Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Dissertation
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
by
MIRIAM COHEN
Miriam Cohen
ii
APPROVAL PAGE
by
Miriam Cohen
Approved by:
____________________________________ ____________________
Chair: Dana Sparkman Cleghorn, Ph. D. Date
Certified by:
___________________________________ _____________________
School Dean: Cindy Knott, Ph. D. Date
iii
Abstract
mathematics achievement thus causing deep concerns. Learners who acquire a strong
theoretical foundation in mathematics at the primary level thrived later in more advanced
level mathematics curriculum; thus, instructors have pursued methods and techniques to
classroom instruction is crucial for kindergarten through fifth grade students. The
purpose of this study was to determine the usefulness of a specific computer assisted
instruction supplemental math program, Mad Dog Math (MDM), on students’ math
was utilized. The study was intended to identify to what degree, if any, the use of the
computer-assisted instruction software called Mad Dog Math was beneficial in improving
students’ mathematics achievement. Two classes of second and third grades, totaling
81students ranging from seven to nine years old, contributed to the study. An
experimental group (n = 39) and a control group (n = 42) participated in the study. Both
pretest and posttest using the California Standard Test (CST), mathematics questions,
were administered. To adjust the mean posttest scores for any preliminary difference
between the groups on the pretest, an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was employed.
The findings of this study revealed that after accounting for pretest scores, there was a
significant difference between the control and experimental groups on posttest scores,
iv
F(1, 27) = 14.16, p < .0005 with a low effect size, partial eta squared = .15. However,
after accounting for pretest scores, there was no significant interaction effect of MDM
and gender, F(1,76) = 4.14, p = .06, with a low effect size (partial eta squared = .001).
Recommendations for future research include the incorporation of larger population and
stratification of grade levels, examine the effects of Computer- Assisted Instruction (CAI)
with students with learning disabilities, and to include qualitative elements such as
v
Acknowledgements
The ultimate glory goes to my Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. For we know that in all
things God works for the good of those who love Him, who have been called according
to His purpose ~ Romans 8:28. I dedicate this project to Him who loves me and gave His
David (Daddy): You are my inspiration and my very best friend. You mean the whole
world to me. Thank you for being gracious towards me during the many mood changes
that I went through during this grueling process. Your faith in the Lord and in my
dedication to complete this journey never waiver and I am forever thankful for your
continued support in my academic endeavors. Thank you, Daddy, for the many nights
that you stayed up and assisted me in figuring out how to put my TOC (Table of
Contents) together. It was hard but you made it bearable. Next to Jesus, you were my
source of strength and I thank the Lord for blessing me with an incredible husband. I am
grateful!
Angelica and Reagan: Your love and support gave me the strength to endure every step
of the way. I hope that my determination and task-oriented behavior have inspired you to
work hard and smart. I wanted to show you that it is only “With God all things are
possible”~ Matthew 19:26. For both of you, the sky is the limit! Thank you, my
darlings, for allowing me to spend all the hours that it took to complete my CP, DP, and
DM. I am grateful!
Dr. Dana Cleghorn: You are fabulous! But of course, you already know that. You
ROCK based on what many learners say about you on the discussion board. Personally, I
would have never reached this level of success had I not been under your guidance. Your
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professionalism, dedication, and gentle spirit helped ease the many fears that went
through my mind when I first took on this huge project. The entire doctorate process
took me 5 years to complete but at the end, we developed a friendship that provided
Dr. Ralph Lee: I have requested for you to be on my committee because I have great
respect for you and your work. I was never disappointed. Thank you for taking me on
Dr. Mark Kelso: Thank you for coming “on board” in the middle of things and making
my committee complete. Your “fine tooth comb” approach in reviewing my work and the
manuscript raised the bar and motivated me to reach for the prize. I am grateful!
Julie Kotoff: Your friendship is truly precious to me. Thank you for being the
best editor ever! You have given up many hours of the night to read and edit my work
even when some of my writings did not make sense at the time; you never gave up on
me. I pray that my research work will help Mad Dog Math to become a common
Dennis Waterman: Your obedience to Jesus made it possible for me to work with style.
The brand new laptop computer and printer were heaven sent and without them I would
not have been able to graduate this year. I would have been stuck with a dinosaur that
Thai Ho: My newest friend. I am thankful to the Lord that our paths have crossed.
Sharing your expertise in statistics was only the beginning of our friendship. Thank you
for your kindness and the opportunity that you gave me to introduce you to Jesus. I pray
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that you will someday come to know Him as the Way, the Truth, and the Life. I am
grateful!
Friends and Family: When I initially started this journey, I was fearful about many
things. Today, I can boldly say that I am becoming more and more fearless every day.
The only fear I care to hold on is the fear of the Lord, which is the beginning of wisdom
~ Proverbs 9:10. It was your support and encouragement that kept me going. I am
grateful!
viii
Table of Contents
ix
Chapter 4: Findings ........................................................................................................... 83
Results ........................................................................................................................... 83
Evaluation of Findings .................................................................................................. 97
Summary ....................................................................................................................... 99
Appendices...................................................................................................................... 131
Appendix A: Math Pretest/Posttest Grade 2 ............................................................... 132
Appendix B: Math Pretest/Posttest Grade 3 ............................................................... 144
Appendix C: Informed Consent .................................................................................. 155
Appendix D: Parent/Researcher Committment Agreement ........................................ 156
Appendix E: Child Assent Form ................................................................................. 157
x
List of Tables
xi
List of Figures
xii
1
Chapter 1: Introduction
across the nation, the authors of Third International Mathematics and Science Study—
Repeat revealed the shortcomings of mathematics in the United States when measured
against other developed countries (Gonzales, Williams, Jocelyn, Roey, Kastberg, &
into the kindergarten through second grade curriculum are addition and subtraction
number combinations and fact retrieval. By the beginning of third grade, emerging
learners are on the road to automatic retrieval of these number combinations (Hudson &
Miller, 2006). Then they are ready to move on to becoming automatic in their
occurs when learners continue to display great difficulty with number combination and
fact retrieval skills at the beginning of third grade level. One approach for remediating
computers available to use at home and is made accessible to learners who do not have
be a significant tool in developing and enhancing math instruction (Roblyer, 2008). The
computer can be viewed as able to perform the task of a specific influential facilitator
(Beck, 2005). Interest is increasing about how learners relate to computer-based teaching
2
techniques as CAI becomes progressively integrated into classrooms (Nguyen & Kulm,
2005).
enhance math instruction. The use of computers and the Internet make it feasible to
higher-order learning outcomes (Martindale, Cates, & Qian, 2005; Gayle, 2006).
Moreover, technology can be an inspiring aspect and an effective tool for all
learners, especially in elementary grades (Martindale, Pearson, Curda, & Pilcher, 2005).
A wide variety of course contents such as exercise, drill, tutorial, practice, and virtual
reality are made possible through the use of computer technology (Mahmood, 2004). All
of the characterizations of CAI support the idea that the computer takes the part of a
teacher and conveys teaching through various modalities and approaches (Lewis, 2010).
In this chapter, a historical view of CAI is explored; the framework for CAI is presented,
hurdles encountered by educators are identified, and a synopsis of the selected research
method and design is described. This quantitative research is designed to evaluate the
Background
computers were first introduced in the mid-1950s (Reilly, 2004). In conjunction with the
3
prospectus used in engineering science programs, CAI ultimately became a part of the
traditional classroom procedure. A decade later, conventions and symposiums were held
to discuss the use of the computer instruction in mathematics, science, computer science,
undergraduate courses, and secondary school counseling. In the 1960s, the University of
Illinois invented a computer system called PLATO, which stands for Programmed Logic
system accommodated instructional computing all over the colleges and universities in
program in math and reading under the supervision of Richard Atkinson and Patrick
Suppes. The daily math drill-and-practice lessons permitted students to amend answers
(Robyler, 2009). In 1973, educational uses of computers started to surface such as drill-
In the 1980s, when reasonably priced personal computers were first introduced,
the AppleLogo was launched as a user-friendly new platform. To teach computer science
Graphic Oriented language programming (Robyler, 2009). During the same time, IBM
invented the first personal computer (PC). Not too long, thereafter, because the PC met
In the 1990s, compact discs were utilized to promote simulation CAI programs
intended for classroom use (Murdock, 2004). For knowledge conduction, conventional
lectures are suitable but do not stimulate critical thinking (Bligh, 2000). Instructions that
assist in transforming student viewpoints are critical to stimulate interest in the subject
matter (Holley & Dodson, 2008). Authors from previous studies revealed that the
King, Sander, & Stevenson, 2000). Conventional instruction was deemed to be less
multimedia tools for instructional delivery. The outpouring demand for online instruction
emerged due to the instant growth of the Internet, increasing computer use at home, and
the declining charges of communication (Volery, 2001). The connection between the
Internet and public schools in the mid-1990s grew from 35% to 100%. Likewise,
instructional classrooms in public education with Internet access flourished from 14%, 10
years prior, to 94% (Lewis & Wells, 2006). By the year 2014, it is projected that 90% of
The features and characteristics of the Internet transformed and magnified access
(Cormode & Krishnamurthy, 2008). In the year 2000, Web 1.0 was regarded as an
5
academic source of information, where many users perused, read, and gathered
information from a front page or public entry point (Wallace, 2004). Theoretically, the
design, process, and results utilizing Web 1.0 represented knowledge amassed by
2008).
More recently, through the help of groundbreaking technologies, Web 2.0 is both
a stage and a space where consumers are as vital as the content disclosed and uploaded.
Social networks (Facebook, MySpace, and Twitter), media sharing (YouTube and
Flickr), and creative works (podcast and blogs) are part of Web 2.0 design. It supports
mixture of learning spaces that journey through physical and cyber space utilizing the
A subject that attracts attention at the national level in the field of education,
learners in utilizing computers for interaction and entertainment led educators to discover
methods and applications to employ the use of computers as devices to improve learning
skills (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2003). The incorporation of CAI as an
proficiencies, and ages (Brothen & Wambach, 2000; McSweeney, 2003; Nguyen, 2002:
students the opportunity to learn by viewing the information presented or by reading the
text displayed (Mahmood, 2004). All of the characterizations of CAI assent that a
computer in the classroom functions as a tutor that conveys instruction through various
methods of presentation.
Problem Statement
Progress, mathematics achievement scores in the United States have decreased (National
Center for Education Statistics, 2007). The performance outcomes of American students
an intervention, the writers of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB, 2001) stressed the
and overall mathematics test scores (Hauptman, 2010; Lazakidou & Retalis, 2010; Silk,
Higashi, Ross, & Schunn, 2010). In an effort to improve achievement scores in a local
mathematics.
associated with retention even though girls have increased proficiency in mathematics in
university entrance tests, males ordinarily surpassed females (Mullis, Martin, & Foy,
2005; Mullis, Martin, Gonzalez, Gregory, & Garden, 2000). Thus, weaker performance
Purpose
effectiveness of a specific CAI supplemental math program, Mad Dog Math, on students’
second and third grades, totaling 81students ranging from seven to nine years old,
participated in the study. Using a G*Power analysis, a total sample size of 80 was
needed to detect a larger medium effect. Since the total number of participants was
comprised of students enrolled in one private school, the sample size was satisfactory in
detecting large effects but was not adequate in disclosing medium size effects. The
student population consisted of male and female learners. A pretest and posttest utilizing
the California Standard Test (CST) Released Test Questions (California Department of
Education, 2011) were administered to learners as part of the study. The independent
variable in this study was the treatment of Mad Dog Math while the dependent variable
was the posttest scores. For the experimental group, 39 students were solicited to
group). For the control group, 42 students were requested to participate in the study
using only the conventional method of teaching mathematics without any supplements
enhancing skills in mathematics. The findings may have a policy implication, at a district
level, both in the public and private sector, if ascertained to be effective and reliable as a
tool for increasing scores on mathematics achievement tests. Results from this study
contributed to the body of literature by adding knowledge and information that enhance
Theoretical Framework
higher measurement of mastery (Carroll, 1963). This study embraced mastery learning as
its theoretical framework. The premise of this theory was based on the belief that
mastery is attainable for practically every student, on the condition that an appropriate
learning environment in the allotted time was provided and that the quality of instruction
assessment, and feedback should have been integrated in this quality instruction (Bloom,
1981).
Some learners will achieve more than others, particularly students who are
dedicated to accomplish mastery learning for each student, modifications in their methods
9
to deliver instructions and strategies to present classroom procedures and practices are
necessary, and then degree of achievement and amount of success in the entire classroom
intensify. Math classrooms that underscore mastery objectives accentuating learning and
students who are considered underachievers are inspired to catch up and stay on task to
pursue excellence. Personal mastery goals achieved through mastery learning can
activate optimistic and inspirational sentiments when performing mathematics (Lau &
mastery level, individual learner differences must be considered and adequate time spent
with the material is essential for student achievement (Cooperman, 2011). The theory of
mastery learning by Suppes and Zanotti (1996) is comprised of the following tenets: (a)
standardized components, (c) establish learner readiness, (d) apply learning paradigms for
assessing mastery, (e) employ forgetting models for assigning reevaluation, and (f) utilize
A. Learners focus on the content standards and assessments assigned by the state.
D. Learners advance at their own speed when robust learning process in a specific
arise.
Another learning theory that this research adopted was active learning. Active
learning was intended to enhance student learning and achievement. Active learning is
observed when the following takes place: (a) the student is able to compose his or her
own interpretation, (b) present knowledge is established on prior knowledge, (c) the
student collaborates with other students, and (d) the learning is constructed based on
experiential learning (Maher & Tienken, 2008). Active learning embraces a variety of
Research Questions
Integrating the use of technology that offers mathematical questions, context, and
practical learning strategies into the curriculum has contributed to increased problem-
11
solving skills in primary school students (Lazakidou & Retalis, 2010). There is a cause
and effect relationship inferred amid the utilization of CAI and success in mathematics
(Ash, 2004). Assuming that there is a connection, a study was warranted to confirm or
contradict a linkage in which the researcher can affect the variable of CAI.
assisted instruction math program, Mad Dog Math, on students’ math achievement as
mathematics achievement. The pretest and posttest devised to ascertain any discrepancy
in mathematics achievement were administered. The test used was the California
Standard Tests (CST) Released Test Questions and was published by the California
Department of Education.
The following research questions were derived from the correlation that was
speculated between success in learning mathematics and the use of technology, more
elementary mathematics program called Mad Dog Math. Furthermore, they identified the
Q1. After accounting for the pretest score, is there a significant difference in the
mean posttest score between students who were offered the MDM software supplement
Q2. Is there an interaction between gender (male or female) and treatment (MDM
supplement versus no MDM supplement) when evaluating posttest scores when pretest
Hypotheses
H10. There is no significant difference in the posttest scores between the students
who receive mathematics instruction using conventional math and MDM as a supplement
and students who receive conventional math instruction without the MDM supplement
H1a. There is a significant difference in the posttest scores between the students
who receive mathematics instruction using conventional math and MDM as a supplement
and students who receive conventional math instruction without the MDM supplement
H20. There is no significant interaction between gender (male versus female) and
H2a. There is a significant interaction between gender (male versus female) and
the classroom and mathematics achievement. The California Standard Test (CST) was
only (control group), the CST was readministered. The pretest and posttest measure of
educators and test developers particularly for the state of California. Scores were
calculated and inputted in SPSS Student Version 20.0 for Windows. Preceding analysis,
Utilizing the Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA), the two hypotheses in the study
confounding variable for its effect on the posttest outcome. Mad Dog Math was an
independent variable, used with the computer, designed to assist students with acquiring
Due to the continuous shift in the global economy and workplace, daily use in
accentuated (Laidlow, 2004). The ability to integrate words with numbers is one of the
people, the American institutions of public education are held accountable, especially
since the U.S. has undergone a change from an industrialized-based nation to one that
overpoweringly delivers services and information. This particular change requires that
and mathematics. This integration will prepare the new generation of students to think
analytically, infer and reason, and be ready to learn how to gain knowledge (Nathan &
Tran, 2010).
Educators are confronted with sustaining the diverse needs of all the learners that
they influence in the classroom. It is crucial for educators to make available research-
Osterweil, 2009).
method (Lynch, 2006; Hannafin, Liu, Truxaw, & Vermillion, 2008). Numerous
mathematics. For example, it has been reported that mathematical knowledge advanced
when the use of multimedia was integrated in math instruction for primary grade students
Likewise, improved motivation ensued for upper elementary grade learners when
computer games were incorporated in their math curriculum (Ke, 2008). A study done
conception and operation with the CAI indoctrination (Tienken & Wilson, 2007). House
15
(2001) reported that the use of CAI produced substantial improvement in the outcomes of
have policy implications at a district level. Findings from this study conveyed
specific CAI software program that contributed to improving the state’s math curriculum.
Definitions
learning task compared to cumulative assessments that evaluate how a group achieved at
examination that assesses learners’ progress toward achieving California’s state adopted
history—social science which describe what students should be able to comprehend and
execute in each grade and subject analyzed (California Department of Education, 2011).
(Rowley, 2005).
including knowledge, skills, and performance standards that learners are expected to
Mad Dog Math. Mad Dog Math is a supplemental math program to any math
curriculum for grades kindergarten through fifth grade or for remedial middle and high
learners with increasing mastery of the fundamental math facts which are the building
on the idea that given sufficient time, all learners can learn. Students do not further
Summary
Computer technology is an effective device that has the ability to support learners
imperative in education.
of math education obtained by all learners (The National Mathematics Advisory Panel
(2008). There are numerous components that influence mathematics learning such as
instructors’ technical abilities and attributes of learners and their family members. One
feature in which the school administration has instantaneous control is the selected math
program to be carried out by the instructors (Groff, Lake, & Slavin, 2009).
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of the technology
integration in an elementary mathematics program, Mad Dog Math, and the position that
experimental study included two classes of second and third grade, totaling 81students
enhancing skills in mathematics. The findings have policy implication, at a district level,
both in the public and private sector, and ascertained to be effective and reliable as a tool
for increasing scores in mathematics achievement test. Results from this study also
contributed to the body of literature by adding knowledge and information that enhance
D. Summary
This literature review includes recent studies and publications involving the
Searches of the databases regarding types of CAI such as practice and drill
sessions, tutorial sessions, simulations, instructional games, and problem solving were
especially valuable in finding information that concentrated upon K-12 education rather
than postsecondary level. Particularly, the researcher pursued information concerning the
using distinguished learning specialists such as Ash, Dynarski, Fuchs, Hyde, Schoppek,
Suppes, and Tullis were contributory for locating articles as well as books through
Google Books. To deliver profundity and depth for each topic indicated above, past and
19
present researchers were cited. Concepts and theories associated with effective
In the 20th Century, the direction for the prospect of mathematics education was
reserved only for learners who autonomously desired to learn the subject, hence,
validating the sluggish stride of learners and limiting instruction to practical skills that
In the late 1950s, Sputnik 1was discharged by the Russians, the event that
commemorated the beginning of the intergalactic era and the space rivalry between the
Americans and the Russians. Pivotal reformation pertaining to “New Math” was
corroboration, and perception were the highlights of this New Math, it was unsuccessful
in improving the country’s aptitude and proficiency in mathematics. Later in the 1970s,
math facts such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division was brought about
(Burris, 2006).
The society’s dissatisfaction with public education was amplified in the 1980s
when economic challenges prevailed. The public detected the correlation between the
recession and the mediocre public education system in the United States. This caused the
20
The imperative for Education Reform (NAR) turned out to be the strength for 20 years of
Many studies and debates bade to focus on some of the risks recognized such as
instructor credentials and better disbursement for faculty resources. To promote learner
devices including state of the art computer and software programs. Consequently,
curriculum and be able to apply them in the business world. In relation to the support
sophisticated status in comparison with students from other nations, the impact of this
Additionally, the initial set of standards was established in 1989 by the National Council
the classroom were the main emphasis in mathematics in the 1990s. The utilization of
during this period (Burns, 1999; National Association for the Education of Young
Children [NAEYC], 2009; Roth, 1992). Acceptance and popularity of The National
related scope and sequences expanded and numerous states and educators advocated its
model programs. Proficiency in content areas such as mathematics for grade level
21
the expectancy that by the end of second grade, learners should be able to grasp the
Fluency in basic math skills, crucial for the achievement of learners in primary
money, and problem solving (Codding, Chan-lannetta, Palmer, & Lukito, 2009).
many responsibilities that formal education, occupation, lifestyle, service quality, and
activities such as the use of the computer, television shows, and outdoor activities, gender
was an important characteristic. The authors reported that most males spent their
recreation time occupied visiting various websites on the Internet, staying outdoors, and
playing with their favorite toys, whereas, girls spend most of their leisure time watching
22
television. Traditionally, dynamic, thrill-seeking, and daring tasks have been given to
male characters (Bontempi & Warden-Hazelwood, 2003). These gender differences and
inclinations have endured and remained in computer software preferences, thus ensued
substandard inspiration for females to contribute in more advanced math and science
cultural influences, and scholastic policies alter the enthusiasm of males and females who
participated in higher-level study of mathematics and science (Halpern et al., 2007, p.1).
skills prevail (Bhana, 2005; Hyde, Lindberg, Linn, Ellis, & Williams, 2008; Kiefer &
in question (Halpern et al., 2007; National Academy of Sciences, 2007). In part, the gap
can be associated with social and educational influences that are viewed as obstacles to
women considering STEM fields (Stultz, 2009). However, an even greater portion of the
shortage appears to come from the issues of gender differences and learning styles in the
Dickinson, 2011). Learners’ decisions about taking a particular college major are
centered on how fitting the norms of the major conform to the students’ learning styles
(Kolb, 1976).
23
Most male students, typically, acquire knowledge from instructors who undertake a
commanding position or compelling role. Female learners, on the other hand, may
acclimatize to this style of learning but achieve more and relate better with mentors
whose instruction style facilitates learning (Barrett, 2006). The idea that learning is also
today in many universities, and is inefficient in instructing female students (Kolb & Kolb,
2005). Traditional STEM courses are distinctively aggressive but neglect to modify
instruction to welcome all learning modalities (Tindal & Hamil, 2003). Adopting various
teaching methods including the use of multimedia lectures utilizing technology will
accommodate learners who are not responsive to conventional types of education (Baker,
2007).
real with high achievers and girls with high probability of advancing in mathematics.
These feelings of uselessness occurred albeit the fact that their success stories have
escalated over the years. Other reports, directly or indirectly, regarding gender
associated with the term labeled as “talented female student resistance to science”
(Enman & Lupart, 2000, p.161). Variations in adeptness explain gender differences due
to the greater percentage of males with an extremely great talent in the discipline linked
with inert sciences rather than their female counterparts (Lubinski, Benbow, & Morelock,
These sentiments include convictions and affinities as well as social impacts involving
In a research done by Ceci and Williams (2010), they indicated three possible
rationalization includes the gender disparities in mathematical and spatial skills. One
would contend that a surplus of males at the right tail of a quantitative research (Ceci,
Registrar’s office is more likely to admit men applicants if there are double the amount of
male gender in the top 1% of the graduates even if women receive the same grades or
even higher grades in mathematics than their male counterparts (Gallagher & Kaufmann,
2005). Although strong report on male gains over female on three-dimensional spatial
rotation has been claimed (Little, Lubinski, & Wai, 2007), evidence of absolute
correlation that this skill causes reduced involvement of women in STEM fields is
lacking (Little, Newcombe, & Terlecke, 2007). Therefore, the possibility of having the
2:1 gender ratio is higher and consistent with lack of gender symmetry (Park, Lubinski, &
Benbow, 2008).
employment. In examining attestation for bias against females in hiring and funding, true
findings and analysis have been inconclusive in providing rationale for the truncated
quantity of women involved in STEM fields (Ginther & Kahn, 2006). Previous research
have also concluded that after regulating underlying variables such as prestige of the
college campus, field specialty, and existence of little children in the family during term,
25
because males in similar conditions perform equally (Corbett, Hill, & St. Rose, 2010).
Finally, the last reasoning involves the preferences of profession and standard of
Armstrong, Rounds, and Su (2009) revealed that rather than being fascinated in areas
encompassing systematizing non-living things like their male counterpart, women are
more captivated by careers related to social relations such as policy making and
treatment. Conversely, there are fewer women with superior mathematics ability that are
attracted to STEM related profession (Lubinski & Benbow, 2006). In the midst of
equally exceptional mathematical aptitude amongst both genders, the consideration that
women often have superior speaking skills has been discounted (Park, et al., 2008).
Whereas more males are aware that their solely intensity is in mathematics, women
contemplate on choosing professions from other math- associated areas such as medicine,
Thus prior research has been analyzed that females withdraw from scientific
professions after reaching their assistant professor positions at greater rate than males
(Ceci, Williams, 2009). When females give up their careers to have children, it is a
preference- compelled by biology- that male is not mandated to generate. Therefore, the
generously accepted and restricted by biology and culture (Ceci & Williams, 2010).
the standardized mathematics test, the boys’ group merited considerably superior test
scores but the gender disparities in grades were not present. Gender discrepancies were
26
present and significant in gifted groups to a higher degree than in the regular aptitude
groups of students. The hypothesis that gifted learners are more dissimilar when it comes
learners was reinforced in this study (Goetz, Kleine, Pekrun, & Preckel, 2008).
execution for both regular and gifted students are explicit in task. It was observed that in
came to cognitive mathematics, females demonstrated a minor edge over their male
counterpart. Although girls received higher grades on their report cards from school, for
assignments that demanded arithmetic mastery, boys surpassed the girls. Overall, both in
implementation objective induction in mathematics than girls (Goetz, Kleine, Pekrun, &
recognition of aptitudes and prompt intervention and treatment programs for females,
females acquiring a damaging self- view and an unfavorable mindset towards arithmetic.
boosting the amount of mathematics programs for girls, (d) retraining of ascription, (e)
27
establishment of counselors and advisors, (f) parental and educator advocacy (Kleine,
It has been recorded in the past that female students, from elementary all the way
through college take home superior grades on their report cards compared to male
mathematics (Freeman, 2004; Halpern, 2000). However, the outcomes lack constancy in
mathematics. Freeman (2003, 2004) suggested that the rationale for unpredictable results
procedures.
In assessing the gender gap, first, authors Hyde et al., (2008) used two meta-
analyses of math skills, 1990 and 2007. The findings included negative gender
disparities generally, d=.05; and approximately identical male and female inconsistencies,
VR = 1.08. Next, sizeable data were evaluated centered on the likelihood selection of
American juveniles over the two decades. During the study, the researchers observed a
low effect size differences between males and females. The gender gap effect sizes
varied between -0.15 and +0.22 and variance ratios fluctuated from 0.88 to 1.34.
Opposed to the destructive typecast that is broadly embraced by young girls that females
are inadequate in mathematics skills, professional adults, and parents (Cavanaugh, 2008),
10 states involved in the assessment of second through eleventh grades standardized math
28
In the preceding era, one of the key rationalizations for higher male scores on
standardized exams in secondary schools included the scenario that females infrequently
registered for advanced placement mathematics and science courses (Meece & Eccles-
Parsons, 1982). Albeit girls continued to trail after the boys in taking physics classes, by
the year 2000, the number of girls registered in calculus courses in secondary schools was
equal to the number of the boys (National Science Foundation [NSF], 2006). Currently,
while it has been documented that gender disparities in the fields of engineering and
physics still exist, 48% of the undergraduate degrees in mathematics are acquired by
females (NSF, 2004). Thus, after assessing the gender gap using two meta-analysis of
math skills issued between 1990 and 2007 and data from U.S. youngsters, the authors
endorsed the understanding that mathematics skills of boys and girls are alike (Hyde et
al., 2008).
In an attempt to duplicate the study done by Hyde, et al., (2008), Scafidi and Bui
(2010) utilized national data from grades eight, ten, and twelve. The replicated research
involved samples of students nationwide. The goal of the study was to assess whether
gender equivalences in math skills would be altered by social status, economic position,
race, and mathematics ranking from middle all the way through high school. Since
learners’ mindsets and impressions concerning their future professions inspire the courses
that they will register for, the authors of the study chose students from middle school and
secondary school as participants. The rationale persisted that students would relinquish
29
the prospect to chase occupations that compel intense math aptitude if learners lacked
The longitudinal part of the investigation started in 1988. At that time, the eighth
graders throughout the U.S. were evaluated utilizing data from the National Education
Longitudinal Study (NELS). The NELS organized a sequel of assessments when the
participating students entered tenth grade in 1990 and in twelfth grade in 1992. Two
years later, after high school graduation, the same evaluation was conducted as part of the
longitudinal inquiry.
The writers of prior studies (Hyde, Fennema, & Lamon, 1990; Hedges & Nowell,
1990; Kimbal, 1989) have corroborated that their research resulted to minimal gender
differences in mathematics skills. In addition, the findings, contingent on the effect and
model of experiment, at times bolstered girls and at times bolstered boys. The concern of
1999). To measure the intellectual requirements of the examinations that determine math
degree of complexity (Rock & Pollack, 1995): (a) Math Level 1measured competency in
executing straightforward numerical procedures with whole numbers, (b) Math Level 2
square roots, and decimal operations, (c) Math Level 3 analyzed basic knowledge of
30
simple arithmetic concepts applied in unsophisticated problem solving, (d) Math Level 4
examined skills in the usage of higher level numerical theories and solving word
problems applying numerous steps to find solutions, (e) Math Level 5 checked adeptness
in unraveling multifaceted word problems utilizing multi-step ways to find the answer.
Although the result in this study was not altered by social status, economic position, race,
resemblances throughout all the grade levels measured. Overall, the findings presented
pragmatic proof and confirmation for parents and professionals to inspire girls of all age
In comparison, authors of both studies, Hyde et al., (2008) and Scafidi and Bui
mathematics testing. In the experiment performed by Hyde et al., (2008), however, the
exception to gender likeness was when beginning in high school males favored complex
problem-solving, which may contribute to the gender disparity in STEM careers. The
authors, therefore, resolved that their assessment for learners from second through
eleventh grades demonstrated that girls now score just as well as the boys.
sophisticated procedures available today, learners are still the principal controller in the
learning process. Only through the learners, the central component, can full potential in
a mentor still portrays a vital function as the external influence in learning (Ru-De, 2010).
31
of teaching and learning purposes and approaches can be integrated into math programs.
For example, technology devices such as computers, laptops, hand-held devices, graphic
calculators, interactive white boards, and immediate response gadgets, and web-based
1944 at Harvard University to execute the implementation of basic math (Reilly, 2004).
1996).
IBM in the 1950s and soon after, the first CAI project, the PLATO, was inaugurated at
the University of Illinois. In its primary phase, Plato was also applied in the nursing
department and for library explorations. Consecutively, CAI projects were introduced in
the University of Texas and at Florida State University. In Utah, during the Time-Shared
32
period, Brigham Young University used the computer as the principal instruction in
invented by Papert and Feurzig. It was originally intended for the instruction of
education. In the 1980s, the employment of LOGO, combined with other content areas
LOGO used the “language for learning” which specialized in easy and perceptive
grammar and composition to attract its juvenile customers (Rusev & Solomon, 2008).
Science Advisory Committee (PSAC) chairperson, John R. Pierce, construed that in the
absence of sufficient computing, higher education was lacking as higher education would
concept of using computers in the corporate and economic worlds was complex,
uncertain. The application of the computer in research was meager and the concept that
computer use in the classroom was imperative and essential in education was still unusual
(Molnar, 1990).
enrichment and tutorial programs (Kulik, 2003). Numerous investigators reported the
affirmative impacts of computer use on math and science and the quality of student
composition with the use of student laptops (Adonri & Gittman, 1998; Gardner, Jarman,
& Morrison, 1993; Geban, Ozkan, & Yalcinalp, 1995). From 1997 to present, with the
33
evolution of the Internet, magnified with high speed, it soon became the leading source of
The Internet, with its downloadable programs, is a priceless resource for many
educators, in spite of the threats of unforeseen computer viruses and other problems.
Various educational applications and bigger computer memory make the use of the
personal PC for teacher and student extremely useful and indispensable. The use of
utilizing search engines such as Bing, Yahoo, WebCrawler, and Google have transformed
ways of communication and interaction between people worldwide (IGI Global, 2008).
classroom remains elusive despite its popularity with the students. This is deemed to be
due to the increased school activities and experiences, with regards to schedule and
have suggested the following features be considered: (a) competency with the use of
computer, (b) acceptance concerning its usefulness, (c) personal preference with
teaching, (d) accessibility, and (e) availability of technical support (Straub, 2009). On the
other hand, there is substantial proof indicating that computer integration can assist in
training learners to be technologically informed and efficient for this century (Crooks,
34
concerning familiarity, ability, and certainty in operating the computer fosters technology
integration in the classroom (Inan & Lowther, 2010; Ward & Parr, 2010).
treatments, many educators are enhancing their conventional lectures with the use of
technology (Armington, 2003; Hall & Pantoon, 2005). One of the main objectives of
scholastic research today is uncovering how students learn successfully (Larwin &
Larwin, 2011). In the past 50 years, the impact of information and communication
procedures that have displayed score advancement in mathematics for all students.
instruction and learner enthusiasm, the computer can be utilized as a podium for
commonly used for enhancement. With the capability to assess each student’s
mathematical skills, CAI programs can prepare drill-and-practice exercises designed to fit
individual requirements.
mathematics achievement scores. After learning a lesson from a math textbook, students
can then visit the computer, either stationed inside the classroom or go to a computer
form of a drill or exercise. It usually involves basic math family facts progressing into
daily practice drills based on computer analysis and from the students’ previous score.
Individualization and the computer’s ability to analyze the learners’ advancement in the
program and to be able to uninterruptedly meet the students’ needs are the main features
learners’ upside and downside and to provide the students opportunities to practice
content area like mathematics, particularly when it comes to basic math facts like
One of the outstanding social verities of the 20th Century is the endeavor to
deliver uniformity and mass schooling worldwide (Suppes, 1988). The use of CAI can
deliver an echelon of consistency and standardization that elevate the level of pedagogy.
employment of CAI.
The following are among the many functions of the computer-assisted instruction
in the classroom: (a) provides professional graphic visualization, (b) serves as a tutorial
36
service which demands constant interaction with the learner and the modification of the
content designed to match the skills and abilities of the learners, (c) generates tests and
quizzes linked to the syllabus provided by the institution (mastery learning can be easily
attained by posting replacement questionnaires of each exam not fully grasped), and (d)
offers a program management system that allows learners to have immediate feedback
mathematics. Due to the heightened availability, CAI has been suggested as a convenient
assisted instruction has been successfully utilized by students with or without learning
disabilities. Its success is mainly due to increased time concentrated on reading materials
or exercises on the computer. It offers productive practice and time management and is
One of the main advantages that the CAI provides inside the classroom is one-on-
one exercises with minimal supervisory time involving the teacher. In many cases,
programs offer features that monitor speed and accuracy of answers and the regularity of
instruction for subject mastery (Wong, 2008). Computer-assisted instruction offers one
potential opportunity for education leaders to prevail over or attend to the issues of low
achievement in mathematics.
the researchers deemed that CAI should assist learners to assign the matching number
combination skills among learners with assenting risk for math disability. The use of
CAI in mathematics programs was successful in advancing addition but not subtraction
number combination skills and that transfer to math word story problems took place.
One recommendation was that the teachers supervise learners so that correct usage of the
By examining the influence of two CAI programs on the math academic success
of two groups of scholastic at-risk middle school learners compared to a group of learners
who were not at-risk in a conventional instructional program, Neil and Matthews’ (2009)
research revealed only a minor breach between the two groups following the first year of
the CAI interventions. The educators and administrators at the middle school credited the
accomplishment for each of the testing phases. The study, however, did not employ a
Instead, it presented outcomes that allowed the investigators to ascertain the strong points
and the course of the relationship between different collections of data (Borg, Gall, &
Gall, 2007).
advancement is a plan with robust indication of success. CAI offers a unique benefit of
students are required to learn and master but have not yet learned and mastered.
when compared to programs that are designed to adhere predominantly with prospectus
and calculations (NTCM, 2006). Authors of numerous studies revealed mixed findings
research on the impact of CAI and software programs on students’ degree of success,
employed (Sheehan & Nillas, 2010). Thus, investigators and educators need to analyze
numerous learners veered towards technology for assistance far beyond their own
understanding on how to solve math related problems (Galbriath, 2006). In a study done
reasoning in junior high school, Fies (2007) pointed out that technology integration was
the culprit. On the contrary, Muir (2007) indicated that the absence of scholastic
influence during computer integration in middle grades math and science classrooms was
due to the marginal use of the equipment that gave way to inadequate computer skills for
that validate their hypothesis as a group (Vincent, 2005). The author construed that the
and thoughtful discussions steered learners to more profound theoretical perception of the
learning methods that highlight student-led activities (Funkhouser, 2002; Serhan, 2004).
The inconsistencies that exist between the group that utilized computer-assisted
instruction and the group that was pencil and paper based could be due to the integration
developmentally disabled children had influence in their learning capacity. Thus, the
author suggested that the use of an approach that assists the understanding of specific
theoretical perceptions such as number and measurement permits the acquisition of such
abstract concepts for people with psychological disabilities (Gersten, 2000). When
that CAI enhanced mathematics achievement scores of regular and special education as
well as ESL proficient middle school students on their math pretests and posttests. The
40
learners who the author examined included intact groups arranged into exploratory
situations and in the workplace continue to rise (NCTM, 2006). In the world that is
mathematical functions will have considerably increased probabilities for influencing the
future. Based on the research done by NCTM (2006), technology is crucial in explaining
and studying arithmetic because it shapes the subject that is communicated and heightens
student learning.
When students comprehend the value of math in everyday living, they are more
understanding the relationship between mathematics and the world that they live in.
fast speed.
Types of CAI
Through the work of Atkinson (1968) and Watson (1072), computer assisted
instruction were originally apportioned into groups. However, since CAI software
programs continue to vary in procedures, styles, and characteristics, they are currently
41
categorized based on their delivery systems: (a) drill-and-practice sessions, (b) tutorials
sessions, (c) simulations, (d) instructional games, and (e) problem solving programs
traditional class worksheet, drill-and-practice training offer the following advantages: (a)
reduce time needed to complete a lesson by providing spontaneous score and immediate
feedback, (b) repetitive exercises on a lesson taught at an earlier time, (c) increase variety
of questions at the appropriate educational level, and (d) increase in the amount of test
the drill-and-practice program, the computer poses a question to the student, the student
provides a reply, then the computer will give feedback concerning whether the response
is accurate or inaccurate (Robyler, 2009). Some examples of the suitable usage of drill-
interactive multimedia tools provide students the opportunity to discover and create their
own individual knowledge dynamically. It can assist in making learning more enjoyable
(Moreno & Mayer, 2007). The tutorial software can render a productive and interactive
42
learning atmosphere that encourages a variety of learning approaches (Birch & Sankey,
2008).
dynamic learning. This process enables the students to regulate the progression and
wherein they have some influence over the rate of instructional exercises, individuals
The utilization of online tutorials was deemed to have a constructive effect and
Mitchell, Chen, and Macredie (2005). Thus, online interactive learning offers an
learning approaches.
In the state of Nevada, one metropolitan school district received a state grant to
pilot and implement an examination and a corrective web site. The research was
conducted by Biesinger and Crippen (2008) and 64 students from10 various high schools
concurred to join in the experimental study. Each school was represented by one
tutorial program in their own domain. Using the program as a supplement to a traditional
classroom, every educator who signed up for the pilot study was a math specialist with a
forte on remediation. The participants in the pilot study comprised of students in 12th
grade who had yet to pass the Nevada High School Proficiency Examination in
43
Mathematics (NHSPEM). The subjects for the implementation study consisted of 10th
The goal was to assist learners in preparation for the NHSPEM, thus increase
activity that provided access to mathematical education using technology inside and
outside the classroom. In their findings based on the data gathered from both studies, the
authors specified that students who accessed the interactive tutorial gained from the
supplemental activity.
More specifically, in favor of the study cohort, the implementation group findings
become acquainted with the standardized test questions and the delivery of precise and
constant feedback, the tutorial program proved advantageous to learners taking the test
for the first time. The interactive tutorial website was best utilized as an additional
practice for learners with explicit need for individual intensive tutoring (Biesinger &
games represent directives that engage individuals in exercises that call for personal
This type of instruction is conveyed using technology and is inherently exciting and
stimulating (Griffiths, Parke, & Wood, 2007). In explaining the concept of interactive
cognitive complexity, Tennyson and Jorczak (2008) proposed that simulation games are
Engaging its subjects to the tenets of dynamic learning and recreation is the
principal approach when simulation games are utilized. The dynamic learning
philosophy offers the participants two imperative responsibilities: firstly, vital decision-
the assignment to extrapolate the procedures for successful execution. On the other hand,
the recreation concept continually occupies the participant in learning practices that
heightens subject impetus (Bell & Kozlowski, 2008). By promoting helpful prompts of
self- worth, simulation games endorse mastery learning to transpire by allowing subjects
to go through the following experiences: use familiarity and ability, enrich rational and
intellectual activities as one enthusiastically connects with the concept, and advocate
constructive and expressive stimulation (Kozlowski & Bell, 2006). This conception is in
harmony with the beliefs that promote simulation games as a source of increased self-
worth when studying how to handle autistic youngsters (Bizo, Hall, Randell, Remington,
& 2007).
efficiency of simulation games for instructing students, the authors denoted superior
improvement for subjects that received simulation games versus conventional classroom
(2011), the researcher disclosed the following outcomes with favorable results for the
group that received simulation games: (a) in the area of declarative learning, 11%
advancement, (b) in the level of technical learning, 14% progression, (c) in memory or
recollection capacity, 9% superior, (d) in delivery method, 17% more successful, and (e)
Based on these outcomes, the researcher concluded that the recent findings are consistent
submitted that when appropriately applied, technology can increase student learning
achievements.
classwork exercises and testing is at a low level because exercise represents repetition of
work. In many cases this results to declining output, thus, utilizing methods that
Instructional games have numerous factors that provide impetus and the aspiration
for achievement is most vital (Yee, 2007). A study conducted by Bekir Celen (2009),
which included 157 high school learners, was intended to assess the effects of scoring
high and seeing the student’s name on the top of the list after web-based drills. The
author reported the website with the greatest competitive characteristics yielded the most
explore the website and the occurrence of their visit. It was concluded in this research
that there was no discrepancy in enthusiasm between male and female genders in
instructional games.
46
It was denoted in the research performed by Kula and Erdem’s (2005) that
although quantifiable effort was not measured, the value of motivation in learning was
detected. In their study, the authors declared that the following are the attributes present
in the instructional games that attracted the learners: to collect bonuses, to accumulate
points, pointers and cues, amenities, obtain tallies, discard numbers, procedures, to
Tezel (1999), it was pointed out that an extreme competitive disposition of learners had
zero influence on scholastic attainment. The researcher mentioned that competitive and
is highly significant to them. The practicality of the instructional games discloses its
appealing and academic elements (Prensky, 2001). It is proposed by Malone (1980) that
the intrinsic stimulus that is an essential part of motivation in the environment that
Problem solving. The fifth category of CAI is problem solving. The ability to
classwork, tests, and projects are some of the benefits of CAI problem solving method.
abilities and not as solitary academic skill, problem-solving programs are deemed to be at
its highest success (Mayer, 2008). In preparation for students to be successful in utilizing
the problem-solving approach, appropriate training includes educating learners about the
only distinct and precise procedures is appropriate. This method will incite students to
shift their mathematical abilities to tangible applications. The merit of the problem-
solving, from the amateurish to the more seasoned problem solver. After conducting a
pilot study involving 35 individuals using the Learning Online Network with a Computer
program that offers instantaneous feedback on the tactic usability, Gok (2010)
accounted that learners should distinctly comprehend the mathematical theory and
Traditional classroom instruction differs from CAI in three areas: (a) style
2010). In CAI, small amounts of oral communication exist as the computer corresponds
interaction between the mentor and the learner (Steinberg, 1991). A mentor can evaluate
student learning and understanding of the subject matter through inquiries, reviewing
opportunities of daily drills and prompt response in a stimulating and inspiring setting,
technology can assist in reaching intellectual objectives (Kaput, Hegedus, & Lesh, 2007).
Utilizing software designs can encourage learners to create numerical procedures that
promote knowledge and expertise by gradually tracking the formula on a question, a step
at a time, prior to interceding when execution disagrees with the correct procedure
(Corbett, Koedinger, & Hadley, 2001; Roschelle, 2003). Technology validates systems
that already exist in the classroom such as developmental evaluation and social practices
(Roschelle, 2003).
classroom (Lim, Petty, & Zulau, 2007). Nevertheless, the need for individualization and
requisite and the impact of technology on each learner needs to be reflected in the
crucial element of this interface between mortal and machine (Smith, 2009). In an
(2009), he proposed that the increased scores from pretest to posttest were due to the
dynamic learning of the students and the repetitive exercises extended daily through the
revealed that the success of the lesson was not automatically based on the method of
technology used but by the treatment of the technology to the content area that caused the
procedures with which the teachers have been trained and feel at ease is the inclination
for many educators when delivering instruction. While the educator lectures, the learners
After explaining the lesson and the stage-by-stage processes, the educator will
support the lesson with exercises. Collaboration between the students is not practiced
instruction is entirely lectured and has not been successful in teaching mathematics
advancement (Spradlin, 2009, p.33). On the other hand, the use of computers and the
Internet allow for innovative ways to convey instruction that offer the learners choices of
what time to learn, where to learn, and how to learn mathematics. As a substitute to
spontaneous feedback, and all day access (Bottge, Grant, Rueda, & Stephens, 2010).
of educators today would concur with the essentials for expounding instructing
stratagems and prospectuses. But the inquiry continues concerning what mathematical
50
concepts are valuable (Roschelle, Singleton, Sabelli, Pea, & Bransford, 2008) as well as
the features of the type of studying activities would advocate this learning (Greeno &
work out answers but conveying energetic teaching that esteems theoretical
(Lesh, Yoon, & Zawojewski, 2007). Thus, better-quality learning transpires when
Based on the reported data, learners who received traditional math instruction plus
CAI displayed considerable gains compared to the control group. This outcome is
indicative of the effectiveness and efficiency of the methodology of the intervention used
for these particular fourth grade mathematics students. According to the theory of
participated in the research study for over two years and another group of 28 learners
participated for over a year. Utilizing SuccessMaker math program, both groups spent 16
minutes every day and at least 80 minutes every week. At the end of first year, 88% of
schools, Ash (2005) reported that there were substantial gains noted on the achievement
scores of students who participated in traditional math instruction plus the CAI program.
For one hour weekly, the experimental group received additional CAI using the Orchard
Math Software as an intervention. The control group, however, received traditional math
instruction only. The research was conducted for over 11 weeks utilizing a pretest and
in the classroom provides instructors with the opportunity to finalize individual analysis,
categorize instruction, adjust pacing, offer broad drill and exercise, and give immediate
feedback (Flippo & Caverly, 2008). Utilizing the SuccessMaker CAI package, Powell,
Aeby, and Carpenter-Aeby (2003) found that scholastic results of troublesome subjects
The authors of three studies that assessed the SimCalc methodology concentrated
one’s advancement in fundamental math facts. This approach was created to work with
learning has been abandoned by the researchers. More accurately, as an alternative, the
management (Roschelle, Pea, Hoadley, Gordin, & Means, 2000). Overall, it was
reported that increased achievements confirmed that the implementation of CAI in the
Following one year of exposure, learners who received pedagogical activities that
students who did not receive math subsidized technical instructional activities (Alfeld,
Jensen, Lewis, Pearson, & Stone, 2006). The advancement was due to the technological
instruction of basic mathematics skills and applied problems proficiency methods. The
procedures were entrenched in the daily instructional activities that were carefully
brought together by the National Research Center for Career and Technical Education
(Bottge, Grant, Stephens, & Rueda, 2010). Educators in the state-of-the-art technology
where “tool skills” were simply accentuated (Frank & Barzilai, 2006).
School principals are more familiar undertaking language arts illiteracy than
present math education turns out to be challenging (McEwan, 2000). Understanding and
Ultimately, respect and compassion must be considered when devising suitable pedagogy
for slow learners who frequently demonstrate antagonism towards traditional classroom
The employment of CAI offers unlimited amount of data that can provide
significant information in assessing students’ knowledge of the subject at hand. The time
required to complete the assessment using CAI is considerably curtailed. Any issues
pertaining to the availability and accessibility of data and information of each student are
simply reduced and easily identified by the teacher. Subsequently, after mastering each
concept, each learner can move on to the succeeding section of the content. The mastery
learning of a specific unit can be obtained effortlessly with the use of computers.
Systematically arranging the concepts and skills that the instructor aspires
to teach the students, normally requiring five to ten days teaching time, the strategy of
mastery learning is concentrated on the objectives of the previously learned ideas and
skills. The goal of the evaluation is to offer constructive information to the students
regarding their learning. This leads to supporting learners in ascertaining what has been
learned thus far and what other knowledge can be discovered and acquired excellently
from the unit instead of indicating unit completion (Bloom, Hasting, & Madaus, 1971).
54
that are customized allowing learners to work only on concepts or skills that are needed
Becoming proficient by learning the course objectives and obtaining criterion knowledge
remedial activities will deliver relevant and more superior pedagogy which is not always
achievable in a conventional classroom setting. The process will inspire the belief that all
students will comprehend competently and accurately master the course objectives,
hence, condensing the disparity of leaners’ proficiency and diminishing the achievement
breach. One of the core foundations for computer-assisted instruction is the philosophy
that all students can learn with the provision of adequate time and sufficient individual
and not giving attention solely to the content is the main objective of mastery learning.
attributes is another model of mastery learning that can be applied when integrating
instead of using the verbal approach to teaching, the instructor chooses and produces
relevant written activities with appropriate learning goals and reading comprehension.
This activity communicates the increased use of written and printed resources that may
not be always the priority method used in a conventional classroom set up. Secondly,
learners are given the opportunity to complete their classwork without the pressure of
55
time. Thirdly, evidence of mastery learning must be exhibited prior to moving on to the
next stage. Conclusively, through the availability of educational materials, learners can
The opportunity to use the computer in the classroom allocates individualization allowing
each learner to function distinctively on his or her rate, which is one of the keystones of
(Anderson, Douglass, & Fincham, 1997) and on the actuality that learners vary in their
automaticity. At this stage, only educative comments from the teachers are required.
One-on-one guidance is not crucial. However, repetition and continuous practice are
vital (Schoppek & Tullis, 2010). This approach gives the instructor a chance to focus on
the learner’s weakness. With the help of the computer, every student can be assessed
Much like the manner in which technology is revolutionizing the direction that the
U.S. is carrying out business worldwide, the use of technology in the classroom is
shifting the methods in which American schools are handling pedagogy that will promote
student-learning achievement. Through the use of the mastery learning, a paradigm shift
in student achievement can be expedited. The use of the mastery learning approach
combined with exercises that enhances critical thinking will generate a learning
56
educators to utilize concepts that promote mastery learning strategies to stimulate and
prerequisite for problem solving, the preparation of acquiring mathematical abilities and
skills has a vital role in current mathematics. Research conducted by Schoppek and
Tullis (2010) indicated that a significant increase in mathematical skills and problem
from the overwhelming task of analyzing each student, choosing problems, and
practice.
In the study, students from four third grade classes, totaling 113 students, from
three primary schools participated in the experiment. The study involved 57 participants
in the training sessions while the control group consisted of 56 remaining students. The
authors indicated that greater advancement was noted in the trained group more than the
Overall, the trained group displayed gains from the pretest to the posttest as
determined and computed by Analysis of Variance (ANOVAs) with the aggregate scores
in pretest and posttest as repeated measures. According to the authors, it was anticipated
that substituting individualized exercises in place of some arithmetic units would provoke
a significant progress in learners’ mathematics skills, which was one of the hypotheses in
57
this study. The rationale that working with the computer delivers a compounded amount
approaches that allows for prospects to allocate scholastic subject matter into reduced
instantaneous response or advice (Du Paul & Weyandt, 2006). The researchers of an
experimental study who arbitrarily chose 40 participants that formed two groups,
experimental and control, from two adjacent scholastic institutions in Pakistan indicated
that the integration of CAI inside the classroom validated its advantage over the usage of
classroom lecture alone. The study included a pretest, which was distributed to all
cohorts prior to the commencement of the experiment. The same exact test was
student improvement in the overall reasoning and critical thinking achievement for the
experimental group subjected to classroom instruction plus CAI supplement over the
control group.
knowledgeable in preparation for the space-age future, the public is stimulated by the
calculators and greater computer accessibility, researchers from the past publicized that
there is a need for technology to propagate in approaches that will encourage learners to
58
based programs can empower learners to manage information to be able to associate them
to their previous experience (Berger, Mary, Shaw, & Sosa, 2011). Integrating the use of
CAI software programs with real description of comparable concepts increase student
engagement in learning the assignment and promote avenues that incorporate and prepare
their grasping of theories (Bottge, Grant, Rueda, & Stephens, 2010, p.101). Interactive
technology programs offer learners the opportunity to manage how resources are
expounded, thus enhancing the student involvement with course material and content
and delivery methods of each software program to ascertain what style is suitable for
of the program are allocated to each individual with new skills introduced as they become
correctly to the next question as the learner advances through the program. This
establishes the next stage of the lesson (Pearson Digital Learning, 2005). SuccessMaker
has been used with at-risk individuals and overachievers, general and special education
students, as well as English as a second language (ESL) learner. It has been utilized in
over 1,700 institutions all over the world (Suppes & Zanotti, 1996).
solving and the preparation of skills takes part in current mathematics instruction
(Schoppek & Tulis, 2010). The authors believed that in order to curtail the time
to increase effectiveness. They created training software called Merlin’s Math Mill
math skills and problem solving were associated with a reasonable amount of
of glitches involving multiplication, division, and multiple step problems. Evaluating the
A single-subject study for six primary grade students with cognitive and learning
was conducted by Irish (2002) utilizing Memory Math program. The outcomes signified
that increased time spent in utilizing the software equaled greater gains, thus CAI was
60
successful for improving learners’ accuracy with fundamental skills. Strategies that
students learned from performing computer evaluations of basic information were applied
to paper-and-pencil examinations.
Among studies, similar research work (Fuchs et al., 2006; Xin, 1999) investigated
the application of CAI software programs such as Math Keys Fraction and Decimal Maze
and Math Shop Jr. The evaluation compared the use of the software programs as a group-
collaborative learning exercise versus the entire classroom activity without the use of the
software programs. The study involved 118 students with and without disabilities. Xin
Achievement Test (SAT) for all learners using the programs through a pretest-posttest
condition, outshine the learners in the whole class situation. Fuchs et al., (2006),
however observed that CAI enhanced learners’ addition skills but not subtraction skills
and their performance did not translate to mathematics story problems. Their data and
statistics were gathered on a CAI software program to instruct the skill of number
combinations with 33 first graders with low accomplishment in reading and arithmetic.
In the St. Lucie County Public Schools in Florida, both Destination Reading and
was hypothesized that CAI programs provide benefits such as personalized education,
sound pedagogy and the ventures that teachers want to offer to their pupils.
In addition, the research also put emphasis on the learners and their overall school
performance in St. Lucie Public School District over the past five years with the
emphasis on the value and usefulness of the Destination Reading and Destination Math
Solution programs. The findings included extensive comparison between the number of
instructional days that students spent on Destination Reading and Math Solutions
the investigation, schools where learners devoted nominal time and frequency on CAI
the Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test (FCAT) than institutions that had
The results in this study supported the hypothesis that CAI is a practical approach
learners and is a valuable tool of educators in meeting the diverse needs of the students.
Assisted Instructional program such as Destination Reading and Math Solutions could
present the opportunity to simplify the instructional templates for math and reading to
other scholastic venues (Roberts, 2009). Research regarding the effectiveness of the CAI
programs in relation to the usage of software products was led by Campuzano, Dynarski,
Agodini, and Rall (2009). A group of investigators carried out an experimental project in
62
software product while the researchers gathered test scores and other applicable statistics
In April of 2007, a report on the findings was published with results from the
school year 2004-2005 indicating that after one academic year of using the CAI software
products, distinction in student test scores was not statistically noteworthy (Dynarski et
al., 2007). However, the data gathered in the 2005-2006 scholastic year wherein
educators who persisted with the research had fresh cohorts of learners and one year of
familiarity using the software products, revealed mixed results (Dynarski et al., 2007).
For algebra I, influence on the student SAT test scores revealed considerably greater
scores in the second year versus the first academic year. This study is partially consistent
with the findings conducted by Robert (2009). The product’s effect on learner test
scores, for sixth grade math, was notably inferior in the second year than in the first year.
impact. Product efficiency may have been directly related to specific product features
and variations due to an assortment of choices agreed to be used by schools and districts.
The model of the study did not eliminate the likelihood that a product that the research
gathered data, which was limited, in the second year prevented the research from
investigating how educators had possibly utilized the CAI software products another way
in the second year in comparison with the first year, and from examining how classroom
In a research performed by Beal, Adams, and Cohen (2010), a group of 442 ninth
grade students all enrolled in an algebra class, were subjected to a computer assisted
instruction program. The population included 209 English Language Learners (ELL) and
233 students whose initial language is English. Hoping for the learners to advance to
more sophisticated algebraic problems, educators in the study opted for students to
AnimalWatch that includes basic math fact families, fractions, measurement problems,
decimal numbers, ratios and proportions, and percentages, was utilized as the CAI
software.
Based on the previous score from the preceding set of questions but within the
learner’s skill to solve the problem, the computer software designated mathematical
intensified. Progressing from basic calculation problems (add, subtract, multiply, and
divide), the learners would be approved to advance into a set of questions with fractions
prior to pre-algebraic expressions. For data sources and scoring, the following
combination of test modules were applied: (a) using the California Standard Test-Math
(CST-Math), the performance groups based on the scale scores included over 80% far
revealed overall low performance, pretest = 30% and posttest = 34%, (c) word problem
solving graded by math instructors indicated that 40% of the learners were incompetent
in Algebra 1.
64
The findings are in harmony with other authors (National Clearinghouse for
reported that learners who are not able to comprehend questions offered in English
curriculum will also have less success in mathematics in comparison with students who
are proficient in reading English. In addition, not passing Algebra 1 in secondary school
half of ELL students registered in Algebra 1 course did not succeed in passing the class
the first time (Helfand, 2006). There is a flourishing corroboration that mathematics
classroom or home school venue. It has taken the fundamental facts of mathematics and
reduced them down into bite-sized pieces by fact families that any learner can master.
In 2010, three educators from a private sector in Central California evaluated the
their three classrooms. The study was performed to ascertain if MDM provides
methods. Every day, the three classes used an identical math curriculum and completed
the same lesson at precisely the same time. One group was marked the MDM group (21
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students); and the two others were marked Control Group1 (22 students), and Control
During the school year of 2009-2010, the MDM group‘s teacher administered a
pre, mid, and posttest to all three groups using the same instructions. The pretest was
given in October 2009, the mid-test was dispensed in February 2010, and a posttest was
distributed in May 2010. The two tests presented were as follows: a multiplication fact
test with 100 problems in random order, and a division fact test with 100 randomly
placed problem. On both tests, learners had one minute to complete as many questions as
possible. In addition to the traditional curriculum, only the MDM group received a 10-
minute paper-pencil drill sheet every day that began one day after the pretest was
implemented. Whereas MDM was utilized daily until the end of the school year by the
MDM group, the two control groups did not employ MDM.
Based on the data of the study, when compared to control groups, the researchers
concluded that MDM succeeded, largely, by total increased math tests scores in both the
areas of multiplication and division over both the control groups. The test scores
represented both multiplication with 117% test improvement and division 146 % test
improvement. The authors reported improvement over control groups for normalized test
Summary
investigations involving the success of CAI in primary grades. The review entailed
mathematics, (c) the differences between traditional classroom and CAI, (d)
66
implementation of CAI in the curriculum, (e) computer software programs, and (f) gender
differences in learning mathematics. There were ample endorsements from literature that
Nevertheless, there is a demand to further investigate how the use of technology inside
the classroom promotes student learning (Trenholm, 2006). In particular, the Mad Dog
Math program, which includes a set of computer-based progressions that allows learners
The above literature review evaluated a variety of past practices utilized by school
elementary school learners and the methodology used to assist in the delivery of
research reviewed lead to the need for additional research within the scope of
grade levels.
outcomes of this research can be appended to the studies accessible on the efficiency of
CAI. Consequently, the results from the study assisted to explicate the varied findings on
the value of CAI on student achievement in mathematics. The study also offered
method of this study was based on an examination of the influence of CAI on student
achievement conducted by Lewis (2010) and Ash (2004). This chapter commences with
a discussion of the explicit method and design of the study including reasoning as to why
a quantitative method design with mastery learning and active learning theoretical
framework had been chosen. To ascertain any possible gains in math achievement, a
pretest and posttest design was implemented. The tests were provided by the California
Department of Education. The strengths and weaknesses for the chosen design were
MDM, the dependent variable, CST Posttest, and the covariate, CST pretest were
indicated together with references as to how confounding and intervening the variables.
In addition, both materials used and participants obtained during the study were
ethical assurances, delimitations, and the summary bring the chapter to completion. The
outcomes of the investigation are particularly significant to the school and the school
through twelfth grade. In this particular study, the author endeavored to fill the gap in
Q1. After accounting for the pretest score, is there a significant difference on the
mean posttest score between students who were offered the MDM software supplement
Q2. Is there an interaction between gender (male or female) and treatment (MDM
supplement versus no MDM supplement) when evaluating posttest scores when pretest
H10. There is no significant difference on the posttest scores between the students
who receive mathematics instruction using conventional math and MDM as a supplement
and students who receive conventional math instruction without the MDM supplement
H1a. There is a significant difference on the posttest scores between the students
who receive mathematics instruction using conventional math and MDM as a supplement
and students who receive conventional math instruction without the MDM supplement
H20. There is no significant interaction between gender (male versus female) and
H2a. There is a significant interaction between gender (male versus female) and
For this study, the researcher chose the quantitative method, as it was appropriate
for investigating the effect of educational interventions (Ash, 2004; Lewis, 2010).
social phenomena in conjunction with statistical methods to evaluate the data. Such
or correlational designs (Borg, Gall, & Gall, 2006). The investigator used a quasi-
an experimental design when randomization was not feasible (Gall et al., 2006). The
classes were already composed; therefore, random allocation of students was not practical
or ethical.
group, four equivalent classrooms were selected to indicate groups that were comparable
as possible. The investigator chose second and third grade classes; each class was
comparable in number of learners and gender. To have as close and realistic comparison
as possible so that any inequalities could be attributed to the intervention was the
scores served as the dependent variable while the treatment of Mad Dog Math and gender
served as the independent variables. The pretest scores served as the covariate. Data
were collected to address research question one, which investigated if a difference existed
program and those who did not. Mad Dog Math was geared to give students additional
70
learning skill instruction and to assist them in increasing their ability to retrieve addition,
for learners and teachers to use (Kotoff, 2007). Data were gathered to address question
number two, which examined if an interaction existed between gender (male or female)
and treatment (MDM supplement versus no MDM supplement) when evaluating posttest
scores when pretest scores were used as a covariate. The learners provided their age and
Participants
For the purpose of this research, learners from second and third grade classes
were the target population. The second and third grade students were chosen because
they represented early grade levels where children are beginning to learn math facts and
because remediation is more difficult with learners in later grades (Hasselbring, Lott, &
Zydney, 2005). Participants were recruited from a K-8 elementary school in Southern
California. The January 2012 student enrollment data specified that 300 students were
present in the school. The student population was diverse. Second and third grade
students totaled 81, or approximately 27% of the student population. At the time of this
study, 17 regular classroom educators worked in the school, with responsibilities varying
from kindergarten through eighth grade (Gardena Valley Christian School, 2012).
For the experimental group, one third grade class and one second grade class,
totaling 39 students altogether, were solicited to participate in the study utilizing MDM
of mathematics inside the classroom. For the control group, one second grade class and
one third grade class, totaling 42 students altogether, were requested to participate in the
study using only the conventional method of teaching mathematics without any
supplements. The student population within the sample included black, white, Hispanic,
and Asian ethnicities. All learner ages ranged from seven to nine years old. The sample
A priori analyses was calculated for the F-test ANCOVA with fixed effects, main
effects, and interaction. The α for these tests was set for .05. To attain power of .80 and
a large effect size (f = .40), for a 2 x 2 ANCOVA, an overall sample size of 52 was
needed to identify an effect. However, a sample size of 128 was required when the
power analysis was calculated with a medium size effect (f =.25). Regrettably, due to the
limited enrollment that existed in many private schools, the researcher was not able to
obtain 128 students. Consequently, assigning the power analysis for medium effect size,
identify group differences. Using the sensitivity analysis, the researcher determined the
effect size (0.32) needed to achieve a 0.81 power with the given parameters.
Materials/Instruments
data collection and analysis process, and concludes with a discussion concerning what is
considered to be the overall validity of the proposed study. The California Standard
Tests (CST) pretest was administered in the beginning of the study and the California
Standard Test posttest was administered at the end of the 10 week treatment to measure
72
students’ achievement in the experimental and control groups. The pretest and posttest
California educators and test developers particularly for the state of California. The CST
was intended as the “end-of-grade”/ “end-of- course” evaluation of the content standards.
Defining what learners should recognize and be able to accomplish in each grade and
field of study tested, the test measures learners’ advancement toward achieving
The CST pretest and posttest were centered on the math course objectives. For
the second grade students, the following academic content standards were included in the
test: number sense strand (including place value, addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, and fractions), algebra and functions, measurements and geometry, statistics,
data analysis, and probability. For the third grade students, the academic content
standards included in the test were as follows: numbers sense (including place value,
Identical to the pretest assessment scoring procedures, the posttest was handled in
a similar manner. All math probes were graded by the researcher and a trained research
process, a learner was awarded credit for each question answered correctly. The
researcher and research assistant re-scored the probes collected from each of the two
The pretest and posttest measure of the dependent variable was a criterion-
referenced test developed in 2006. The items chosen for each California Standards Tests
were authored by distinctive groups of item writers with proficiency in the California
Content Standards. The California Standards Tests were developed to assess the
California Content Standards as well as to attain psychometric measures for difficulty and
CST items were created to support the California Content Standards. Therefore, the
content-related proof of validity concerns the degree to which the test items signify these
quantified content areas and cognitive elements (CST Technical report, 2006).
California Standard Test (Appendix A), which was the pretest and posttest. The CST is
given to all the students in public school annually, more specifically for the benefit of this
study, all second and third graders in the state of California. The exam evaluated the
performance of the California education system and its learners’ advancement toward
other subject matter. The exam corresponded to what the learners should recognize and
be able to execute in each grade level and content area tested (CST, 2012). The validity
of the posttest was the extent to which it measured mathematics achievement. The exam
The CST was created by California teachers and test creators exclusively for
to the importance rendered to each lesson during the year. This presented face validity.
The test questions were evaluated by California teachers and exam producers. This
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conveyed content validity. The reliability of the CST as a posttest was the extent to
which scores are free of arbitrary error, that is, the extent to which the test produced
reliable results.
The study had the following variables: (a) gender, (b) Mad Dog Math, (c) student
math scores on the pretest and posttest. An operational definition of each variable is
explained below.
investigated as a potential confounding variable for its effect on the posttest outcome.
significance.
Mad Dog Math. This independent variable was defined as a supplemental math
program to any math curriculum for grades kindergarten through fifth grade. It was used
mastery of the basic math facts (Kotoff, 2011). The MDM dummy was coded E =1 and
C = 0.
Student math scores on the pretest and posttest. Student test scores were
obtained from the pretest, coded as Y1, given prior to the experimental manipulation.
The posttest, coded as Y2, was assigned 10 weeks after the learners received
conventional math instruction or conventional math instruction plus the Mad Dog Math
supplement. The test scores were submitted as raw scores, which fluctuated from 0 to 50
number of correct. The covariate was the pretest scores. The posttest was considered as
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the outcome or dependent measure. All test scores were normally distributed and
Designating the power analysis for medium effect size, the 81students secured as
differences. Using the sensitivity analysis the researcher determined the effect size (0.32)
needed to achieve a 0.81 power with the given parameters. The overall number of
group, four distinctive classrooms were chosen in an effort to select groups that were as
along with CAI while the control group received only traditional instruction. Both
After 10 weeks, at the completion of the intervention, the posttest was presented
to both groups. Student math posttest scores were compared across groups, controlling
for CST released test questions math pretest scores using statistical analyses. For all
obtained.
The study was conducted during the second semester of 2011-2012 school year.
Advantages and benefits to participation were explained to the students including the
option to decline without penalty. Intact classes were randomly allocated to either
All four classes received the CST released test questions that served as a pretest
the conventional math classroom instruction plus MDM as a supplement. Each learner’s
current level of performance was assessed using the pretest consisting of 50 items. This
pretest served as a baseline assessment and was scored by the researcher and a research
assistant. All participating classrooms executed group testing in a single day. The 50-
question pretest was divided into three sections lasting about 32 minutes per section. The
implementation of the posttest was a replica of the 50-question pretest given at the start
The statistical analysis was completed via the use of IBM SPSS 20 statistical
software. Utilizing a one-way ANCOVA, the mean of the experimental group’s CST
posttest was evaluated against the mean of the control group’s CST posttest utilizing the
CST pretests as a covariate to monitor any variations in ability before the MDM
treatment was introduced. Thus, only one factor was utilized in testing the first
was employed for the second hypothesis where two factors such as treatment (experiment
versus control) and gender (male versus female) were tested. The analysis of the
interaction effect ascertained whether males or females reacted inversely to the treatment.
Internal validity. The features of internal validity were associated with the
representation of the all-inclusive content areas such as mathematics that each of the CST
questions signifies to promote the California Content Standards. Thus, the content-
associated evidence of validity affects the strength to which the test questions indicate
77
these measured content areas and intellectual components (CST Technical report, 2006).
The validity of the posttest was the degree to which it measured the learners’
achievement in mathematics.
venue. The setting was maintained daily for a period of 10 weeks utilizing the same
location and time frame. It was vital to maintain the same setting and timing so as to
prevent decreasing the external validity of the study due to various activities such as unit
tests or class parties just before or after the experiment that could have affected the daily
The ultimate limitation of this investigation included a sample size that was
adequate for identifying larger medium effects only. However, due to the limited number
of participants, the study was not substantial in revealing medium size effects. More
specific and noteworthy effects, such as interaction between groups and ethnicity, can be
identified if the sample size is much larger thus creating a higher power. The ethnicities
of the population within the samples included students with black, white, Hispanic, and
Asian background. However, since it is evident that one specific race dominated the
second and third grade classes at the time of the investigation, the issue concerning race
was not disaggregated. The sample was descriptive of the student body where the
investigation transpired.
Delimitations were also apparent in this research study. Limited subjects from
one private school located in a metropolitan area of Southern California imposed a time
and geographic constraints on the experiment. Having only one researcher was also a
78
delimitation of this study. Limited amount of resources and time availability were
evident.
This study was conducted using second and third grade students delivered by two
supplemented with CAI. The outcomes did not generalize to another institution that
utilized CAI in a distinct manner, including using the classroom computers versus
utilizing a laboratory setting. The number of learners in this study was restricted to those
enrolled in the second and third grade classes for school year 2011-2012. As many
components as conceivable were regulated in the design of the study. This research
CST pretest and posttest and did not account for elements that may conceivably affect
Ethical Assurances
every effort was attempted to guarantee outcome validity and reliability. All participants
were trained the year before, therefore, the researcher assumed that every learner was
familiar and knew how to access the MDM software program. The investigator did not
ascertain cause and effect association due to the absence of random assignment, which is
the nature of the quasi-experimental research design. The nonexistence of the placebo
treatment from the control group can ensue disparities during the actual investigation as a
consequence from the actual involvement of the CAI and the reality that the experimental
group had something exclusive that was absent in the control group.
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There are four categories of ethical issues that were strictly observed in this
dissertation: First is the issue of protection from harm. The second category includes the
informed consent. The third category is the right to privacy. The fourth category
Firstly, the outcomes of this research has the potential to contribute meaningful
information to current literature in the field of education while presenting minimal risks
or harm to all participants. The released test questions were taken from the Grade 2 and 3
Mathematics Standards Tests (see attachment appendix D and E). These tests are
Reporting (STAR) program under policies set by the State Board of Education. The CST
assessments coincided with the content standards and requirements for the accepted level
for the minimal risk to participating children or instructors. The second and third grade
CST mathematics aligned assessment pretest and posttest, MDM, and conventional math
The possibility that students may experience discomfort at not knowing the
answers on the pretest/posttest questions were considered. To assure that the risks
involved were minimized, the students were encouraged to do their best when answering
math combination questions. However, when they came across a combination that they
did not recognize, they were instructed to skip the question and move on to the next one.
The utmost ethical standards were maintained to protect the children’s identities as the
To ensure that the second category was integrated, a letter giving details about
the research and its significance was mailed to the parents of each student involved in the
80
study. Attachments enclosed with the letter were as follows: a parent informed consent
student assent form (Appendix D). The letter carried out two purposes: (a) informed the
subject that he/she was chosen to participate in the study and (b) provided a way to
explicate the pertinent informed consent required by NCU. Collected consent and assent
forms were in safekeeping and put in a locked cabinet separated from other data.
The third category covers the right to privacy. Parents were notified that their
information was divulged to any individual or entity in any method at any occasion
without a written permission from the participant. Participation was the single decision of
the participant. Except for grade level, gender, and age, participants were not compelled
to furnish any identification, unless he or she chose to provide an e-mail address for the
any time without any notification given to the researcher, penalties or harmful effects to
themselves. However, immediately after data have been recorded and processed, it could
not be removed until the conclusion of the study had been finalized unless the participant
had provided an identification number to the researcher in the form of an email address
during the involvement procedure. The same student identification numbers that were
used by the school were utilized in the study to protect students’ identities.
launching the study, a series of procedures took place. The researcher contacted the
principal of the targeted school in person and presented a letter to obtain permission to
81
conduct the investigation within the school campus. The formal letter of approval was
submitted to the Northcentral University (NCU) Review Board (IRB), together with an
application to carry out the research study. An approval was acquired in terms of
maintaining ethical benchmarks throughout the research procedure comprising, but not
restricted to, the compilation, assessment, and documentation of data as well as the
treatment of participants. The participant recruitment began once approval from the
The research data were analyzed in total honesty utilizing SPSS 20. Data
underwriting specific conclusions were genuine and not fabricated. All data collected
during the experiment such as pretest and posttest scores were secured in a separate
locked cabinet. All data were downloaded to a safeguarded file on the personal, private
laptop of the researcher. The researcher was the only one who had access to the data.
The researcher was the only one who had access to the data. All electronic information
related to the study was saved in the investigator’s private laptop computer under a
password security. This considerably deterred access to the data by anyone except the
researcher.
Summary
The research design and methodology used in this study were intended to
ascertain the effectiveness of the Mad Dog Math program in second and third grade
levels at GVCS. The above section encompassed the research method and design. In
processing, and data analysis methods are presented. The quantitative data gathered from
82
the pretest and posttest represented the means through which the topic was investigated
and documented.
assurances were also discussed. Using G*Power 3.1.2 and SPSS 20.0 Windows software
for statistical analyses were utilized for the research measurement method. The
quantitative data were disaggregated and the two hypotheses in the study were tested
utilizing ANCOVA. Data was checked for normality and logarithmic transformation was
carried out on any set of data that was skewed so that only conventionally distributed data
were analyzed. To date, the current research regarding the use of CAI in mathematics in
Chapter 4: Findings
effectiveness of a specific CAI supplemental math program, Mad Dog Math, on students’
Mad Dog Math and gender were considered the independent variables. While the
posttest scores served as the dependent variable, the pretest scores served as the
covariate. The possible connection between the variables was examined quantitatively
This chapter provides the outcomes of the study. The participant demographics
are described first followed by an indication of the statistical method utilized. The
statistical overview is followed by the statistical outcomes categorized into two sections,
one for each of the two research questions. The statistical outcomes are followed by an
Results
school in Southern California. The January 2012 student enrollment data specified that
300 students were present in the school. The student population was diverse. Second
and third grade students totaled 81, or approximately 27% of the student population. At
the time of this study, 17 regular classroom educators worked in the school, with teaching
A priori analysis was calculated for the F test ANCOVA with fixed effects, main
effects, and interaction. The alpha for these tests was set for .05. To attain power of .80
and a large effect size (f = .40), for a 2 x 2 ANCOVA, an overall sample size of 52 was
needed to identify an effect. However, a sample size of 128 was required when the
power analysis was calculated with a medium size effect (f =.25). Regrettably, due to the
limited enrollment that existed in many private schools, the researcher was not able to
obtain 128 students. Consequently, assigning the power analysis for medium effect size,
identify group differences. Using the sensitivity analysis, the researcher determined the
effect size (0.32) was needed to achieve a 0.81 power with the given parameters.
To ensure that no inconsistencies existed in the data, which might affect the
outcomes, data were examined using various testing, such as the descriptive statistics
students with 42 students in the control group without the help of MDM as a supplement
and 39 students in the experimental group with the help of MDM as a supplement. All
students participated in the CST pretest and posttest assessment. As clearly shown in
Table 1, the mean and standard deviation scores are presented and will be discussed later
Table 1
Posttest Score
Control Mean 23.95 1.320
5% trimmed mean 23.78
Std. deviation 8.554
Skewness .370 .365
Kurtosis -.483 .717
Prior to analysis, the data were examined through a variety of tests, such as
descriptive statistics for skewness and kurtosis to ensure no discrepancies existed in the
data which might influence the results. There were no discrepancies found that would
unjustifiably affect the outcomes. Table 2 demonstrates the descriptive statistics for the
experimental and control groups of both second and third grades. If skewness and
kurtosis values range from -1 to +1, the assumption of normal distribution is not violated
(George & Mallery, 2009). In Table 2, the skewness and kurtosis values of the dependent
variables were .147 and -.869 (within the range from -1 to +1), the normal distribution of
Table 2
Skewness Kurtosis
Statistic Std. error Statistic Std. error
Posttest Score .147 .267 -.869 .529
Data were examined prior to conducting the main analyses to make certain that
the statistical assumptions were sensible. By acquiring histograms, data were screened
for the normality assumption. Information from each histogram reports included the
mean, standard deviation, skewness, kurtosis, and number. Histograms for the control
and experimental groups were acquired for the pretest and posttest scores on the CST
aligned assessment. For an average normal distribution, the data distribution should
roughly take the shape of a bell curve. Thus, the normality assumption was not violated.
normality of the pretest score for the control group. The information shown above
includes the following: mean = 17.55, standard deviation = 6.801, N = 42. The normality
normality of the pretest score for the experimental group. The information given above
includes the following: mean = 14.21, standard deviation = 6.989, N = 39. The normality
normality of the posttest score for the control group. The information provided above
includes the following: mean = 23.95, standard deviation = 8.554, N = 42. The normality
of the posttest score for the experimental group. The information presented above
89
includes the following: mean = 23.95, standard deviation = 8.554, N = 39. The normality
Secondly, the data were examined for data normality by securing the Q-Q plots
for the pretest and posttest of both the control and experimental groups as presented in
Figures 5-8. The Q-Q Plots are displayed as follows: pretest for control group, pretest for
experimental group, posttest for control group, and posttest for experimental group. The
dots did not reveal significant deviation from the straight line. Therefore the Q-Q plots
The Q-Q Plot shown above represents the pretest scores for the control group.
The dots did not disclose significant deviation from the straight line. Thus, the Q-Q Plot
The Q-Q Plot illustrated above shows the pretest scores for the experimental
group. The dots did not reveal significant deviation from the straight line. Therefore, the
The Q-Q Plot shown above reveals the posttest scores for the control group. The
dots did not depict significant deviation from the straight line. Hence, the Q-Q Plot
The Q-Q Plot illustrated above demonstrates the posttest scores for the
experimental group. The dots did not show significant deviation from the straight line.
Thus, the Q-Q Plot authenticates that the scores were normally distributed.
score variable of the study. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk tests were used
Wilk test were used to check the normality of the dependent variable of this study. The
results of the tests showed that the observed significance level was greater than .05 (p>
.05). The null hypothesis that the dependent variable was normally distributed could not
be rejected. The statistical tests showed that the assumption of normal distribution of
Table 3
Kolmogorov-Smirnov Shapiro-Wilk
Variable
Statistic Df Sig. Statistic df Sig.
Posttest score .085 81 .200 .973 81 .089
Q1. After accounting for the pretest score, is there a significant difference on the
mean posttest score between students who were offered the MDM software supplement
H10. There is no significant difference on the posttest scores between the students
who receive mathematics instruction using conventional math and MDM as a supplement
and students who receive conventional math instruction without the MDM supplement
H1a. There is a significant difference on the posttest scores between the students
who receive mathematics instruction using conventional math and MDM as a supplement
and students who receive conventional math instruction without the MDM supplement
Table 4 displays the results of the Levene’s test of equality of error variances.
The Levene’s equality test was used to check the assumption of equality of variance.
Since the significance value (.20) was greater than .05, the variances were not equal and
Table 4
The results of the ANCOVA are given in Table 5. The covariate (pretest score)
was measured before the experiment began, so the treatment did not affect the covariate.
After accounting for pretest scores, there was a significant difference between the control
and experimental groups on posttest scores, F(1, 27) = 14.17, p < .0005 with a low effect
size, partial eta squared = .15. The null hypothesis that there is no significant difference
in the posttest scores between the students who receive mathematics instruction using
conventional math and MDM as a supplement and students who receive conventional
math instruction without the MDM supplement when using pretest scores as a covariate
was rejected. After accounting for the pretest score, there is a significant difference in
the mean posttest score between students who were offered the MDM software
Table 5
The pretest and posttest results of the control group and experimental groups are
The bar graphs represented by Figure 9 displays the mean pretest scores of the
control and experimental groups. The mean pretest score of the control group =17.55.
Figure 10. G Graph Mean posttest scores of control and experimental groups.
95
The bar graphs represented by Figure 10 displays the mean posttest scores of the
control and experimental groups. The mean posttest score of the control group = 23.95.
The students from the control group completed the pretest with a mean pretest
instruction, the control group had a mean posttest score of 23.95 or 47.90%. This is a
positive difference of 6.4 or 12.80%. The outcomes indicate a significant change over
time after 10 weeks of curriculum based, regular mathematics instruction. The students
from the experimental group completed the pretest with the mean pretest score of 14.21
or 28.42% and a mean posttest score of 29.08 or 58.16%. This is a positive difference of
14.87 or 29.74%. Based on the results displayed on Table 5 and Figures 9 and 10,
enough evidence existed to reject the null hypothesis in which it was assumed that
Q2. Is there an interaction between gender (male or female) and treatment (MDM
supplement versus no MDM supplement) when evaluating posttest scores when pretest
The above question addressed whether the instruction influenced males and
females differently as specified in the hypotheses reiterated below. To test the statistical
hypothesis (H0), a 2 X 2 ANCOVA was utilized. With regards to H1, added to the
ANCOVA model were two levels of instruction (Experimental and Control) with two
H20. There is no significant interaction between gender (male versus female) and
H2a. There is a significant interaction between gender (male versus female) and
Table 6 demonstrates the posttest means for the control and experimental groups.
The gender variable provided an additional source of variation to the model. The central
Table 6
After accounting for pretest scores, there was no significant interaction effect of
MDM and gender, F(1,76) = 4.14, p = .06, with a low effect size (partial eta squared =
.001). The main effect of MDM and posttest score was significant, F(1,76) = 16.15, p =
.0005, with an effect size of .17. The effect of gender and posttest score was also
significant, F(1,76) = 4.04, p = .27 with a low effect size (partial eta squared = .05).
These results suggest that male and female did not respond differently to the treatment.
The null hypothesis that there is no significant interaction between gender (male versus
female) and treatment (MDM supplement versus no MDM supplement) when evaluating
97
posttest scores and when pretest scores are used as a covariate was not rejected. There
was no interaction between gender (male or female) and treatment (MDM supplement
versus no MDM supplement) when evaluating posttest scores when pretest scores are
used as a covariate.
Evaluation of Findings
The theory of mastery learning posits that mastery is attainable for pragmatically
every learner, on the stipulation that a suitable learning atmosphere in the apportioned
time was arranged and that the superiority of instruction was maintained at an
outstanding level (Cooperman, 2011; Furner & Gonzalez-DeHass, 2011; Lau & Nie,
2008; Linnenbrink, 2005; Suppes and Zanotti, 1996). Specification for improvement,
developmental evaluation, and constructive feedback should have been assimilated in this
quality instruction (Bloom, 1981). Active learning theory was another philosophy that
this research has adopted. Active learning was to improve student learning and
Therefore, based upon other studies and recommendations of other researchers (Berger,
Mary, Shaw, & Sosa, 2011; Bottge, Grant, Rueda, & Stephens, 2010; Du Paul &
Weyandt, 2006; Schoppek & Tullis, 2010; Strange, 2007), it was reasoned that there may
achievement.
mathematical instruction supplemented with Mad Dog Math, a CAI software program,
exhibited significant gains compared to the control group. This outcome revealed that
proficient approach of intervention for second and third grade mathematics learners. It
would be projected, based on Suppes and Zanotti’s theory of mastery learning for
mathematics (as cited in Pearson Digital Learning, 2005), that conventional instruction in
mathematics achievement. The results corroborated prior research works that ascertained
2009; Birch & Sankey, 2008; Hung-Pin Shih, 2008; Neil & Matthews, 2009; Smith,
2009).
differently to math instruction when taught using conventional instruction with or without
the supplement of a CAI program was investigated. The outcome of the ANCOVA
achievement for students. This result on the study of gender difference corresponds with
the outcomes of Lewis (2010) and Spence (2007), based on their evaluation of studies on
gender and CAI. However, a research performed by Spradlin and Ackerman (2009),
discovered that males were surpassed by females in both conventional instruction and
the employment of CAI improved the performance of both male and female learners.
There is a probability that the low achieved power of .80 provided by the medium effect
size of the 81participants represented the research underpowered to expose the gender
effect.
Comparable to Neil and Matthews (2009) and Smith (2009), as well as the
theories of mastery and active learning (Cooperman, 2011; Furner & Gonzalez-DeHass,
99
2011), the result of this research denotes the concept that there is a relationship between
the use of conventional math instruction supplemented with the CAI and improved
mathematical achievement for students. This study offers additional support to the
appropriate practice and treatment of the software is ensured. The outcome also
techniques (Mitchell, Chen, & Macredie 2005). This information could possibly
achievement for learners. Hence, the suggestion that employing a CAI program as a
defined methods is appropriate. This approach may stimulate learners to modify their
Summary
The outcomes of this study rejected the null hypothesis stating that there is no
significant difference in the posttest scores between the students who receive
mathematics instruction using conventional math and MDM as a supplement and students
who receive conventional math instruction without the MDM supplement when using
pretest scores as a covariate. In addition, after accounting for the pretest score, the results
indicated that there is a significant difference in the mean posttest score between students
who were offered the MDM software supplement program and those who were not. The
results of this research are consistent with mastery and active learning theories. The Mad
100
Dog Math CAI program resulted in higher posttest scores following a 10-week period
The fact that American learners constantly and steadily score poorly in
of Advisor on Science & Technology, 2010; National Center for Education Statistics,
2007). The problem this study endeavored to address originated from the national
Ehrich, Kimber, Milwater, & Cranston, 2011; Lee, 2010; Schussler, Stooksberry, &
Therefore, the purpose of this quantitative, quasi-experimental study was to determine the
effectiveness of a specific CAI supplemental math program, Mad Dog Math, on students’
contained classrooms were selected. The advancement of the two groups was evaluated
after 10 weeks. The progress of the two groups was compared to ascertain whether a
internal and external, that would likely influence the effectiveness of MDM on scholastic
math achievement of learners. The ultimate drawback of this study comprised a sample
size that was acceptable for identifying larger medium effects only. However, the
research was not considerable in disclosing medium size effects due to the restricted
102
between groups and ethnicity, can be ascertained if the population size is greater thus
generalizability of the results of the research. The participation of learners from a single
private school would not be representative of the sizeable population of students in the
public school or in the district or the state. Unbeknownst to the researcher, both groups
perhaps were diverged in features therefore influencing the results because the
participants were not arbitrarily dispersed to condition. There was a possibility that
detected differences in the posttest scores were due to the prior differences that existed in
the group. Furthermore, the acquired outcomes may manifest distinctive traits from the
The quasi-experimental disposition of the study did not permit the researcher to
ascertain cause and effect relationships which is another limitation of this research. Since
the participants in the control condition were conscious that they were not getting special
consideration, it may have diminished their enthusiasm to achieve. This could inflate the
posttest score difference between the two groups. Moreover, participants in the
experimental group may have sensed that they were receiving exclusive attention and
expected to score higher than those in the control group. With this mentality, learners in
the experimental group perhaps performed better, thus scored higher during the posttest
evaluation. The absence of diverse demographics in the selected school eliminated the
opportunity for the researcher to evaluate other important variables such as race, attention
span, behavioral difficulties, and socio-economic status of the participants. There was a
103
possibility that the research was declared underpowered to reveal effects of gender due to
Throughout the entire research, ethics were asserted particularly in terms of issues
for confidentiality and privacy. To guarantee that the rights of all the participants were
secured, a formal request to perform the investigation and an approval from the NCU
IRB were obtained. Informed consent and assent were acquired from every participant
and their parents or guardians. A cover letter with a complete account of the researcher’s
identity, a detailed description of the study, the values and gains to the education system,
and how to receive the outcomes of the research was provided. Information regarding the
participant’s name, age, and grade level were the only personal information requested
from the learners. Consequently, participants who were willing to receive their pretest
and posttest scores were asked to provide their email address as well.
reviewed and discussed within the implication section. Additionally, the inclusion of
limitations that became obvious during the research process, specifically in the view of
how they possibly influenced the explanation of the outcomes, will also be delineated.
Implications
Q1. After accounting for the pretest score, is there a significant difference in the
mean posttest score between students who were offered the MDM software supplement
H10. There is no significant difference in the posttest scores between the students
who receive mathematics instruction using conventional math and MDM as a supplement
and students who receive conventional math instruction without the MDM supplement
H1a. There is a significant difference in the posttest scores between the students
who receive mathematics instruction using conventional math and MDM as a supplement
and students who receive conventional math instruction without the MDM supplement
This specific question was addressed through the data collected from the pretest
and posttest. Based upon the ANCOVA between group analysis of F(1, 27) =14.15, p <
.0005 with a low effect size, partial eta squared = .15, the null hypothesis was rejected.
However, the main effect of MDM and posttest score was significant, F(1, 76) = 16.15, p
= .0005, with an effect size of .17. The covariate (pretest score) was measured before the
experiment began, so the treatment did not affect the covariate. Therefore, after
accounting for the pretest score, there was a significant difference in the mean posttest
score between students who were offered the MDM software supplement program and
Q2. Is there an interaction between gender (male or female) and treatment (MDM
supplement versus no MDM supplement) when evaluating posttest scores when pretest
H20. There is no significant interaction between gender (male versus female) and
H2a. There is a significant interaction between gender (male versus female) and
The second question was also addressed through the data gathered from the
pretest and posttest. Based upon a 2 X 2 ANCOVA between group analysis of F(1,76) =
4.14, p = .06, with a low effect size (partial eta squared = .001), there was no significant
interaction effect of MDM and gender after accounting for pretest scores. These results
suggested that male and female did not respond differently to the treatment. The null
hypothesis that there is no significant interaction between gender (male versus female)
and treatment (MDM supplement versus no MDM supplement) when evaluating posttest
scores when pretest scores are used as a covariate was not rejected. There was no
interaction between gender (male or female) and treatment (MDM supplement versus no
MDM supplement) when evaluating posttest scores when pretest scores were used as a
covariate.
The primary reason for using ANCOVA is to lessen the error variance in random
allocation of subjects. However, since this study used nonrandomized design, the
principal purpose of ANCOVA was to adjust the posttest means for differences among
the control and experimental groups on the pretest (Dimitrov & Rumrill, 2003). It is
imperative to assert that the intervention can be critically influenced with intact groups
when pretest is not reliable. Another possible setback with ANCOVA includes the
bias such as pretest differences between the control and experimental groups can alter the
Overall, the outcomes fit the purpose of the study and yielded some information
Numerous studies have been previously reported that significant improvement in math
skills were associated with the use of CAI and other computer-based intervention as a
Springer, Pugalee, & Algozzine, 2007; Ysseldyke & McLeod, 2007). Others considered
the implications that confirm the use of new technologies as an assistive technological
tool that can be employed successfully to enhance learning (Nordess & Haverkost, 2011;
that while reports revealed the shortcomings of mathematics in the United States when
Kastberg, & Brenwald, 2007; National Mathematics Advisory Panel, 2008), there are
studies that have proven to be efficient and effective in improving students’ math
achievement skills. In a research done by Huang, Liu, and Chang (2012), the findings
revealed that CAI functioned as an enhancement tool that assisted educators in improving
the problem-solving skills of struggling students as well as used for remedial instruction.
This study complemented their findings by indicating that the use of computer-assisted
instruction can aid proficiently and successfully as a device for teachers engaged in
Furthermore, most recent studies such as those conducted by Lewis (2010) and
Hyde, et al. (2008) indicated that the use of CAI employment had an equal influence on
both genders. Their findings disclosed that gender gap in mathematics were not
107
achievement still exist today. This research supported their findings when the outcomes
for the CAI intervention group revealed comparable posttest scores for both genders.
This research may have implications at a district level. When offering teacher in-
by the policymakers and school officials as a catalyst for the continuing interchange of
information to increase statewide math program and provide resources for the use of CAI.
By increasing the awareness and providing knowledge to fill the void that may help
enhance teaching and learning mathematics, the outcomes of this study may contribute to
Recommendations
The data provided by the assessment points to a number of realistic and functional
& Calhoun, 2009). The section contains the recommendations for the practical
presentation of findings to the educational system as well as suggestion for future studies.
The conducted literature review for this research specified that computer assisted
instruction was often examined for its efficacy in assisting students in improving math
skills. The findings of previous studies including this dissertation indicated that the
achievements. This is possibly due to the numerous practice opportunities offered by the
the utilization of CAI is appropriate to math instruction perhaps due to some of its
positive features such as timely feedback, self–pace effort, and availability. Due to its
areas.
Enlarging the sample size by including other elementary grade levels may adjust the
The second recommendation is to assess the effects of CAI with students with
learning disabilities. By the time learners completed their high school education,
between 5 - 10% of students will be identified with some type of learning disability
(Bailey, Geary, & Hoard, 2009). Basic elementary mathematical skills is one of the most
with quantitative method. Data gathered from a mixed method study works to remove
Based on literature reviewed, about 50% of the experiments transpired with the duration
longer than two academic quarters or one semester. The length of time for the treatment
involved in a study could influence the findings, even though in research, no absolute
appropriate study duration exists. The duration of a study should be designated based
(Meline, 2006).
Conclusions
The focus, purpose, and goal of the research was to determine the effectiveness
of a specific CAI supplemental math program, Mad Dog Math (MDM), on students’
study examined for disparities in mathematical achievement utilizing CAI with gender.
This final section includes the following: (a) implications, (b) recommendations, and (c)
conclusions.
The outcome of the qualitative research showed evidence that the Mad Dog Math
aligned assessment. Inclusively, the findings matched the objective of the research and
students. The result of this research corresponded with the study outcomes of Lewis
110
(2010) and Spence (2007) demonstrating that the use of CAI as a supplement to
In the current study, the findings indicated that the use of computer-assisted
instruction such as MDM has a significant effect on second and third grade students’
mathematics achievement. By and large, the findings matched the objective of the
research and generated some evidence to focus on the characterized dilemma of the
and the result of the present study, the integration of technology in instructing
objectives in many school districts despite the current decline of the economy. For future
studies, several areas may be taken into consideration based on the outcome of the
suggestions to support learners, educators, administrators, and parents are derived from
The following were the recommendations for future study of CAI: (a) to increase
generalizability of the outcomes, future studies can include increasing the number of
population and inviting other grade levels to participate, (b) to examine the effects of CAI
with students with learning disabilities, (c) to offer progressive implementation, future
elements to their research, and (d) increase the duration of the treatment.
111
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Appendices
132
Appendix A:
Math Pretest/Posttest
Multiple Choice
Identify the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.
1. A NUMBER HAS NINE ONES, SIX TENS, AND EIGHT HUNDREDS. WHAT
IS THE NUMBER?
A. 869
B. 896
C. 968
D. 986
(526)?
A. 5
B. 50
C. 500
D. 5000
A. 2
B. 6
C. 9
D. 10
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
133
A. 37
B. 73
C. 347
D. 743
A. 4408
B. 448
C. 400408
D. 4048
A. 900 + 87 + 7
B. 980 + 70 + 0
C. 700 + 80 + 9
D. 900 + 80 + 7
A. 3 + 70
B. 30 + 70
C. 300 + 7
D. 300 + 70
A. 297
B. 334
C. 410
D. 528
22 + 10 32
A. =
B. +
C. >
D. <
91>
A. 90
B. 92
C. 93
D. 94
6-2
A. >
B. =
C. <
D. –
A. 307 = 370
B. 307 > 307
C. 370 < 370
D. 307 < 370
135
85 – 44 = 41
A. 41+ 85
B. 44 + 85
C. 41+ 44
D. 44 + 44
A. 7 + 3 = 10
B. 2+5=7
C. 7–4=3
D. 10 – 3 = 7
86 +=14
A. 21+ 2 = 14
B. 7 + 7 = 14
C. 8–2=6
D. 14 − 8 = 6
18. LOOK AT THE TWO PROBLEMS IN THE BOX. THE SAME NUMBER IS
MISSING IN BOTH OF THEM. WHAT IS THE MISSING NUMBER?
65 – = 60 60 + = 65
A. 125
B. 15
C. 5
D. 0
A. 431
B. 421
C. 417
D. 407
136
20. 123 + 7 =
A. 50
B. 140
C. 144
D. 150
A. 116
B. 196
C. 216
D. 296
A. 158
B. 262
C. 271
D. 272
A. 514
B. 504
C. 494
D. 404
A B C D
137
Minutes 5 10 15 20 25
Pages 2 4 6 8
A. 9 PAGES
B. 10 PAGES
C. 11 PAGES
D. 12 PAGES
A. 6x5
B. 7x5
C. 8x5
D. 9x5
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
28. IF THERE ARE TWELVE COOKIES, HOW MANY CAN THREE CHILDREN
SHARE EQUALLY?
A. 4
B. 3
C. 5
D. 6
138
29. THERE ARE TWENTY- ONE SHELLS. THE SHELLS ARE EQUALLY
DIVIDED AMONG THREE STUDENTS. HOW MANY SHELLS WILL EACH
STUDENT GET?
A. 6
B. 7
C. 8
D. 9
A. 3
B. 4
C. 5
D. 6
31. THERE ARE NINE BENCHES IN A PARK. THERE ARE TWO PEOPLE
SITTING ON EACH BENCH. HOW MANY PEOPLE ARE SITTING ON THE
NINE BENCHES ALL TOGETHER?
A. 11
B. 14
C. 16
D. 18
32. THERE WERE TEN FROGS IN A POND. EACH FROG HAD FOUR
LEGS. HOW MANY FROG LEGS WERE THERE ALL TOGETHER?
A. 14
B. 40
C. 50
D. 104
A. 11
B. 25
C. 30
D. 35
139
34. ONE BEACH BALL COSTS TWO DOLLARS. HOW MUCH WILL FIVE
BEACH BALLS COST?
A. $10
B. $12
C. $14
D. $16
A. 1
9
B. 1
2
C. 1
5
D. 1
10
37. LOOK AT THE FRACTION BARS. WHICH FRACTION BAR SHOWS ONE-
SIXTH SHADED?
A.
B.
C.
D.
140
A.
B.
C.
D.
A. 1
2
B. 2
3
C. 3
2
D. 3
1
A. 3
5
B. 5
3
C. 3
8
D. 8
3
141
A. 1
4
B. 1
3
C. 3
4
D. 4
3
A. 1
3
B. 1
8
C. 2
3
D. 8
8
A. 2
B. 6
C. 7
D. 12
A.
B.
C.
D.
142
A. 1
12
B. 6
12
C. 12
12
D. 100
12
46. MONIQUE HAS FOUR QUARTERS, TWO DIMES, AND ONE NICKEL.
HOW MUCH MONEY DOES SHE HAVE?
A. $1.25
B. $1.05
C. $0.75
D. $1.45
47. JENA HAS ONE DOLLAR AND FORTY CENTS. WHICH AMOUNT OF
MONEY IS GREATER THAN WHAT JENA HAS?
A. $1.30
B. $1.50
C. $1.25
D. $1.05
48. SHAMIKA IS SAVING MONEY TO BUY A BOOK. SHE HAS SAVED ONE
FIVE-DOLLAR BILL, THREE ONE-DOLLAR BILLS, ONE QUARTER,
THREE DIMES, AND FOUR NICKELS. HOW MUCH MONEY DOES SHE
HAVE SO FAR?
A. $7.95
B. $8.75
C. $8.55
D. $7.75
143
A. $.01
B. $0.25
C. $.05
D. $1.00
50. COURTNEY HAS ONE DOLLAR AND TEN CENTS. IF SHE GIVES THE
CLERK FIFTY CENTS, HOW MUCH MONEY WILL SHE HAVE LEFT?
A. $0.60
B. $0.80
C. $0.90
D. $1.10
144
Appendix B:
Math Pretest/Posttest
Multiple Choice
Identify the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.
A. 8067
B. 8076
C. 8706
D. 8760
4. Which number has a 4 in the tens place and a 4 in the hundreds place?
A. 6424
B. 6244
C. 4462
D. 6442
A. 1
B. 3
C. 4
D. 7
145
A. 3
B. 30
C. 300
D. 3000
A. 8007
B. 870
C. 807
D. 8070
8. Which number has the same digit in both the ones place and the hundreds place?
A. 3308
B. 4118
C. 5977
D. 6242
A. 1000
B. 1400
C. 1410
D. 1500
10. Sophie has 527 seashells in her collection. Which of these equals 527?
A. 5+2+7
B. 5 + 20 + 700
C. 500 + 20 + 7
D. 500 + 200 + 70
A. 458
B. 485
C. 4085
D. 4805
146
A. 168
B. 1068
C. 1608
D. 1680
B. = 2
8
C. = 2
6
D. = 1
6
14. 1 + 2 =
4 4
A. 6
6
B. 2
6
C. 2
3
D. 3
4
15. A pie was divided into fifths. Emily ate 1 of the pie. Tony ate 2 of the pie.
5 5
Jenny ate 1 of the pie. How much of the pie was left?
5
A. 4
5
B. 3
5
C. 2
5
D. 1
5
147
16. Jorge is making gelatin. He adds of a 2 cup of hot water to a bowl. Then he adds 1
3 3
of a cup of cold water. How much water does he add all together?
A. 1 of a cup of
3
B. 3 of a cup of water
6
C. 1 cup of water
D. 3 cups of water
5–4
6 6
A. 1
6
B. 1
3
C. 1
2
D. 5
6
18. Reggie compared the prices of two radios. The table below shows the prices.
Brand Cost
A $31.47
B $34.71
A. $3.24
B. $3.26
C. $3.34
D. $3.36
19. Adam has $5.00 to buy an airplane that costs $4.28. How much change should he get back?
A. $0.70
B. $0.72
C. $0.75
D. $0.82
148
A. $9.30
B. $9.20
C. $8.30
D. $8.20
21. Lisa rented 4 videotapes for $4.80. How much did each tape cost to rent?
A. $1.20
B. $8.80
C. $12.00
D. $19.20
22. Four children earned $50 from selling cookies. They decided to divide the money
equally. How much money did each of the four children get?
A. $10.00
B. $12.50
C. $46.00
D. $125.00
23. If each ball costs $1.54, how much must Kyoko pay for three balls?
A. $4.62
B. $15.40
C. $31.53
D. $46.20
149
A. 0.01
B. 0.1
C. 0.110
D. 1.0
A. 5218
B. 5328
C. 6782
D. 12,782
A. 54
B. 56
C. 64
D. 68
A. 1022
B. 1032
C. 1122
D. 1132
150
28. The town of Milburg has 5256 grown-ups and 2987 children. How many people live in
Milburg?
A. 7133
B. 8133
C. 8243
D. 8343
A. 229
B. 239
C. 371
D. 775
30. There were 3409 pieces of candy in a jar. If 145 pieces were red and the rest were blue,
how many were blue?
A. 3244
B. 3264
C. 3344
D. 3364
A. 8 ÷ 4=2
B. 12 ÷ 4 = 3
C. 24 ÷ 8 = 3
D. 32 ÷ 8 = 4
151
375 ÷ 25 = 15
Which problem could she do to check her answer?
A. 25 + 15 =
B. 25 – 15 =
C. 25 x 15 =
D. 25 ÷ 15 =
33. Reese and Jay each correctly used a different number sentence to solve the same
problem. Reese used this number sentence:
13 x 4 = 52
Which of the following number sentences could Jay have used?
A. 13 + 4 = 17
B. 52 – 13 = 39
C. 52 ÷ 4 = 13
D. 13 ÷ 52 = 4
34. A company has 6 big trucks. Each truck has 18 wheels. How many wheels is this in all?
A. 24
B. 96
C. 108
D. 116
35. On Friday, 1250 people visited the zoo. Three times as many people visited on Saturday
than on Friday. How many people visited the zoo on Saturday?
A. 3615
B. 3650
C. 3750
D. 3753
152
36. Third-grade students went to a concert in 8 buses. Each bus took 45 students. How many
students went to the concert?
A. 320
B. 360
C. 380
D. 3240
37. There are 124 students making 3 stars each for the school wall. How many stars will they
make all together?
A. 127
B. 357
C. 362
D. 372
A. 4042
B. 4122
C. 4311
D. 4589
39. Six students were sitting at each table in the lunch room. There are 34 tables. How many
students were sitting at each table in the lunch room?
A. 208
B. 204
C. 188
D. 1,824
40. 1857 x 5 =
A. 5055
B. 9055
C. 9235
D. 9285
153
41. During Field Day, 1624 students from Glen Hill School were equally divided into 8
different events. How many students were in each event?
A. 203
B. 206
C. 221
D. 224
42. Jason has 225 rocks in his rock collection. He divides the rock into five equal piles. How
many rocks are in each pile?
A. 40
B. 45
C. 50
D. 55
43. What number can be multiplied by 5768 to give the answer 5768?
5768 x = 5768
A. 0
B. 1
C. 2
D. 10
A. 275 ÷ 1 = 275 x 0
B. 275 ÷ 1 = 275 x 1
C. 275 ÷ 275 = 275 x 1
D. 275 ÷ 275 = 275 x 275
45. Mr. Brown bought 6 towels. All the towels were the same price. The total cost was $84.
How much money did each towel cost?
A. $11
B. $14
C. $78
D. $504
154
46. Tony had $20. He paid $8 for a ticket to a baseball game. At the game, he bought a hot
dog for $3. What amount of money did Tony have then?
A. $5
B. $9
C. $11
D. $15
47. In one week, an airplane pilot flew 1134 miles on Tuesday and 1475 miles on Thursday.
If the pilot flies the same number of miles 3 weeks in a row, how many miles does he fly
in all?
A. 3402
B. 4425
C. 6818
D. 7827
48. Mr. Guzman bought 48 doughnuts packed equally into 4 boxes. Which number sentence
shows how to find the number of doughnuts in each box?
A. 48 – 4 =
B. 48 ÷ 4 =
C. 48 + 4 =
D. 48 x 4 =
49. The Sumata family took a five-day vacation by car. Each day they drove 250 miles.
Which number sentence could be used to find out how many total miles they drove?
A. 250 + 5 =
B. 250 – 5 =
C. 250 x 5 =
D. 250 ÷ 5 =
50. If Mai bought apples for $250 and she paid it with a $10 bill, which expression shows the
correct amount of change?
A. $10 + $2.50
B. $10 - $2.50
C. $10 x $2.50
D. $10 ÷ $2.50
155
Appendix C:
Informed Consent
The study consists of three phases. In Phase I, I will give a pretest to determine
your child’s math ability on math concepts, depending on his/her grade level. Phase II
will be the implementation of Mad Dog Math or traditional math for 10 weeks. Phase III
will consist of a posttest of your child’s math ability after going through the Phase II
implementation. The research study will be explained in terms that your child will
understand, and your child will participate only if he or she is willing to do so. Only
members of the research staff and I will have access to information from and about your
child. At the end of the research study, all of the results will be presented to you. Your
child’s identity in this research study will be anonymous and all information regarding
him/her will be kept confidential.
Participation in this study is voluntary and your decision will not affect the services
normally provided to your child by Gardena Valley Christian School. Your child’s
participation in this research study will not lead to the loss of any benefits to which your
child otherwise is entitled to receive. Even if you give your permission for your child to
participate, your child is free to decline participation. If your child agrees to participate,
he/she is free to end participation at any time. You and your child are not waiving any
legal claims, rights, or remedies because of your child’s participation in this research
project.
Should you have any questions or desire further information, please call me at (310) 327-
4987, or e-mail me at room108@gvcs.net. Please complete and return page two of this
letter to your child’s teacher.
Sincerely,
Miriam Cohen
Graduate Student
Northcentral University
156
Appendix D:
__________________________________
Print Name
157
Appendix E:
I would like to invite you to take part in this study. I am asking you because you are
currently a second or a third grade student at Gardena Valley Christian School.
The reason for this study is to compare the math scores of students receiving the regular
classroom teaching only versus the regular classroom teaching plus the use of the
computer.
The reason I am doing this study is to investigate if this way of studying math may help
you and other students improve their overall scores.
Your parents will also be asked to give permission for you to take part in this study.
Please talk it over with your parents before you decide to agree to participate. You do not
have to be in this study if you do not want to and it will not affect your grade. If you
decide to participate in this study, you can stop at any time.
If you have any questions at any time, please ask Mrs. Cohen or your teacher.
_________________________________ ____________________
Student Signature Date
PRIMARY INVESTIGATOR
Mrs. Miriam Cohen
(310) 327-4987