOUD ELEVATION FILE
The process of detecting and removing errors by editing is called CLEANING
Errors are classified into (i) ENTITY ERRORS, (ii) ATTRIBUTE ERRORS & (iii) ENTITY-
ATTRIBUTE AGREEMENT ERRORS
Undershoots and overshoots are types of DANGLING NODES
Remotely sensed data are used to measure several environmental parameters like: (i) SURFACE &
CLOUD TOP REFLECTANCES,(ii) ALBEDO,(iii) AREA AND POTENTIAL YIELD OF CROP
TYPES & (iv) HEIGHT AND DENSITY OF FOREST STANDS
Satellite scanners operate in either a SWEEP mode or a PUSHBROOM mode
An overlay operation can be classified as (i) POINT-IN-POLYGON, (ii) LINE-IN-POLYGON, or (iii)
POLYGON-IN-POLYGON
An overlay operation is called INTERSECT if it uses the and connector
An overlay operation is called UNION if it uses the or connector
An overlay operation is called IDENTITY if it uses a combination of the and and or connectors
An overlay operation is called DIFFERENCE or symmetrical difference if it uses the XOR connector
The most common type of output of a GIS is a MAP
The five types of vector data analysis are: (i) BUFFERING, (ii) OVERLAY, (iii) MEASURING
DISTANCES, (iv) SPATIAL STATISTICS FOR PATTERN ANALYSIS & (v) TOOLS FOR MAP
MANIPULATION

COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS OF AN INVESTMENT IN GIS

COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS OF AN INVESTMENT IN GIS

GIS is sometimes criticised as an expensive solution to a simple problem. This is true when using high-
end GIS to solve problems that can be tackled by simple inexpensive desktop mapping packages.
Hence it is difficult to quantify the benefits of using GIS. The organisation paying for the software may
find it difficult to realise the financial benefits immediately whereas outsiders gaining access to the
products will be pleased with the higher accuracy. However, the digital output products will have ling-
term benefits.

Major costs are incurred in the early stages of a project in GIS and the benefits may materialise later
into the project cycle. This is due to the fact that an initially large investment results in lower
maintenance and updating costs resulting in sustainable benefits in the long run. The long term benefits
are significantly higher as the process results in a multi-purpose digital database.

The introduction of GIS and requires a change of routine and expense not only for software and
hardware but also for data purchase, training, planning and organizational restructuring.

Some of the costs not directly related to GIS but required for data input into GIS are:
-costs involved for data collection
-costs involved in data conversion

The various cost components required for implementation of a project in GIS are listed below:
-Evaluation of available data and development of a data conversion strategy
-Requirement of computers with fast processors, plenty of storage space, other peripherals
required by GIS such as digitizers, large-format colour printers, etc.
-Evaluation and selection of GIS mapping software
-Prototype development
-Hardware/Software system configuration/customisation
-Establishing human resource planning to ensure a smooth transition to the new system
-Training is the fourth most expense of any GIS activity. It amounts to almost 5 to 10% of the
total project cost.
-Costs involved in database design, data modeling and procedural manual development
-Additional costs are incurred if the old and new systems have to be operated in parallel during the
transition period.
-Costs are incurred for data acquisition and data purchase or data capture and data conversion
-Since data conversion is labour intensive and error prone, a rigorous procedure for checking the
resulting data for positional accuracy and logical consistency should be part of the process
-System maintenance involving software and hardware upgrades along with training due to such
upgrades is to the tune of 10% of initial investment per year
-A periodic review of the GIS group’s work should be part of the regular activities
-Development of data distribution strategies

The various benefits of GIS are listed below:

Benefits are of two types:-
Efficiency benefits and
Effectiveness benefits

Efficiency benefits include:

-Cost savings
-Productivity gains

These benefits may be:

-measurable benefits
-indirect effects

Another benefit of GIS is the greater credibility and authority of map products.
Digital techniques help produce maps requested by customers quickly and cheaply.
Digital approach helps produce maps with higher accuracy.
A digital database ensures a high degree of consistency
GIS supports a thriving secondary market in associated mapping services.

Effectiveness benefits include:

-Improved analysis
-Improved policy making
-Improved data sharing and
-Improved outreach

Text patterns and line styles

Text Patterns

Line styles
Line Styles define how line features are rendered on a map. Line styles offer numerous controls for
color, gradient or pattern fills, dash patterns and many other properties.

Line styles have the following properties listed below:

Name - Each line style is given a name for easy identification and use when creating a map
Colour - This property controls the colour and appearance of the line feature. The line can be filled
with a colour, gradient, hatch pattern or bit mapped texture.
Thickness - This property sets the thickness of the line (in pixels).

Pattern Type - Selects whether to use a basic (predefined) dash pattern or create a custom pattern.
Dash Style - Allows a choice of dash style to be used. The following styles are generally used:

Solid: This pattern draws a solid outline without dashing and this is the default setting
DashDot: This pattern draws a dashed outline with a “dash-dot” pattern.
DashDotDot: This pattern draws a dashed outline with a “dash-dot-dot” pattern
Dot: This pattern draws a finely dotted outline
Dash: This pattern draws a dashed outline

A Custom Pattern Type is also available where the Dash Style property will be displayed as a text box
where a custom dash pattern is entered. Dash patterns are expressed as a comma-delimited list of pixel
lengths. The first number represents the length of the first dash in the pattern. The next number
represents the length of the first space after that dash, and so on. When the end of the sequence is
reached, it repeats.
A Line Join determines what type of joint to draw at the point where one line ends and another begins.

Sampling GIS data

Sampling GIS data
Since it is virtually impossible to obtain detailed information regarding every location on the Earth's
surface (specifically for GIS), it is best to take samples from a smaller representative subset. GIS deals
with explicitly spatial data. The two ways in which spatial data can be sampled is:
-Directed sampling and
-Non-directed sampling
Directed sampling involves making decisions about the objects to be viewed and cataloged. This
population occupies an area and both the area and the sample population form the sampling frame.
Non-directed, probability-based sample is preferable since it eliminates bias.
Probabilistic sampling is of four types:
-Random sampling
-Systematic sampling
-Stratified sampling and
-Homogeneous sampling
The above sampling types can be combined to create a hybrid sampling scheme.
Random spatial sampling is the most basic sampling design. It allows each point, line, area or surface
feature to be selected with the same probability as the next.
Systematic sampling use a repeatable pattern as a basis for selection.
Stratified spatial sampling selects small areas within which individual spots, objects or features are
sampled. Stratifying simplifies the process by dividing the task into small regions.

Data quality refers to the fitness for use of data for intended applications. The components of data
quality are listed below:
-The data must be reliable and accurate to be considered as usable. It should be in agreement with the
real world being represented.
-The data must be current and up-to-date for the intended application.
-The data must be relevant in terms of content and level of detail
-The data must be timely for the application
-The data must be complete and precise or the degree of uncertainty must be indicated
-The data must be concise and intelligible (comprehensible to the user)
-The data must be stored in a format that can be conveniently handled (data handling involves one or
more of the following operations: maintenance, transmission, distribution, classification, re-sampling,
retrieval and updation)
-The data must be documented regarding its source to enable users to determine their suitability for a
certain application
-The data must be stored in map projection that best meets the requirements of the application with
regards to the preservation of area, shape, distance and direction
-The data should be captured at a scale using a classification scheme suitable to the application for
which it will be used
-Cartographic properties (physical condition of mapping media, quality of line work, use of color and
symbology, classification of features, map maintenance and revision cycle) play an important role in
determining the quality of data.

Types of errors in GIS data, their elimination and accuracies

TYPES OF ERRORS IN GIS DATA THEIR ELIMINATION AND ACCURACIES
Maps created by GIS have deficiencies. These deficiencies occur due to “Errors” that may have taken
place at different stages of GIS implementation. Flaws in data are referred to as errors. An error is the
physical difference between the real world and the GIS output. Errors may be single, definable
departures from reality, or maybe persistent widespread deviations throughout a whole database. Errors
reduce the accuracy of the map generated. Using well defined and controlled procedures errors can be
avoided.
There are two types of errors in GIS:
I. Source Errors:
They are the errors that are present in “Source Data” that is given to the GIS. They occur
before the actual implementation of GIS:

a. Instrumental inaccuracies:
● Satellite/ air photo/ GPS/ surveying (spatial).
● Inaccuracies in attribute measuring instruments.
b. Human Processing:
● Misinterpretation (e.g. photos), spatial and attribute.
● Effects of scale change and generalization.
● Effects of classification (nominal / ordinal / interval).
c. Actual Changes:
● Gradual 'natural' changes: river courses, glacier recession.
● Catastrophic change: fires, floods, landslides.
● Seasonal and daily changes: lake/sea/ river levels.
● Man-made: urban development, new roads.
● Attribute change: forest growth (height etc.), discontinued trail /roads,
road surfacing.

II.
Processing Errors:
They are the errors that occur during the processing of the data i.e. during the
implementation of GIS.

a. Input:
● Digitizing: human error, the width of a line, spikes, knots, also entering attribute
data.
● Dangling nodes (connected to only one arc): permissible in arc themes (river
headwaters etc.).
● Pseudo-nodes (connected to one or two arcs) - permissible in island arcs, and where
attributes change,
e.g. road becomes paved from dirt or vice versa.
 ● Projection input error.

b. Manipulation:
● Interpolation of point data into lines and surfaces.
● Overlay of layers, digitized separately, e.g. soils and vegetation.
● The compounding effects of processing and analysis of multiple. layers: for example, if
two layers each have correctness of 90%, the accuracy of the resulting overlay is
around 81%
● Density of observations.
● Inappropriate or inadequate inputs for models.

c. Output:
● Scale changes - detail and scale bars.
● Color palettes: intended colors don't match from screen to Printer.

In addition to the above, errors may also be introduced during data transfer and conversion. These types
of errors, may lead to loss of data.
It is a misconception that data from a GIS is of a higher quality. The quality of information from a GIS
depends upon the quality of the data used as input to the GIS.

Precision indicates how closely several positions fall in relation to each other. Precision is the recorded
level of detail of the data.

Accuracy is a measure of the closeness of one or more positions to a position that is known and defined
in terms of an absolute reference system. Accuracy is the extent to which an estimated data value
approaches its true value (Aronoff, 1989).

Bias in GIS data is the systematic variation of data from reality. Bias is a consistent error throughout a
dataset. Bias in GIS data may be caused due to human or technical sources.

ERROR, PRECISION, ACCURACY and BIAS affect the quality of individual datasets.

GIS error elimination

The simplest method of checking for data errors in GIS is by visual inspection. Comparison of data in
GIS format with the original map reveals major errors. Double digitising is an error checking method
used by large companies. This involves digitising the same map twice and comparing the two copies to
identify inconsistencies. This is a costly and time consuming method of error checking. Statistical
methods can be used to pinpoint potential errors.

Components of data quality

COMPONENTS OF DATA QUALITY
There are two important components of data quality. They are:
-Terminology used for describing problems and
-Sources, propogation and management of errors.
GIS analysis and results rely heavily on access to reliable, good quality data.
Quality is defined as "degree of excellence". In case of GIS, data quality indicates how good the data
are. This in-turn indicates the suitability of data for a specific purpose. Data sets used for analysis
should be COMPLETE, COMPATIBLE, CONSISTENT and APPLICABLE for the analysis being
performed.
A COMPLETE dataset covers the entire study area and the time period of interest or the data are
complete spatially and temporally along with a complete set of attribute information.
COMPATIBLE datasets are developed using SIMILAR METHODS of data capture, storage,
manipulation and editing.
CONSISTENT data should come from SINGLE SOURCE DOCUMENT and be digitized by a
SINGLE PERSON.
APPLICABILITY refers to SUITABILITY of data for a set of COMMANDS, OPERATIONS or
ANALYSIS.

Graphic symbols
Graphic symbols
A symbol is a graphic pattern that is used to represent a feature on a map. According to the type of
features they represent, symbols are classified into marker symbols (representing point and node
features), line symbols (representing arcs, routes, etc), shade symbols (to fill polygons and regions with
solid colour or shade patterns) and text symbols (representing text used to label features).
Symbols on a map are either points, lines or areas. Each symbol might differ in size, shape, density,
texture, orientation and colour. A poor match between the real world and the symbol used to depict it
can confuse the user regarding its true nature. Colour is important in influencing the user's
understanding of the map. The overall impact of the map can be affected by colour and symbolism.
Black and white maps use differently shaped symbols and shading patterns are effective for simple
patterns while being easier and cheaper to reproduce. Colour maps are used to effectively represent
complex spatial patterns. The shape and pattern of symbolism used should bear relation to the feature
being represented.
Careful choice of shape and pattern of symbolism used can influence the user's impression of the map.
Density and texture of shading can affect the impression given by the map. To ensure correct
interpretation, the map user is given the necessary information by a key or legend. A key tells the user
what the shading patterns, colours, line and point symbols mean.
Intellectual objectives and visual objectives of map design are sometimes in conflict. Symbols on the
map (logical and aesthetic) dictate a consistent approach. Cartographers have established (over a period
of generations) an exhaustive set of conventions and traditions to deal with such cases. These
conventions were a result of trial and error and testing among map users. They act as guidelines for
cartographic representations.

Types of errors in GIS

Maps created by GIS have deficiencies. These deficiencies occur due to “Errors” that may have taken
place at different stages of GIS implementation. These errors reduce the accuracy of the map generated.
Using well defined and controlled procedures these errors can be avoided.
There are two types of errors in GIS:
I. Source Errors:
They are the errors that are present in “Source Data” that is given to the GIS.
They occur before the actual implementation of GIS:
 a.
Instrumental inaccuracies:
● Satellite/ air photo/ GPS/ surveying (spatial).
● Inaccuracies in attribute measuring instruments.
b. Human Processing:
● Misinterpretation (e.g. photos), spatial and attribute.
● Effects of scale change and generalization.
● Effects of classification (nominal / ordinal / interval).
c. Actual Changes:
● Gradual 'natural' changes: river courses, glacier recession.
● Catastrophic change: fires, floods, landslides.
● Seasonal and daily changes: lake/sea/ river levels.
● Man-made: urban development, new roads.
● Attribute change: forest growth (height etc.), discontinued trail /
roads, road surfacing.

II. Processing Errors:

They are the errors that occur during the processing of the data i.e. during the
implementation of GIS.

a. Input:
● Digitizing: human error, the width of a line, spikes, knots, also entering
attribute data.
● Dangling nodes (connected to only one arc): permissible in arc themes
(river headwaters etc.).
● Pseudo-nodes (connected to one or two arcs) - permissible in island
arcs, and where attributes change, e.g. road becomes paved from dirt
or vice versa.
● Projection input error.

b. Manipulation:
● Interpolation of point data into lines and surfaces.
● Overlay of layers, digitized separately, e.g. soils and vegetation.
● The compounding effects of processing and analysis of multiple.
layers: for example, if two layers each have
correctness of 90%, the accuracy of the resulting overlay is around
81%.
● Density of observations.
● Inappropriate or inadequate inputs for models.

c. Output:
● Scale changes - detail and scale bars.
● Color palettes: intended colors don't match from screen to Printer.

Neighbourhood operations
NEIGHBORHOOD OPERATIONS

Neighborhood operations, also called proximity analyses, consider the characteristics of neighboring
areas around a specific location. These functions either modify existing features or create new feature
layers, which are influenced, to some degree, by the distance from existing features. All GIS programs
provide some neighborhood analyses, which include buffering, interpolation, Theissen polygons, and
various topographic functions.

Buffering
Buffering creates physical zones around features. These “buffers” are usually based on specific
straight-line distances from selected features common to both raster and vector systems, are created
around point, line, or polygon features. The resulting buffers are placed in an output polygon feature
layer. Once complete, buffer layers are used to determine which features (in other layers) occur either
within or outside the buffers (spatial queries), to perform overlay, or to measure the area of the buffer
zone. They are the most used neighborhood operation.

Interpolation
Interpolation is a method of predicting or estimating pixel values at unsampled locations based on the
known values of neighboring pixels. Since it is impractical to take measurements at all locations across
the study area due to money, time, legal, and physical constraints, interpolation is required between
known pixel values (sampled locations). With interpolation, a continuous surface like elevation,
temperature, and soil characteristics can be created. Because of its continuous nature, interpolation is
only available within raster-based systems.
There are many different types of interpolation:

Linear interpolation, the simplest form, assumes that the value change over distance from recorded
pixels is uniform. This interpolation method is not always appropriate, so there are other methods like
Fixed-radius Local Averaging
Inverse Distance Weighted
Trend Surface
Splines and
Kriging.

All of these interpolation methods look at the values of the recorded pixels to generate the value of the
pixels that fall in between. The methods differ in how they weigh the recorded attributes and in the
number of observations used for each method. No method is accurate in every situation.

Theissen polygons (voronoi or proximal polygons)

Theissen polygons are boundaries created around points within a point layer. The resultant polygons
form around each of the points, and they delineate territories around which any location inside the
polygon is closer to the internal point (that created it) than to any other point in the layer. Attributes
associated with each point are assigned to the resultant polygon. It is a vector and raster process.

Topographic Functions
Topographic functions use Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) to illustrate the lay of the land. DEMs
are raster layers containing elevation data in each pixel. From these values, you produce output layers
to portray slope (inclination), aspect (direction), and hillshading. These topographic functions are
typical neighborhood processes; each pixel in the resultant layer is a product of its own elevation value
as well as those of its surrounding neighbors.

Slope layers exhibit the incline or steepness of the land. It is the change in elevation over a defined
distance.
Aspect is the compass direction in which a slope faces. From north, it is usually expressed clockwise
from 0 to 360 degrees.
Hillshading, which is cartographically called shaded relief, is a lighting effect which mimics the sun to
highlight hills and valleys. Some areas appear to be illuminated while others lie in shadows.

These functions are raster processes, most can be mimicked in a vector environment by Triangulated
Irregular Networks (TIN). In addition, topographic functions can derive vector isolines (contours).

Neighborhood functions operate on the neighboring features of a given feature or set of features.
Search functions allow the retrieval of features that fall within a given search window (rectangle, circle,
or polygon).

Line-in-polygon and point-in-polygon functions determine whether a given linear or point feature is
located within a given polygon, or they report the polygon(s) that a given point or line are contained in.

Topographic functions compute the slope or aspect from a given digital representation of the terrain
(digital terrain model or DTM).
Interpolation functions predict unknown values using the known values at neighboring locations.
Contour generation functions calculate contours as a set of lines that connect points with the same
attribute value. Examples are points with the same elevation (contours), depth (bathymetric contours),
barometric pressure (isobars), or temperature (isothermal lines).
Record overlay
Overlay is one of the most common and powerful GIS functions. It investigates the spatial association
of features by “vertically stacking” feature layers to investigate geographic patterns and determine
locations that meet specific criteria.
Overlay operations belong to the most frequently used functions in a GIS application. They allow to
combine two different layers and apply the set theoretic operations of intersection, union, difference,
and complement.
It is the best-known GIS function. Vector and raster models both perform overlay, but their overlay
functions differ considerably.

Vector (Logical) Overlay

Vector overlay predominantly overlays polygons in one layer over polygons in another layer, but it can
also be used to overlay point or line features over polygon layers. Sometimes referred to as topological
or logical overlay, it is conceptually and mathematically more demanding than raster overlay. There
are three types of vector overlay operations:
Line on polygon is similar to point in polygon, but lines are superimposed on polygons. This type of
spatial join either appends polygon attributes to line features falling within them or counts and
aggregates line attribute data to the polygon layer’s data file.

Polygon on polygon is where one polygon layer is superimposed over another polygon layer to
create a new output polygon layer. The resultant polygons may contain some or all of the attributes
from the polygons in which they were created. Several types of polygon on polygon overlay exist,
including intersection (A and B), union (A or B), and clip (A not B). These Boolean operators work
both on the attribute table and the geography.
Intersection computes the geometric intersection of all of the polygons in the input layers. Only
those features that share a common geography are preserved in the output layer. Any polygon or
portion of a polygon that falls outside of the common area is discarded from the output layer. The new
polygon layer can possess the attribute data of the features in the input layers.
Union combines the features of input polygon layers. All polygons from the input layers are
included in the output polygon layer. It can also possess the combined attribute data of the input
polygon layers.
Clip removes those features (or portions of features) from an input polygon layer that overlay with
features from a clip polygon layer. The clip layer acts as a cookie cutter to remove features (and
portions of features) that fall inside the clip layer.
Point in polygon is where a layer of point features is superimposed over a layer of polygon features.
The two layers produce a point layer that includes attributes from the surrounding input layer polygons.
Alternatively, the number of point features falling within each polygon are counted and stored as a new
attribute in the polygon layer. Other point attributes can be aggregated (summed, averaged, etc.) and
included as attributes in the polygon’s data file. The transferring of attributes based on their geographic
position is called a spatial join.
Line on polygon is similar to point in polygon, but lines are superimposed on polygons. This type of
spatial join either appends polygon attributes to line features falling within them or counts and
aggregates line attribute data to the polygon layer’s data file.

Raster (Arithmetic) Overlay

Raster overlay superimposes at least two input raster layers to produce an output layer. Each cell in the
output layer is calculated from the corresponding pixels in the input layers. To do this, the layers must
line up perfectly; they must have the same pixel resolution and spatial extent. If they do not align, they
can be adjusted to fit by the pre-processing functions. After preprocessing, raster overlay is flexible,
efficient, quick, and offers more overlay possibilities than vector overlay.

Raster overlay, frequently called map algebra, is based on calculations which include arithmetic
expressions and set and Boolean algebraic operators to process the input layers to create an output
layer. The most common operators are addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, but other
popular operators include maximum, minimum, average, AND, OR, and NOT. Raster overlay simply
uses arithemetic operators to compute the corresponding cells of two or more input layers together,
uses Boolean algebra like AND or OR to find the pixels that fit a particular query statement, or
executes statistical tests like correlation and regression on the input layers

Modelling in GIS
A model is a representation of some part of the real world and hence has certain characteristics
common with the real world. It therefore possible to study and operate on the model instead of the real
world under various conditions. This is a very effective method to answer 'what if' questions. The
procedure can be repeated by changing the data or altering the parameters of the model.
A map is a miniature representation of some part of the real world is a model while databases are also
models. Maps and databases are usually static models.
Modelling and GIS are inseperable as GIS is a tool for modelling the real world.
Models can be static if the input and output both correspond to the same point in time, or dynamic, if
the output represents a later point in time than the input. Static models often take the form of indicators
combining various inputs to create a useful output. On the other hand, dynamic models represent a
process that modifies or transforms some aspect of the Earth's surface through time.
In the context of GIS, modeling is defined as the operations of GIS that emulate processes of the real
world at an instant or over a period of time. GIS models can be used to evaluate or predict future
landscapes.

Analog GIS model is a representation of the real-world system in which every part of the real world
appears in miniature in the model. In an analog model, all aspects of the system must be scaled by
the same ratio for the model to be valid.
In a digital model, all operations are conducted using a computer. Data is assembled in a data model
and relevant aspects of the real world and coded to patterns of 0s and 1s. Digital models do not have a
representative fraction. The level of geographic detail is captured in the spatial resolution.

Discrete models imitate processes that operate between discrete entities. Continuous models are formed
on variables that are continuous functions of location. The discrete-object view and the continuous
field-view are widely accepted distinctions between the conceptualizations of geographic space and
geographic variation.
Geographic space is empty except where it is occupied by point, line or area objects that may overlap,
do not exhaust all available space and are countable. For example, the discrete-object view is best to
describe and represent biological organisms or man-made features like buildings, vehicles or fire
hydrants.
In the continuous field view, there are no gaps in coverage and there is exactly one variable at each
location.Continuous field models express knowledge of the operation of the physical system in terms of
partial differential equations which relate the values, rate of change through time, spatial gradients and
spatial curvatures of the continuously varying quantities.

Individual and aggregate models- It is possible to model any system using a set of rules about the
mechanical behavior of the system’s basic objects (individual model). However, if the number of basic
objects is far too large for this approach to be practical, the problem is solved by replacing individual
objects with continuously varying estimates of abstracted properties such as density. Another approach
is to aggregate (aggregate model) individual objects into larger wholes and to model the system
through the
behavior of these aggregates.

Cellular Automata: In a cellular automaton, spatial variation is represented as a raster of fixed

resolution, each cell is assigned to one of a number of defined states. Such models have been used
widely to study processes of urban growth, in which case the possible states are limited. At each time
step, the next state of each cell is determined by a number of rules based on the properties of the cell
and its neighbors and on the states of the cell and its neighbors. The concepts of cellular automata were
first explored by John Conway.

AGENT-BASED modeling is a computer based simulation in which a program is written to simulate

the real-world situation. An agent-based model consists of an environment or framework that defines
the scope and rules of actions, along with a number of agents representing one or more actors whose
parameters and behaviors are defined. When the model is run, the characteristics of each agent are
tracked through time and space. Agent-based modeling has found many interesting applications to
geographic phenomena. Several efforts have been made to apply agent-based modeling to the
emergence of land-use and land-cover patterns, with particular emphasis on the processes that lead to
greater fragmentation of land cover as a result of development and thus to problems for species that
require specialized natural habitat.

Simple analysis in GIS

Simple analysis in GIS:

Spatial measurements: GIS makes spatial measurements easy to perform. Spatial measurements can
be
Distance between two points
The area of a polygon
The length of a line or boundary.
Calculations can be
of a simple nature, such as measuring areas on one map, or
complex, such as measuring overlapping areas on two or more maps.
Information Retrieval: A GIS can help point at a location, object, or area on the screen and retrieve
recorded information about it from the Database Management System (DBMS) which holds the
information abut the map’s features. In order for a GIS to answer the question "what is where?" we
need to carry out retrieval. Retrieval is the ability of the DBMS or GIS to get back on demand data that
were previously stored (Clarke, 1997). As Clarke put it "Geographic search is the secret to GIS data
retrieval" so GIS systems have embedded DBMSs, or link to a commercial DBMS.
Searches by attribute: Most GIS systems include a basic relational database system. All DBMS
include functions for basic data display. Searches by attribute are then controlled by the capabilities of
database manager. Find is the basic attribute search. Find is intended to get a single record.
Searches by geography: In a map database the records are features. The GIS spatial retrieval is the
generating maps, which allow searching for information visually and highlight the result. For example
to generate a report; the spatial equivalent would to produce a finished map, the spatial equivalent of a
find is locate. Spatial equivalents of the DBMS queries result in locating sets of features, or building
new GIS layers. These include: Spatial searching, browsing the map and picking features, Spatial
sorting to identify features that result from attribute sorting.Combinations of spatial and attribute
queries can build some complex and powerful GIS operations. Typical GIS searches are point in
polygon, line in polygon, and point distance to line.
Spatial overlay: One basic way to create or identify spatial relationships is through the process of
spatial overlay. Spatial overlay is accomplished by joining and viewing together separate data sets that
share all or part of the same area. The result of this combination is a new data set that identifies the
spatial relationships.
Boundary analysis: Boundary analysis, which is referred to as districting and helps define regions
according to certain criteria. This procedure is used to define area of specific demographic
characteristic. Since districting is normally an iterative process involving the development of
numerous scenarios based on various combinations of desired criteria, the computing power of the GIS
helps in saving time and effort. GIS helps to interactively define proposed boundaries and have related
population totals automatically computed in rapidly and efficiently.
Buffer analysis: Buffer analysis is used to identify areas surrounding geographic features. The
process involves generating a buffer around existing geographic features and then identifying or
selecting features based on whether they fall inside or outside the boundary of the buffer.
Neighborhood Operations: Neighborhood operations can evaluate the characteristics of the area
surrounding a specific location. Neighborhood operations include the following: Search (Average,
Diversity, Majority, Maximum/Minimum, and total), Topographic, Interpolation (interpolation involves
using known cell values to predict predicting the values of intermediate cells), and Contour Generation.
Connectivity Functions: Connectivity functions involve traversing an area and accumulating values:
Contiguity measures, Proximity, Network functions, Spread, Seek and Stream functions

Output formatting
GIS output is in the form of:

Maps
Charts

Charts can be used to display tabular data

Types of charts available are generally of six types. They are:
Area chart
Bar chart
Line chart
Column chart
Pie chart and
Scatter chart

A map is a spatial model of the real world and is differentiated from it (the real world) due to:

Abstraction
Imaginary & physical features
Past, Present and future features
Focus
Selection and classification of features to be included in map
Simplification
Simplification of complex features
Exaggeration of small features
Symbolization
Using symbols to represent objects
 Scale
Ratio of distance on map to distance on Earth
Projection
Representing curved Earth on a flat plane
Purpose
To describe, measure, communicate/persuade.

Types of maps

Planimetric
Topographic
Cadastral
Image
Thematic

Below listed are a few general principles to create maps:

Output maps (GIS output) should be kept simple to understand and not cluttered with too much
information by relying excessively on software defaults
Only the area under study should be included along with a small map inserted showing the relative
location.
The maps should be created keeping in mind the final publication sale. This implies a size reduction
for report or journal publication. It should be borne in mind that point symbols reduce in visibility at
twice the rate of line features.
The title should be mentioned at the top in thick line font: serif/sans-serif; case not critical
Map labels should be formatted as per the following guidelines:
labels should be in serif font (first letter uppercase and remaining lowercase)
labels should be placed above and to the right of the feature (2nd choice: above and to the left)
Font size hierarchy should indicate relative importance
Water features traditionally labeled in italic font
The map should be created in black and white and the colour should be added later

Colour
Hue refers to the actual colour; Saturation refers to the amount of the colour, while value refers to the
amount of black used.
For optimum readability, low saturation in the background and high saturation in the foreground is
recommended.

Choice of shading
In case of:

Quantitative data:
Symbols should have visual progression corresponding to data values
For polygons, using monochromatic colour ramp: same colour, different saturation
can highlight top and bottom with contrasting colour
 "visual progression" should be ensured if different fill patterns are used
For point symbols, different sizes of the same symbol must be used.
Qualitative data:
For polygons, different fill colours or different patterns should be used
For point symbols, same size of different symbols should be used
The legend should be big enough to clearly show different fill patterns

Map transformations
MAP TRANSFORMATIONS

Map transformation involves transformation of points from one map to points on another map while
minimizing the differences between the two sets of points.

The 'Helmert transformation' is the best choice for the vast majority of applications.
The 'Helmert transformation' translates the points of one map horizontally and vertically and also
rotates and scales the points (it uses 4 parameters).
The 'affine transformation' is useful in cases where the paper has pronounced directional shrinking
due to orientation of the fibers.
The 'affine transformation' is also useful to compensate for some shearing in the map or for
computing the shearing angle.
The 'affine transformation' with five parameters translates points in the x direction and y direction, a
rotation and two scale factors (one in the x direction and one in the y direction)
The 'affine transformation' with six parameters consists of:
translation in x direction
translation in y direction
two rotation and two scale factors (both axes are rotated and scaled separately)

Other map transformations used are:

Robust Helmert
Huber estimator
Vestimator and
Hampel estimator

Electromagnetic radiation and its characteristics

Electromagnetic radiation: Electromagnetic radiation (EMR) is a a form of energy propogated through
free space (vaccum) or a medium in the form of electromagnetic waves.EMR is termed as such because
it is composed of an electric field and a magnetic field that oscillate simultaneously in planes mutually
perpendicular to each other as well as to the direction of propogation of the radiation.
The two defining
characteristics of
electromagnetic
radiation are its:

Frequency and
Wavelength

Frequency is the number of waves that pass a point in a specified time. It is measured in Hertz (Hz) or
cycles per second.
Wavelength is the distance between two successive peaks of a wave. It is measured in meters (m) or its
multiples (nm, mm, cm etc)

The range of electromagnetic waves is called electromagnetic spectrum.

ALL ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES TRAVEL WITH THE SAME VELOCITY

(Velocity of light (C)~ 3*10^8 m/s)
Velocity, wavelength and frequency are related by the equation: C = frequency * wavelength
It is evident from this equation that frequency and wavelegth are inversely proportional
This follows that:

a wave with a longer wavelength has lower frequency and thus lower energy
a wave with a shorter wave wavelength has higher frequency and thus higher energy.

The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into seven regions. They are:

Radio waves
Microwaves
InfraRed (IR) waves
Visible light
UltraViolet (UV) rays
X rays and
Gamma rays

Usually. low energy radiation (Radio waves) is expressed as wavelengths while microwaves, infrared
(IR), visible and ultraviolet (UV) radiations are expressed as frequencies.
Radio waves
Radio waves are at the lowest range of the EM spectrum, with wavelengths greater than about 10 mm.
Radio is used primarily for communications including voice, data and entertainment media.

Microwaves
Microwaves have wavelengths of about 10 mm to 100 micrometers (μm). Microwaves are used for
high-bandwidth communications, radar and as a heat source for microwave ovens and industrial
applications.

Infrared
Infrared is in the range of wavelengths of about 100 μm to 740 nanometers (nm). IR light is invisible to
human eyes, but we can feel it as heat if the intensity is sufficient.

Visible light
Visible light is found in the middle of the EM spectrum, between IR and UV. It has wavelengths of
about 740 nm to 380 nm. Visible light is defined as the wavelengths that are visible to most human
eyes.

Ultraviolet
Ultraviolet light is in the range of the EM spectrum between visible light and X-rays. It has
wavelengths of about 380 nm to about 10 nm. UV light is a component of sunlight; however, it is
invisible to the human eye. It has numerous medical and industrial applications, but it can damage
living tissue.

X-rays
X-rays are roughly classified into two types: soft X-rays and hard X-rays. Soft X-rays comprise the
range of the EM spectrum between UV and gamma rays. Soft X-rays have wavelengths of about 10 nm
to about 100 picometers (pm). Hard X-rays occupy the same region of the EM spectrum as gamma
rays. The only difference between them is their source: X-rays are produced by accelerating electrons,
while gamma rays are produced by atomic nuclei.

Gamma-rays
Gamma-rays are in the range of the spectrum above soft X-rays. Gamma-rays have wavelengths of less
than 100 pm (4 × 10−9 inches). Gamma radiation causes damage to living tissue, which makes it useful
for killing cancer cells when applied in carefully measured doses to small regions. Uncontrolled
exposure, though, is extremely dangerous to humans.

Software Scenario Functions: Visibility Analysis

The portion of the terrain that can be seen from any particular elevation is known as viewshed. The
process of visibility and intervisibility at a particular point on a topographic surface is called viewshed
analysis or visibility analysis.

Some of the uses of this technique are:

Siting television, radio and cellular phone transmitters and receiving stations
Locating towers for observing forest fires
Routing highways that are not visible to nearby residents

Visibility analysis is useful in planning that requires features to be either visible or concealed .

The simplest method is to connect an observer location to every possible target location.
In the next step, ray tracing is carried out. This is done by following the line from the target point back
to the observer point. Higher points obstruct the observer's view.
Among the many possible ways to determine intervisibility, the ray tracing technique is simple and
useful, although it is less accurate.

Visibility analysis requires the use of a Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) data model in which the
surface is defined by triangular vertices.

Example: Consider a builder constructing houses at the foothills of a mountain range and desires to
present a beautiful view of the landscape from the location of each house. After shortlisting the
potential locations, the TIN model for each location is used by the GIS software to look in all directions
at the vertices for a view from the vertices of the model. The software retrieves the elevation values and
compares these values with the elevation of potential building sites. All the areas higher in elevation are
classified as invisible. The resulting polygon map shows visible areas for each coverage tested.
Raster methods of visibility analysis are similar except that they are less elegant and more
computationally expensive.

Interaction of EMR with Earth's surface

The interaction of Electro-magnetic radiation (EMR) with the atmosphere and the earth's surface play a
very important role in Remote sensing. Each molecule has a set of absorption bands in the
electromangetic spectrum. Hence, only the wavelength regions outside the absorption bands of
atmospheric gases can be used for remote sensing. These regions are known as Atmospheric
Transmission Windows.
These windows are found in the visible, near infrared, certain bands of thermal infrared and microwave
region.
The figure below shows the fate of atmospheric radiation

The gases in the atmosphere interact with solar irradiation and with the radiation reflected from the
Earth's surface. The electromagnetic radiation (EMR ) will experience varying degrees of transmission,
absorption, emittance and/or scattering.

Types of sensors
A sensor is a device that gathers energy (EMR) and converts it to a signal and presents it in a form
suitable for obtaining information about the object under investigation.

CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS
Remote sensors can broadly be classified as passive sensors and active sensors.
Passive sensors measure the natural light emitted from the sun.
Active sensors have their own source of light and the sensors measure the reflected energy.
The Earth’s surface interacts with the incoming Electro-Magnetic Radiation (EMR) from the Sun. This
is known as incident energy (Ei). The three fundamental interactions with incident energy are:
 Reflected energy (Er)
Absorbed energy (Ea) and
Transmitted energy (Et)

Incident energy formula:

Ei = Er + Ea + Et
Passive sensors measure this natural energy at specific frequencies or wavelengths. Wavelength is
conventionally measured in ‘m’ or multiples thereof ‘nm’ etc. The frequencies radiations typically
sensed are listed below:
Visible radiation – 390 to 700 nm
Infra-red radiation – 750 to 1 mm
Ultra-violet radiation – 100 to 400 nm
These wavelength ranges are known as “bands”

Sensors can have multiple bands (3 to 10 bands) and this is known as MSS (Multi-Spectral Sensing).
Hundereds of finer bands are known as Hyper-spectral imaging.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN REFLECTED LIGHT AND SPECTRAL REFLECTANCE

The solar radiation that is incident on Earth, is reflected back to the passive sensors and this reflected
energy is detected by the passive sensors.
Reflected energy formula
Er = Ei - Ea - Et

Different objects on Earth, reflect, transmit and absorb different amounts of energy and this implies that
each feature on Earth a unique property called spectral reflectance (p).

Spectral reflectance formula:

p = Er / Ei

Examples of active sensors are:

Radar
Camera with flashlight

Examples of passive sensors are:

Camera without flashlight

ALL remote sensing sensors

Non-scanning or framing sensors: These sensors measure the radiation coming from the entire scene at
once.
Examples of non scanning sensors are:
 Our eyes
Photographic cameras

Imaging sensors: These sensors form image by collected radiation. They may be scanning sensors or
non-imaging sensors. In scanning sensors, the image is sensed point-by-point. These scanners may be
along track scanners in which the image is acquired line by line or across track scanners in which the
image is acquired pixel by pixel.

Non imaging sensors: These type of sensors do not form the image. They are used to recors spectral
quantity as afunction of time.
Examples are: Sensors for temperature measurement, study of the atmosphere, etc.

Image plane scanning: In this type of sensor, the lens is used after the scan mirror to focus the light on
the detector

Object plane scanning: In this type of sensor, the lens is placed before the scan mirror to focus the light
on the detector.

Most of the active sensors operate in the microwave portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. A few of
the active sensors are listed below:

Laser Altimeter
Radar
Lidar
Ranging Instrument
Scatterometer and
Sounder

Passive sensors include different types of radiometers and spectrometers. Passive remote sensors in
remote sensing operate in the visible, infrared, thermal infrared and microwave regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum. Passive remote sensors used are listed below:

Accelerometer
Hyperspectral radiometer
Imaging radiometer
Radiometer
Sounder
Spectrometer and
Spectroradiometer
Diagrammatic representation of types of sensors

Remote sensing data products

The main products of remote sensing satellites are:

Sea Surface Temperature (SST), Ocean colour, Ocean winds and Sea surface height measured by
satellite sensors.
Satellite derived chlorophyll concentration and ocean currents
Satellite remote sensing products can be used to generate potential habitat maps of aquatic life

The products of remote sensing data are extensively used in disaster management mainly in the
following disasters:

Extreme weather
Floods
Coastal hazards / Tsunamis
Volcanoes
 Earthquakes
Landslides
Droughts
Dust storms and
Wild fires

Remote sensing data products have demonstrated their usefulness in combating or long term
management of the following problems:

Climate change
Pollution monitoring
Plant health
Land usage
Population density
Deforestation and
Desertification

Remote sensing capabilities can be used to provide situational awareness for a wide area in a very short
time frame. The data products of remote sensing are:

For extreme weather:

Atmospheric temperature and water vapour profiles are used as input by forecasters
Sea surface winds, cloud cover, rainfall and cloud profiles are used as inputs to models
Remote sensing imagery is used for tracking storms and damage

For floods:

SAR generated DEMs are used to indicate risk areas

Weather forecasts can be made to warn the public
Satellite imagery is used to assess impact and track recovery
Remote sensing data can be used to predict risk due to areal precipitation

Drought:

Remote sensing products such as sea surface temperature and height are used to forecast el Nino
Snow cover, surface temperature and rain measurements are used to forecast available water
Soil moisture, rainfall and vegetation health are used to observe onset and progress of droughts

Pollution:

SAR imagery makes it possible to detect and track oil spills in the ocean
Atmospheric pollutants can be detected using Infra-Red (IR) radiation
Ocean colour is used to detect red tides
Interpretation of remote sensing data
The basic principles of image interpretation are:

Location
Size
Shape
Shadow
Tone and Colour
Texture
Pattern
Height and Depth
Situation and Association

Location refers to the geographic location and is an important tool that helps to identify the type of
vegetation. This is because any type of vegetation is specific in its requirement of soil, climate and
other factors that are typical to a certain location.

Size of objects on images is important with reference to the image scale. Length, width and perimeter
are commonly measured. Measuring the size of an unknown object helps the interpreter to rule out
possible alternatives. For example, the dimensions of standard objects are known and this makes it
possible to determine the size of an unknown object by comparison.

Shape refers to the general form, configuration or outline of individual objects. In case of stereoscopic
images, the objects height also defines the shape.

Shadows may either aid or hinder in interpretation. Extended shadows can make it difficult to
understand other objects that can be identified easily. A shadow cast by an object may be a key to the
identity of another object. It is always recommended that the photos are oriented so that the shadow
falls towards the interpreter otherwise a pseudoscopic illusion is produced leading to low points
appearing high and vice versa.

Tone and Colour of all matter refers to different proportions of energy reflected in the blue, green, red
and infra-red portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. This can be used as a spectral signature to
identify the type of matter. Different shades of a colour are called as tone. The darker an object appears,
the less light it reflects. Colour imagery is preferred as humans can detect thousands of colours. Colour
help in the process of photo interpretation.

Texture is the frequency of tonal change on an image. It determines the overall smoothness or
coarseness of image features. It is defined as the characteristic placement and arrangement of
repetitions of tone or colour in an image. As the scale of an image is reduced, the texture of any given
object or area becomes progressively finer and ultimately disappears. An interpreter can distinguish
between features of similar reflectances based on their textural differences. For example: the
contrasting textures of two tree species.

Pattern refers to the spatial arrangement of objects. Objects may be arranged systematically or
randomly. A few other patterns are: Circular, Linear, Oval, Rectangular and Curvilinear to name a few.
The repetition of a few general forms is characteristic of natural and constructed objects thus forming a
pattern that helps the image interpreter in recognizing objects. For example: the spatial arrangement of
trees in an orchard versus the random distribution of trees in a forest.

Height and depth is also known as elevation and baythymetry. It is one of the most important important
diagnostic element of image interpretation. Any object that rises above local landscape will show some
radial relief. This casts a shadow that provides information regarding its height.

Situation and Association Situation refers to the manner in which the objects in the image are organized
and situated with respect to each other. Association refers to the fact of finding a particular activity in
an image. Location, Situation and Association are normally interrelated to each other in an image. As
an example, consider a commercial complex. It has several large buildings, huge parking areas and is
usually located near a major road.

Characteristics of Indian Remote Sensing series of satellites

List of Indian Earth Observation Satellites:

1C
P3
1D
P4
OceanSat-1
TES
P6 ResourceSat-1
P5 CartoSat-1
2A CartoSat-2
P7 OceanSat-2
RISAT-1
ResourceSat-2
Megha-Tropiques
RISAT-2
ResourceSat-3
HyperSpectral Image
OceanSat-3

Current IRS missions:

ResourceSat-1
CartoSat-1
CartoSat-2

ResourceSat-1 (IRS-P6)
The main features of this satellite are listed below:
It has a circular polar Sun synchronous orbit
Its orbit height is 821 km at an inclination of 98.76
Its orbital period is 101.35 minutes and it performs 14 orbits per day
Its repetivity (LISS-3) is 24 days and revisit (AWiFS) is 5 days
Its 3-axis body is stabilized using reaction wheels, magnetic torquers and hydrazine thrusters
It is powered by a solar array generating 1250 W (at End of Life) using two 24 Ah Ni-Cd batteries
Its mission life is 5 to 7 years
The IRS-P6 has better radiometric resolution, red instead of pan-chromatic band and only one CCD
array leading to better internal geometry
It is suitable for mapping and mobile cell phone planning
The LISS-IV camera can be operated in either monochromatic or multi-spectral mode

CartoSat-1
The main features of this satellite are listed below:
It has a circular polar Sun synchronous orbit
Its orbit height is 618 km at an orbit inclination of 98.87
Its orbit period is 97 minutes and it performs 15 orbits per day
Its 3-axis body is stabilized using reaction wheels, magnetic torquers and hydrazine thrusters
It is powered by a 5 sq. km solar array generating 1100 W (at EOL) using 24 Ah Ni-Cd batteries
Its mission life is 5 to 7 years
CartoSat has two panchromatic cameras for in-flight stereo viewing and this stereo data is provided to
ground stations in real time
Its revisit capability is 5 days
Its swath is 27.5 km
It is capable of providing DEMs of approximately 4m elevation

CartoSat-2
The main features of this satellite are listed below:
Its orbit height is 630 km at an inclination of 97.91
Its orbit period is 97.4 minutes and it completes 14 orbits per day
Its revisit is 4 days and repetivity is 310 days
Its 3-axis body is stabilized using reaction wheels, magnetic torquers and hydrazine thrusters
It is powered by two 18Ah Ni-Cd batteries that generate 900 W using solar power
Its operational life is 5 years.
Its resolution is 0.81m and swath is about 9.6 km

Future IRS missions are:

ResourceSat-2 that is identical to ResourceSat-1 with a few sensor enhancements
ResourceSat-3 having increased resolution and more spectral bands along with addition of new sensors
with 25 km swath
ResourceSat-4 adds new sensors with 12.5 km swath based on 500m optics
CartoSat series of satellites with increased resolution and more spectral bands
RISAT is the first Indian Remote Sensing Synthetic Aperture Radar (IRS SAR) with:
- C-band SAR
- 10 km swath in spot mode and 240 km swath in scan mode
-1 m to 50 m resolution
-Single/Dual polarization
 Software Scenario Functions: Environmental modelling
A model is an abstraction of reality. This helps by representing complex reality in the simplest way. A
change in any parameter of the model can be used to visualise the impacts on the entire model. This is
the purpose of modeling. The best model is always that which achieves the greatest match between
model outputs and real-world observations. Modeling is a powerful tool to understanding observations
and can be used to develop and test theories. Moreover, it is faster to get a result by modeling than to
actually spend time, energy and resources on the field. Environmental modeling is a powerful tool to
understand the interactions between the environment, ecosystems and populations of animals. This is
essential for monitoring and management of sustainable means of human dependency on environmental
systems.

Environmental models integrate both time and space to understand the nature and functioning of the
ecosystem under study. Environment models are multi-component in nature requiring the
understanding of interactions between the biotic and abiotic systems. The complexity increases with the
increasing number of components and an understanding of these systems requires breaking them into
manageable components, combining them and explicitly describing the interactions occurring.

Environmental models cannot be built in the laboratory to adequately represent them. Environmental
problems are multivariate, non-linear and complex. Modeling provides an integrated framework in
which the individual disciplines can work on different aspects of the research problem and provide a
module for integrating within the modelling framework.

GIS and environmental modeling have been used for decision making, planning and environmental
management. This combination has been used along with environmental models for applications like:

monitoring of deforestation
agro-ecological zonation
ozone layer depletion
flood early warning systems
climate and weather prediction
ocean monitoring and mapping
soil mapping
wetland degradation
natural disaster & hazard assessment and mapping
land cover for input to global climate models

GIS models may be varied in space, in time or in state variables. GIS and remote sensing provide tools
to extrapolate models in space as well as upscale models to smaller scales.

A few examples of environmental models used in GIS are listed below with brief descriptions:

RUSLE - The Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation was successfully used with GIS. The process
uses raster processing capabilities of the Map Analysis and Processing System (MAPS) to overlay data
themes containing spatially distributed values for different RUSLE factors. This technique produces a
map of relative levels of soil erosion potential caused due to rainfall, soil type, terrain, vegetation and
erosion control practice. The terrain factor from DEM helps calculate soil loss potential for large
areas.Thus the RUSLE and GIS interface can be used for soil degradation studies over a large scale.
BIOCLIM - The BIOCLIM system determines the distribution of plants and animals based on
climatic surfaces. Bioclimatic variables are used in species distribution modeling and related ecological
modeling techniques. Worldclim is a set of global climate layers (gridded climate data) with a spatial
resolution of about 1 km2. This data can be used for mapping and spatial modeling. GIS can be used in
conjunction with BIOCLIM to make grid maps of distribution of biological diversity or it can also be
used to find areas that have high, low or complementary levels of diversity. GIS can also be used to
map and query climate data. BIOCLIM and GIS can also be used to predict species distribution.
CART -The Classification And Regression Tree (CART) model is a binary partioning methods
yielding a class of models called tree -based models. The method is applied to several environemtal and
ecological studies due to its capability of handling both continuous and discrete variables, its ability to
model interactions among predictors and its hierarchical structure. When used in combination with
GIS, the CART model output was converted into suitability maps that show the abrupt transitions
between areas of high and low suitability.
Monte Carlo simulation - The Monte Carlo method involves generation of random number of
parameters to explore the behaviour of a complex process. The numbers are generated using a
probability distribution function that describes the occurrence probability of an event. The power of
this method lies in the number of simulated samples. The Monte Carlo simulation provides an answer
to what may happen and the probability associated with each scenario. The Monte Carlo simulation
technique is widely used in spatial analysis. It finds applications in spatial data disaggregation and
statistical testing.

Software Scenario Functions: Watershed modelling

Watershed is a concept in hydrology that refers to the topographical boundary dividing two adjacent
catchment basins. A watershed is an area of land that catches rain and snow and drains or seeps into a
marsh, stream, river, lake or groundwater. Homes, farms, cottages, forests, small towns, big cities and
more can make up watersheds. They come in all shapes and sizes and can vary from millions of acres,
to a few acres that drain into a pond.

Modelling is the process of representing a real world object or phenomenon as a set of mathematical
equations.

Watershed models study natural processes of flow of chemicals and microorganisms while determining
the impact of human activities on these processes. Watershed modelling is an important tool to focus
efforts to solve watershed based water resource, environmental, social and economic problems.

A watershed model can be used for:

Water resources planning, development, design, operation and management

Flooding
Droughts
Upland erosion
 Stream bank erosion
Coastal erosion
Sedimentation
Non point source pollution
Water pollution from industrial, domestic and agricultural sources
Migration of microbes
Deterioration of lakes
Desertification and degradation of land
Irrigation of agricultural lands
Conjunctive use of surface and groundwater, etc

Watershed models are classified into

Black Box models that mathematically describe the relation between variables. Ex: Unit
hydrograph approach, ANN, Rational formula etc.
Lumped models that lie between the Black Box models and Distributed models. Ex:
Stanford watershed model, etc
Distributed models that are based on complex physical theory on the solution of real governing
equation. Ex: St. Venant
equations for watershed modelling, etc

GIS plays an important role in watershed modeling.

The areas in which GIS is applied in watershed modeling are:

Hydrologic assessment
Model setup
Parameter determination and
Modeling

Hydrologic assessment involves using GIS for the analysis of various hydrologic factors for the
purpose of risk assessment or susceptibility to pollution, flood, drought, erosion, etc.

Model setup involves defining topography, boundaries and drainage networks of a watershed so as to
form the basic framework for applying both lumped and distributed watershed models. DEM is the
main data structure used for this work.
In the context of hydrologic assessment and model setup, GIS provides several valuable tools for data
creation and management, automated feature extraction and watershed delineation.

Data creation is done by collecting elevations using GPS or digital contour maps to generate new
DEMs where no data exists for the aera of interest. Sometimes, contour data on paper-based maps can
be converted to digital format using GIS digitizing tools.
Automated feature extraction is performed by various GIS software packages that offer automated
routines for delineating watershed boundaries and draining divides. GIS software can also be used for
extracting surface drainage channel networks and generating other hydrography data from DEMs. Ex:
WMS and Archydro.

The application of watershed models with GIS requires data from a variety of sources in different
formats into a common coordinate space for efficient processing or display. Most GIS software
provides tools that assist transforming datasets into a common coordinate space.

An important aspect of modeling watershed processes is to determine parameter inputs. The Watershed
Modeling System (WMS) is capable of processing both vector and raster data for land use, soil type,
rainfall zone and flow path networks to develop important modeling parameters.