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Aci Manual 1 1980 PDF
Aci Manual 1 1980 PDF
e
Document Name: ACI: Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 1
Official Incorporator:
THE EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
OFFICE OF THE FEDERAL REGISTER
WASHINGTON, D.C.
I NU LOF
CR EP CTICE
P T 1-1980
All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any means, including
the making of copies by any photo process, or by any electronic or mechanical device, printed or
written or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduction or for use in any knowledge or retri'eval
system or device, unless permission in writing is obtained from the copyright proprietors,
The reports and standards herein were the latest approved versions at the time the contents of this
edition were established, The content of each report or standard is subject to periodic review and
to revision whenever the developments in concrete design and construction warrant a change. Since
this is a continuing process, some reports or standards in this volume may have been superseded
in the interim since publication. Inquiries concerning revisions or additional material in a subject area.
are welcome and should be directed to Institute headquarters.
Most standards and committee reports contained in this volume are also available as separate booklets
from ACI headquarters. Prices supplied on request.
The American Concrete Institute publishes material on all phases of concrete technology. Much of
the material can provide additional or background information on the reports and standards in this
volume. A catalog is available.
ISSN 0065-7875
Contents
Materials and General Properties of Concrete
207-1 Mass Concrete for Dams and Other Massive Structures-ACI 207.1 R-70
•
207-39 Effect of Restraint, Volume Change, and Reinforcement on Cracking of
Massive Concrete-ACI 207.2R-73
••
207-65 Practices for Evaluation of Concrete in Existing Massive Structures for
Service Conditions-ACI 207.3R-79
•
211-1 Recommended Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal and Heavy-
weight Concrete (ACI 211.1-77)
X 212-33
213-1
Admixtures for Concrete-ACI 212.1 R-63
•
Recommended Practice for Evaluation of Strength Test Results of Con-
crete (ACI 214-77)
223-1
Selection and Use of Aggregates for Concrete-ACI 221 R-61
The ACI Manual of Concrete Practice is a five ing any committees not logically placed in other
part compilation of current ACI standards and subdivisions.
committee reports.
Part I-Materials and General Properties of ACI 104-71, Reaffirmed 1976 Preparation of Nota-
Concrete tion for Concrete, Part 3
Part 2-Construction Practices and In- ACI 116R-78 Cement and Concrete Terminology,
spection Part 1
Pavements
Part 3-Use of Concrete in Buildings-
Design, Specifications, and Relat- 200-Materials and Properties of Concrete
ed Topics
Part 4-Bridges, Substructures, Sanitary, This group contains committees whose major
and Other Special Structures concern is materials in concrete and properties of
Structural Properties concrete.
Part 5-Masonry
Precast Concrete ACI 201.1R-68 Guide for Making a Condition
Special Processes Survey of Concrete in Service, Part 1
ACI 201.2R-77 Guide to Durable Concrete, Part 1
Some of the most important work of the Insti- ACI 207.1R-70 Mass Concrete for Dams and Other
tute is performed by its technical committees which Massive Structures, Part 1
prepare the committee reports and standards con- ACI 207.2R-73 Effect of Restraint, Volume Change,
tained in the Manual. Technical committees of the and Reinforcement on Cracking of Massive
Institute are organized into the following five Concrete, Part 1
groups with regard to their function: 100-Research ACI 207.3R-79 Practices for Evaluation of Concrete
and Administration, 200-Materials and Properties in Existing Massive Structures for Service
of Concrete, 300-Design and Construction, 400- Conditions, Part 1
Structural Analysis, and 500-Special Products and ACI 210R-55 Erosion Resistance of Concrete in
Special Processes. Committees are assigned a Hydraulic Structures, Part 1
number which indicates its group or general area of ACI 211.1-77 Recommended Practice for Selecting
responsibility. Proportions for Normal and Heavyweight Con-
Each standard of the Institute bears a hy- crete, Part 1
phenated number to identify it. The first three digits ACI 211.2-69, Revised 1977 Recommended
identify the committee orginating the standard and Practice for Selecting Proportions for Struc-
the last two digits identify the year it was adopted. tural Lightweight Concrete, Part 1
Thus standard ACI 214-77 was prepared by Com- ACI 211.3-75 Recommended Practice for Selecting
mittee 214 and was adopted as a standard in the Proportions for No-Slump Concrete, Part 1
year 1977. ACI 212.1R-63 Admixtures for Concrete, Part 1
Committee reports are also identified by a hy- ACI 212.2R-71 Guide for Use of Admixtures in
phenated number with the addition of an "R" to Concrete, Part 1
indicate a report rather than a standard. For com- ACI 213R-79 Guide for Structural Lightweight
mittee reports the last two digits refer either to the Aggregate Concrete, Part 1
year of original pUblication or in a few cases the year ACI 214-77 Recommended Practice for Evaluation
of adoption of a related standard. of Strength Test Results of Concrete, Parts 1
The following consolidated list contains the and 2
titles of all committee reports and standards found ACI 215R-74 Considerations for Design of Concrete
in the ACI Manual of Concrete Practice-1980. Re- Structures Subjected to Fatigue Loading,
ports and standards are listed numerically and the Part 1
location in the Manual follows the title. ACI 221R-61 Selection and Use of Aggregates for
Concrete, Part 1
100-Research and Administration ACI 223-77 Recommended Practice for the Use of
Shrinkage-Compensating Concrete, Part 1
This group contains all research and ad- ACI 224R-72 Control of Cracking in Concrete
ministrative committees governed by TAC includ- Structures (Synopsis only), Part 3
30D-Design and Construction Practices ACI 318-77 Building Code Requirements for Rein-
forced Concrete, Part 3
This group contains committees whose major ACI 318R-77 Commentary on Building Code Re-
concern is design and construction practices. quirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318-
ACI 301-72, Revised 1975 Specifications for 77), Part 3
Structural Concrete for Buildings, Part 3 ACI 322-72 Building Code Requirements for Struc-
ACI 302-69 Recommended Practice for Concrete tural Plain Concrete, Part 3
Floor and Slab Construction, Part 3 ACI 325.1R-67 Design of Concrete Overlays for
ACI 303R-74 Guide to Cast-in-Place Architectural Pavements, Part 2
Concrete Practice, Part 3 ACI 325.2R-68 Proposed Design for Experimental
ACI 304-73, Reaffirmed 1978 Recommended Prestressed Pavement Slab, Part 2
Practice for Measuring, Mixing, Transporting, ACI 325.3R-68 Guide for Design of Foundations and
and Placing Concrete, Part 2 Shoulders for Concrete Pavements, Part 2
ACI 304.1R-69 Preplaced Aggregate Concrete for ACI 325.4R-72 A Design Procedure for Continu-
Structural and Mass Concrete, Part 2 ously Reinforced Concrete Pavements for
ACI 304.2R-71 Placing Concrete by Pumping Highways, Part 2
Methods, Part 2 ACI 334.1R-74 Concrete Shell Structures-Practice
ACI 304.3R-75 High Density Concrete: Measuring, and Commentary, Part 4
Mixing, Transporting, and Placing, Part 2 ACI 334.2R-77 Reinforced Concrete Cooling Tower
ACI 304.4R-75 Placing Concrete With Belt Con- Shells-Practice and Commentary, Part 4
veyors, Part 2 ACI 336.1-79 Standard Specification for the Con-
ACI 305R-77 Hot Weather Concreting, Part 2 struction of End Bearing Drilled Piers, Part 4
ACI 306R-78 Cold Weather Concreting, Part 2 ACI 336.2R-66 Suggested Design Procedures for
ACI 307-79 Specification for the Design and Con- Combined Footings and Mats, Part 4
struction of Reinforced Concrete Chimneys, ACI 336.3R-72 Suggested Design and Construction
Part 4 Procedures for Pier Foundations, Part 4
ACI 308-71, Reaffirmed 1978 Recommended ACI 340.1R-73 Design Handbook in Accordance
Practice for Curing Concrete, Part 2 with the Strength Design Method of ACI 318-
ACI 309-72, Reaffirmed 1978 Recommended 71, Volume 1 (Synopsis only), Parts 3 and 4
Practice for Consolidation of Concrete, Part 2 ACI 340.2R-78 Design Handbook in Accordance
ACI 311-75 Recommended Practice for Concrete with the Strength Design Method of ACI 318-
Inspection, Part 2 77, Volume 2 Columns (Synopsis only), Parts 3
ACI 311.1R-75 ACI Manual of Concrete Inspection and 4
(Synopsis only), Part 2 ACI 340.3R-77 Step-by-Step Design Procedures in
ACI 311.2R-63 Training Courses for Concrete In- Accordance with the Strength Design Method
spectors, Part 2 of ACI 318-71 (Synopsis only), Parts 3 and 4
ACI 311.3R-75 Guide for Certification of Nuclear ACI 340.4R-78 Slab Design in Accordance with ACI
Concrete Inspection and Testing Personnel, 318-77-Supplement to: Design Handbook on
Part 2 Accordance with the Strength Design Method
ACI 313-77 Recommended Practice for Design and (Synopsis only), Parts 3 and 4
Construction of Concrete Bins, Silos, and ACI 343R-77 Analysis and Design of Reinforced
Bunkers for Storing Granular Materials, Concrete Bridge Structures, Part 4
Part 4 ACI 344R-70 Design and Construction of Circular
ACI 313R-77 Commentary on Recommended Prestressed Concrete Structures, Part 4
Practice for Design and Construction of Con- ACI 345-74 Recommended Practice for Concrete
crete Bins, Silos, and Bunkers for Storing Highway Bridge Deck Construction, Part 2
Granular Materials (ACI 313-77), Part 4 ACI 346-70, Reaffirmed 1975 Specifications for
ACI 315-74, Revised 1978 Manual of Standard Cast-in-Place Nonreinforced Concrete Pipe,
Practice for Detailing Reinforced Concrete Part 2
Structures (Synopsis only), Parts 3 and 4 ACI 346R-70 Recommendations for Cast-in-Place
ACI 316-74, Revised 1975 Recommended Practice Nonreinforced Concrete Pipe, Part 2
for Construction of Concrete Pavements and ACI 347-78 Recommended Practice for Concrete
Concrete Bases, Part 2 Formwork, Part 2
ACI 347.1R-69 Precast Concrete Units Used as ACI 439.2R-77 Steel Reinforcement-Properties
Forms for Cast-in-Place Concrete, Part 2 and Availability, Part 1
SP-4 Formwork for Concrete (Synopsis only), Part 2 ACI 442R-71 Response of Buildings to Lateral
ACI 349-76 Code Requirements for Nuclear Safety Forces, Part 3
Related Concrete Structures, Part 4 ACI 444R-79 Models of Concrete Structures-State
ACI 349R-76 Commentary on Code Requirements of the Art, Part 4
for Nuclear Safety Related Concrete Struc-
tures, Part 4
ACI 350R-77 Concrete Sanitary Engineering Struc- SOo-Special Products and Special Processes
tures, Part 4
ACI 352R-76 Recommendations for Design of This group contains committees dealing with
Beam-Column Joints for Monolithic Concrete special products used with concrete or special pro-
Structures, Part 4 cessing of concrete.
ACI 357R-78 Guide for the Design and Construc- ACI 503.1-79 Standard Specification for Bonding
tion of Fixed Offshore Concrete Structures, Hardened Concrete, Steel, Wood, Brick, and
Part 4 Other Materials to Hardened Concrete with a
ACI 359-77 Code for Concrete Reactor Vessels and Multi-Component Epoxy Adhesive, Part 5
Containments (Synopsis only), Part 4 ACI 503.2-79 Standard Specification for Bonding
Plastic Concrete to Hardened Concrete with a
4OG-Structural Analysis Multi-Component Epoxy Adhesive, Part 5
ACI 503.3-79 Standard Specification for Producing
This group contains committees whose major a Skid Resistant Surface on Concrete by
concern is analysis of structures or analysis of the Use of a Multi-Component Epoxy System,
design practice. Part 5
ACI 408R-66 Bond Stress-The State of the Art ACI 503.4-79 Standard Specification for Repairing
(Synopsis only), Parts 3 and 4 Concrete with Epoxy Mortars, Part 5
ACI 423.1R-69 Tentative Recommendations for ACI 503R-73 Use of Epoxy Compounds with Con-
Concrete Members Prestressed With Un- crete, Part 5
bonded Tendons, Part 3 ACI 504R-77 Guide to Joint Sealants for Concrete
ACI 423.2R-74 Tentative Recommendations for Structures, Part 5
Prestressed Concrete Flat Plates, Part 3 ACI 506-66, Reaffirmed 1978 Recommended
ACI 426R-74 Shear Strength of Reinforced Con- Practice for Shotcreting, Part 5
crete Members, Part 3 ACI 506.2-77 Specification for Materials,
ACI 435.1R-63 Deflections of Prestressed Concrete Proportioning, and Application of Shotcrete,
Members, Part 4 Part 5
ACI 435.2R-66 Deflections of Reinforced Concrete ACI 512.1R-64 Suggested Design of Joints and
Flexural Members, Part 4 Connections in Precast Structural Concrete,
ACI 435.3R-68 Allowable Deflections, Part 3 Part 5
ACI 435.4R-72 Variability of Deflections of Simply ACI 512.2R-74 Precast Structural Concrete in
Supported Reinforced Concrete Beams, Part 4 Buildings, Part 5
ACI 435.5R-73 Deflections of Continuous Concrete ACI 515-66 Guide for the Protection of Concrete
Beams, Part 4 Against Chemical Attack by Means of Coat-
ACI 435.6R-74 Deflection of Two-Way Reinforced ings and Other Corrosion Resistant Materials,
Concrete Floor Systems: State of the Art, Part 5
Part 3 ACI 516R-65 High-Pressure Steam Curing: Modern
ACI 437R-67 Strength Evaluation of Existing Con- Practice, and Properties of Autoclaved Pro-
crete Buildings, Part 3 ducts, Part 5
ACI 438R-69 Tentative Recommendations for the ACI 517-70, Reaffirmed 1976 Recommended
Design of Reinforced Concrete Members to Practice for Atmospheric Pressure Steam
Resist Torsion (Synopsis Only), Parts 3 and 4 Curing of Concrete, Part 5
ACI 439.1R-73 Uses and Limitations of High ACI 517.1R-63 Low Pressure Steam Curing, Part 5
Strength Steel Reinforcement fy 2: 60 ksi (42.2 ACI 523.1R-67 Guide for Cast-in-Place Low Density
kgf/mm 2), Part 3 Concrete, Part 5
ACI 523.2R-68 Guide for Low Density Precast Con- ACI 533.2R-69 Selection and Use of Materials for
crete Floor, Roof, and Wall Units, Part 5 Precast Concrete Wall Panels, Part 5
ACI 523.3R-75 Guide for Cellular Concretes Above ACI 533.3R-70 Fabrication, Handling and Erection
50 pef, and for Aggregate Concretes Above 50 of Precast Concrete Wall Panels, Part 5
pef with Compressive Strengths Less Than ACI 533.4R-71 Design of Precast Concrete Wall
2500 psi, Part 5 Panels, Part 5
ACI 531-79 Building Code Requirements for Con- ACI 543R-74 Recommendations for Design, Manu-
crete Masonry Structures, Part 5 facture, and Installation of Concrete Piles,
ACI 531R-79 Commentary on Building Code Re- Part 4
quirements for Concrete Masonry Structures ACI 544.1R-73 State-of-the-Art Report on Fiber
(ACI 531-79), Part 5 Reinforced Concrete, Part 5
ACI 531.1-76 Specification for Concrete Masonry ACI 544.2R-78 Measurement of Properties of Fiber
Construction, Part 5 Reinforced Concrete, Part 5
ACI 533.1R-69 Quality Standards and Tests for ACI 548R-77 Polymers in Concrete (abstract),
Precast Concrete Wall Panels, Part 5 Part 5
N R
OF
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and Com- AC1116R-78
mentaries are intended for guidance in designing, planning, executing,
or inspecting construction, and in preparing specifications. Reference
to these documents shall not be made in the Project Documents. If
items found in these documents are desired to be part of the Project
Documents, they should be incorporated directly into the Project
Documents.
Foreword
The first edition of the ACI glossary was the result of ten years of work by
Committee 116. The second edition, which is based on the first edition, is the
product of approximately six years of effort.
For the drafting of the second edition, the committee membership was
divided into eight task groups, each of which was responsible for the prepara-
tion of an individual section. These sections were subsequently combined to
form a base document for study and comment by the full committee. The
comments resulting from this and other reviews, both within and without the
committee, were considered by an Editorial Subcommittee composed of J. J.
Shideler (Chairman), R. D. Gaynor, J. R. libby, Bryant Mather, and R. C.
Mielenz.
Committee 116 recognizes that despite meticulous attention to detail, the
listing may not be complete and that some definitions may be at variance with
some commonly accepted meanings. Users of the glossary are invited to
submit suggestions for changes and additions to ACI Headquarters for con-
sideration in preparing for future editions.
The Committee is aware that some of the definitions included may seem
entirely self-evident to an expert in the concrete field. This occurs because no
term has been discarded if there was reason to believe it would appear to be
technical in nature to a casual reader of the ACI literature.
The invaluable contributions of the past-chairmen of Committee 116, R. C.
Mielenz, D. L. Bloem, W. H. Price, and R. E. Davis, Jr., and of Bryant Mather as
past-chairman of the Editorial Subcommittee, are gratefully acknowledged.
Copyright © 1978, American Concrete Institute device, printed or written or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduction or fo~ use
~ll rig~t.s reserved)ncluding rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any me~ns in any knowledge retrieval system or device, unless permission in writing is obtamed
IncludIng the making of COpIes by any photo process, or by any electronic or mechamcai from the copyright proprietors.
116-1
116-2 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
B Bat
Barrel-vault roof-A thin concrete roof taking the form of
b/b,,-See Coarse aggregate factor. a part of a cylinder.
Backfill concrete-Non-structural concrete used to cor- Base-A subfloor slab or "working mat," either previously
rect over-excavation, or fill excavated pockets in rock, or placed and hardened or freshly placed, on which floor
to prepare a surface to receive structural concrete. topping is placed in a later operation; also the underlying
Back form-See Top form. stratum on which a concrete slab, such as a pavement, is
Back plastering-Plaster applied to one face of a lath placed. (See also Subbase.)
system following application and subsequent hardening Base bead-See Base screed.
of plaster applied to the opposite face. Base coat-Any plaster coat or coats applied prior to ap-
Back stay-See Brace. plication of the finished coat.
Bacterial corrosion-The destruction of a material by Base course-A layer of specified selected material of
chemical processes brought about by the activity of cer- planned thickness constructed on the subgrade or sub-
tain bacteria which may produce substances such as hy- base of a pavement to serve one or more functions such as
drogen sulfide, ammonia, and sulfuric acid. distributing loads, providing drainage, or minimizing
Bag (of cement; also Sack)-A quantity of portland ce- frost action; also the lowest course of masonry in a wall or
ment: 941b in the United States, and 50 kg in most other pier.
countries; for other kinds of cement a quantity indicated Base plate-A plate of metal or other approved material
on the bag (obsolete). formerly placed under pavement joints and the adjacent
Balanced load-Load capacity at simultaneous crushing slab ends to prevent the infiltration of soil and moisture
of concrete and yielding of tension steel. from the sides or bottom of the joint opening; also a device
Balanced moment-Moment capacity at simultaneous used to distribute vertical loads as for building columns
crushing of concrete and yielding of tension steel. or machinery.
Balanced reinforcement-An amount and distribution Base screed-A preformed metal screed with perforated
of reinforcement in a flexural member such that in work- or expanded flanges to provide a ground for plaster and to
ing stress design the allowable tensile stress in the steel separate areas of dissimilar materials.
and the allowable compressive stress in the concrete are Basket--See Load-transfer assembly.
attained simultaneously; or such that in strength design Bassanite-Calcium sulfate hemihydrate, 2CaS04' H 2 0.
the tensile reinforcement reaches its specified yield (See also Hemihydrate and Plaster of Paris.)
strength simultaneously with the concrete in compres- Bat-A broken, burned brick or shape.
sion reaching its assumed ultimate strain of 0.003. ~-Quantity of concrete or mortar mixed at one time.
Ball mill-Horizontal, cylindrical, rotating mill charged Batch box-Container of known volume used to measure
with large grinding media. constituents of a batch of concrete or mortar in proper
Ball test-A test to determine the consistency of freshly proportions.
mixed concrete by measuring the depth of penetration of Batch mixer-A machine which mixes batches of concrete
a cylindrical metal weight with a hemispherical bottom. or mortar in contrast to a continuous mixer.
Band-Small bars or wire encircling the main reinforce- Batch pl.!!Jl1..-An operating installation of equipment in-
ment in a member to form a peripheral tie; group of bars cluding batchers and mixers as required for batching or
distributed in a slab, or wall, or footing. for batching and mixing concrete materials; also called
Band iron-Thin metal strap used as form tie, hanger, etc. mixing plant when mixing equipment is included.
Bar-A member used to reinforce concrete. Ba~£h...~~Jgh!!>:::-The weights of the various materials
Bar bender-A tradesman who cuts and bends steel rein- (cement, water, the several sizes of aggregate, and ad-
forcement; or a machine for bending reinforcement. mixtures if used) of which a batch of concrete is com-
Bar chair-An individual supporting device used to sup- posed.
port or hold reinforcing bars in proper position to prevent ~1!.e.d-wateJ:=--The mixing water added by a batcher to a
displacement before or during concreting. concrete or mortar mixture before or during the initial
Bar, deformed-See Deformed bar. stages of mixing.
Bar mat-An assembly of steel reinforcement composed of Batcher-A device for measuring ingredients for a batch
two or more layers of bars placed at angles to each other ·o(concrete.
and secured together by welding or ties. 1. Manual hat.~her-A batcher equipped with gates
Bar spacing-The distance between parallel reinforcing or valves which are-~perated manually, with or without
bars, measured center to center of the bars perpendicular supplementary power from pneumatic, hydraulic, or
to their longitudinal axes. electrical machinery, the accuracy of the weighing oper-
Bar support-A rigid device used to support or hold rein- ation being dependent on the operator's observation of
forcing bars in proper position to prevent displacement the scale.
before or during concreting. 2. Semiautomatic batcher-A batcher equipped
Barite-A mineral, barium sulfate (BaS04), used in pure with gates or valves whicKareseparately opened manu-
or impure form as concrete aggregate primarily for the ally to allow the material to be weighed but which are
construction of high-density radiation shielding con- closed automatically when the designated weight of each
crete; designated "barytes" in United Kingdom. material has been reached.
Barrage-A low dam erected to control the level of a 3. Automatic batcher-A batcher equipped with
stream. gates'C;i~-aT~es-which, Wneh actuated by a single starter
Barrel (of cement}-A quantity of portland cement; 376 switch, will open automatically at the start of the weigh-
Ib (4 bags) in the United States (obsolete); also wood or ing operation of each material and close automatically
metal container formerly used for shipping cement. when the designated weight of each material has been
116·6 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
Con Core-
l. The soil material enclosed within a tubular pile after
driving (it may be replaced with concrete).
Construction joint-The surface where two successive 2. The mandrel used for driving casings for cast-in-
placements of concrete meet, across which it is desirable place piles.
to develop and maintain bond between the two concrete 3. A structural shape used to internally reinforce a
placements, and through which any reinforcement which drilled-in-caisson.
may be present is not interrupted. (See also Contraction 4. A cylindrical sample of hardened concrete or rock
joint.) obtained by means of a core drill.
Construction loads-The loads to which a permanent or 5. The molded open space in a concrete masonry unit.
temporary structure is subjected during construction. See also Blockout.
Contact ceiling-A ceiling which is secured in direct con- Core test-Compression test on a concrete sample cut from
tact with the construction above without use of furring. hardened concrete by means of a core drill.
Contact pressure-Pressure acting at and perpendicular Cored beam-A beam whose cross section is partially
to the contact area between footing and soil, produced by hollow, or a beam from which cored samples of concrete
the weight of the footing and all forces acting on it. have been taken.
Contact splice-A means of connecting reinforcing bars Coring-The act of obtaining cores from concrete struc-
in which the bars are lapped and in direct contact. (See tures or rock foundations.
also Lap splice.) Corner reinforcement-Metal reinforcement for plaster
Containment grouting-See Perimeter grouting. at re-entrant corners to provide continuity between two
Continuous beam-See Continuous slab or beam. intersecting planes; or concrete reinforcement used at
Continuous footing-A combined footing of prismatic or wall intersections or near corners of square or rectangu-
truncated shape, supporting two or more columns in a lar openings in walls, slabs, or beams.
row. vCorrosion-Disintegration or deterioration of concrete or
Continuous grading-A particle size distribution in reinforcement by electrolysis or by chemical attack.
which all intermediate size fractions are present, as op- Cotton mats-Cotton-filled quilts fabricated for use as a
posed to gap-grading. water-retaining covering in curing concrete surfaces.
Continuous mixer-A mixer into which the ingredients of Coupler-
the mixture are fed without stopping, and from which the 1. A device for connecting reinforcing bars or prestress-
mixed product is discharged in a continuous stream. ing tendons end to end.
Continuous slab or beam-A slab or beam which extends 2. A device for locking together the component parts of
as a unit over three or more supports in a given direction. a tubular metal scaffold (also known as a Clamp).
Continuously reinforced pavement-A pavement with Coupling pin-An insert device used to connect lifts or
continuous longitudinal steel reinforcement and no in- tiers or formwork scaffolding vertically.
termediate transverse expansion or contraction joints. Course-In concrete construction, a horizontal layer of
Contraction (or Expansion), of concrete-The sum of concrete, usually one of several making up a lift; in
volume changes occurring as the result of all processes masonry construction, a horizontal layer of block or
affecting the bulk volume of a mass of concrete. (See also brick. (See also Lift.)
ShrinkageJ Cover-In reinforced concrete, the least distance between
Contraction joint-Formed, sawed, or tooled groove in a the surface of the reinforcement and the outer surface of
concrete structure to create a weakened plane and regu- the concrete.
late the location of cracking resulting from the dimen- Cover block-See Spacer.
sional change of different parts of the structure. (See also Crack-control reinforcement-Reinforcement in con-
Isolation joint.) crete construction designed to prevent opening of cracks,
Contraction-joint grouting-Injection of grout into con- often effective in limiting them to uniformly distributed
traction joints. small cracks.
Control factor-The ratio of the minimum compressive Cracked section-A section designed or analyzed on the
strength to the average compressive strength. assumption that concrete has no resistance to tensile
Control joint-See Contraction joint. stress.
Control-joint grouting-See Contraction-joint grout- Cracking load-The load which causes tensile stress in a
ing. member to exceed the tensile strength of the concrete.
Conventional design-Design procedure using moments Craze cracks-Fine, random cracks or fissures caused by
or stresses determined by widely accepted methods. shrinkage which may appear in a surface of plaster,
Conveying hose-See Delivery hose. cement paste, mortar, or concrete.
Conveyor-A device for moving materials; usually a con- Crazing-The development of craze cracks; the pattern of
tinuous belt, an articulated system of buckets, a confined craze cracks existing in a surface. (See also Checking.)
screw, or a pipe through which material is moved by air Cre~l?.:-Time-dependent deformation due to sustained
or water. load.
Coping-The material or units used to form a cap or finish Crimped wire-Wire deformed into a curve which approx-
on top of a wall, pier, pilaster, or chimney. imates a sine curve as a means of increasing the capacity
Coquina-A type of limestone formed of sea shells in loose of the wire to bond to concrete; also welded wire fabric
or weakly cemented condition, found along present or crimped to provide an integral chair. (See also De-
former shorelines; used as a calcareous raw material in formed reinforcementJ
cement manufacture and other industrial operations. Cross bracing-A system of members which connect
Corbel-A projection from the face of a beam, girder, col- frames or panels of scaffolding laterally to make a tower
umn, or wall used as a beam seat or a decoration. or continuous structure.
CEMENT AND CONCRETE TERMINOLOGY 116·15
Kip general term for the various chemical and physical forms
Kip-lOOO Ib force, equals 4448.222 newtons. of quicklime, hydrated lime, and hydraulic hydrated
Knee brace-Brace between horizontal and vertical lime.
members in a building frame or formwork to make the Limit design-A method of proportioning reinforced con-
structure more stable; in formwork it acts as a haunch. crete members based on calculations of their strength.
(See also Strength design method.)
l Limonite-An iron ore composed of a mixture of hydrated
ferric oxides; occasionally used in high density concrete
Lacing-Horizontal bracing between shoring members. because of its high density and water content which con-
Lagging-Heavy sheathing used as in underground work tribute to its effectiveness in radiation shielding. (See
to withstand earth pressure. (See also Sheathing.) also Brown oxide.)
Laitance-A layer of weak and nondurable material con- Linear prestressing-Prestressing as applied to linear
taining cement and fines from aggregates, brought by members, such as beams, columns, etc.
bleeding water to the top of overwet concrete, the amount Linear transformation-The method of altering the
of which is generally increased by overworking or over- trajectory of the prestressing tendon in any statically
manipulating concrete at the surface by improper finish- indeterminate prestressed structure by changing the lo-
ing or by job traffic. cation of the tendon at one or more interior supports
Lap-The length by which one bar or sheet of fabric rein- without altering its position at the end supports and
forcement overlaps another. without changing the basic shape of the trajectory be-
Lap splice-A connection of reinforcing steel made by tween any supports; linear transformation does not
lapping the ends of the bars. change the location of trajectory of the pressure line.
Lapping (reinforcing steeD-The overlapping of rein- Linear traverse method-Determination of the volumet-
forcing steel bars, welded wire fabric, or expanded metal ric composition of a solid by integrating the distance
so that there may be continuity of stress in the reinforc- traversed across areas of each component along a line or
ing when the concrete member is subjected to flexural or along regularly spaced lines in one or more planes inter-
tensile loading. secting a sample of the solid; frequently employed to
Larnite-A mineral; beta dicalcium silicate (Ca2Si04); oc- determine characteristics of the air-void system in har-
curs naturally at Scawt Hill, Northern Ireland, and arti- dened concrete by microscopical examination along a
ficially in slags and as a major constituent of portland series of traverse lines on finely ground sections of the
cement. concrete; sometimes called the Rosiwal method.
Lateral reinforcement--See Reinforcement, lateral. Lining-Any sheet, plate, or layer of material attached
Latex-A water emulsion of a synthetic rubber or plastic directly to the inside face offormwork to improve or alter
obtained by polymerization and used especially in coat- the surface texture and quality of the finished concrete.
ings and adhesives. (See also Form lining.)
Layer--See Course. Lintel-A horizontal supporting member above an open-
L-beam-A beam whose section has the form of an in- ing such as a window or a door.
verted L, usually occurring in the edge of a floor, of which Liquid limit-Water content, expressed as a percentage of
a part forms the top flange of the beam. the dry weight of the soil at which the soil passes from the
L-column-The portion of a precast concrete frame, com- plastic to the liquid state under standard test conditions.
posed of the column, the haunch, and part of the girder. (See also Atterberg limits.)
Leaf--See Wythe. Liquid-volume measurement-Measurement of grout
Lean concrete-Concrete of low cement content. on the basis of the total volume of solid and liquid con-
Ledger-An L-shaped horizontal member that supports stituents.
other permanent or temporary structural members. (See Live load-Any load that is not permanently applied to a
also Beam.) structure.
Lever arm-In a structural member, the distance from the Load, service--See Service dead load and Service live
center of the tensile reinforcement to the center of action load.
of the compression. Load binder-A device used to tighten chains holding
L-head-The top of a shore formed with a braced horizon- loads in place on a truck bed.
tal member projecting from one side forming an inverted Load-factor-A factor by which a service load is multi-
L-shaped assembly. plied to determine a design load. (See also Phi (ef» fac-
Lift-The concrete placed between two consecutive hori- tor.)
zontal construction joints, usually consisting of several Load-bearing wall-A wall designed and built to carry
layers or courses. superimposed vertical and shear loads as opposed to
Lift joint--Surface at which two successive lifts meet. nonload-bearing walls.
Lift slab-A method of concrete construction in which floor Load-transfer assembly-Most commonly, the unit
and roof slabs are cast on or at ground level and hoisted (basket or plate) designed to support or link dowel bars
into position by jacking; also a slab which is a component during concreting operations so as to hold them in place,
of such construction. in the desired alignment.
Lifts (or Tiers)-The number of frames of scaffolding Loading hopper-A hopper in which concrete or other
erected one above each other in a vertical direction. free flowing material is placed for loading by gravity into
Lightweight aggregate--See Aggregate, lightweight. buggies or other conveyances for transport to the forms or
Lightweight concrete-Concrete of substantially lower to other place of processing, use, or storage.
unit weight than thatmade using gravel or crushed stone Locking device-A device used to secure a cross brace in
aggregates. scaffolding to the frame or panel.
Lime--Specifically, calcium oxide (CaO); also, loosely, a Long column--See Column, long.
CEMENT AND CONCRETE TERMINOLOGY 116-27
Pan- Phe
1. A prefabricated form unit used in concrete joist floor
construction. Peeling-A process in which thin flakes of mortar are
2. A container that receives particles passing the finest broken away from a concrete surface, such as by dete-
sieve during mechanical analysis of granular materials. rioration or by adherence of surface mortar to forms as
Pan mixer--See Mixer, pan. forms are removed.
Panel- Pencil rod-Plain metal rod of about '4 in. (6 mm) diame-
1. A section of form sheathing, constructed from ter.
boards, plywood, metal sheets, etc., that can be erected Penetration probe-A device for obtaining a measure of
and stripped as a unit. the resistance of concrete to penetration; customarily
2. A concrete member, usually precast, rectangular in determined by the distance that a steel pin is driven into
shape, and relatively thin with respect to other dimen- the concrete from a special gun by a precisely measured
sions. explosive charge.
Panel, drop-See Drop panel. Penetration resistance-The resistance, usually ex-
Panel strip-A strip extending across the length or width pressed in pounds per square inch (psi) or megapascals
of a flat slab for structural design and construction or (MPa), of mortar or cement paste to penetration by a
architectural purposes. plunger or needle under standard conditions.
Paper form-A heavy paper mold used for casting con- Percent fines-Amount, expressed as a percentage, ofma-
crete columns and other structural shapes. terial in aggregate finer than a given sieve, usually the
Parallel-wire unit-A post-tensioning tendon composed No. 200 (75 f.L m) sieve; also the amount of fine aggregate
of a number of wires or strands which are approximately in a concrete mixture expressed as a percent by absolute
volume of the total amount of aggregate.
I
parallel.
Parapet-That part of a wall that extends above the roof Percentage of reinforcement-The ratio of cross-
level; a low wall along the top of a dam. sectional area of reinforcing steel to the effective cross-
Parge-To coat with plaster, particularly foundation walls sectional area of a member, expressed as a percentage.
and rough masonry. Periclase-A crystalline mineral, magnesia, MgO, the
Partial prestressing-Prestressing to a stress level such equivalent of which may be present in portland cement
that, under design loads, tensile stresses exist in the clinker, portland cement, and other materials such as
precompressed tensile zone of the prestressed member. open hearth slags, and certain basic refractories.
Partial release-Release into a prestressed concrete Perimeter grouting-Injection of grout, usually at rela-
member of a portion of the total prestress initially held tively low pressure, around the periphery of an area
wholly in the prestressed reinforcement. which is subsequently to be grouted at greater pressure;
Particle shape-The shape of a particle. (See also Cubi- intended to confine subsequent grout injection within the
cal piece, Elongated piece, and Flat piece.) perimeter.
Particle-size distribution--See Grading. Period at maximum temperature--See Maximum-
Parting agent--See Release agent. temperature period.
Pass-Layer of shotcrete placed in one movement over the Perlite-A volcanic glass having a perlitic structure, usu-
field of operation. ally having a higher water content than obsidian; when
Paste content (of concrete)-Proportional volume of ce- expanded by heating, used as an insulating material and
ment paste in concrete, mortar, or the like, expressed as as a lightweight aggregate in concretes, mortars, and
volume percent of the entire mixture. (See also Neat plasters.
cement paste.) Perlitic structure-A structure produced in a homogene-
Paste volume (of concrete)--See Paste content. ous material by contraction during cooling, and consist-
Pat-A specimen of neat cement paste about 3 in. (76 mm) ing of a system of irregular convolute and spheroidal
in diameter and Vz in. (13 mm) in thickness at the center cracks; generally confined to natural glass.
and tapering to a thin edge on a flat glass plate for Permanent form-Any form that remains in place after
indicating setting time. the concrete has developed its design strength; it mayor
Pattern cracking-Fine openings on concrete surfaces in may not become an integral part of the structure.
the form of a pattern; resulting from a decrease in volume Permanent set-Inelastic elongation or shortening.
of the material near the surface, or increase in volume of Permeability to water, coefficient of-The rate of dis-
the material below the surface, or both. charge of water under laminar flow conditions through a
Pavement (concrete)-A layer of concrete over such unit cross-sectional area of a porous medium under a unit
areas as roads, sidewalks, canals, playgrounds, and those hydraulic gradient and standard temperature conditions
used for storage or parking. (See also Rigid pavement.) ~ usually 20 C.
Paving train-An assemblage of equipment designed to 0>etrography-The branch of petrology dealing with de-
place and finish a concrete pavement. scriptIOn and systematic classification of rocks aside
Pea gravel--Screened gravel, most of the particles of from their geologic relations, mainly by laboratory
which will pass a 'jig in. (9.5 mm) sieve and be retained on methods, largely chemical and microscopical; also,
a No.4 (4.75 mm) sieve. loosely, petrology or lithology.
Pedestal-An upright compression member whose height Petrology-The science ofrocks, treating of their origin,
does not exceed three times its average least lateral di- structure, composition, etc., from all aspects and in all
mension, such as a short pier or plinth used as the base relations. (See also Petrography.)
for a column. Phenolic resin-A class of synthetic, oil-soluble resins
Pedestal pile-A cast-in-place concrete pile constructed so (plastics) produced as condensation products of phenol,
that concrete is forced out into a widened bulb or pedestal substituted phenols and formaldehyde, or some similar
shape at the foot of the pipe which forms the pile. aldehyde that may be used in paints for concrete.
116-32 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
THOMAS J. READING
Reported by ACI Committee 201
CAMERON MaciNNIS
-
Chairman Secretary
Corresponding Members
HORMOZ FAMILI HUBERT K. HILSDORF G. G. LlTVAN
ODD E. GJORV WILLIAM LEDBETTER JOSEPH J. WADDELL
FOREWORD
ACI Committee 201 was organized in 1957, and published a report "Dura-
bility of Concrete in Service" in the December 1962 ACI Journal.
The committee has also published a "Guide for Making a Condition Survey
of Concrete in Service" in the November 1968 ACI Journal, and a symposium
volume, Durability of Concrete, SP-47, in 1975.
Charles F. Scholer was chairman of Committee 201 during the early de-
velopment of this guide.
CONTENTS
Introduction 201-2
Chapter 1-Freezing and thawing 201-3
l.l-General 1.3-Ice removal agents
1.2-Mechanism of frost action 1.4-Recommendations for durable
structures
INTRODUCTION
Durability of portland cement concrete is de- aggregates, corrosion of embedded materials, re-
fined as its ability to resist weathering action, pair methods, and the use of coatings to enhance
chemical attack, abrasion, or any other process of durability. The fire resistance of concrete is not
deterioration. Durable concrete will retain its covered, since it is included in the mission of ACI
original form, quality, and serviceability when Committee 216.
exposed to its environment. Some excellent gen- Freezing and thawing damage is a serious prob-
eral references on the subject are available.1-3* lem in northern climates, and the mechanisms in-
This report discusses in some depth the more im- volved are now fairly well understood. In pave-
portant causes of concrete deterioration, and gives ments the damage is greatly accelerated by the
recommendations on how to prevent such damage. use of deiCing salts, often resulting in severe
Chapters are included on freezing and thawing,
aggressive chemical exposure, abrasion, reactive 'References are listed at the end of each chapter.
DURABILITY 201-3
scaling at the surface. Fortunately, concrete made Although aggregate is commonly considered to
with good aggregates, low water-cement ratio, and be an inert filler in concrete, such is not always
air entrainment will have good resistance to cyclic the case. Certain aggregates can react with port-
freezing. land cement, causing expansion and deterioration.
By using a suitable cement and a properly pro- Fortunately, care in the selection of aggregate
portioned mix, concrete will resist sulfates in soil, sources, and use of low-alkali cement and poz-
ground water, or seawater. High quality concrete zolans where appropriate, will prevent this prob-
will resist mild acid attack, but no concrete offers lem.
good resistance to attack by strong acids; special The final chapters of this report discuss the
protection is necessary in this case. repair of concrete which has not withstood the
forces of deterioration, and the use of protective
Sometimes concrete surfaces will wear away coatings to enhance durability.
as the result of abrasive action. Wear can be a The committee wishes to stress that good design
particular problem in industrial floors. In hy- and materials alone will not assure durable con-
draulic structures, particles of sand or gravel in crete. Good quality control and workmanship are
flowing water can erode surfaces. The use of high absolutely essential to the production of durable
quality concrete and, in extreme cases, a very concrete. Experience has shown that two areas
hard aggregate will usually result in adequate should receive special attention: (1) control of
durability under these exposures. The recent use entrained air and (2) finishing of slabs. The ACI
of studded tires on automobiles has caused serious Manual of Concrete Inspection describes good con-
wear in concrete pavements; conventional concrete crete practices and inspection procedures:1
will not withstand this action.
The spalling of concrete in bridge decks has be- REFERENCES
come a serious problem in recent years. The prin- 1. ACI Committee 201, "Durability of Concrete in
cipal cause is corrosion of the reinforcing steel, Service," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 59, No. 12, Dec.
1962, pp. 1771-1820.
which is largely due to the use of deicing salts. The 2. ACI Committee 201, "Guide for Making a Condition
corrosion products produce an expansive force Survey of Concrete in Service," ACI JOURNAL, Proceed-
which causes the concrete to spall out above the ings V. 65, No. 11, Nov. 1968, pp. 905-918.
steel. Ample cover over the steel and use of a 3. Woods, Hubert, Durability of Concrete Construc-
low-permeability, air-entrained concrete will as- tion, Monograph No.4, American Concrete Institute!
Iowa State University Press, Detroit, 1968, 190 pp.
sure good durability in the great majority of 4. ACI Committee 311, ACT Manual of Concrete In-
cases, but more positive protection is needed for spection, SP-2, 6th Edition, American Concrete Institute,
very severe exposures. Detroit, 1975, 268 pp.
sistance to movement of water away from the pores and which cannot freeze plays a major role.
regions of freezing. It was believed that the mag- Because of the difference in vapor pressure of this
nitude of the pressure depended on the rate of supercooled liquid and the bulk ice in the sur-
freezing, degree of saturation and coefficient of roundings of the paste system, there will be mi-
permeability of the paste, and the length of the gration of water to locations where it is able to
flow-path to the nearest place for the water to freeze, such as the larger pores or the outer sur-
escape. The benefits of entrained air were ex- face. The process leads to partial desiccation of
plained in terms of the shortening of flow-paths the paste and accumulation of ice in crevices and
to places of escape. Some authorities still accept cracks. Failure occurs when the required redistri-
this hypothesis. btition of water cannot take place in an orderly
Later studies by Powers and Helmuth produced fashion either because the amount of water is too
strong evidence that the hydraulic pressure hy- large (high water-cement ratio for the same de-
potheses are not consistent with the experimental gree of saturation), the available time is too short
results.!; They found that during freezing of ce- (rapid cooling), or the path of migration is too
ment paste most of the water movement is long (lack of entrained air bubbles). Litvan be-
toward, not away from, sites of freezing as had lieves that in such cases, the freezing forms a
been previously believed. Also, the dilations (ex- semi-amorphous solid (not ice crystals) resulting
pansions) during freezing generally decreased in great internal stresses.
with increased rate of cooling.i-n Both of these There is general agreement that cement paste
findings were contrary to the hydraulic pressure can be made completely immune to damage from
hypothesis, and indicated that a modified form of freezing temperatures by means of entrained air,
a theory previously advanced by Collins 10 (orig- unless special exposure conditions result in filling
inally developed to explain frost action in soil) is of the air voids. However, air entrainment alone
applicable. does not preclude the possibility of damage of
Powers and Helmuth point out that the water concrete due to freezing; freezing phenomena in
in cement paste is in the form of a weak alkali aggregate particles must also be taken into con-
solution. When the temperature of the concrete sideration.
drops below the freezing point, there will be an
initial period of supercooling, after which ice 1.2.2 Freezing in aggregate particles-Most rocks
crystals will form in the larger capillaries. This have pore sizes much larger than those in cement
results in an increase in alkali content in the un- paste, and Powers 2 found that they expel water
frozen portion of the solution in these capillaries, during freezing. The committee believes the hy-
creating an osmotic potential which impels water draulic pressure theory, previously described for
molecules in the nearby unfrozen pores to begin cement paste, is applicable in most cases.
diffusing into the solution in the frozen cavities. Dunn and Hudec 12 advanced the "ordered water"
The resulting dilution of the solution in contact theory, which states that the principal cause of
with the ice allows further growth of the body deterioration of rock is not freezing but the ex-
of ice (ice-accretion). When the cavity becomes pansion of adsorbed water (which is not freez-
full of ice and solution, any further ice-accretion able) ; specific cases of failure without freezing of
produces dilative pressure which can cause the claybearing limestone aggregates seemed to sup-
paste to fail. When water is being drawn out of port this conclusion. This, however, is not con-
unfrozen capillaries, the paste tends to shrink. sistent with the results of research by Helmuthl~
(Experiments have verified that shrinkage of who found that adsorbed water does not expand,
paste, or concrete, occurs during part of the freez- but actually contracts during cooling. Neverthe-
ing cycle.) less, Helmuth agrees that the adsorption of large
According to Powers, when the paste contains amounts of water in aggregates having a very
entrained air, and the average distance between fine pore structure can disrupt concrete (but
air bubbles is not too great, the bubbles compete through ice formation).
with the capillaries for the unfrozen water and The size of the coarse aggregate has been shown
normally win this competition. For a better un- to be an important factor in its frost resistance.
derstanding of the mechanism involved, the reader Verbeck and LandgrenH have demonstrated that
is directed to the references cited above. Many for any given natural rock, frozen unconfined by
researchers now believe that stresses resulting cement paste, there is a critical size below which
from osmotic pressure cause most of the frost it can be frozen without damage. They showed
damage to cement paste. that the critical size of rocks of good quality range
In recent years, Litvan 11 has further studied upwards from perhaps a quarter of an inch. How-
frost action in cement paste. Litvan believes the ever, some aggregates (e.g., granite, basalt, dia-
water adsorbed on the surface or contained in the base, quartzite, marble) have capacities for freez-
DURABILITY 201-5
able water so low that they do not produce stress saturable type. This type, even when dry at the
when freezing occurs-regardless of the particle start, may reach high levels of saturation while
size. in a concrete mixer, and might not become suf-
The role of entrained air in alleviating the effect ficiently dried by self-desiccation; hence, with
of freezing in rock particles is minimal. such a material, trouble is in prospect if there is
1.2.3 OveraLL effects in concrete-Without en- not a sufficiently long dry period before the winter
tranied air, the paste matrix surrounding the ag- season sets in. A small percentage of readily
gregate particles may fail when it becomes crit- saturable rocks in an aggregate can cause serious
ically saturated and is frozen. However, if the damage. Rocks which are difficult to saturate,
matrix contains an appropriate distribution of en- which are generally coarse grained, are less likely
trained air voids characterized by a spacing factor to cause trouble. ObViously, data on the proneness
less than about 0.008 in. (0.20 mm), freezing does to saturation of each kind of rock in an aggregate
not produce destructive stress. 15 could be useful.
There are some rocks which contain practically Whatever the absorption characteristics of a
given aggregate, its rate of absorption in concrete
no freezable water. Air-entrained concrete made
with an aggregate composed entirely of such rocks is limited by the rate at which water can pass
will withstand freezing even under continuously through its envelope of hardened paste. Because
wet exposures for a long time. This time may be the coefficient of permeability of hardened paste is
shortened if the air voids fill with water and solid lower the higher its cement content and the
matter. longer it has wet-cured, the rate of absorption of
any kind of aggregate can be lowered by reducing
If absorptive aggregates (such as structural
the water-cement ratio of the paste and by requir-
lightweight) are used and the concrete is in a
ing good curing.
continuously wet environment, it will probably
fail if the coarse aggregate becomes saturated. The
pressure developed when the particles expel 1.3-lce removal agents
water during freezing ruptures the particles and When the practice of removing ice from
the matrix. If the particle is near the concrete sur- concrete pavements by means of salt (sodium
face, a popout can result. chloride or calcium chloride) became common
Normally, aggregate in concrete is not in a some years ago, it was soon learned that these
critical state of saturation at the end of the con- materials caused or accelerated surface disinte-
struction period because of desiccation produced gration in the form of pitting or scaling. (These
by the chemical reaction during hardening (self- chemicals also accelerate the corrosion of rein-
desiccation of the cement paste) and loss by evap- forcement which can cause the concrete to spall,
oration. Therefore, if any of the aggregate ever as described in Chapter 4.)
becomes critically saturated, it will be by water The mechanism by which deicing agents damage
obtained from an ou tside source later on. Yet concrete is fairly well understood. It is generally
structures so situated that all exposed surfaces agreed that the action is physical rather than
are kept continuously wet, and yet are periodically chemical. It involves the development of disrup-
subject to freezing, are uncommon. Usually the tive osmotic and hydraulic pressures during
situation is that concrete sections tend to dry out freezing, principally in the paste, similar to or-
during dry seasons, at least one surface being ex- dinary frost action which is described in Section
posed to the atmosphere. That is why air-entrained 1.2. It is, however, more severe.
concrete generally is not damaged by frost action
The concentration of deicer in the concrete plays
even where nearly all of it is made with absorptive
an important role in the development of these
aggregate.
pressures. Verbeck and KliegertG showed that
Obviously, the drier the aggregate is at the time scaling of the concrete is greatest at intermediate
the concrete is cast, the more water it must receive concentrations (3 to 4 percent). Similar behavior
to reach critical saturation, and the longer it will was observed for the four deicers tested: calcium
take. This is an important consideration, because chloride, sodium chloride, urea, and ethyl alcohol.
the length of the wet and cold season is limited. Browne and Cady17 drew similar conclusions.
It may prove a disadvantage to use gravel directly Litvan's findings 1s . 10 were consistent with the
from an underwater source, especially if the above mentioned studies. He further concluded
structure goes into service during the wet season that deicing agents cause a high degree of satura-
or shortly before the beginning of winter. tion in the concrete, and this is mainly responsible
Some kinds of rock when dried and then placed for their detrimental effect. Sale solutions (at a
in water are able to absorb water rapidly and given temperature) have a lower vapor pressure
reach saturation quickly; they are the readily than water; therefore, little or no drying takes
201-6 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
1.4.3 Entrained air-Too little entrained air will 1.4.4.2 Aggregates. Natural aggregates should
not protect cement paste against cyclic freezing. meet the requirements of ASTM C 33, although
Too much air will unduly penalize the strength. this will not necessarily assure their durability.
Recommended air contents of concrete are given Lightweight aggregates should meet the require-
in Table 1.4.3. ments of ASTM C 330. These specifications provide
It will be noted that air contents are given for many requirements but leave the final selection
two conditions of exposure-severe and moderate. of the aggregate largely up to the judgment of
These values provide about 9 percent of air in the concrete engineer. If the engineer is familiar
the mortar for severe exposure, and about 7 per- with the field performance of the aggregate pro-
cent for moderate exposure. posed, his judgment may be quite adequate. In
some situations it may be possible to carry out
Air-entrained concrete is produced through the
use of an air-entraining admixture (added at the field service record studies to arrive at a basis
concrete mixer), an air-entraining cement, or for acceptance or rejection of the aggregate. When
both if necessary.~G The resulting air content de- this is not feasible, heavy reliance must be placed
on laboratory tests.
pends on the cement, mix proportions, slump,
aggregates, type of mixer, mixing time, tempera·· Laboratory tests on the aggregate include ab-
ture, and other factors (including the presence sorption, specific gravity, soundness tests, and
of any material in the mix which increases or determination of the pore structure. Descriptions
decreases the air content). Where an admixture of the tests, and opinions on their usefulness,
is used, the dosage is varied as necessary to give have been published.~r.·~7 Although these data are
the desired air content. This is not possible where useful, and some organizations have felt justified
an air-entraining cement alone is used, and oc- in setting test limits on aggregates, it is generally
casionally the air content will be inadequate or agreed that principal reliance should be placed on
excessive. Nevertheless, this is the most convenient tests of concrete made with the aggregate in ques-
method for providing some assurance of protection tion.
from cyclic freezing on small jobs where equip- Petrographic studies of both the aggregate~~ and
ment to check the air content is not available. concrete~n.3o are useful for evaluating the physical
Obviously the preferred procedure is to use air- and chemical characteristics of the aggregate and
entraining admixtures. concrete made from it.
Frequent determinations of the air content of
Laboratory tests on concrete include the rapid
the concrete should be made. For regular weight
freezing and thawing tests (ASTM C 666), where
concrete, the following test methods may be used:
the durability of the concrete is measured by the
volumetric method (ASTM C 173) , pressure meth-
reduction in dynamic modulus of elasticity of the
od (ASTM C 231), or the unit weight test (ASTM
concrete. Many agencies believe this is the most
C 138). An air meter may be used to provide an
reliable indicator of the relative durability of an
approximate indication of air content. For light-
aggregate.
weight concrete, the volumetric method is recom-
mended. The results of tests using ASTM C 666 have been
The air content and other cl:]aracteristics of the widely analyzed and discussed.26.27.31.32 These tests
air void system in hardened concrete may be de- have been criticized because they are accelerated
termined microscopically (ASTM C 457). ASTM tests and do not duplicate conditions in the field.
C 672 is often used to assess the resistance of con- It has been pointed out that test specimens are
crete to deicer scaling. initially saturated, while this is not normally the
case for field concretes at the beginning of the
1.4.4 Materials freezing season. Furthermore, the test methods do
1.4.4.1 Cementing materials. The different not realistically duplicate the actual moisture con-
types of portland and blended cements, when used dition of the aggregates in field concretes. The
in properly proportioned and manufactured air- rapid methods have also been criticized because
entrained concrete, will provide similar resistance they require cooling rates greater than those en-
to cyclic freezing. Cement should conform to countered in the field. Also, the small test speci-
ASTM C 150 or C 595.
mens used are unable to accommodate large ag-
Most pozzolans when used as admixtures have gregate sizes, which may be more vulnerable to
Ii ttle effect on the frost resistance of concrete pro-
deterioration than smaller sizes.
vided the air content, strength, and moisture con-
tent of the concrete are similar. However, a suit- It is rather generally conceded that while these
able investigation should be made before using tests may classify aggregates from excellent to
new or questionable materials. Pozzolans should poor in approximately the correct order, they are
('()nform to ASTM r: filR. unable to predict whether a fair aggregate will
201-8 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
give satisfactory performance when used in con- Detailed guidance on the use of admixtures is
crete with a particular moisture content and cyclic provided by ACI Committee 212.21
freezing exposure. The ability to make such a 1.4.5 Curing-Air-entrained concrete should be
determination would be of great economic impor- able to withstand one or two freezing and thawing
tance in many areas where high grade aggregates cycles as soon as it attains a compressive strength
are in short supply, by permitting the use of local of about 500 psi (3.45 MPa) provided there is no
marginal aggregates. external source of moisture. At temperatures of
Because of these objections to ASTM C 666, a 50 F (10 C), most well-proportioned concrete will
dilation test was conceived by Powers:l and further reach this strength sometime during the second
developed by others.:l:u' ASTM C 671 requires that day.
air-en trained concrete specimens be ini tially Before being exposed to extended freezing in a
brought to the moisture condition expected for the severe exposure, it is desirable that concrete attain
concrete at the start of the winter season, this a specified compressive strength of 4000 psi (27.6
moisure con ten t preferably having been deter- MPa). A period of drying following curing is ad-
mined by field tests. The specimens are then im- visable. For moderate exposure conditions, a
mersed in water and periodically frozen at the specified strength of 3000 psi (20.7 MPa) should
rate and frequency to be expected in the field. be attained.
The increase in length (dilation) of the specimen 1.4.6 Construction practices-Good construction
during the freezing portion of the cycle is ac- practices are essential where durable concrete is
curately measured. ASTM C 682 assists in in- required.
terpreting the results. Particular attention should be given to the con-
An excessive length change in this test is an struction of pavement slabs to be exposed to de-
indication that the aggregate has become critically icing salts because of the problems inherent in
saturated and vulnerable to damage. If the time obtaining durable slab finishes, and the severity
to reach critical saturation is less than the duration of the exposure. The concrete in such slabs should
of the freezing season at the job site, the aggre- be adequately consolidated; however, overwork-
gate is judged unsuitable for use in that exposure. ing the surface, overfinishing, and the addition of
If it is more, it is judged that the concrete will water to aid in finishing must be avoided because
not be vulnerable to cyclic freezing. they bring excessive mortar or water to the sur-
The time required for conducting dilation tests face. The resulting laitance is particularly vulner-
may be greater than required by other cyclic able to the action of ice removal salts. These
freezing tests. Also, the test results are very sen- practices may also remove entrained air. This is
sitive to the moisture content of the aggregate and of little consequence where only the larger air
concrete. Results are fairly promising,:;:) although bubbles are expelled, but durability can be
most agencies are continuing to use ASTM C 666 seriously affected if the small bubbles are re-
pending improvements in C 671. moved.
When natural aggregates are found to be un- Prior to the application of any deicer, pavement
acceptable by service records and/or tests, they concrete should have received some drying and
may sometimes be improved by removal of light- the strength level specified for the opening of traf-
weight, soft, or otherwise inferior particles in fic should have been achieved. These recommenda-
processing. tions should be considered in the scheduling of
1.4.4.3 Admixtures. Air-entraining admixtures late fall paving. In some cases, it may be possible
should conform to ASTM C 260. to employ methods other than ice removal agents,
Chemical admixtures should conform to ASTM such as abrasives, for control of slipperiness
C 494. Some such admixtures do not impart ade- where it is felt the concrete may still be vulner-
quate durability, even though they entrain suffi- able.
cient air, because they produce coarse air void Where greater than normal protection is needed
systems with void spacing factors greater than the or for additional insurance, such as for pavements
0.008 in. (0.20 mm) needed to adequately protect placed in the fall subjected to deicing salts the
concrete. These admixtures should be required to first winter, a water-repellent surface treatment
meet ASTM C 260 in addition to any other require- is advisable (see Section 7.1).
ments. Where lightweight concrete is proposed, care
Some mineral admixtures (especially emulsi- should be exercised not to exceSSively saturate the
fied carbon black, and fly ashes having a high aggregate prior to mixing. Saturation by vacuum
carbon content) will require a larger amount of or thermal means (where necessary for pumping,
air-entraining admixture to develop the required for example) may bring lightweight aggregates to
amount of entrained air. Dirty aggregates have a a condition where the absorbed water may cause
similar effect. concrete failure when cyclically frozen-unless the
DURABILITY 201-9
concrete has the opportunity to dry out before crete and Concrete-Making Materials, STP-169A,
American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadel-
freezing. Additional details and recommendations
phia, 1966, pp. 211-219.
are given in Reference 35.
16. Verbeck, George J., and Klieger, Paul, "Studies
of 'Salt' Scaling of Concrete," Bulletin No. 150, Highway
(Transportation) Research Board, 1957, pp. 1-13.
REFERENCES 17. Browne, Frederick P., and Cady, Philip D., "De-
1. Cordon, William A., Freezing and Thawing of Con- icer Scaling Mechanisms in Concrete," Dumbility of
crete-Mechanisms and Control, Monograph No.3, Concrete, SP-47, American Concrete Institute, Detroit,
American Concrete Institute/Iowa State University 1975, pp. 101-119.
Press, Detroit, 1966, 99 pp. 13. Litvan, G. G., "Phase Transitions of Adsorbates:
2. Powers, T. C., "A Working Hypothesis for Further VI, Effect of Deicing Agents on the Freezing of Cement
Studies of Frost Resistance of Concrete," ACI JOURNAL, Paste," Journal, American Ceramic Society, V. 53, No.
Proceedings V. 41, No.4, Feb. 1945, pp. 245-272. 1-2, Jan.-Feb. 1975, pp. 26-30.
3. Powers, T. C., "Void Spacing as a Basis for Pro- 19. Litvan, G. G., "Frost Action in Cement in the
ducing Air-Entrained Concrete," ACI JOURNAL, Proceed- Presence of De-icers," Cement and Concrete Research,
ings V. 50, No.9, May 1954, pp. 741-760. V. 6, No.3, May 1976, pp. 351-356.
4. Powers, T. C., "Basic Considerations Pertaining 20. Miesenhelder, P. D., "EHect of Design and Details
to Freezing-and-Thawing Tests," Proceedings, ASTM, on Concrete Deterioration," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings
V. 55, 1955, pp. 1132-1155. V. 56, No.7, Jan. 1960, pp. 531-590.
5. Powers, T. C., "The Mechanism of Frost Action in
21. ACI Committee 316, "Recommended Practice for
Concrete," Stanton Walker Lecture No.3, National Sand
Construction of Concrete Pavements and Concrete
and Gravel Association/National Ready Mixed Concrete
Bases (ACI 316-74) (Revised 1975)," American Con-
Association, Silver Spring, Md., 1965, 35 pp.
crete Institute, Detroit, 25 pp.
6. Powers, T. C., "Resistance of Concrete to Frost at
Early Ages," Proceedings, RILEM Symposium on 22. Callahan, Joseph P.; Lott, James L.; and Kesler,
Winter Concreting (Copenhagen, 1956), Danish National Clyde E., "Bridge Deck Deterioration and Crack Con-
Institute of Building Research, Copenhagen, 1956, Ses- trol," Proceedings, ASCE, V. 96, ST10, Oct. 1970, pp.
sion C, pp. 1-50. Also, Research Bulletin No. 71, Portland 2021-2036.
Cement Association. 23. Jackson, F. H., "The Durability of Concrete in
7. Helmuth, R. A., "Capillary Size Restrictions on Service," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 43, No.2, Oct.
Ice Formation in Hardened Portland Cement Pastes," 1946, pp. 165-180.
Proceedings, Fourth International Symposium on the 24. Lewis, D. W., "Deterioration of Structural Con-
Chemistry of Cement (Washington, D. C., 1960), Mono- crete in Indiana," Extension Series No. 33, Engineering
graph No. 43. National Bureau of Standards, Washing- Reprint No. 83, Engineering Experiment Station, Pur-
ton, D. C., 1962, V. 2, pp. 355-369. due University, 1956, 97 pp.
3. Helmuth, R. A., Discussion of "Frost Action in
25. ACI Committee 212, "Guide for Use of Admix-
Concrete" by Paul Nerenst, Proceedings, Fourth Inter-
tures in Concrete," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 63, No.
national Symposium on the Chemistry of Cement
9, Sept. 1971, pp. 646-676. Also, ACI Manual of Concrete
(Washington, D. C., 1960), Monograph No. 43, National
Practice, Part 1.
Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C., 1962, V. 2, pp.
329-833. 26. Ami, H. T., "Resistance to Weathering-Hard-
9. Pickett, Gerald, "Flow of Moisture in Hardened ened Concrete," Significance of Tests and Properties of
Cement During Freezing," Proceedings, Highway Re- Concrete and Concrete-Making Materials, STP-169A,
search Board, V. 32, lQ53, pp. 276-284. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadel-
phia, 1966, pp. 261-274.
10. Collins, A. R., "The Destruction of Concrete by
Frost," Journal, Institution of Civil Engineers (London), 27. Buth, Eugene, and Ledbetter, W. B., "Influence
1944, Paper No. 5412, pp. 29-41. of the Degree of Saturation of Coarse Aggregate on
11. Litvan, G. G., "Phase Transitions of Adsorbates: the Resistance of Structural Lightweight Concrete to
IV, Mechanism of Frost Action in Hardened Cement FreeZing and Thawing," Highway Research Record,
Paste," Journal, American Ceramic Society, V. 55, No. Highway (Transportation) Board, No. 323, 1970, pp.
1, Jan. 1972, pp. 33-42. 1-13.
12. Dunn, J. R., and Hudec, P. P., "The Influence of 23. Mielenz, Richard C., "Petrographic Examination-
Clays on Water and Ice in Rock Pores," Report No. Concrete Aggregates," Significance oJ Tests and Proper-
RR65-5, New York State Department of Public Works, ties of Concrete and Concrete-Making Materials, STP-
1965. 169A, American Society for Testing and Materials,
13. Helmuth, R. A., "Dimensional Changes of Hard- Philadelphia, 1966, pp. 381-403.
ened Portland Cement Pastes Caused by Temperature 29. Erlin, B., "Methods Used in Petrographic Studies
Changes," Proceedings, Highway (Transportation) Re- of Concrete," Technical Publicati011 No. 395, American
search Board, V. 40, 1961, pp. 315-336. Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 1966,
14. Verbeck, George, and Landgren, Robert, "Influ- p. 17.
ence of Physical Characteristics of Aggregates on the 30. Mather, K.. "Petrographic Examination-Hard-
Frost Resistance of Concrete," Proceedings, ASTM, V. ened Concrete," Significance of Tests and Properties of
60, 1960, pp. 1063-1079. Concrete and Concrete-Making Materials STP-169A
15. Verbeck, George, "Pore Structure - Hardened American Society for Testing and Materi;ls, Philadel~
r'nnrrptp" Sinni.firnnrp nf Tpsts nnrl. Prmwrties of Con- ohia. 1966. ~o. 125-143.
201-10 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
31. ACI Committee 221, "Selection and Use of Aggre- bility of Pennsylvania Aggregates," Highway Research
gates for Concrete," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 58, Record, Highway (Transportation) Research Board, No.
No.5, Nov. 1961, pp. 513-542. Also, ACI Manual oj Con- 328, 1970, pp. 26-37.
crete Practice, Part 1.
32. "Report on Cooperative Freezing and Thawing 34. Tremper, Bailey, and Spellman, D. L., "Tests for
Tests of Concrete," Special Report No. 47, Highway Freeze-Thaw Durability of Concrete Aggregates," Bulle-
(Transportation) Research Board, 1959, 67 pp. tin No. 305, Highway (Transportation) Research Board,
33. Harman, John W., Jr.; Cady, Philip D.; and Bol- 1961, pp. 28-50.
ling, Nanna B., "Slow-Cooling Tests for Frost Suscepti- 35. Report No. 528A, California Highway Department.
of the sulfate salts in the pores of the concrete, can There is fairly good correlation between the sul-
account for considerable damage. Reading also fate resistance of cement and its tricalcium alum-
found that where heavy sections are exposed to a inate (C:1A) content.l~ Accordingly, ASTM C 150
strong sulfate solution on the backside, most of includes a Type V (sulfate resisting) cement
the damage is confined to the outer surface ad- which sets a maximum of 5 percent on C:1A, and
j acen t to leaking joints and cracks. a Type II (moderately sulfate resisting) cement
which limits the C:1A to 8 percent. There is also
The chemical deterioration of concrete in sea-
some evidence that a high C,AF is detrimental,
water has concerned concrete technologists for
generations, and the discussion continues with re-
and for Type V cement the C,AF +
2 C:1A must
not exceed 20 percent.
spect to the mechanism itself and its practical
In the case of Type V cement, the sulfate ex-
importance.i.t!' Seawater has a high sulfate con-
pansion test (ASTM C 452) may be used in lieu
tent, and it might be expected that stringent
of the above chemical requirements.
measures would be needed to prevent chemical
Recommendations for the type of cement and
attack. Actually, experience has shown that sea-
water-cement ratio for normal weight concrete
water is only moderately aggressive to concrete. It
which will be exposed to sulfates in soil, ground-
has been suggested by some that the chlorides in
water, or seawater are given in Table 2.2.3. The
seawater mitigate the action of the sulfates.
values also apply to areas in the splash or spray
2.2.3 Recommendations-Protection against sul- zone.
fate attack is obtained by using a dense, high These values are also applicable to structural
quality concrete with low water-cement ratio, and lightweight concrete except that the maximum
a portland cement having the needed sulfate re- water-cement ratios of 0.50 and 0.45 should be re-
sistance. Air entrainment is of benefit insofar as placed by specified 28-day strengths of 3750 and
42,'i0 nsi (25.8 and 29.4 MPa) , respectively.
201-12 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
TABLE 2.2.3-RECOMMENDATIONS FOR use should be prohibited in the last two exposure
NORMAL WEIGHT CONCRETE SUBJECT categories in Table 2.2.3.
TO SULFATE ATTACK It is recognized that these recommendations are
----
Water conservative, being intended to insure long life
soluble Water-
sulfate I Sulfate cement construction. Less stringent requirements are per-
(SO,) in (SO,) in ratio, mitted by certain agencies where dictated by their
Exposure soil, percent water, ppm Cement maximum'" experience and shorter life requirements.
----
Mild 0.00-0.10 0-150 - -
2.3-Acid attack
Moderate"' 0.10-0.20 150-1500 Type
IP(MS),
II'I 0.50
In general, portland cement does not have good
IS(MS) resistance to acid attack, although weak acids
Severe 0.20-2.00 1500-10,000 Type V 0.45 can be tolerated.
Very SeVere Over 2.00 Over 10,000 Type V 0.45 2.3.1 Occurrence-The products of combustion of
+ Poz- many fuels contain sulfurous gases which com-
zolan:i: bine with moisture to form sulfuric acid. Also,
*A lower vvater-cen1ent ratio n1ay be necessary to prevent sewage may be collected under conditions which
corrosion of embedded items. See Section 4.5.1.1.
":"Seawater also falls in this category. lead to acid formation.
:::Use a pozzolan which has been determined by tests to improve
sulfate resistance when used in concrete containing Type V Water draining from some mines, and some in-
celnent.
dustrial waters, may contain or form acids which
Studies have shown that some pozzolans used attack concrete.
either in blended cement or added separately to Peat soils may contain iron sulfide (pyrite)
the mixer, in the amount of approximately 15 to which, upon oxidation, produces sulfuric acid.
25 percent of the portland cement, increase the Further reaction may produce sulfate salts, which
life expectancy of concrete in sulfate exposures can produce sulfate attack lC
considerably. Pozzolans combine with the free Mountain water streams are sometimes mildly
lime resulting from the hydration of the cement, acidic, due to dissolved free carbon dioxide.
and thereby reduce the amount of gypsum Usually these waters attack only the surface if the
formed. 3 . 7•8 .1 3 It will be noted that Table 2.2.3 concrete is of good quality. However, some mineral
requires a suitable pozzolan along with Type V waters containing large amounts of either dis-
cement in very severe exposures. Recent research solved carbon dioxide or hydrogen sulfide, or both,
has indicated that pozzolans may be effective in can seriously damage any concrete. Ii In the case of
the other categories as well; that is, most Type I hydrogen sulfide, bacteria that convert this com-
cements, even where the C;A content of the port- pound to sulfuric acid may play an important role. 7
land cement clinker exceeds the 8 percent allowed
Organic acids from farm silage, or from manu-
for Type IP (MS), would be suitable for moderate
facturing or processing industries such as brew-
exposures -and most Type II cements would be
eries, dairies, canneries, and wood pulp mills, can
suitable for severe exposures if a suitable poz-
cause surface damage. This may be of considerable
zolan is added. Best results have been obtained
concern in the case of floors, even where their
when the pozzolan is a fly ash meeting the re-
structural integrity is not impaired.
quirements of ASTM C 618 Class F.IUG
2.3.2 Mechanism-The deterioration of concrete
The effectiveness of the combination probably
by acids is primarily the result of a reaction be-
depends on the chemical composition of the port-
tween these chemicals and the calcium hydroxide
land cement and pozzolan, the percentage of each
of the hydrated portland cement. (Where lime-
in the mixture, and other factors. It is not yet
stone and dolomitic aggregates are used, they
feasible, however, to predict performance on the
are also subject to attack by acids.) In most cases
basis of these factors. Actual tests of the combina-
the chemical reaction results in the formation of
tion should be made using mildly accelerated test
water-soluble calcium compounds which are then
procedures such as those described in Reference
leached away by the aqueous solutions.;; Oxalic
14; information from long-time field performance
and phosphoric acid are exceptions, because the
in structures or field exposure stations should
resulting calcium salts are insoluble in water and
also be considered where available. A highly ac-
are not readily removed from the concrete surface.
celerated test corresponding to ASTM C 452 for
In the case of sulfuric acid attack, additional or
portland cement would be very helpful and is now
accelerated deterioration results because the cal-
under development in ASTM.
cium sulfate formed will affect concrete by the
The addition of calcium chloride to concrete re- sulfate attack mechanism described in Section
duces its resistance to attack by sulfates,G and its 2.2.2.
DURABILITY 201-13
If acids or salt solutions are able to reach the 6. Concrete Manual, 8th Edition, U. S. Bureau of
Reclamation, Denver, 1975, 627 pp.
reinforcing steel through cracks or pores in the
7. Lea, F. M., The Chemistry of Cement and Concrete,
concrete, corrosion of the steel can result (see 1st American Edition, Chemical Publishing Company,
Chapter 4) which will in turn cause cracking and New York, 1971, 727 pp.
spalling of the concrete. 8. Mehta, P. K, Discussion of "Combating Sulfate
2.3.3 Recommendations-A dense concrete with Attack in Corps of Engineers Concrete Construction"
by Thomas J. Reading, ACI JOURNAL, PToceedings V. 73,
low-water cement ratio may provide an acceptable
No.4, Apr. 1976, pp. 237-238.
degree of protection against mild acid attack. 9. Tuthill, L. H., "Resistance to Chemical Attack-
No portland cement concrete, regardless of its Hardened Concrete," Significance of Tests and Proper-
composition, will long withstand water of high ties of Concrete and Concrete-Making Materials, STP-
acid concentration. In such cases, an appropriate 169A, American Society for Testing and Materials,
surface coating or treatment must be used. The Philadelphia, 1966, pp. 275-289.
10. Gjorv, Odd E., Conc?'ete in the Oceans, Marine
ACI Committee 515 report I gives recommendations Science Publications, 1957, pp. 51-74.
for barrier coatings to protect concrete from 11. Verbeck, G. J., "Field and Laboratory Studies of
various chemicals. Chapter 7 of this guide dis- the Sulphate Resistance of Concrete," Performance of
cusses the general principles involved in the use Concrete-Resistance of Concrete to Sulphate and
of coatings. Other Environmental Conditions, Thorvaldson Sym-
posium, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1968, pp.
113-124.
REFERENCES 12. Mather, Bryant, "Field and Laboratory Studies of
the Sulphate Resistance of Concrete," Pe?'formance of
1. ACI Committee 515. "Guide for the Protection of
Concrete-Resistance of Concrete to Stilphate and Other
Concrete Against Chemical Attack by Means of Coat-
ings and Other Corrosion-Resistant Materials." ACI
En'Uironmental Conditions, Thorvaldson Symposium.
JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 63, No. 12. Dec. 1966, pp. 1305- University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1968, pp. 66-76.
13. Kalousek, G. L.; Porter, L. C.; and Benton, E. J.,
1392. Also, ACT Manual of Concrete Pmctice, Part 3.
"Concrete for Long-Time Service in Sulfate Environ-
2. "Effect of Various Substances on Concrete and ment," Cement and Concrete Research, V. 2, No.1, Jan.
Protective Treatments. Where Required," Publication 1972, pp. 79-89.
No. 1S001 T, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 1968, 14. Dikeou, J. T., "Flyash Increases Resistance of
11 pp. Concrete to Sulfate Attack," Research Report No. 23,
3. Biczak, Imre, Concrete Corrosion-Concrete Protec- U. S. Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, 1975, 17 pp.
tion, 8th Edition, Akademiai Kiad6, Budapest, 1972. 545 15. Dunstan, E. R, Jr., "Performance of Lignite and
pp. Subbituminous Flyash in Concrete-A Progress Report,"
4. Performance of Concrete-Resistance of Concrete Report No. REC-ERC-76-1, U. S. Bureau of Reclamation,
to Sulphate and Other Environmental Conditions, Thor- Denver, 1976, 23 pp.
valdson Symposium, University of Toronto Press, To- 16. Hagerman, T., and Roosaar, H., "Damage to Con-
ronto, 1968, 243 pp. crete Caused by Sulfide Minerals," Betong (Stockholm),
5. Reading, Thomas J., "Combating Sulfate Attack in V. 40, No.2, 1955, pp. 151-161.
Corps of Engineers Concrete Construction," Dumbility . 17. "Durability of Concrete," Rilem Symposium, Gen-
of Concrete, SP-47, American Concrete Institute, De- eral Reports, Rilem Bulletin (Paris), No. 14, Mar. 1962,
troit, 1975, pp. 343-366. 149 pp.
CHAPTER 3-ABRASION
3. Erosion in hydraulic structures such as dams, Another highly important element is the abra-
spillways, tunnels, and bridge abutments, due to sion resistance'·i of the coarse and fine aggregate
l
the action of abrasive materials carried by flowing (at the surface). The service life of some concrete,
water (attrition and scraping) such as warehouse floors subjected to abrasion by
4. Wear on concrete dams, spillways, tunnels, steel or hard rubber-wheeled traffic, may be
and other water-carrying systems where high greatly lengthened by the use of especially hard
velocities and negative pressures are present. This and tough aggregates. The effect of differences in
is generally known as cavitation erosion which is hardness between aggregates is more pronounced
mainly the result of design and is not covered in in lower strength concrete; it becomes less in
this guide. high strength concrete and toppings.
In 1974 ASTM adopted C 779-74, "Standard Proper finishing procedures and timing are
Method of Test for Abrasion Resistance of Hori- essential if the quality of concrete near the surface
zontal Concrete Surfaces." It includes three op- of a slab is to be as good as that for the underlying
tional procedures: (1) the revolving-disc adapta- section. Delaying the floating and troweling op-
tion of the Schuman and Tucker machine,'; (2) the erations increases resistance to abrasion.
dressing-wheel machine, and (3) the ball-bearing In a two-course floor it is possible to provide a
machine. surface course having excellent abrasion resist-
In order to properly evaluate abrasion resist- ance, while using ordinary concrete in the re-
ance, the type of concrete being tested must be mainder of the slab.
considered. If it is of the same mix throughout, Applying to the surface dry shake coats of
the abrasion resistance can be expected to be a cement and hard fine aggregate, or of cement and
direct function of the concrete strength. If, how- iron aggregate, will also make the surface layer
ever, metallic or other hardeners have been ap- more abrasion resistant.
plied, the time required for the abrasion apparatus Another highly important ingredient in wear-
to penetrate the hard surface must be determined resistant, nondusting concrete surfaces is adequate
to properly evaluate the test results. curing. 5 ,1O,1l One study showed that a surface cured
It is not yet possible to set precise limits for for 7 days is nearly twice as wear-resistant as
abrasion resistance of concrete. It is instead neces- one cured for only 3 days, and additional curing
sary to rely on relative values based on weight or resulted in further improvement. 1 0.
volume loss, depth of wear, or visual inspection for In cold weather concreting, carbon dioxide
judging the wearing qualities of concrete surfaces. from unvented heaters can have a detrimental
This is not to suggest that the laboratory tests effect on abrasion resistance.
are not useful, but rather that field experience
provides more reliable data.
can cause blistering-particularly when using dry gasoline-powered equipment be used in enclosed
shakes. areas because the carbon monoxide fumes are
3.4.2 Two-course floors-When wear conditions dangerous to human life and also can damage
are severe, use a high strength [not less than 5000 floor surfaces.
psi (34.5 MPa)] topping layer. 10 Limit the maxi-
mum size of aggregate to 1/2 in. (12 mm) in the 3.5-lmproving wear resistance of existing floors
topping.
Liquid surface treatments (hardeners) may
3.4.3 Special aggregates-Using hard, tough
sometimes be used to improve the wear resistance
coarse aggregates will provide additional abrasion
of floors.lO Magnesium or zinc fluosilicate, or
resistance. In two-course floors, they need be in-
sodium silicate, are most commonly used. Their
cluded in only the topping layer.
principal benefit is in redUCing dusting. They may
3.4.4 Proper finishing procedures-Delay floating also slightly resist deterioration by some oils and
and troweling un til the concrete has lost its sur- chemicals coming in contact with the concrete.
face water sheen or all free water on the surface Liquid hardeners are most useful on older floors
has disappeared or been carefully removed. The which have started to abrade or dust, as a result
delay period is usually for 2 or more hr after of poor quality concrete or poor construction
placing the concrete (depending on temperatures, practices (particularly finishing while bleed water
mix proportions, and air content). Follow the is on the surface, and inadequate curing). In such
recommendations of ACI 302-6910 and 304-731~ with cases, they serve a useful purpose in prolonging
respect to finishing of unformed surfaces. the service life of the floor. New floors should be
3.4.5 Vacuum dewatering-Vacuum dewatering of such quality that treatments with liquid hard-
is a method of removing excess water from con- eners should not be required, except where even
crete immediately after placement. The process slight dusting cannot be tolerated (as in power-
results in increased strength, hardness, and wear house floors).
resistance of concrete surfaces; it is primarily Liquid hardeners should not be applied to new
applicable to slabYl ACI Committee 302 is investi- floors until they are 23 days old. The floor should
gating this procedure. be moist cured and then allowed to air dry during
3.4.6 Special dry shakes and toppings-Where this period. Curing compounds should not be used
severe wear is anticipated, the use of special top- if hardeners are to be applied, because they re-
pings or dry shakes should be considered and, if duce the penetration of the liquid into the concrete.
selected, the recommendations of ACI Committee The hardener should be applied in accordance
302 should be followed. with the manufacturer's instructions.
3.4.7 Proper curing procedures-Curing should
start immediately after the concrete has been fin- 3.G-Studded tire wear on concrete pavements
ished and be continued for at least 7 days with
Type I cement (5 days with Type III). Curing with Tire chains and studded snow tires cause con-
water by spray, damp burlap, or cotton mats is siderable wear to concrete surfaces, even where
preferred, provided the concrete is kept continu- the concrete is of good quality. Abrasive materials
ously moist. Waterproof paper or plastic sheets such as sand are often applied to the pavement
are satisfactory, provided the concrete is first surface when roads are slippery. However, ex-
sprayed with water and then immediately covered perience from many years' use of sand in winter
with the paper or plastic with the edges over- indicates that this causes little wear if the concrete
lapped and sealed with waterproof tape. Curing is of good quality and the aggregates are wear-
compounds meeting ASTM C 309 seal the moisture resistant.
in the concrete and are economical and easy to In the case of tire chains, wear is caused by a
apply; they may be used where other methods are flailing and scuffing action as the rotil.ting tire
impracticable. The curing compound should be brings the metal in contact with the concrete sur-
covered with scuff-proof paper if a floor area face. Fortunately, the use of chains is limited
must be used before curing is completed. Curing mainly to roads in the snow belt or mountain
compounds must be specially formulated where areas, and even there they are used only when
paint or resilient tile are to be applied later on. essentiaL
Curing methods are described in detail in ACI Studded snow tires have caused widespread and
308-71.11 serious damage, even to high quality concrete. In
Unvented salamanders or other unvented heat- this case the damage is due to the dynamic impact
ers producing carbon dioxide should not be used of the small tungsten carbide tip of the studs, of
during cold weather floor construction because which there are roughly 100 in each tire. Pave-
+h ...... .,-r Y'\Y'r'lrlllr>a ro'".lrh{yy,\ rli{"\virlCl <1'!=Ic,: 1-1- Nnr c:.hn111fl mpnt SllrfClCeS in the northern United States,
201-16 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
Canada, and the northern European countries, surface layer. In time, rubber-tired traffic abrades
where pavements are bare for much of the winter the immediate surface layer, removing the bene-
season and these tires remain on until the spring, ficial macro texture and eventually exposing the
have suffered the most. One laboratory study coarse aggregate particles. The rate at which this
showed that studded tires running on surfaces to will occur and the consequences on the skid re-
which sand and salt were applied caused 100 times sistance of the pavement depend on the depth and
as much wear as unstudded tires. lo quality of the surface layer and the rock types
Wear caused by studded tires is usually concen- in the fine and coarse aggregate.
trated in the wheel tracks. Ruts from 1/4 to % in. Fine aggregates containing significant amounts
(6 to 12 mm) deep may form in a single winter of silica in the larger particle sizes will assist in
in regions· where approximately 30 percent of slowing down the rate of wear and maintaining
passenger cars are equipped with studded tires the micro texture necessary for satisfactory skid
and traffic is heavy. Ii More severe wear occurs resistance at the lower speeds. Certain rock types,
where vehicles stop, start, or turn,li,18 however, polish under rubber tire wear. These in-
Investigations have been made, principally in clude very fine textured limestones, dolomites,
Scandinavia, Canada, and the United States, to and serpentine. Where both the fine and coarse
examine the properties of existing concretes as aggregate are of this type there may be a rapid
related to studded tire weary-2~ In some cases polishing of the entire pavement surface with a
there was considerable variability in the data, and serious reduction in skid resistance. Where only
the conclusions of the different investigators were the coarse aggregate is of the polishing type, the
not in agreement. However, most found th8.t a problem is delayed until the coarse aggregate is
hard coarse aggregate and high strength mortar exposed by wear. On the other hand, if the coarse
matrix are somewhat beneficial in resisting aggregate is, for example, a coarse grained silica
abrasion. or vesicular slag, the skid resistance may be in-
Another investigation in the United States was creased when it is exposed.
aimed at developing more wear-resistant types of At speeds greater than about 50 mph (80 km/
concrete overlays.2! It was concluded that polymer hr), the macro texture becomes quite important
cement and polymer fly ash concretes provided because it must be relied on to prevent hydro-
better resistance to wear-though at the sacrifice planing. This texture is accomplished by construct-
of skid resistance. Steel fibrous concrete overlays ing grooves in the concrete-either during the
were also tested and showed reduced wear as com- plastic stage or by sawing later on-to provide
pared with sections of regular concrete. Although channels for the escape of water otherwise trapped
these results are fairly promising, no "affordable" between the tire and pavement. It is vital that the
concrete surface has yet been developed which will "islands" between the grooves be particularly re-
provide a wear life when studded tires are used sistant to abrasion and frost action. A high quality
approaching that of normal surfaces under rubber concrete, properly finished and cured, possesses
tire wear. the required durability.
A recently published reporF" summarizes avail-
able data on pavement wear, and on the per- REFERENCES
formance and winter accident record while 1. ACI Committee 116, Cement and Concrete Termi-
studded tires have been in use. nology, SP-19, American Concrete Institute, Detroit,
1967, 144 pp.
2. Lovell, C. E., "Heavy Duty Concrete Floors,"
3.7-Skid resistance of pavements Proceedings, American Concrete Institute, V. 24, 1928,
pp. 454-465.
The skid resistance of concrete pavement de-
3. Price, Walter H., "Erosion of Concrete by Cavita-
pends on its surface texture. Two types of texture tion and Solids in Flowing Water," ACI JOURNAL,
are in vol ved : Proceedings V. 43, No.9, May 1947, pp. 1009-1023. See
1. Macro (large scale) texture resulting from also Dis2ussion, Pl). 1024-1 and 1024-2.
surface irregularities "built in" at the time of con- 4. ACI Committee 210, "Erosion Resistance of Con-
struction crete in Hydraulic Structures," ACI JOURNAL, Proceed-
ings V. 52, No.3, Nov. 1955, pp. 259-271.
2. Micro (small scale) texture resulting from 5. Prior, M. E., "Abrasion Resistance-Hardened Con-
the harshness and type of fine aggregate used crete," Significance of Tests and Properties of Concrete
The micro texture is the more important, par- and Concrete-Making Materials, STP-169A, American
ticularly at speeds of less than about 50 mph (80 Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 1966,
km/hr) .2r.-28 pp. 246-260.
6. Schuman, Louis, and Tucker, John, Jr., "A Port-
The skid resistance of concrete pavement able Apparatus for Determining the Relative Wear Re-
initially depends on the texture built into the sistance of Concrete Floors," Journal of Research, N a-
DURABILITY 201-17
tional Bureau of Standards, V. 23, No.5, Research Paper (Transportation) Research Board, No. 331, 1970, pp.
RP-1252, Nov. 1939, pp. 549-570. 54-79.
7. Scripture, E. W., Jr.; Benedict, S. W.; and Bryant, 18. Heyser, J. Hode, "Resistance of Various Types of
D. E., "Floor Aggregates," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings Bituminous Concrete and Cement Concrete to Wear by
V. 50, No.4, Dec. 1953, pp. 305-216. See also Discussion, Studded Tires," Highway Research Record, Highway
pp. 316-1 through 316-5. (Transportation) Research Board, No. 352, 1971, pp.
8. Witte, L. P., and Backstrom, J. E., "Some Proper- 16-31.
ties Affecting the Abrasion Resistance of Air-Entrained 19. Smith, P., and Schonfeld, R., "Studies of Studded-
Concrete," Proceedings, ASTM, V. 51, 1951, pp. 1141- Tire Damage and Performance in Ontario During the
1155. Winter of 1969-70," Highway Research Record, Highway
9. Smith, F. L., "The Effect of Aggregate Quality on (Transportation) Research Board, No. 352, 1971, pp. 1-15.
Resistance of Concrete to Abrasion," Cement and Con- 20. Preus, C. K., "After Studs in Minnesota," Highway
crete, STP-205, American Society for Testing and Ma- Research Record, Highway (Transportation) Research
terials, Philadelphia, 1958, pp. 91-106. Board, No. 477, 1973, pp. 11-15.
10. ACI Committee 302, "Recommended Practice for 21. Orbom, B., "The Effect on Concrete Pavement of
Concrete Floor and Slab Construction (ACI 302-69) ," Studded Winter Tires," First European Symposium on
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1969, 34 pp. Also, Concrete Pavements, Paris, 1969.
ACT Manual oj Concrete Practice, Part 1. 22. Wehner, B., "Beanspruchung del' Strassenober-
11. ACI Committee 308, "Recommended Practice for flaech durch Winterreifen mit Spikes," Technische Uni-
Curing Concrete (ACI 308-71) ," American Concrete In- versitaet Berlin, Institut fur Strassen und Verkehrs-
stitute, Detroit, 1971, 11 pp. Also, ACT Manual of Con- wesen, 1966.
crete Practice, Part 1. 23. Thurmann, Moe, T., "Pavement Wear Caused by
12. ACI Committee 304, "Recommended Practice for Studded Tires (Piggdekkenes Slitasge pa Vegdekker),"
Measuring, Mixing, Transporting, and Placing Concrete Norwegian State Highway Laboratory, Oslo, 1969.
(ACI 304-73)," American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 24. Preus, C. K., Discussion of "Resistance of Various
1973, 40 pp. Also, ACT Manual of Concrete Practice, Types of Bituminous Concrete and Cement Concrete to
Part 1. Wear by Studded Tires" by J. Hode Keyser, Highway
13. "Vacuum Concrete Dewatering," IBOOl, New Zea- Research Record, Highway (Transportation) Research
land Portland Cement Association, Wellington, Dec. Board, No. 352, 1971, pp. 31-38.
1975. 25. "Effects of Studded Tires," NCHRP Synthesis of
14. Kauer, J. A., and Freeman, R. L., "Effect of Car- Highway Practice No. 32, Transportation Research
bon Dioxide on Fresh Concrete," ACI JOURNAL, Pro- Board, 1975, 46 pp.
ceedings V. 52, No.4, Dec. 1955, pp. 447-454. See also 26. Kummer, H. W.. and Meyer, W. E., "Tentative
Discussion, pp. 1299-1304. Skid-Resistance Requirements for Main Rural High-
15. Smith, F. L., "The Effect of Various Surface ways," NCHRP Report No. 37, Highway (Transporta-
Treatments Using Magnesium and Zinc Fluosilicate tion) Research Board, 1967, 80 pp.
Crystals on Abrasion Resistance of Concrete Surfaces," 27. Rose, J. G., and Ledbetter, W. B., "Summary of
Concrete Laboratory Report No. C-819, U. S. Bureau of Surface Factors Influencing the Friction Properties of
Reclamation, Denver, Feb. 1956. Concrete Pavements," Highway Research Record, High-
16. Krukar, Milan, and Cook John C., "Effect of way (Transportation) Research Board, No. 357, 1971,
Studded Tires on Various Pavements and Surfaces" pp. 53-63.
Highway Research Record, Highway (Transportatio~) 28. Murphy, William E., "The Skidding Resistance of
Research Board, No. 477, 1973, pp. 4-8. Concrete Pavements: A Review of Research, Develop-
17. Smith, P., and Schonfeld, R., "Pavements Wear ment, and Practice in the United Kingdom," Roadways
Due to Studded Tires and the Economic Consequences and Airport Pavements, SP-51, American Concrete In-
in Ontario," Highway Research Record, Highway stitute, Detroit, 1975, 283 pp.
It should be noted that corrosion, or other dis- surface, that corrosion is likely to become a prob-
tress of embedded items, is not only damaging to lem from this cause.
the item involved but, in most cases, is also dam- Deterioration of concrete from other causes-
aging to the concrete. Where concrete has deteriorated from freeze-thaw
The corrosion of metals is being studied in con- cycles, sulfate attack, reactive aggregates, or
siderable detail and depth by ACI Committee 222. other cause, it will be cracked or weakened and
The purpose of this chapter is to briefly describe thus become less able to protect embedded items.
corrosion problems encountered with various ma- Recommendations for making durable concrete are
terials, and to recommend procedures which will given elsewhere in this report. The point here is
provide the required protection (1) under normal that nondurable concrete can contribute to cor-
circumstances and (2) under unusually severe rosion of embedded materials.
conditions.
The literature on the subject, with respect to 4.3-Causes of corrosion
corrosion of steel and to a lesser extent for other 4.3.1 Stray electrical currents-The passage of
embedded materials, is very extensive. It is not direct electrical current through concrete or con-
practicable to discuss all aspects of corrosion in crete reinforcement may cause rapid and serious
this chapter or to even cite all of the pertinent corrosion. Such current frequently has been
references. The references have been selected caused by electrical leakage or by failure to pro-
primarily to provide as broad a coverage as possi- vide positive and permanent means of grounding
ble and still keep the list within reasonable limits. electrical systems. Corrosion from this source
should be considered a possibility in the vicinity
4.2-Effect of concrete condition on corrosion of of any direct current equipment, including elec-
embedded steel trified railways and cathodically protected pipe-
lines, particularly where there is an electrolyte
Concrete may not provide permanent protection such as sodium or calcium chloride solution within
to embedded items under the following conditions: or in contact with the concrete.
Presence of cracks-The common belief that 4.3.2 Corrosion cells within the concrete-The
cracks are necessary for widespread damage due most frequent form of corrosion of metals in con-
to corrosion is erroneous. Corrosion of reinforcing crete is caused by a flow of electric current gener-
steel can occur in uncracked concrete when the ated within the concrete itself. (This is a different
exposure conditions are severe and when the con- source of corrosion than "stray current corrosion,"
crete cover over the steel is insufficient. (Ade- where the current originates externally.) Electri-
quate concrete cover over the steel for differing cal potential differences can occur in various
exposure conditions is discussed in Section 4.5.2.) spots in concrete containing metals because of
Nevertheless, cracks extending in from the con- differences in moisture content, oxygen concentra-
crete surface contribute to corrosion because they tion, electrolyte concentration, and by contact of
may give access to moisture, air, and contaminants. dissimilar metals. In such concrete, a corrosion cell
Narrow cracks in a direction transverse to that of is set up along a reinforcing bar or other embedded
the embedded item may not lead to serious cor- metal through the formation of an anode-where
rosion except in severe environments, since the corrosion occurs, and a cathode-which does not
corrosion will probably be localized and shallow. corrode. The distance between these parts of a cell
Wider cracks, and particularly cracks parallel to can vary from a fraction of an inch to 20 ft or
the direction of the embedded item, may provide more ( from about 10 mm to 6 m or more).
greater access to corroding substances and thus The presence of an electrolyte is necessary for
accelerate their attack while aggravating other the creation of a corrosion cell. An electrolyte is a
causes of corrosion which are discussed later. solution capable of conducting electric current by
Carbonation-Hydrated portland cement is sub- ionic flow. Any moist concrete contains enough
ject to chemical reaction with the carbon dioxide electrolyte to conduct a corrosion current. The drier
of the atmosphere. Such carbonation increases the the concrete, the lower its conductivity. Exposure
shrinkage of concrete on drying and thus tends to of concrete to wetting by water containing soluble
promote the development of cracks. Carbonation salts such as seawater, sulfate bearing waters,
also reduces the alkalinity of concrete and thus chlorides applied to pavements and bridge decks
reduces its effectiveness as a protecting medium. for ice control, and brine drippings from railroad
In good quality concrete, properly consolidated refrigerator cars are sources of danger. In addition,
and cured, carbonation does not penetrate deeply. excessive amounts of salts may be incorporated in
It is only in the permeable or porous concrete, or the fresh concrete by the use of mixing water
where the reinforcement is relatively close to the containing soluble salts (e.g., seawater), aggre-
DURABILITY 201-19
gates which contain salts (either naturally or particularly in the presence of appreciable
through contamination), or by the use of admix- amounts of chloride, increases corrosion of the
tures containing chloride salts.7 aluminum. Additionally, hydrogen gas evolution
may occur when fresh concrete contacts alumi-
Another ingredient essential to corrosion of most
num and this may increase the porosity of the
metals in concrete is oxygen. Therefore, the rate of
concrete and therefore the penetration of future
corrosion (and thus the rate of damage) can be
corrosive agents. Some aluminum alloys are more
reduced or inhibited by choking off the access to
susceptible to this problem than others.
oxygen. Various procedures, one being deep poly-
mer impregnation of chloride contaminated con- 4.4.3 Lead-Lead in damp concrete can be at-
crete, are being tested for effectiveness in this tacked by the calcium hydroxide in the concrete
regard. and may be destroyed in a few years. Contact of
Corrosion cells can produce pits in normal rein- the lead with reinforcing steel can accelerate the
forcing steel and in some other metals. Loss of attack. It is recommended that a protective coat-
section due to pitting or widespread corrosion is ing of bituminous material, plastic, or sleeves
of much greater consequence in prestressing cables which are unaffected by damp concrete be used on
and other small stressed member than in large lead to be em bedded in concrete. Corrosion of
reinforcing bars. A catastrophic failure can occur embedded lead is not likely to damage the con-
in a stressed cable if the cross section is reduced crete.
sufficiently by corrosion or by embrittlement of 4.4.4 Copper and copper alloys-Copper is not
the steel from hydrogen evolution during the cor- normally corroded by concrete as evidenced by
rosion process. Conversely, the concrete surround- the widespread and successful use of copper
ing a large reinforcing bar is often cracked as the waterstops and the embedment of copper pipes
result of the expansive forces of corrosion long in concrete for many years. However, corrosion of
before loss of section becomes critical from a load copper pipes has been reported where ammonia is
carrying standpoint. In this instance, repairs are present. Also, there have been reports that small
often necessary because of loss of bond, cracks, or amounts of ammonia and possibly of nitrates can
spalling. Thus, corrosion in either instance is cause stress corrosion cracking of embedded cop-
costly. per. It should further be noted that unfavorable
circumstances are created if the concrete also con-
tains steel connected to the copper. In this case it
4.4-Corrosion characteristics of various materials
is the steel which will corrode.
in concrete
4.4.5 Zinc-Zinc reacts with alkaline materials
4.4.1 Steel-In the early stages of corrosion, rust such as those found in concrete. However, zinc in
stains (generally dark gray or reddish in color) the form of a galvanizing coating on reinforcing
may be observed in the pores of the concrete and steel is sometimes intentionally embedded in con-
in small cracks at the surface. Later, there is more crete. Available data are conflicting as to the
prominent cracking of the concrete in a direction benefit, if any,of this coating.n-ll A chromate dip
parallel to the reinforcement, and a delamination on the galvanized bars or the use of 400 parts per
(disbonding) of the concrete at the level of the million of chromate in the mix water is recom-
steel. In advanced cases, spalling down to the mended to prevent hydrogen evolution in the
level of the reinforcement occurs. fresh concrete. Additionally, users are cautioned
Techniques are available for locating areas of against permitting galvanized and black steel to
corroding steel and subsurface delaminations, and come in contact with each other in a structure,
for determining the chloride content (and thus since theory indicates that the use of dissimilar
the potential for corrosion of embedded metal) of metals can cause galvanic corrosion.
the concrete at the level of the embedded metaLR-l0 Some difficulty has been experienced with the
The latter procedure requires that samples of corrosion and perforation of corrugated galvanized
concrete be obtained, whereas the other pro- sheets used as permanent bottom forms for con-
cedures are nondestructive. crete roofs and bridge decks. Such damage has
4.4.2 Aluminum-Corrosion of aluminum em- been confined largely to concrete containing ap-
bedded in concrete can occur and can crack the preciable amounts of chloride and to areas where
concrete. Conditions conducive to corrosion are chloride solutions are permitted to drain directly
created if: the concrete contains steel in contact onto the galvanized sheet.
with the aluminum, chlorides are present in ap- 4.4.6 Other metals-Chromium and nickel al-
preciable concentrations, or the cement is high loyed metals generally have good resistance to
in alkali content:; Increasing ratios of steel area to corrosion in concrete, as do silver and tin. How-
::llllrninllrn ::lrt:>::l furht:>n tht:> rnt:>hlc: ::lrt:> (>ollnlt:>rl) t:>vt:>r tht:> (>orr()s;on rpsist:mC'P of somp of thpsp
201-20 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
metals may be adversely affected by the presence woods, preferably with a high resinous content,
of soluble chlorides in seawater or deicing salts. are reported to be most suitable for such use.
Special circumstances might justify the cost of
Monel or Type 316 stainless steel in marine loca- 4.5-Recommendations where corrosion may be a
tion, if data are available to document their su-
problem
perior performance in concrete containing mois-
ture and chlorides or other electrolytes. However, 4.5.1 Concrete of low permeability-The perme-
the 300 series stainless steels are susceptible to ability of concrete is a major factor affecting the
stress corrosion cracking when the temperature is process of corrosion of embedded materials. It is
over 140 F (60 C) and chloride solutions are in also a major factor affecting the service life of the
contact with the material. Natural weathering concrete itself. Less water can enter and remain
steels generally do not perform well in a concrete in a low permeability concrete under a given ex-
containing moisture and chloride. posure and hence such concrete is more likely to
have low electrical conductivity. It also resists the
4.4.7 Plastics-Plastics are being used increas-
absorption of salts and their penetration to the
ingly in concrete as pipes, shields, waterstops,
embedded items and provides a barrier against the
chairs, etc., as well as a component in the con-
ingress of oxygen. Although no conventional con-
crete. Many plastics are resistant to strong alkalies
crete is completely impermeable, proper attention
and therefore would be expected to perform sat-
to mix proportioning, workmanship, and curing
isfactorily in concrete. However, because of the
will give a concrete having a low permeability.
great varieties of plastics and materials com-
pounded with them, specific test data should be 4.5.1.1 Mix proportioning. Low water-cement
developed for each intended use. Special epoxies ratios produce less permeable concrete and thus
have been used successfully as reinforcing bar provide greater assurance against corrosion. In
coatings and will be discussed later in this guide. seawater exposure tests of reinforced concrete
Another rapidly expanding field involving the piles with a nominal cover of 1% in. (38 mm) over
use of plastics includes polymer impregnated con- the steel, a water-cement ratio of 0.45 (by weight)
crete (hardened concrete impregnated with plas- provided good protection against corrosion, 0.53
tic), polymer concrete (where the plastic is the provided an intermediate degree of protection,
binder) and polymer-portland cement concrete and 0.62 afforded relatively poor protection. 3 Ex-
(where the polymer is an additional component of posure tests on 20 fF (1.85 m~) slabs which were
a conventional concrete) .1:; The use of polymers salted daily yielded similar results; concrete with
can result in a superior concrete, both from the a water-cement ratio of 0.40 performed signifi-
strength and permeability standpoints. Several cantly better than concretes with water-cement
applications are discussed later on in this report. ratios of 0.50 and 0.60, even with equal cement
contents. n
4.4.8 Wood-Wood has been widely used in or
against mortars and concretes. Such use varies Therefore, the water-cement ratio should not
from the incorporation of sawdust, wood pulp, and exceed 0.40 for concrete exposed to sea or brackish
wood fibers in the concrete mix to the embedment water, or in contact with more than moderate
of timber. concentrations of chlorides at the water or ground
The incorporation of untreated sawdust, wood line or within the range of fluctuating water level
chips or fibers in "nailing concrete," and the like, or spray. If this water-cement ratio cannot be
usually results in slow setting and low strength. achieved in a specific instance, a maximum water-
The addition of hydrated lime equal to 113 to % cement ratio of 0.45 may be used provided the
the volume of cement has often been effective in thickness of concrete cover over any metal is in-
overcoming this action. Further improvement has creased by 0.5 in. (1.3 cm) .
resulted from the use of up to 5 percent of cal- Above the se'l and spray range for a height of
cium chloride dihydrate along with the lime. 25 ft (8 m) or within a horizontal distance of 100
However, calcium chloride in such amounts can ft (30 m), the water-cement ratio should not
cause corrosion of embedded metals and can have exceed 0.50 by weight.
adverse effects on the concrete itself.
These recommended limitations on water-ce-
Another problem with such concrete is the high ment ratio apply to all types of portland cement,
volume change, which occurs even with changes in although long-term studies at PCA on durability of
atmospheric humidity. This volume change may concrete (seaw2ter exposure) showed that cement
lead to cracking and warping. containing 5 to 8 percent tricalcium aluminate
The embedment of lumber in concrete has some- (C;A) showed less cracking due to steel corrosion
times resulted in leaching of the wood by calcium than cement with a CIA content less than 5 per-
hydroxide with subsequent deterioration. Soft- cent.1n In the absence of specific test data, ACI
DURABILITY 201-21
211.1-74 may be used to determine the cement least 2.6 in. (65 mm) would need to be specified
factor required for the stated water-cement ratio. to obtain a minimum cover of 2.0 in. (50 mm)
A low water-cement ratio does not of itself over 90 to 95 percent of the deck reinforcing
assure a low permeability concrete. As an extreme steelY A nondestructive magnetic device (pach-
example, so-called "no-fines" concrete could have ometer) is available for use in determining the
a low water-cement ratio and yet be highly perme- depth of cover over reinforcing steel in hardened
able, as evidenced by the use of such concrete to concrete. 10 .17
produce porous pipe. Well-graded coarse and fine 4.5.3 Good drainage-In areas of severe expo-
aggregates are therefore also requisite to low sure, especially in concrete bridge decks, particular
permea bili ty. attention shoould be given to design details deal-
Air entrainment is recommended to reduce ing with drainage. They should insure that the
damage from freezing and thawing and may im- water will drain, and standing pools are avoided.
prove workability. Also, tests have shown that the 4.5.4 Limiting chlorides in the concrete mix-The
time for corrosion-caused cracking to develop is potential hazard of chlorides to concrete containing
increased significantly by incorporating air in steel in a marine environment or other exposure
the mix. 1 :l to soluble salts suggests a recommendation that
4.5.1.2 Workmanship. Good workmanship is a no chloride should be allowed in the concrete mix.
most important factor in securing uniform con- This would reject the use of seawater as mixing
crete of low permeability. This includes the use of water, aggregates which have been washed with
low slump concrete, precautions against segrega- seawater or otherwise contain salts, and admix-
tion, thorough vibration to insure good consolida- tures containing chloride.
tion, and good finishing practices. Low slump con-
Specifying a zero chloride content for the mix,
cretes are often difficult to consolidate and a
however, is impossible to realize in practice.
density monitoring device (such as a direct trans-
Chlorides are among the more abundant materials
mission nuclear gage) may be helpful.
on earth, and are present in variable amounts in
4.5.1.3 Curing. Permeability is reduced by in- all of the ingredients of concrete. Neither is it
creased hydration of the cement. Therefore, ade- effective to place a prohibition only on calcium
quate curing is essential. At least 7 days of unin- chloride, since other chlorides can react in the
terrupted moist curing, or membrane curing, same manner. The proper approach is to limit the
should be required. Members that are cured with total chloride in the mix (i.e., in the aggregate,
low pressure steam to obtain a high early strength cement, mixing water, and admixtures) to a
will benefit significantly from additional moist value less than that required to promote corrosion.
curing at normal temperatures. Research has shown that the threshold value
4.5.2 Adequate steel cover-Protection against for a chloride content in concrete necessary for
penetration of salts to reinforcing steel and other the corrosion of embedded steel can be as low as
embedded items is affected considerably by the 0.15 percent by weight of cement.fl1S-~t At first
thickness of concrete cover over the steel. It is sight, therefore, this limit should be universally
generally recognized that at or near the waterline specified. However, this approach is undesirable
or in other locations exposed to a combination of because it does not take into account the physical
seawater (including spray) and atmospheric (free) availability of the chloride nor does it consider
oxygen in marine construction and other severe if the other components necessary for corrosion
environments, more cover is required than is of steel, oxygen and moisture, will be present or
normally used. A minimum cover of 3 in. (75 mm) not. The availability of oxygen and moisture ad-
is recommended for such exposure [AASHTO jacent to the steel will vary with service exposure
recommends 4 in. (100 mm) except for precast from one structure to another and between dif-
piles]. Exposure of concrete at inland sites, other feren t parts of the same structure as well as with
than brackish water, has not generally been recog- the quality of concrete and depth of cover to steel
nized as constituting a corrosion problem except provided. Also, prior to any meaningful discussion
for bridge decks. On bridges, salts applied in ice of limits the form in which the chloric:e occurs
control operations are absorbed by the concrete must be taken into account.
roadway decks and adjacent appurtenances such Chloride in concrete may be in the water soluble
as curbs, sidewalks, and railings. In such locations form or may be chemically combined with other
a minimum cover of 2 in. (50 mm) and a concrete ingredients. Soluble chlorides induce corrosion,
of low water-cement ratio (0.40 maximum by while combined chloride is believed to have little
weight) are recommended. It should be noted that effect. It has been shown that when the total
because of construction tolerances in steel cover chloride content is near the corrosion threshold
on bridge decks. a design or "plan" cover of at level, from 50 to 85 percent of it will be soluble.n,li)
201-22 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
There are exceptions, however. Some data indi- The user should exercise good judgment in ap-
cates that a large percentage of calcium chloride plying these limits, keeping in mind that other
admixture combines chemically with the cement factors (moisture and oxygen) are always neces-
and thus is not available to induce corrosion. 2G * sary for electrochemical corrosion.
Some chloride-bearing aggregates have a high The routine measurement of total chloride~1 for
total chloride content but very little of it is solu- direct comparison with the suggested limits is
ble. On the other hand, some aggregates with recommended. This may be made on the con-
high chloride content are known to have caused stituents of the concrete, in concrete from trial
corrosion. batches, or on production concrete shortly after
When considering the probability of corrosion, mixing. However, as discussed above, if the total
it is therefore logical to measure only the soluble chloride content exceeds the limit, the potential
chloride content of concrete, rather than total for corrosion can be further studied using the
soluble chloride test described in Reference 24. If
chloride. Tests for soluble chloride, however, are
these results are less than the limit, the probability
time-consuming and difficult to control. Factors
of corrosion caused by chloride contained in the
such as sample size, boiling and/or soaking time,
concrete mix will be low.
temperature, and quantity of distilled water used
all affect the results. 1n Therefore the test must be No calcium chloride should be in ten tionally
performed in a standardized manner. Conversely, added to the mix in prestressed concrete or con-
the test for total chloride, which involves a nitric ventionally reinforced concrete which will be ex-
acid extraction, is not significantly affected by the posed to moisture and chlorides in service, even if
above factors. H)~I-~'1 Most interested parties, there- the naturally occurring chlorides in the materials
fore, measure total (soluble plus combined) are less than the stated limits.
chloride and test for soluble chloride only when Obviously the effect of chlorides in concrete is
follow-up studies are desired. complex. ACI Committee 222 is continuing to
study the subject. The recommendations of Com-
If the total chloride is less than the allowable
mittees 212 and 443 are also pertinent.
limit, obviously soluble chloride need not be
4.5.5 Careful attention to protruding items-
measured. Should the total chloride content ex-
When embedded items, such as bolts, must pro-
ceed this limit, additional information on the
trude from the concrete in a corrosive environ-
risk involved in using the material may be ob-
ment, careful attention should be given to the
tained by performing a soluble chloride test. When
resistance of the material selected, to the type of
this value is found to be above the limit, corrosion
corrosive environment, to the avoidance of coup-
is likely if moisture and oxygen are readily avail-
ling it with a dissimilar metal inside the concrete,
able (in a bridge deck, for example). If it is below
to the careful placement of the concrete around
the limit, the risk of corrosion is low.
the protruding item, and to the avoidance of creat-
At the present state of knowledge this commit- ing channels which will permit the corrosive media
tee, in agreement with ACI Committee 222, sug- to reach the interior of the concrete.
gests the following limits for chloride ion (CI-) 4.5.6 Positive protective systems-Because of
in concrete prior to service exposure, expressed as the very high cost of repairing corrosion-caused
a percent by weight of cement: damage, positive protective systems are being
1. Prestressed concrete 0.06 percent used for bridge decks in severe deicing salt areas
and for some marine structures. Many protective
2. Conventionally reinforced concrete systems have been proposed, some of which have
in a moist environment and ex- been shown to be effective while others have
posed to chloride 0.10 percent failed. It is beyond the scope of this guide to
3. Con ven tionally reinforced concrete discuss all possible systems. However, the most
in a moist environment but not successful systems in use for bridge decks (some
exposed to chloride (includes loca- of which are applicable to other structures) are
tions where the concrete will be listed below:
occasionally wetted-such as kitch- 1. Very low water-cement ratio (0.32 by
ens, parking garages, waterfront weigh t), low slump dense concrete overlay.\l.ZG
structures, and areas with poten-
tial moisture condensation 0.15 percent
"This has led some to conclude that up to 1 percent of admix-
ture in the usual flake form (the dihydrate. CaC]'. 2H,O) may
4. Above ground building construc- be acceptable in lTIOst conventionally reinforced concrete v..'hich
does not contain other embedded metals and which will not
tion where the concrete will stay be exposed to chloride in service.
dry No limit for tIf calcium chloride is used as an admixture. a limit of 2 per-
cent is generally recommended for reasons other than corrosion.
corrosiont Using 2 percent of the usual form (the dihydrate. CaC]" 2HD)
results in apprOXimately 1 percent chloride ion (Cl-).
DURABILITY 201-23
13. Griffin, Donald F., "Effectiveness of Zinc Coat- FHWA-RD77-85, Federal Highway Administration,
ing on Reinforcing Steel in Concrete Exposed to a Washington, D. C., Aug. 1977 (Available as PB 275-
Marine Environment," Technical Note No. N-1032, U. S. 428/ AS National Technical Information Services).
Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory, Port Hueneme, 25. Monfore, G. E., and Verbeck, G. J., "Corrosion of
July 1969, 42 pp. Also, 1st Supplement, June 1970, and Prestressed Wire in Concrete," ACI JOURNAL, Proceed-
2nd Supplement, June 1971. ings V. 57, No.5, Nov. 1960, pp. 491-515.
14. "Use of Galvanized Rebars in Bridge Decks," 26. "Bridge Deck Protective Systems, Membranes,
Notice No.5, 140.10, Federal Highway Administration, Polymer Concrete, and Dense Portland Cement Con-
Washington, D. C., July 9, 1976. crete," Interim Report NEEP No. 12, Notice N5080.28,
15. Dikeou, J. T., "Review of Worldwide Develop- Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D. C.,
ments and Use of Polymers in Concrete," Polymers in Jan. 1975.
Concrete, Proceedings of the 1st International Congress, 27. Clifton, J. R; Beeghly, H. F.; and Mathey, R. G.,
Concrete Construction Publications, Addison, Ill., 1976, "Nonmetallic Coatings for Concrete Reinforcing Bars,"
pp. 2-8. Final Report No. FHWA-RD-74-18, National Bureau of
16. Verbeck, G. J., "Field and Laboratory Studies of Standards for Federal Highway Administration, Wash-
the SUlphate Resistance of Concrete," Performance of ington, D. C., Feb. 1974.
Concrete-Resistance of Concrete to Sulphate and Other 28. "Coated Reinforcing Steel," NEEP Project No. 16,
Environmental Conditions, Thorvaldson Symposium, Interim Report No.1, FHWA Notice N5080.33, Federal
University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1968, pp. 113- Highway Administration, Washington, D. C., Apr. 1975.
124. 29. Van Til, C. J.; Carr, B. J.; and Vall erg a, B. A.,
"Waterproof Membranes for Protection of Concrete
17. Van Daveer, J. R, and Sheret, G. D., "Concrete
Bridge Decks-Laboratory Phase," NCHRP Report No.
Cover Study," Final Report No. FHWA-DP-15, Federal
165, Transportation Research Board, 1976, 70 pp.
Highway Administration, Washington, D. C., Sept. 1975.
30. Smoak, J. G., "Polymer Impregnation of New
18. Chamberlain, William P.; Irwin, Richard J.; and
Concrete Bridge Deck Surfaces, Interim User's Manual
Amsler, Duane E., "Waterproofing Membranes for
of Procedures and Specifications," Report No. FHWA-
Bridge Deck Rehabilitation," Research Report No. 52, RD-75-72, U. S. Bureau of Reclamation for the Federal
New York State Department of Transportation, May
Highway Administration, Washington, D. C., June 1975.
1977. 31. Clear, K. C.. and Ormsby, W. C., "Concept in
19. Lewis, D. A., "Some Aspects of the Corrosion of Internally Sealed Concrete," Interim Report No.
Steel in Concrete," Proceedings, First International FHWA-RD-75-21, Federal Highway Administration,
Congress on Metallic Corrosion, London, 1962, pp. 547- Washington, D. C., Apr. 1975.
555. 32. Jenkins, G. H., and Butler, J. M., "Internally
20. Stratfull, R F.; Jurkovich, W. J.; and Spellman, Sealed Concrete," Report No. FHWA-RD-75-20, Mon-
D. L., "Corrosion Testing of Bridge Decks," Trans- santo Research Corp. for the Federal Highway Admin-
portation Research Record, Transportation Research istration, Washington, D. C., Final Report, Jan. 1975.
Board, No. 539, 1975, pp. 50-59. 33. Gewertz, M. W., "Causes and Repair of Deteriora-
21. Clear, K. C., "Evaluation of Portland Cement tion to a California Bridge Due to Corrosion of Rein-
Concrete for Permanent Bridge Deck Repair," Report forcing Steel in a Marine Environment: Part I-Method
No. FHWA-RD-74-5, Federal Highway Administration, of Repair," Bulletin No. 182, Highway (Transportation)
Washington, D. C., Feb. 1974. Research Board, 1958, pp. 1-17.
22. Clemena, Gerardo G.; Reynolds, John W.; and 34. Johnson, Sidney M., Deterioration, Maintenance,
McCormick, Randy, "Comparative Study of Procedures and Repair of Structures, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
for the Analysis of Chloride in Hardened Concrete," York, 1965, 373 pp.
Report No. VHTR-77-R7, Virginia Highway and Trans- 35. Stratfull, R F., "Experimental Cathodic Protection
portation Research Council, Aug. 1976, Appendix B. of a Bridge Deck," Interim Report No. FHWA-RD-74-31,
23. Berman, H. A., "Determination of Chloride in California Department of Transportation, Jan. 1974.
Hardened Cement Paste, Mortar, and Concrete," Report 36. Stratton, F. W., and McCollum, B. F., "Repair of
No. FHWA-RD-72-12, Federal Highway Administration, Hollow or Softened Areas in Bridge Decks in Rebonding
Washington, D. C., Sept. 1972. with Injected Epoxy Resin or Other Polymers," Report
24. Clear, K. C., and Harrigan, E. T., "Sampling and No. K-F-72-5, State Highway Commission of Kansas,
Testing for Chloride Ion in Concrete," Report No. July 1974.
certain sand-gravel aggregates. The deterioration the presence of such reactive impurities and their
has been regarded as a chemical phenomenon.3.4 use in concrete can be avoided.
Because early studies showed no consistent re- The alkali-silica, cement-aggregate, and expan-
lationship between the distress and alkali content sive carbonate reactions are more important than
of the cement, as is normally the case with alkali- the others and will be discussed in detail in the
aggregate reactions, the term "cement-aggregate following section.
reaction" is used because it has been deemed de-
sirable to distinguish between this phenomenon 5.2-Alkali-silica reaction
and the more widely occurring alkali-silica reac-
5.2.1 Occurrence-A map2H and data 27 - 3i are
tion. Subsequent research indicated that this
available showing areas known to have natural
phenomenon is a reaction between the alkalies in
aggregates suspected of or known to be capable
cement and some siliceous constituents of the
of alkali-silica reaction. Most of these references
aggregates, complicated by environmental condi-
refer to North America; however, the available
tions that produce high concrete shrinkage and
evidence~li suggests that similar considerations are
concentration by drying."
applicable elsewhere. Data are available for New
It has also been clearly demonstrated that cer- Zealand, India, Germany, Iceland, Denmark,
tain carbonate rocks participate in reactions with Turkey, and other countries.:n
alkalies which, in some instances, produce detri- At the time of the 1960 report by Committee
mental expansion and cracking. Detrimental re- 201, it appeared that the greatest abundance of
actions are usually associated with argillaceous alkali-silica reactive rocks in the United States
dolomitic limestones which have somewhat un- was in the western half of the country. This is
usual textural characteristics. H This reaction is probably still a correct estimate, if the kind of
designated as "expansive alkali-carbonate reac- alkali-silica reaction intended is the quickly de-
tion." It has been extensively studied in Canada veloping type which was the first to be recog-
where it was originally recognizedi-l~ and in the nized. 2 ,27,28,3o However, there is also a slowly de-
United States. 13 -1S veloping type. 29
In addition to the detrimental expansive alkali- The minerals, mineraloids, and rocks recognized
carbonate reaction, a phenomenon associated with as reactive in 1958 are shown in Table 5.2.1.:\0
some carbonate rocks occurs wherein the peri- Since 1958, other rocks have been recognized as
pheral zones of the aggregate particles in contact reactive. These include argillites, graywackes/\1
with cement paste are modified and develop phyllites,2il quartzites,:;:; schists,:I(; as well as frac-
prominent rims within the particle and extensive tured and strained quartz, recognized as reactive
carbonation of the surrounding paste. 6 ,14,19-22 Some by L. S. Brown,:!:! and granite gneiss.:: 1 Several of
rims when etched with dilute acid appear in these rocks-including granite gneisses, meta-
positive relief, while others exhibit negative re- morphosed subgraywackes, and some quartz and
lief; hence the terms "positive rims" and "negative quartzite gravels-appear to react slowly even
rims" are commonly used. As contrasted with al- with high alkali cement, the reactivity not having
kali-carbonate reactions which cause detrimental been recognized until the structures were over 20
expansion and cracking, it is doubtful that rim- years old.:;~-:lI
forming alkali-carbonate reaction is, per se, a Lightweight aggregates, being composed of
deleterious reaction.2:l predominantly amorphous silicates, would appear
In addition to the above types, other damaging to have the potential for being reactive with ce-
chemical reactions involving aggregates should be ment alkalies. However, there is no evidence of
mentioned. These include the oxidation or hydra- distress of lightweight concrete caused by alkali
reaction. ;IS
tion of certain unstable mineral oxides, sulfates,
or sulfides that occur after the aggregate is in- 5.2.2 Mechanism-Alkali-silica reaction can
corporated in the concrete (for example, the hy- cause expansion and severe cracking of concrete
structures and pavements, The phenomenon is
dration of anhydrous magnesium oxide, calcium
complex and various theories have been advanced
oxide, or calcium sulfate, or the oxidation of
to explain field and laboratory evidence. 34 ,36,39-42
pyrite) .21 Metallic iron may occur as a contaminant
Unanswered questions remain. Apparently reac-
in aggregate and subsequently be oxidized. Still tive material in the presence of potassium, sodium,
other reactions may result from organic impurities and calcium hydroxide derived from the cement
(humus, sugar, etc.) .2:; Engineers should be aware reacts to form either a solid nonexpansive cal-
of these possibilities and supply corrective cium-alkali-silica complex, or an alkali-silica com-
measures where necessary. Careful testing and plex (also solid) which can expand by imbibition of
201-26 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
The most important deleteriously alkali-reactive rocks (that is, rocks containing
excessive amounts of one or more of the substances listed above) are as follows:
Opaline cherts Andesites and tuffs
Chalcedonic cherts Siliceous shales
Quartzose cherts Phyllites
Siliceous limestones Opaline concretions
Siliceous dolomites Fractured, strained, and
Rhyolites and tuffs inclusion-filled quartz
Dacites and tuffs and quartzites
Note: A rock may be classified as, for example. a "siliceous limestone" and be innocuous if its
siliceous constituents are other than those indicated above.
concentrations of alkali and calcium hydroxide, gates from new sources and when service records
and on the available surface of the reactive ma- indicate that reactivity may be possible. The most
terial. When the alkali concentration is low useful are:
enough, the initial product of reaction is non- (a) Petrographic examination - ASTM C 295
expansive; when the alkali concentration is high, provides a recommended practice for the pe-
the initial product of reaction is the expansive trographic examination of aggregates. The types
one. In the former case, for reaction to continue of minerals involved in alkali-aggregate reaction
safely, the amount of reactive material must have been listed in Section 6.2.1, and procedures
either be negligible or more than a certain for recognizing these constituents have been de-
amount, depending on the amount of alkali and scribed.29.33.41,42 Recommendations are available
fineness of reactive material. In the latter case, which show the amounts of reactive minerals, as
rapid reversal to a safe reaction (that is, formation determined petrographically, which can be tol-
of the nonexpansive product) is desirable and erated.!NS The procedures referenced above apply
will occur if the reactive particles present suf- to reactive constituents recognized prior to 1960.
ficient surface for reaction, that is, if the reactive The reactive rocks and minerals that have been
particles are sufficiently numerous or sufficiently more frequently encountered since 1960 appear to
fine. have larger pessimum proportions and are harder
5.2.3 Laboratory tests for alkali-silica reactiv- to recognize in petrographic examination. Highly
ity-Laboratory tests should be made on aggre- deformed quartz with an angle of undulatory ex-
DURABILITY 201-27
tinction of 35 to 50 deg or more, and with de- 5.2.5 Recommended procedures to be used with
formation lamellae appear characteristic of the alkali-reactive aggregates - If aggregates are
reactive quartz-bearing rocks. Relatively coarse- shown by service records or laboratory examina-
grained micas 35 have also been regarded as reactive tion to be potentially reactive, they should not be
constituents; fine-grained micas are reactive in used when the concrete is to be exposed to sea-
argilli ties.~! water or alkali environments if nonreactive ag-
(b) Mortar bar test for potential reactivity gregates are available.:m When reactive aggregates
(ASTM C 227)-This method is the one most gen- must be used, this should be done only after
erally relied on to indicate potential alkali reac- thorough tests, and preferably after service rec-
tivity. Acceptance criteria are given by ASTM ords have established that with appropriate limits
C 33 for evaluating these test results. The pro- on the alkali content of the cement, or with the
cedure is useful not only for the evaluation of use of appropriate amounts of an effective poz-
aggregates, but also for the evaluation of specific zolan, or both, satisfactory service can be antici-
aggregate-cement combinations. However, criteria pated:!S In cases where seawater or alkaline soil
have not been developed for the metamorphic environments are not involved and there are no
siliceous and silicate rocks. From the results of sound materials available economically, reactive
Swenson, Gillott, and Duncan,;]" it may be ex- materials may be used provided the following
pected that these rocks will not reliably develop safeguards are employed:
expansive reaction in storage at 100 F (38 C) but (a) Low-alkali cement-Specify a "low alkali"
will require more elevated temperatures and cement (maximum of 0.6 percent equivalent
longer periods in test, probably 1 to 3 years, to Na 2 0). (Low alkali cement will become less read-
develop evidence of reactivity. This prolongation ily available except at a premium price with the
of testing time makes it particularly desirable to need to use less energy in manufacturing cement
employ petrographic criteria that will allow iden- and with environmental control of cement plant
tification of these rocks. emissions.) Prohibit the use of seawater or alkali
soil water as mixing water and avoid addition of
(c) Chemical test for potential reactivity (ASTM
sodium or potassium chloride.
289)-This method is used primarily for a quick
(b) Pozzolan-Where low-alkali cements are
evaluation of natural aggregates, the results being
not economically available, use a suitable poz-
obtainable in a few days as compared with 3 to 6
zolanic material as prescribed by ASTM C 618.
months or more with the mortar bar test. Accept-
Pozzolans should be tested in accordance with
ance criteria for this test are given in ASTM C 33
ASTM C 441 to determine their effectiveness in
and elsewhere. Care must be exercised in in-
preventing excessive expansion due to the alkali-
terpreting the results of this test. Highway Re-
aggregate reaction. The criterion of 75 percent re-
search Board Special Report No. 3po and Highway
duction based on an arbitrary cement-to-pozzolan
Research Board Bulletin No. 239 11> give more de-
ratio merely provides a basis of comparison. Pep-
tails concerning proper interpretation of the re-
per and Mather!S showed that many pozzolans
sults. Some of the reactive rocks identified since
would neeci to be used at higher proportions to
1960 fall into a region below the end of the curve
cement to achieve 75 percent reduction in expan-
(Fig. 2, ASTM C 289) so that the results cannot
sion of a glass mixture with a cement having a
be interpreted.
1.0 percent Na"O equivalent. Fortunately, most
This test method has given questionable results reactive aggregates are less reactive than glass.
when evaluating lightweight aggregates, and it is Whenever the use of pozzolanic materials is con-
therefore not recommended for this purpose. 47 sidered, it should be remembered that if these
5.2.4 General criteria for judging reactivity- materials increase water demand, they may cause
When available, the field performance record of increased drying shrinkage in concrete exposed
a particular aggregate, if it has been used with to drying. Increased water demand results from
cement of high-alkali content, is the best means high fineness and poor particle shape. The rate of
for judging its reactivity.44 If such records are strength develop men t in correctly proportioned
not available, the most reliable criteria are pozzolanic concrete can equal that of portland ce-
petrographic examination with corroborating evi- ment concretes at 28 days.
dence from the mortar bar test;l:; and sometimes
supplemented by tests on concrete although these
5.3-Cement-aggregate reaction
have not been standardized. The chemical test
results should also be used in conjunction with 5.3.1 Occurrence-Sand-gravel aggregates in the
results of the petrographic examination and mortar Kansas, Nebraska, and Wyoming areas, especially
bar test. It is preferable not to rely on the results those from the Platte, Republican, and Laramie
of only one kind of test in any evaluation."G river areas, have been involved in concrete de-
201-28 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
terioration attributed to cement-aggregate reac- leading to the formation of brucite and the regen-
tion.:l -:' eration of alkali occurs. This is a distinguishing
5.3.2 Mechanism-Recent research indicates that feature from alkali-silica reactivity in which the
the cement-aggregate reaction is mainly a reaction initial alkali is used up as the reaction proceeds.
between the alkalies in the cement that produce The presence of clay minerals appears significant
high pH and abundant hydroxyl and siliceous con- and their swelling, when opened to moisture by
stituents of the aggregates. However, the field dedolomitization, is the basis for one of the possi-
performance of concretes made with reactive sand- ble explanations of the reaction. l l
gravels does not correlate well with cement alkali Rim growth is not unusual in many carbonate
content. The concrete deterioration results from rocks, and it has been reported as associated with
moderate interior expansion caused by alkali- distress in pavements in Iowa. 50 However, this
silica reactivity, and surface shrinkage caused by is not always the case. The nature of rim forma-
severe drying conditions in areas such as western tion is not fully understoodY It is, however, as-
Kansas and Nebraska. Evaporation at the surface sociated with a change in the disposition of silica
of the concrete causes an increase in alkali con- and carbonate between the aggregate particle and
centration in the pore fluids near the drying sur- the surrounding cement paste, the rims appearing
face, and a net migration of alkali toward this to extend concentrically deeper into the aggregate
surface. Under these conditions even a low-alkali with time.
cement may cause objectionable deterioration, par- The affected concrete is characterized by a net-
ticularly near the surface. This alkali distribution work of pattern or map cracks uS 11ally most
is altered by the leaching of alkalies near the strongly developed in areas of the structure where
surface during periods of heavy rain." the concrete has a constantly renewable supply of
5.3.3 Identification by laboratory tests-Al- moisture, such as close to the waterline in piers,
though special tests, such as ASTM C 342, have from the ground behind retaining walls, beneath
been devised to indicate potential damage from road or sidewalk slabs, or by wick action in posts
this phenomenon, their reliability is doubtful. or columns. A distinguishing feature from alkali-
Petrographic examination (ASTM C 295) and silica reaction is the general absence of silica gel
mortar bars (ASTM C 227), with the results in- exudations at cracks. Additional signs of the sever-
terpreted as described by Hadley,5 are regarded as ity of the reaction are closed expansion joints
more reliable. with possible crushing of the adjacent concrete. G,G4
5.3.4 Recommended procedure to be employed 5.4.3 Identification by laboratory tests
with potentially deleterious cement-aggregate
combinations-The use of potentially deleterious (a) Petrographic examination of aggregate-
cement-aggregate combinations should be avoided Such examination may be used to identify the
where possible. However, if they must be used, a features of the rock, as listed by Hadley,G and
suitable pozzolan that does not increase drying modified by Buck 51 and Dolar-Mantuani. 52 ,03
shrinkage and 30 percent or more (by weight) of While it is generally true that reactive rocks
coarse limestone should be used with potentially can be characterized as having dolomitic rhombs
deleterious cement-aggregate combinations. Con- from 1 to 200 I,m in maximum dimension in a
crete tests should be used to determine whether background of finer calcite and insoluble residue,
the resulting combination is satisfactory,:w"l!) and the presence of all or any dolomite in a fine-
whether the limestone is frost resistant in air- grained * carbonate rock makes it desirable to
entrained concrete in the grading in which it is make the rock-cylinder test (ASTM C 586). This
used. is recommended whether or not the texture is
believed to be typical, and whether or not insolu-
ble residue including clay amounts to a substan-
5.4-Expansive alkali-carbonate reactivity tial portion of the aggregate. As expansive
5.4.1 Occurrence-Certain limestone aggregates, rocks are recognized from more areas, the more
usually dolomitic, have been reported as reactive variable the textures and compositions appear to
in concrete structures in Canada (Ontario) and in be.
the United States (Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michi- (b) Expansion of concrete prisms-The prisms
gan, Missouri, New York, South Dakota, Virginia, are made with job materials and stored at 100
and Wisconsin). Both quarried aggregates and percent relative humidity at 73 F (23 C) ,51 or (in
gravels from the same formation may be reactive. order to a.ccelerate the reaction) they may be made
5.4.2 Mechanism-Many unanswered questions with additional alkali and/or stored at elevated
remain, and more than one mechanism to explain
expansive carbonate reactivity has been pro- *Fine-grained is generally regarded as 1 mm and finer. How-
posed. 6 ,lO,Il,13,16 It is clear that dedolomitization ever, as a precautionary measure rocks with grains 2 mm and
finer should be tested in rock cylinders.
DURABILITY 201·29
temperature. 50-57 Comparison is usually made with many carbonate rocks that expand in rock cylin-
the expansion of prisms containing a nonreactive ders do not expand in concrete.
control aggregate. 5.4.5 Recommended procedures to minimize al-
(c) Dilation of the aggregate in finely powdered kali-carbonate reactivity-Procedures that can be
form in the presence of alkali in the Powder Cell employed to mitigate the effects of the reaction
Test 57 include:
( a) Avoiding reactive rocks by selective quarry-
(d) Petrographic analysis of the concrete-This
ing 1n ,!)?i,;i7
can confirm the type of aggregate present and its
characteristics as outlined in Section (a) above. (b) Dilution with nonreactive aggregates, or
Distress that has occurred in the aggregate and use of a smaller maximum size. 14 . 54
surrounding matrix, such as micro- and macro- (c) Use of low alkali cement (probably 0.4 per-
cracking, may be observed. Reaction rims may be cen t com bined alkali or lower). This will prevent
observed in certain aggregate particles and may harmful expansions in most cases;,,4.:'R however, in
be identified as negative or positive by acid etch- pavements where sodium chloride is used as a
ing. They do not necessarily signify harmful re- deicing chemical, this cannot be taken as cer-
sults. Secondary deposits of calcium carbonate, tain. SCi.oS
calcium hydroxide, and ettringite may be found Of these measures, the first is the safest and
in voids within the concrete. Deposits of silica, usually the most economical.
hardened or in gel form, associated with the
suspect aggregate pieces will not be found.r- 5.5-Preservation of concrete containing reactive
(e) Other laboratory tests - Alkali-carbonate aggregate
reaction may be identified by visual observation
There are no known methods of adequately
of sawed or ground surfaces. X-ray examination of
preserving existing concrete which contains the
reaction products is also sometimes useful. *
elements that contribute to the previously de-
5:4.4 Criteria for judging reactivity-Definitive scribed chemical reactions. Water or moisture is
correlations between expansions occurring in the partly involved in at least two of these reactions.
laboratory in rock cylinders or concrete prisms and The destructive effects of freezing and thawing
deleterious field performance have not yet been are more pronounced after the initial stages of
established. The factors involved are complex and destruction by these chemical reactions. Therefore,
include the heterogeneity of the rock, coarse ag- any practicable means of decreasing the exposure
gregate size, permeability of the concrete, and of such concrete to water may extend its useful
seasonal changes in environmental conditions in life.
service, principally availability of moisture, level
of temperature, and possibly the use of sodium 5.S-Recommendations for future stUdies
chloride as a deicing chemical.
Current criteria employed in the United States
Cracking is usually observed in concrete prisms
that provide a basis for separating aggregates
at an expansion of about 0.05 percent. Experience
into "reactive" and "nonreactive," while generally
in Ontario s4 ."r, indicates that if concrete prisms
effective in preventing recurrences of catastrophic
with the proposed combination of job materials
destruction of concrete structures, are now seen
stored at 73 F (23 C) at 100 percent relative hu-
to be inefficient in two ways. First, they have
midity do not show expansion greater than 0.02
caused more severe precautions to have been taken
percent before 84 days, harmful reactivity is un-
(limiting calculated cement alkalies to 0.60 per-
likely. Slightly less restrictive criteria have been
suggested elsewhere.or, cent Na20 equivalent when a higher maximum
would surely have been "safe") than were justi-
It is not certain that rapid determination of fied. Second, they have sometimes permitted al-
potential reactivity can always be made by using kali-silica reaction to occur to a degree causing
the rock cylinder test, since some rocks showing notable cracking when aggregates classed as "non-
an initial contraction may develop considerable ex- reactive" were used with cements containing more
pansion later on."2.on No universal correlation ex- than 0.60 percent Na20 equivalent.
ists between the expansion of rock cylinders and
It is concluded that new research, or a reinter-
concrete in service, though it may exist with con-
pretation of the results of previous research, is
crete prisms stored in the laboratory.6.14,58
needed to better characterize the following rele-
Expansions greater than 0.10 percent in the rock vant parameters:
cylinders are usually taken as a warning that fur-
ther tests should be undertaken to determine ex-
201-30 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
(a) Degree and rate of aggregate reactivity 10. Gillott, J. E., and Swenson, E. G., "Mechanism of
the Alkali-Carbonate Reaction," Journal of Engineering
(b) Influence of concrete mixture proportions,
Geology, V. 2, 1969, pp. 7-23.
especially unit cement content 11. Gillott, J. E., "Mechanism and Kinetics of the
(c) Influence of environment on the concrete Alkali-Carbonate Rock Reaction," Canadian Journal of
Earth Sciences (Ottawa), V. 1, 1963, pp. 121-145.
(d) Influence of dimensions of structures
12. Swenson, E. G., and Gillott, J. E., "Alkali Reac-
If these parameters were better understood, one tivity of Dolomitic Limestone Aggregate," Magazine of
could develop the sort of prescription for safe Concrete Research (London), V. 19, No. 59, June 1967,
structural behavior that would serve efficiently to pp. 95-104.
13. Sherwood, W. Cullen, and Newlon, Howard H.,
preven t damage to concrete from reactions be-
Jr., "Studies on the Mechanisms of Alkali-Carbonate
tween aggregates and alkalies. This prescription Reaction, Part 1., Chemical Reactions," Highway Re-
might be a sort of nomograph where one selected search Record, Highway (Transportation) Research
a point on a scale of low to high aggregate re- Board, No. 45, 1964, pp. 41-56.
activity, a point on a scale of cement content, a 14. Newlon, Howard H., Jr., and Sherwood, W. Cullen,
"Methods for Reducing Expansion of Concrete Caused
point on a scale of structural dimensions, a point
by Alkali-Carbonate Rock Reactions," Highway Re-
on a scale of environmental exposure (tempera- search Record, Highway (Transportation) Research
ture, moisture), and by connecting these one could Board, No. 45, 1964, pp. 134-150.
be directed to a point on a scale of degree of pre- 15. Newlon, Howard H., Jr.; Ozol, Michael A; and
caution to take. Then one could work from the Sherwood, W. Cullen, "Potentially Reactive Carbonate
Rocks, Progress Report No.5, An Evaluation of Several
other side of the coin, taking the type and amount
Methods for Detecting Alkali Carbonate Reaction,"
of slag or pozzolan in the cementitious medium, Virginia Highway Research Council, lVIay 1972.
the Na~O: K 2 0 ratio in the cement, the ratio of 16. Newlon, Howard H., Jr.; Sherwood, W. Cullen;
water-soluble to total alkali, and finally establish and Ozol, Michael A, "Potentially Reactive Carbonate
the limit on alkali in the cement appropriate for Rocks, Progress Report No.8, A Strategy for Use and
Control of Potentially Reactive Carbonate Rocks In-
the concrete to be used in a given structure, in a cluding an Annotated Bibliography of Virginia Re-
given location, to be constructed with aggregate search," Virginia Highway Reseaxch Council, 1972.
from a given source. 17. Walker, Hollis N., "Reaction Products in Expan-
sion Test Specimens of Carbonate Aggregate," Trans-
pm·tation Research Record, Transportation Research
REFERENCES Board, No. 525, 1974, pp. 28-37.
1. Woods, Hubert, Durability of Concrete Construc- 18. Ozol, M. A, and Newlon, H. H., Jr .. "Bridge
tion, Monograph No.4, American Concrete Institute/ Deck Deterioration Promoted by Alkali-Carbonate Re-
Iowa State University Press, Detroit, 1968, pp, 57-68. action: A Documented Example," Transportation Re-
2. Stanton, Thomas E., "Expansion of Concrete
search Record, Transportation Research Board, No.
525, 1974, pp. 55-63.
Through Reaction Between Cement and Aggregate,"
Proceedings, ASCE, V. 66, Dec. 1940, pp. 1781-1812. 19. Bisque, R. E., and Lemish, J., "Silification of
Carbonate Aggregates in Concrete," Bulletin No. 239,
3. Gibson, W. E., "A Study of Map Cracking in
Highway (Transportation) Research Board, 1960, pp.
Sand-Gravel Concrete Pavements," Proceedings, High- 41-55.
way (Transportation) Research Board, V. 18, Part 1, 20. Bisque, R. E., and Lemish, J., "The Effect of
1938, pp. 227-237.
Illitic Clay on the Chemical Stability of Carbonate
4. Lerch, William, "A Cement-Aggregate Reaction Aggregates," Bulletin No. 275, Highway (Transporta-
that Occurs with Certain Sand-Gravel Aggregates," tion) Research Board, 1960, pp. 32-38.
Journal, PCA Research and Development Laboratories, 21. Lemish, J., and Moore, W. J., "Carbonate Aggre-
V. 1, No.3, Sept. 1959, pp. 42-50. gate Reactions: Recent Studies and an Approach to the
5. Hadley, David W., "Field and Laboratory Studies Problem," Highway Research Record, Highway (Trans-
on the Reactivity of Sand-Gravel Aggregates," Journal, portation) Research Board, No. 45, 1964, pp. 57-71.
PCA Research and Development Laboratories, V. 10, 22. Hiltrop, C. L., and Lemish, J., "Relationship of
No.1, Jan. 1968, pp. 17-33. Pore-Size Distribution and Other Rock Properties to
6. Hadley, David W., "Alkali Reactivity of Dolomitic Serviceability of Some Concrete Aggregates," Bulletin
Carbonate Rocks," Highway Research Record, Highway No. 239, HighwilY (Transportation) Research Board,
1960, pp. 1-23.
(Transportation) Research Board, No. 45, 1964, pp. 1-20.
23. Buck, Alan D., and Dolch, W. L., "Investigation
7. Swenson, E. G., "A Reactive Aggregate Unde- of a Reac:iion Involving Nondolomitic Limestone Aggre-
tected by ASTM Tests," ASTM Bulletin No. 226, Dec.
gate in Concrete," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 63, No.
1957, pp. 48-50. 7, July 1966, pp. 755-766.
8. Swenson, E. G., and Gillott, J. E., "Characteristics 24. Mielenz, R. C., "Reactions of Aggregates Involving
of Kingston Carbonate Rock Reaction," Bulletin No. Solubility Oxidation, Sulfates or Sulfides," Highway
275, Highway (Transportation) Research Board, 1960, Research Record, Highway (Transportation) Research
pp. 18-31. Board, No. 43, 1964, pp. 8-18.
9. Feldman, R. F., and Sereda, P. J., "Characteristics 25. Hansen, W. C., "Anhydrous Minerals and Organic
of Sorption and Expansion Isotherms of Reactive Lime- Materials as Sources of Distress in Concrete," Highway
stone Aggregate," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 58, No. Research Record, Highway (Transportation) Research
2, Aug. 1961, pp. 203-214. Board, No. 43, 1964, pp. 1-7.
DURABI LlTY 201-31
26. Mielenz. Richard C .. "Petrographic Examination- ings V. 64, No.8, Aug. 1967, pp. 433-469. Also, ACT
Concrete Aggregates," Significance of Tests and Prop- Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 1.
erties of Concrete and Concrete-Making Materials, STP- 39. Hansen, W. C., "Studies Relating to the Mechanism
169A, American Society for Testing and Materials, by Which the Alkali-Aggregate Reaction Produces Ex-
Philadelphia, 1966, p. 393. pansion in Concrete," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 40,
27. Meissner, H. S., "Cracking in Concrete Due to No.3, Jan. 1944, pp. 213-228.
Expansive Reaction Between Aggregate and High 40. Powers, T. C., and Steinour, H. H., "An Interpre-
Alkali Cement as Evidenced in Parker Dam," ACI tation of Some Published Researches on the Alkali-
JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 37, No.5, Apr. 1941, pp. 549- Aggregate Reaction:" Part 1, "The Chemical Reactions
568. and Mechanism of Expansion," ACI JOURNAL, Proceed-
28. Hinds, Julian, and Tuthill. Lewis H .. Discussion ings V. 51, No.6, Feb. 1955, pp. 497-516; and Part 2,
of "Cracking in Concrete Due to Expansive Reaction "A Hypothesis Concerning Safe and Unsafe Reactions
Between Aggregate and High Alkali Cement as Evi- with Reactive Silica in Concrete," ACI JOURNAL, Pro-
denced in Parker Dam" by H. S. Meissner, ACI JOURNAL, ceedings V. 51, No.8, Apr. 1955, pp. 785-812.
Proceedings V. 37, No.5, Apr. 1941, pp. 568-1 through
41. Diamond, Sydney, "A Review of Alkali-Silica
568-3.
Reaction and Expansion Mechanisms: 1. Alkalies in
29. Kammer, H. A .. and Carlson, R. W., "Investigation
Cements and in Concrete POl'e Solutions," Cement and
of Causes of Delayed Expansion of Concrete in Buck
Concrete Research, V. 5, No.4, July 1975, pp. 329-346.
Hydroelectric Plant," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 37,
No.6, June 1941, pp. 665-671. 42. Diamond, Sydney, "A Review of Alkali-Silica
30. "Chemical Reactions. of Aggregates in Concrete," Reaction and Expansion Mechanisms: 2. Reactive Aggre-
Special Report No. 31, Highway (Transportation) Re- gates," Cement and Concrete Research, V. 6, No.4, July
search Board, 1958, pp. 1-12. 1976, pp. 549-560.
31. Dolar-Mantuani, L., "Alkali-Silica Reactive Rocks 43. M&ther, Bryant, "Petrographic Identification of
in the Canadian Shield," Highway Resewrch Record, Reactive Constituents in Concrete Aggregate," Pro-
Highway (Transportation) Research Board, No. 268, ceedings, ASTM, V. 48, ]948, pp. 1120-1125.
1969, pp. 99-117. 44. Mielenz, R. C., "Petrographic Examination of Con-
32. Buck, Alan D., and Mather, Katharine. "Concrete crete Aggregate to Determine Potential Alkali-Reac-
Cores from Dry Dock No.2, Charleston Naval Shipyard, tivity," Resem-ch Paper No. 18-C, Highway (Transpor-
S. C.," Miscellaneous Paper No. C-69-6, U. S. Army En- tation) Research Board, 1958, pp. 29-38.
gineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, 1969,
59 pp. 45. "Alkali-Silica Reactions, Appendix B," and "Al-
kali-Carbonate Rock Reaction, Appendix C," Engineer-
33. Brown, L. S., "Some Observations on the Mechan-
ing Manual 1110-2-2000, U. S. Army Corps of Engi-
ics of Alkali-Aggregate Reaction." ASTM Bulletin No.
neers, Office, Chief of Engineers, Washington, D. C.,
205, Apr. 1955, p. 40.
1971.
34. Mather, Katharine, "Examination of Cores from
Four Highway Bridges in Georgia," Miscellaneous Paper 46. Chaiken, B., and Halstead, W. J., "Correlation Be-
No. C-73-11, U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experi- tween Chemical and Mortar Bar Tests for Potential
ment Station, Vicksburg, 1973. Alkali Reactivity of Concrete Aggregates," Bulletin
No. 239, Highway (Transportation) Research Board,
35. a. Duncan, M. A. G.; Swenson, E. G.; Gillott, J. E.;
1960, pp. 24-40.
and Foran, M. R.. "Alkali-Aggregate Reaction in
Nova Scotia: 1. Summary of a Five Year Study," 47. Ledbetter, W. B., "Synthetic Aggregates from
Cement and Concrete Research, V. 3, No.1, Jan. Clay and Shale: A Recommended Criteria for Evalua-
1973, pp. 55-69. tion," Highway Research Record, Highway (Trans-
b. Duncan, M. A. G.; Swenson, E. G.; and Gillott, portation) Reseal'ch Board, No. 430, 1973, pp. 9-15.
J. E., "Alkali-Aggregate Reaction in Nova Scotia: 48. Pepper, Leonard, and Mather, Bryant, "Effec-
II, Field and Petrographic Studies," Cement and tiveness of Minet'al Admixtures in Preventing Excessive
Concrete Research, V. 3, No.2, Mar. 1973, pp. 119- Expansion of Concrete Due to Alkali-Aggregate Reac-
128. tion," Proceedings, ASTM, V. 59, 1959, pp. 1178-1202.
c. Duncan, M. A. G.: Swenson, E. G.; and Gillott, 49. Scholer, C. H., and Smith, G. M., "A Rapid Ac-
J. E., "Alkali-Aggregate Reaction in Nova Scotia: celerated Test for Cement-Aggregate Reaction," Pro-
III, Laboratory Studies of Volume Change," Cement ceedings, ASTM, V. 54, 1954, pp. 1165-1177.
and Concrete Research. V. 3, No.3, May 1973, pp.
233-245. 50. Welp, Theodore L., and De Young, Clarence E.,
"Variations in Performance of Concrete With Carbonate
d. Gillott, J. E.; Duncan, M. A. G.; and Swenson,
Aggregates in Iowa," Highway Research Record, High-
E. G., "Alkali-Aggregate Reaction in Nova Scotia:
way (Transportation) Research Board, No. 45, 1964,
IV, Character of the Reaction," Cement and Concrete
pp. 159-177.
Research, V. 3, No.5, Sept. 1973, pp. 521-536.
36. Gogte, B. S., "An Evaluation of Some Common 51. Buck, A. D., "Potential Alkali Reactivity of Car-
Indian Rocks with Special Reference to Alkali-Aggre- bonate Rock from Six Quarries," Misccllaneolis Paper
gate Reactions," Engineering Geology. No.7, 1973, pp. No. C-69-15, U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experi-
135-153. ment Station, Vicksburg, Oct. 1969, 22 pp.
37. Symposium on Alkali-Aggregate Reaction, Pre- 52. Dolar-lVIantuani, L., "Expansion of Gull River
ventive Measures (Reykjavik, Aug. 1975). Building Re- Carbonate Rocks in Sodium Hydroxide," Highway Re-
search Institute, Keldnaholt, Reykjavik, Iceland, 1975, search Record, Highway (Transportation) Research
270 pp. Board, No. 45, 1964, pp. 178-195.
38. ACI Committee 213, "Guide for Structural Light- 53. Dolal' Mantuani, Ludmila, "Late Expansion of
201-32 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
Record, Highway (Transportation) Research Board, No. Research Record, Transportation Research Board, No.
353, 1971, pp. 1-14. 525, 1974, pp. 23-27.
54. Swenson, E. G., and Gillott, J. E., "Alkali-Car- 57. Gillott, J. E., "Cell Test Method for Study of
bonate Rock Reaction." Highway Research RecOTd, Alkali-Carbonate Rock Reactivity," Proceedings, ASTM,
Highway (Transportation) Research Board, No. 45, V, 63, 1963, pp. 1195-1206.
1964, pp. 21-40. 58. "Effects of Reactive Carbonate Aggregates on the
55. Smith, Peter, "Learning to Live with a Reactive Durability of Laboratory Concrete Specimens, Report
Carbonate Rock." Highway Research Rec01-d, Highway No. 67-5, Missouri Cooperative Highway Research Pro-
(Transportation) Research Board, No. 45, 1964, pp. gram, 1967.
126-133. 59. "Alkali Reactivity of Carbonate Rocks in Mis-
56. Smith, Peter, "Fifteen Years of Living at Kings- souri," Report No. 67-6, Missouri Cooperative Highway
ton with a Reactive Carbonate Rock," Transportation Research Program, 1967.
6.2.3 Prep laced aggregate concrete-Preplaced Section 6.4). The repair should proceed immedi-
aggregate concrete may be used advantageously ately.
for certain types of repairs. It bonds well to con-
crete and has low drying shrinkage. It is also
6A-Bonding agents
well adapted to underwater repairs. This is a
specialized process which is described elsewhere.+ Bonding agents are used to establish unity be-
6.2.4 Shotcrete-Shotcrete has excellent bond tween fresh concrete or mortar and the parent
with new or old concrete and is frequently the concrete. Sand-cement mortar or neat cement
most satisfactory and economical method of mak- paste has generally been used in the past. Many
ing shallow repairs. It is particularly adapted to reports in the literature testify to the success of
vertical or overhead surfaces where it is capable these treatments where recommended practices
of supporting itself (without a form) without have been followed.
sagging or sloughing. Shotcrete repairs generally Epoxy resin is now used considerably as a bond-
perform satisfactorily where recommended pro- ing agent, with the expectation of durable results.fI
cedures are followed." Simplified equipment has This material develops a bond having greater ten-
been developed for use in small repairs.3 sile, compressive, and shear strength than con-
6.2.5 Repair of scaled areas and spalls in slabs- crete. It is waterproof and highly resistant to
Scaling of concrete pavement surfaces is not un- chemical and solvent action. It is possible to have
usual where they are subject to deicing salts, par- acceptable results when the concrete is brought
ticularly if the concrete is inadequately air-en- to a feather edge; better results, however, are ob-
trained. Such areas may be satisfactorily repaired tained if a 1-in. (25 mm) minimum thickness is
by a thin concrete overlay provided the surface maintained. There are some disadvantages in
of the old concrete is sound, durable, and clean. 6 ,7 using epoxy resin, including its high cost, toxicity,
A minimum overlay thickness of about 1 % in. and short pot life.
(38 mm) is needed for good performance. The Other types of bonding agents have recently
temperature of the underlying slab should be as become available. Certain latexes, supplied as an
close as possible to that of the new concrete. emulsion or dispersion, improve the bond and have
Spalls may occur adjacent to pavement joints or good crack resistance. Polyvinyl acetates, stryrene-
cracks. Spalls usually are several inches in depth, butadiene, and acrylic are among those used. These
and even deeper excavation may be required to ma terials, particularly the polyvinyl acetates,
remove all concrete which has undergone some must be properly compounded if the dried film is
slight degree of deterioration. They may be re- to be resistant to moisture. They may be used
paired by methods similar to those used for scaled either as a bonding layer or added to the concrete
areas. or mortar mix.
Numerous quick setting patching materials,
some of which are proprietary, are available. In-
6.S-Appearance
formation on the field performance of these ma-
terials is given in Reference 8. Unless proper attention is given to all of the
factors influencing the appearance of concrete re-
6.3-Preparations for repair pairs, they are likely to be unsightly. In concrete
where appearance is important, particular care
Sawcuts around the perimeter of a repair are should be taken to insure that the texture and
usually advisable, particularly in the case of slabs, color of the repair will match the surrounding
to eliminate feather edges. If practicable, the saw- concrete. A proper blend of white cement with the
cuts should be made at a slight angle so that the job cement will enable the patch to come close to
width at the base of the patch is greater than at matching the color of the original concrete. A
the surface, thereby providing some keying action. patch on a formed concrete surface should never
All deteriorated or defective concrete must be be fini:ohed with a steel trowel, since this produces
removed; in the case of slabs, suitable mechanical a dark color which is impossible to remove.
scarification equipment should be used. Next, the
surfaces of the concrete must be thoroughly
6.6-Curing
cleaned, preferably by wet sandblasting.
The bonding surface should have been previ- All patches (except where epoxy mortar or
ously wet down, but should be dry at the time of epoxy concrete is used) must be properly cured
patching. The dry surface should be carefully to assure proper hydration of the cement and
coated with a layer of mortar about Vs in. (3 mm) durable concrete or mortar. The recommendations
thick, or with another suitable bonding agent (see of ACI Committee 308 should be followed.1°
201-34 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
Coatings are being used increasingly for the 7.1-Surface water repellents
purpose of enhancing concrete durability. Their
Surface water repellents (Class I in Table 7)
proper use requires an understanding of their ad-
may be used on concrete pavements to prevent or
vantages and limitations.' It is the intent of this
minimize scaline; from the use of deicers (see Sec-
chapter to outline only the general principles in-
tion 1.4.6). This is a low cost treatment that many
volved.
Table 7 lists several classes of coatings which have found provides a degree of protection for
may be considered for different purposes and en- non-air-entrained concrete, or is added insurance
vironments. Class I (surface water repellents), for air-entrained concrete placed in the fall which
and II and III (plastic and elastomeric coatings), is subjected to deicing salts during the first winter.
are discussed below. It may also be used to prolong the service life of
DURABILITY 201-35
I Surface water repellent- Linseed oil, polyvinyl Water repellency. Superficial sealing
under 5 mils (0.13 mm) butyral, silicone of surface. Protection against deicing
salts.
m Plastic and elastomeric- Glass reinforced epoxy, Protect concrete tanks during con tin-
50 to 250 mils (1.3 to 6.4 mm) glass reinforced poly- uous exposure to dilute mineral and
ester, sheet neoprene, organic acids up to 158 F (70 C)
spray applied neoprene
IV Composite systems- Asphalt membrane cov- Protect concrete floors from concen-
over 250 mils (6.4 mm) ered with acid proof tile, trated acids or acid/solvent combina-
or brick laid with a chem- tions. Good for liquids up to 212 F
ical resistant mortar* (100 C)
'See Reference 7.
older pavements. A number of materials have been is somewhat water soluble. Retreatment is re-
tested, some being more effective than others. 2 - 4 quired every 1-5 years.
Most studies indicate that linseed oil is the best
choice when both effectiveness and cost are con- 7.2-Plastic and elastomeric coatings
sidered.
A mixture of 50 percent boiled linseed oil and 7.2.1 Materials-Plastic and elastomeric coatings
50 percent mineral spirits is normally used. It are capable of forming a strong, continuous film.
should be put on in two applications when the Thirty-nine generic types are listed in a report by
concrete surface is dry and clean. For estimating ACI Committee 515." The most promising ones for
purposes, a coverage of 40 sq yd (33 sq m) per application to concrete are listed in Classes II and
gallon for the first application and 65 sq yd (54 III in Table 7. The selection of the coating is based
sq m) per gallon for the second application may be largely on the type of environment, and on its
assumed. However, experience has shown that be- severity or aggressiveness. Those in general used
cause of varying porosities of different concretes, to protect concrete against chemical attack are in-
the actual application rate should be determined cluded in the table, as well as others sometimes
from a test strip on each pavement. Applications used to protect against abrasion or to minimize
which are too light or too heavy are to be avoided; damage from freeze-thaw cycles. To be effective in
both are ineffective in preventing scaling and the protecting concrete, the coatings must have cer-
latter also adversely affects skid resistance. A tain basic properties:
linseed oil treatment should provide temporary 1. The adhesive bond strength of the coating (to
protection (for 1 to 3 years), after which another the concrete) must be at least equal to the tensile
application may be made if needed. strength of the concrete at the surface.
Another surface water repellent, silicone, has 2. The abrasion resistance must be adequate to
sometimes been used on concrete or masonry prevent the coating from being removed.
walls-mainly to minimize moisture penetration 3. Where they are in a chemical environment,
which in turn can affect durability. Results have the chemicals must not cause swelling, dissolving,
not always been good, especially where moisture cracking, or embrittlement of the material. Nor
has access to the back side of the wall and carries should the chemicals permeate or diffuse through
dissolved salts to the front face. Also, silicone oxi- the coating so as to destroy the adhesion between
dizes rapidly due to ozone in the atmosphere, and the coating and concrete.
201-36 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
There is no guarantee that coatings made by and dust, (2) oil or other chemicals that prevent
different manufacturers will perform the same, adhesion, and (3) water. If the surface is not clean,
even where classified as the same generic type. alkaline washing, acid etching, or sandblasting
Coatings vary in the types and amounts of in- may be employed. If these methods prove unsatis-
gredients, so their performance will also vary. In factory, all of the contaminated material at or
addition, the application characteristics, particu- near the surface should be removed by a scarifier
larly the ease of applying a coating to concrete, or jackhammer. Certain coatings have the ability
will affect its performance. to bond to damp surfaces, but their long-term ad-
The type and thickness of coating required will hesion is questionable.
depend on the severity or aggressiveness of the Not only is surface moisture objectionable, but
environment. Coating selection must be based on moisture within the concrete may affect the
testing or past experience. Because there are no ability of a coating to adhere to the surface. 6
standard test methods, the most reliable pro- There are no precise guidelines to indicate when
cedure is to subject the entire coating system to moisture will be a problem, although a qualitative
the environmental conditions that will be en- test is available. A brief explanation of how the
countered in service as closely as possible. If the moisture in concrete can affect the adhesion of a
selection of the coating must be made before tests coating is as follows:
of sufficient duration (6 to 12 months minimum) Poor adhesion between concrete and a coating
can be conducted, the coating supplier should be can result if water vapor diffusing out of the con-
asked to supply fully documented case histories crete condenses at the concrete/coating interface
where his coating system has protected concrete before the coating has had an opportunity to cure.
under the same or similar environmental condi- Whether this will be a problem depends on (1) the
tions. The selection of a reliable coating supplier rate of vapor transmission through the concrete,
is as important as the selection of the coating and (2) the temperature gradient between con-
itself. crete and air while the coating is curing; if the
7.2.2 The coating as part of a system-To under- concrete temperature is below that of the air, there
stand the behavior of a plastic or elastomeric is less likelihood that water vapor will condense.
coating, it is necessary to consider the coating not The qualitative moisture test (for normal weight
as an isolated material, but as part of a system. concrete) is conducted as follows:
The elements of a coating system for concrete are 1. Tape a polyethylene film [0.006 in. (0.15 mm)
shown in Fig. 7.2.2., and the role of each is ex- x 4 ft x 4 ft (1.25 m x 1.25 m)] over the concrete
plained below. Although this analysis is aimed surface.
particularly at slabs-an-grade, the basic principles
2. After the film has been in place for 12 hr,
will apply to many other concrete structures.
determine whether moisture has condensed on
7.2.2.1 Concrete-coating interface. Most coating the underside. (This is the time required for many
materials specifically formulated for use over con- epoxy coatings to develop a partial cure of 30
crete develop and maintain an adhesive bond percent.)
strength greater than the tensile strength of the
3. If condensation is noted, additional drying
concrete. For this reason, adhesion is not a maj or
of the concrete is required. Another moisture test
problem affecting the performance of a coating
should then be made to insure that the moisture
provided it is applied to a clean, dry surface. The
content has dropped to an acceptable level before
surface must be free of (1) loose particles of dirt
applying the coating.
Another problem is air bubbles of varying sizes
CD Coating ----::l~~;;;:;;;;;;:::::;;;;::;;~;:- in the concrete surface, which may prevent the
coating from forming a continuous and impervious
® Cooting-Concre/s
film. Prior to its application, a heavily bodied,
Intsrfocs
thixotropic plastic mortar should be spread over
@ Concrrt/. To Otlpth the surface to fill or bridge over these defects.
Of k,ln.(6.2mm)
Coating suppliers can furnish such materials,
which should be compatible with the coating.
7.2.2.2 Concrete to a depth of 1/4 in. (6.4 mmJ.
This is the most critical part of the coating system.
® Ground And ------jJ....-__ When a coating fails, a thin layer of concrete,
Ground Wattlr usually less than 118 in. (3.2 mm) thick, generally
adheres to the underside of the coating. This means
Fig. 7.2 .2-Elements of a coating system for concrete that the concrete failed because the internal
DURABILITY 201-37
stresses in the coating were greater than then pier cap (perhaps to protect the concrete against
tensile strength of the concrete near the interface. deicing salts) provided the concrete was dry at
These stresses are derived from two sources: the time the coating was applied. Breathable
1. Shrinkage and locked-up stresses when the coatings, which are claimed to keep additional
material was cured. This is common to all two- water from penetrating a concrete. section, while
component coatings cured by a chemical reaction allowing vapor to escape, are available and show
between the resin and curing agent. some promise.
2. Differential volume change of the concrete
and the coating because of a difference in tempera- 7.3-Future of coatings
ture and, more importantly, of a difference in It is to be expected that coatings will play an
coefficient of thermal expansion. Most coatings increasingly important role in protecting concrete
have a much higher temperature coefficient than in the future, as more knowledge on their proper-
concrete. ties and performance becomes available. Consid-
Weakness of the concrete near the surafce can erable research is underway in this area, including
be caused by overworking during finishing, the many experimental field applications.
presence of laitance on the surface, or by improper
curing. On the other hand, high strength coatings
applied in thick layers may cause even sound REFERENCES
concrete to fail. Low modulus coatings develop
1. Zolin, B. 1., "Protective Coatings: Protective Lining
lower stresses and are recommended where it is Performance," ChemicaL Engineering Progress, V. 66,
anticipated that fairly large stresses will develop No.8, Aug. 1970, pp. 31-37.
in service. 2. Yamaski, R. S., "Coatings to Protect Concrete
7.2.2.3 Concrete structure. The concrete section Against Damage by De-Icer Chemicals," TechnicaL Paper
can destroy the ability of the coating to protect it. No. 257, Division of Building Research, National Re-
Any cracks in the concrete which occur or enlarge search Council of Canada, NRC 9749, Ottawa, Sept.
1967.
after the coating has been applied will reflect
through the coating. A poor quality concrete slab 3. Grieb, W. E., and Appleton, Roger, "Effect of
Lindseed Oil Coatings on Resistance of Concrete to
with high permeability may allow ground water Scaling," PubLic Roads, V. 33, No.1, Apr. 1964, pp. 1-3.
to travel through the concrete so rapidly that the
4. Snyder, M. Jack, "Protective Coatings to Prevent
surface will never dry sufficiently to accept a Deterioration of Concrete by De-Icing Chemicals,"
coating, or it may push the coating away from the NCHRP Report No. 16, Highway (Transportation) Re-
concrete later. search Board, 1965, 21 pp.
7.2.2.4 Foundation conditions. A dimensionally 5. ACI Committee 515, "Guide for the Protection of
unstable base or one that does not have sufficient Concrete Against Chemical Attack by Means of Coat-
supporting strength can cause cracks in the con- ings and Other Corrosion-Resistant Materials," ACI
JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 63, No. 12, Dec. 1966, pp. 1305-
crete which are detrimental to coatings, as dis- 1392.
cussed above. Also, the availability and amount
6. ACI Committee 503, "Use of Epoxy Compounds
of ground water is a major factor in the success of with Concrete," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 70, No.9,
a coating. The use of an impermeable membrane Sept. 1973, pp. 614-645.
to prevent the entry of water into the concrete 7. ASTM Standards for Chemical Resistant Mortar:
is advisable where possible.
ASTM C 259-54, Chemical-Resistant Masonry Units
7.2.3 Precautions when using coatings to mini-
ASTM C 386-71, Use of Chemical-Resistant Sulfur
mize freeze-thaw damage-The intent of coatings Mortars
here is to keep the moisture content of the con-
ASTM C 397-67. Use of Chemically Setting Chemi-
crete below the critical saturation point so that it cal-Resistant Silicate and Silica
will not sustain damage during freezing. Such Mortars
coatings should be used with extreme caution, ASTM C 399-67, Use of Chemical-Resistant Rosin
particularly on slabs or walls which are exposed Mortars
continuously to moisture on the back side. The
indiscriminate use of impervious coatings under
these conditions may actually trap water in the
concrete and adversely affect durability. One This report was submitted to letter ballot of the committee, which
consists of 24 members, all of whom rei'lrned their ballots and
might expect better results from coating a bridge voted affirmatively.
For discussion see ACI JOURNAL. Proceedings v. 75, No.6, June 1978, pp. 269-273.
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and Com- ACI 2011R-68
mentaries are intended for guidance in designing, planning, executing,
or inspecting construction, and in preparing specifications, Reference (Reaffirmed 1979)
to these documents shall not be made in the Project Documents, If
From ACI JOURNAL, Nov, 1968
items found in these documents are desired to be part of the Project
Documents, they should be incorporated directly into the Project
Documents,
KENNETH R. LAUER
Chairman
This guide provides a system for reporting on the condition of concrete in service.
It includes a check list of the many details to be considered in making a report, and
provides standard definitions of 40 terms associated with the durability of concrete.
Its purpose is to establish a uniform system for evaluating the condition of concrete.
Keywords: buildings; concrete construction; concrete durability; concrete pave-
ments; concretes; corrosion; cracking (fracturing); deterioration; environment; freeze-
thaw durability; inspection; joints; popouts; quality control; scaling; serviceability;
spa lIing; strength; surveys (data collection).
201-39
201-40 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
APPENDIX
A.l Cracks: An incomplete separation into one A.I.4. Hairline cracking: Small cracks of
or more parts with or without space between. random pattern in an exposed concrete surface.
A.1.1. Cracks will be classified by direction, A.1.5. D-cracking: The progressive formation
widt.h and depth. The following adjectives can be on a concrete surface of a series of fine cracks at
used: longitudinal, transverse, vertical, diagonal, rather close intervals, often of random patterns,
and random. Three width ranges are suggested as but in highway slabs paralleling edges, joints, and
follows: fine-generally less than 1 mm; medium cracks and usually curving across slab corners
-between 1 and 2 mm; wide-over 2 mm (see (see Fig. AI.5.a and A1.5.b).
Fig. A1.1.a through A.l.l.h). A.2. Deterioration: Deterioration is any adverse
change of normal mechanical, physical and chemi-
A.1.2. Pattern cracking: Fine openings on cal properties either on the surface or in the
concrete surfaces in the form of a pattern; result- whole body of concrete generally through separa-
ing from a decrease in volume of the material tion of its components.
near the surface, or increase in volume of the A.2.1. Disintegration: Deterioration into
material below the surface, or both (see Fig. small fragments or particles due to any cause (see
A.l.2.a through A1.2.c). Fig. A.2.1).
A.l.3. Checking: Development of shallow A.2.2. Distortion: Any abnormal deforma-
cracks at closely spaced but irregular intervals on tion of concrete from its original shape (see Fig.
the surface of mortar or concrete (see Fig. A1.3). A2.2) .
CONDITION SURVEY GUIDE 201-43
Fig. A.2.I-Disintegration
Fig. A.2.4.b-Exudation
Fig. A.2.i-Distortion
depth, so that aggregate is clearly exposed and A.2.10.1. Small spall: A roughly circular or
stands out from the concrete (see Fig. A.2.9.4.a and oval depression generally not greater than 20 mm in
A.2.9.4.b). depth nor greater than about 150 mm in any di-
A.2.9.5. Scaling, very severe: Loss of coarse mension, caused by the separation of a portion of the
aggregate particles as well as surface mortar and surface concrete (see Fig. A.2.I0.l).
mortar surrounding aggregate, generally greater A.2.10.2. Large spall: May be roughly cir-
than 20 mm in depth (see Fig. A.2.9.5.a and cular or oval depression, or in some cases an elon-
A.2.9.5.b). gated depression over a reinforcing bar, generally 20
A.2.10. Spall: A fragment, usually in the mm or more in depth and 150 mm or greater in any
shape of a flake, detached from a larger mass by dimension, caused by a separation of the surface
a blow, by the action of weather, by pressure, or concrete (see Fig. A.2.1O.2).
by expansion within the large mass. A.2.11. Joint span: Elongated cavity along a
joint (see Fig. A.2.11.a and A.2.11.b).
Fig. A.2.I5-Dusting: surface at top of ruler is a floor surface of concrete placed very wet and which also carbon-
ated; segregation is also evident
CONDITION SURVEY GUIDE 201-51
REfERENCES
1. ACI Committee 116, "Cement and Concrete Terminology"-
AC! 116R-78, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1978,50 pp.,
Also, ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Part l.
2. Committee DB-5, "Standard Nomenclature and
Definitions for Use in Pavement Inspection and Mainte-
nance," Highway Research Board, Washington, D.C.
3. Trilingual Dictionary of Engineering Materials
Testing, RILEM Bulletins 20-25, Paris, 1955.
This report was approved by letter ballot of the committee and re-
ported to ACI headquarters Jan. 5, 1967. At the time of balloting
(late 1966), the committee consisted of 22 members, of whom 19
voted affirmatively, 1 negatively, one "conditionally" affirmative,
and one not returning his ballot.
Fig. A.3.5.a-Honeycomb
Fig. A.3.5.b-Honeycomb
Fig. A.3.8-Discoloration
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and Com-
mentaries are intended for guidance in designing, planning, executing,
ACI 207.1R-70
or inspecting construction, and in preparing specifications. Reference
to these documents shall not be made in the Project Documents. If From ACI JOURNAL, April 1970
items found in these documents are desired to be part of the Project
Documents, they should be incorporated directly into the Project
Documents.
D. H. BASGEN
JAMES E. BENNETT, JR.
RALPH L. BLOOR
ELMO C. HIGGINSON
O. E. JACK
Chairman
LANCE A. ENDERSBEE
WILLIS T. MORAN
JEROME M. RAPHAEL
J. LAGINHA SERAFIM
LEWIS H. TUTHILL
..
S. D. BURKS WILLIAM E. PARKER WILLIAM R. WAUGH
R. W. CANNON WALTER H. PRICE CECIL H. WILLETTS
RAYMOND E. DAVIS O. C. ZIENKIEWICZ
CONTENTS
Chapter 1 - Introduction 207-2
1.1- Scope 1.3 - History
1.2 - Definition
Chapter 2 - Materials and mix proportioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 207-6
2.1- Scope 2.5 - Aggregates
2.2 - Cements 2.6 - Water
2.3 - Pozzolans 2.7 - Selection of proportions
2.4 - Chemical admixtures 2.8 - Temperature control
Chapter 3 - Properties ....................... 207-13
3.1 - General 3.6 - Permeability
3.2 - Compressive strength 3.7 - Thermal properties
3.3 - Elastic properties 3.8 - Shear properties
3.4 - Creep 3.9 - Durability
3.5 - Volume change
Chapter 4 - Construction ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 207-21
4.1- Batching 4.5 - Forms
4.2-Mixing 4.6 - Height of lifts
4.3 - Placing 4.7 - Cooling and temperature control
4.4 - Curing 4.8 - Grouting contraction joints
Chapter 5 - Behavior ......... 207-26
5.1- Thermal stresses and cracking 5.4 - Heat dissipation
5.2 - Volume change 5.5 - Instrumentation
5.3 - Heat generation
References 207-36
Copyright © 1970, American Concrete Institute
207-1
207-2 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
than 18 that were built prior to 1900. More than Friant, Calif., was employed as a 20-percent re-
a third of these are in the states of California and placement by weight for portland cement.
Arizona where the climate is mild. Of those in During the 1900-1930 period, cyclopean concrete
the more rigorous climate of the East and Middle went out of style. For dams of thick section, the
West, except where they were faced with stone maximum size of aggregate for mass concrete
masonry, time and weather have taken a con- was increased to as large as 10 in. (25 cm). As a
siderable toll. means of measuring consistency, the slump test
1.3.3 Years 1900 to 1930-After the turn of had come into use. The testing of 6 x 12-in. (15 x
the century, between 1900 and about 1930, the 30 cm); and 8 x 16-in. (20 x 40-cm) job cylinders
construction of all types of concrete dams was became common practice in the United States
greatly accelerated. More and higher dams for while European countries generally adopted the
irrigation, power, and water supply were the or- 8 x 8-in. (20 x 20-cm) cubes for testing the
der of the day. Concrete placement by means of strength at various ages. Mixers of 3 cu yd (2.3
towers and chutes became the vogue. In the cm:!) capacity were in common use near the end
United States, the portland cement industry be- of this period and there were some of 4 cu yd
came well established, and cement was rarely (3 cm3 ) capacity.
imported from Europe. ASTM specifications for In the eastern parts of the United States where
portland cement underwent little change during freezing and thawing conditions were severe, it
the first 30 years of this century aside from a was not uncommon to employ as much as 564
modest increase in fineness requirement deter- Ib of cement per cu yd (336 kg/m 3 ) for the entire
mined by sieve analysis. Except for the limits on concrete mass. In the West and other areas of
magnesia and loss on ignition, there were no mild climate, portland cement content as low as
chemical requirements. 376 Ib per cu yd (223 kg/mS) was employed, and
However, much more attention was being given the practice of using a richer mix such as 564 lb
to the character and grading of aggregates and per cu yd for the exterior concrete exposed to
very substantial progress was made in the de- weather with 376 Ib mix for the interior had
velopmen t of methods of proportioning concrete. come into use in areas where the climate was
In general, little attention was paid to quantity severe.
of mixing water, and its effect on the strength An exception was Roosevelt Dam built during
of concrete was largely unknown until the pub- 1905-1911. It is a rubble masonry structure faced
lication of the results of investigations made by with rough ashlar blocks laid in portland cement
Duff Abrams and his associates during the pe- mortar using a cement manufactured in a plant
riod 1916-1926. The use of excessively wet mixes near the dam site. For this structure the average
which could be easily chuted down flat slopes cement content has been calculated to be approxi-
was the rule rather than the exception for sev- mately 282 Ib per cu yd (168 kg/m3). For the
eral years even after the water-cement ratio law interior of the mass, rough quarry stones were
had become well established. embedded in a 1: 2.5 mortar containing about 846
Generally, portland cements were employed Ib of cement per cu yd (500 kg/m 3 ). The voids
without admixture of any kind. Exceptions were between the closely spaced stones in each layer
the sand-cements employed by the U.S. Reclama- were filled with a concrete containing 564 Ib of
tion Service, now the U.S. Bureau of Reclama- cement per cu yd (336 kg/m:!) into which spalls
tion, in the construction of Elephant Butte and were spaded by hand. These conditions account
Arrowrock dams. The latter, 350 ft (107 m) high, for the very low average cement content. The
at the time of its completion in 1915, was the rate of construction was laboriously slow, and
highest dam in the world. The interior mass con- Roosevelt Dam represents perhaps the last of the
crete of this gravity arch dam contained only large dams so built in the United States.
about 376 lb of sand .. cement per cu yd (223 1.3.4 Years 1930 to 1965-By the end of 1929,
kg/m:!). It was produced on the job, inter grind- although sloppy concrete placed by chuting was
ing about equal parts of portland cement and often employed [frequently with 3 in. (7.6 cm)
pulverized granite to a fineness such that not less maximum size aggregate and generally of high
than 90 percent passed the 200-mesh sieve. As water-cement ratio], on the larger and more
compared with portland cements then on the closely controlled constructions, cement and
market, the sand-cement was of unusually high carefully processed aggregates were proportioned
fineness. by weight, and mixing water by volume. Slumps
as low as 3 in. were employed without vibra-
Another exception was one of the abutments of
tion, and concrete was being transported at least
Big Dalton Dam, a multiple arch dam built by
on one job from mixer to form in 8 cu yd
the Los Angeles Flood Control District during (6-cm:1 ) buckets. This was an era of rapid de-
the late twenties. Pumicite (a pozzolan) from velopment in mass concrete construction for dams.
207-4 MANUAL OF CONCRETE: PRACTICE
From a study of the records and actual inspec- employed, with some refinements, have been in
tion of a considerable number of dams, it appears use on most of the large concrete dams which
that there were differences in condition which have been constructed in the United States and
could not be explained. Of two structures that in many other countries all over the world since
appeared to be of like quality subjected to the that time.
same environment, one might exhibit excessive During the late twenties and the early thirties,
cracking and other signs of distress while the it was practically the unwritten law that no mass
other, after a like period of service, appeared to concrete for large dams should contain less than
be in perfect condition. Meager records of a few 376 lb of cement per cu yd (223 kg/m 3 ) and some
dams indicated wide variation in temperature of the authorities of that period were of the
due to hydration of cement and that the degree opinion that the cement factor should never be
of cracking was associated with the temperature less than 564 lb per cu yd (336 kg/m3). For
rise. For the purpose of learning more about the Norris Dam, which was completed by the Ten-
significant properties of mass concrete in dams nessee Valley Authority in 1936 and for which
and factors which influence these properties, ACI the cement factor of the interior of the dam was
Committee 207, Mass Concrete, was organized in 376 lb per cu yd the degree of cracking was ob-
1930 (originally as Committee 108). Bogue and his jectionably great although the strength of wet-
associates under the PCA fellowship at the Na- screened 6 x 12-in. (15 x 30-em) job cylinders at
tional Bureau of Standards had already identi- the age of 1 year was nearly 7000 psi (490
fied the principal compounds in portland cement, kg/ cm 2 ) . Later, 18 x 36-in. (45 x 90-cm) cores of
and Hubert Woods and associates were engaged 376 lb per cu yd concrete cut from the first stage
in investigations to determine the contributions of construction of Grand Coulee Dam at the age
of these compounds to heat of hydration and to of 2 years exhibited strengths in excess of 8000
strength of mortars and concretes. psi (560 kg/cm2). Judged by composition, the
By the beginning of 1930, Hoover Dam was in cement was of the moderate heat type correspond-
early prospect. Because of the unprecedented size ing to the present Type II. Considering the mag-
of the structure, investigations much more elabo- nitude of the calculated stresses within the struc-
rate than any that had been previously under- ture, it was evident that such high compressive
taken, were carried out to determine effect of strengths were quite unnecessary and that a re-
composition and fineness of cement, cement fac- duction in cement content on similar future con-
tor, temperature of curing, maximum size of ag- structions might be expected to substantially re-
gregate, etc., on heat of hydration of cement, duce the tendency toward cracking.
compressive strength, and other properties of
mortars and concrete. For Hiwassee Dam, completed by TVA in 1940,
The results of these investigations led to the the 376-lb (223 kg/m 3 ) barrier was broken. For
use of low-heat cement in Hoover Dam. The in- that structure the cement content of the mass
vestigations also furnished information for the concrete was only 282 lb per cu yd (168 kg/mS),
design of the embedded pipe cooling system em- an unusually low value for that time. Hiwassee
ployed for the first time in Hoover Dam. Low- Dam was singularly free from cracks, and there
heat cement was first used in Morris Dam, near began a trend toward reducing the cement con-
Pasadena, Calif., which was started a year before tent which is still continuing. Because of low
Hoover Dam. concrete strengths at early ages, the use of low-
For Hoover Dam, the construction plant was heat portland cement in the construction of
of unprecedented capacity. Batching and mixing dams has been almost entirely discontinued for
were completely automatic. The record days' out- large gravity dams, notably those built by the
put for the two concrete plants [equipped with Corps of Engineers. The Type II cement content
4-cu yd (3 m 3 ) mixers] was over 10,000 cu yd of the interior mass concrete has been in the
(7600 m 3 ). Concrete was transported in 8 cu yd order of 235 lb per cu yd (140 kg/mS) and even
(6 m 3 ) buckets by cableways and compacted as low as 212 lb per cu yd (126 kg/ rn3). An ex-
initially by ramming and tamping. In the spring ample of a large gravity dam for which the Type
of 1933, large internal vibrators were introduced II cement content for mass concrete was 235 lb
and were used extensively for compacting the per cu yd is Pine Flat in California, completed by
remainder of the concrete. Within about 2 years, the Corps of Engineers in 1954. In high dams of
3,200,000 cu yd (2,440,000 m 3 ) of concrete were the arch type where stresses are moderately
placed. high, the cement can ten t of the mass mix is
Hoover Dam marked the beginning of an era usually in the range of 300 to 450 lb per cu yd
of improved practices in large concrete dam con- (180 to 270 kg/m 3 ), the higher cement content
struction. Completed in 1935 at a rate of con- being used in the thinner and more highly'
struction then unprecedented, the practices there stressed dams of this type.
MASS CONCRETE FOR DAMS 207-5
Examples of cement contents for recent high requirement. Maximum stresses under load do not
arch dams are: usually develop until the concrete is at the age of
(1) 282 lb per cu yd (168 kg/m3) of cement 1 year or more. Under mass curing conditions,
and pozzolan in Glen Canyon Dam, a relatively with the cement and pozzolans customarily em-
thick arch dam in Arizona ployed, the gain in concrete strength between
(2) 385 lb per cu yd (230 kg/m3) of cement in 28 days and 1 year is generally large varying
Morrow Point Dam in Colorado from 30 percent to more than 200 percent de-
(3) 420 lb per cu yd (250 kg/m3) of cement in pending on the quantities and proportioning of
EI Etazar Dam near Madrid, Spain cementitious materials and properties of the ag-
1.3.5 Precooling-To reduce the maximum tem- gregates. It has become the practice of some de-
perature of mass concrete during the hydration signers of dams to specify the desired strength of
period, the practice of precooling concrete mate- mass concrete in 18 x 36-in. (45 x 90-cm) test
rials prior to mixing was started in the early cylinders at the age of 1 year or even in some
forties and was extensively employed in the con- cases at the age of 2 years. For routine quality
struction of large dams during the late forties control in the field 6 x 12-in. (15 x 30-cm) cylin-
and fifties. This practice avoids not only the ders are normally used with all aggregate larger
building of high internal stresses, due to the dif- than 1% in. (4 cm) removed by screening of the
ferent temperature drops of the concrete in the wet concrete. Strength requirements of the wet
interior and near the surface, but also the au- screened concrete at 28 days are correlated to the
togenous expansion of the concrete which takes specified full mix strength by laboratory tests.
place in many cases due to the presence of lime 1.3.7 Admixtures
and magnesium oxide. This expansion, when 1.3.7.1 Pozzolans. It was earlier stated that
present, increases with temperature. This phe- prior to 1930, the use of pozzolanic material
nomenon has been observed from data obtained (pumicite) was given a trial in Big Dalton Dam
from "no-stress" strain meters embedded in the by the Los Angeles Flood Control District. For
concrete. Bonneville Dam completed by the Corps of Engi-
The first serious effort undertaken toward pre- neers in 1938, a portland-pozzolan cement was
cooling appears to have been in the construction employed for all of the work. It was produced
of Norfolk Dam during 1941-1945 by the Corps of by intergrinding the cement clinker with a pozzo-
Engineers. During the warmer months the plan Ian processed by calcining an altered volcanic
was to introduce crushed ice into the mixing wa- material at a temperature of about 1500 F (815 C).
ter. By so doing, the temperature of freshly The proportion of clinker to pozzolan was 3: 1 by
mixed mass concrete could be reduced by about weight. This type of cement was selected for use
10 F (5.5 C). On later jobs not only has crushed at Bonneville on the basis of results of tests on
ice been used in the mixing water, but coarse concrete which indicated large extensibility and
aggregates have been precooled either by cold air low temperature rise. This is the only completed
or cold water in the batching plant. Recently, concrete dam in the United States known to the
both fine and coarse aggregates in a moist con- committee in which an interground portland-
dition have been precooled by various means in- pozzolan cement has been employed.
cluding vacuum. It has become almost standard In the intervening years, however, the use of
practice in the United States to employ precooling pozzolan as a separate cementing material to be
for large dams in regions where the summer tem- added at the mixer, in the ratio of one part
peratures are high to assure that the tempera- pozzolan to two or three parts of Type II cement
ture of fresh concrete as it is deposited in the has come to be regular practice by the Bureau
work does not exceed about 50 F (10 C). of Reclamation and more recently by the Corps
On some large dams, a combination of pre- of Engineers. Examples of dams in which pozzo-
cooling as just described and postcooling by em- lans have been employed are given in Table
bedded pipe refrigeration, as at Hoover Dam, 1.3.7.1.
has been used. A good example of this practice
is Glen Canyon Dam where at times during the
summer months the ambient temperatures were TABLE 1.3.7.1 - EXAMPLES OF POZZOLAN USAGE
considerably greater than 100 F (38 C). The tem- Name of dam Type of pozzolan
perature of the precooled fresh concrete did not Davis Finely ground calcined opaline shale
exceed 50 F (10 C). By means of embedded pipe Friant Pumicite (without processing either by
refrigeration, the maximum temperature of hard- calcining OT grinding)
Hungry Horse Low carbon fly ash
ening concrete has been kept below 75 F (24 C).
Hartwell Low carbon fly ash
1.3.6 Strength requirements-Another inter- Yellowtail Low carbon fly ash
esting development of the fifties has been the Glen Canyon Finely ground pumice
abandonment of the 28-day strength as a design John Day Finely ground pumicite
207-6 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
Some experiments conducted by the Corps of content. Most specifications for mass concrete
Engineers indicate that for interior mass concrete, now require that the quantity of entrained air, as
where stresses are moderately low, a much higher determined on concrete samples wet-screened
proportion of pozzolan to cement may be used through the P/2-in. screen, shall be in the order
when there is an economic advantage in so doing of 5 percent.
and still obtain the desired strength at the later 1.3.7~3 Water-reducing, set-controlling admix-
ages. tures. Within the last 10 years there has been a
For example, the results of laboratory tests in- substantial increase in the use of water-reducing,
dicate that an air-entrained mass concrete, con- set-controlling admixtures in mass concrete.
taining 94 lb per cu yd (56 kg/m") of cement and Many such commercially available admixtures,
fly ash of equivalent solid volume to 188 lb per either as derivatives of lignosulfonic acid or of
cu yd (112 kg/m:l) of cement has produced a hydroxylated carboxylic acid, have been found
very workable mix, for which the water content to impart physical properties to concrete which
was less than 100 lb per cu yd (60 kg/m 3 ). The make their use beneficial. Chemical admixtures
1 year compressive strength of wet-screened for concrete are covered by ASTM C 494. 2
6 x 12-in. cylinders was in the order of 3000 psi
Benefits from the use of water-reducing, set-
(210 kg/m~). For such a mix the mass tempera-
ture rise would be exceedingly small. For gravity controlling admixtures used to date are princi-
pally in the areas of reduced water for a given
dams of moderate height, where the materials
slump and extension in the time of setting which
would be precooled so that the concrete as it
lessens the likelihood of cold joints. In many in-
reaches the forms will be, say, 15 fahrenheit deg
stances the reduction in water permits a reduc-
(8 C) below the mean annual or rock tempera-
tion in cement content that would otherwise be
ture, there seems to be the possibility that neither
required to produce concrete of a required
longitudinal nor transverse contraction joints
strength. This in turn lowers the total heat of
would be required. That is, the maximum tem-
hydration developed by the cement and hence
perature of the interior of the mass as hydra-
reduces the temperature rise in the mass con-
tion took place might not be appreciably greater
crete.
than the mean annual temperature.
In one other respect the use of pozzolans has Illustrative of major governmental agencies
been shown to be advantageous-the substantial using water-reducing, set-controlling admixtures
reduction in expansion of concretes containing are the Bureau of Reclamation, the California
reactive aggregates and high-alkali cements. The Department of Water Resources, the Corps of
amount of this reduction has been found to vary Engineers, the Tennessee Valley Authority, the
with the character and fineness of the pozzolan Air Force, and the Navy Bureau of Yards and
and the amount employed; for some pozzolans Docks. In some instances their use is optional
the reduction may exceed 90 percent. with the contractor; in others their use is manda-
If reactive aggregates are employed, it is con- tory by specification.
sidered good practice to use both a low-alkali Projects of recent years in which such admix-
cement and a pozzolan of proven corrective tures have been used include Glen Canyon Dam
ability. in Arizona, Morrow Point Dam in Colorado,
1.3.7.2 Air-entraining agents. It became stan- Oroville Dam in California, Nickajack DaIl1 in
dard practice about 1945 to use purposely en- Tennessee, Guri Dam in Venezuela, Bhumiphol
trained air for concrete in most structures that Dam in Thailand, and Peribonka No.1 Dam in
were exposed to severe weathering conditions. Canada, as well as many others in various parts
This practice was applied to the concrete of of the world.
exposed surfaces of dams as well as to the con-
crete pavements and reinforced concrete in gen-
eral. However, because of the very favorable ef- CHAPTER 2 - MATERIALS AND MIX
fect of entrained air on the workability of lean PROPORTION I NG
concrete mixes and also in redUCing the water 2.1 - Scope
requirement and bleeding of fresh concrete, 2.1.l-As in the case with regular concrete,
approved air-entraining agents introduced at the mass concrete is composed of cement, aggregate,
mixer have been employed for both interior and and water and in some cases, pozzolans and
exterior concrete in the construction of practical- other admixtures. The objective of mass concrete
ly all dams built in the United States during mixture proportioning is the selection of the
the past two decades. types and quantities of these materials that will
Purposely entrained air has been the answer give economy and low temperature-rise potential
to the problem of obtaining satisfactory work- with adequate workability for placing and ade-
ability ·of mass concrete mixes of very low cement quate strength, durability, and impermeability to
MASS CONCRETE FOR DAMS 207-7
serve the intended purpose of the structure in 25 and 65 percent by weight of the portland blast-
which it is used. This chapter will describe ma- furnace slag cement. At the option of the pur-
terials that have been successfully used in mass chaser the C;\A may be limited to 8 percent and
concrete construction and factors influencing their the heat of hydration limited as in the case of
selection and proportioning. Type II cement.
2.2.6-Type IP portland-pozzolan cement is an
2.2 - Cements intimate and uniform blend of portland cement
2.2.1-The following types of hydraulic cement or portland blast-furnace slag cement and fine
as covered by ASTM:I.:; and federal G· 10 speci- pozzolan produced either by inter grinding port-
fications have been used in mass concrete con- land cement clinker and pozzolan or by blending
struction. portland cement or portland blast-furnace slag
(a) Portland cement: Types I, II, and IV cement and finely divided pozzolan in which the
(b) Blended cement: Types IS and IP pozzolan constituent is between 15 and 40 percent
(c) Cements other than portland cements: by weight of the portland-pozzolan cement.
Slag cement and natural cement (used only with 2.2.7-Slag cement is finely divided material
portland cement) consisting essentially of an intimate and uni-
Also, mixtures of portland cement and pozzolan, form blend of granulated blast-furnace slag and
portland cement and slag cement, and portland hydrated lime. The amount of granulated blast-
cement and natural cement batched separately furnace slag makes up at least 60 percent by
on the job have been used in mass concrete con- weight of the slag cement. Because of its low
struction. Economy and low temperature rise are strength producing characteristics, it is recom-
both achieved by limiting the cement content to mended that slag cement be blended with port-
as small a value as possible. land cement for making concrete.
2.2.8-Natural cement is the product obtained
2.2.2-Type I portland cement, also referred to
by finely pulverizing calcined argillaceous lime-
as "normal," or "regular," or "standard" cement
stone. The temperature of calcination is no higher
is the common type of cement usually used in
than is required to drive off carbonic acid gas.
ordinary construction.
Natural cement is subject to lack of uniformity
2.2.3-Type II portland cement was developed of its properties and is not recommended for use
for dam construction where moderate heat of where uniform control is required. Natural ce-
hydration is desired. Specifications require that ment is usually blended with portland cement for
it contain no more than 8 percent tricalcium making concrete.
aluminate (CIA), the compound that contrib- 2.2.9-Low-alkali cements are defined by
utes substantially to early heat development in ASTM C 150 as portland cements containing not
the concrete. Also, at the option of the purchaser more than 0.60 percent alkalies calculated as the
the sum of tricalcium silicate (C 3 S) and tri- percentage of Na20 plus 0.658 times the percent-
calcium aluminate may be limited to 58 percent age of K 2 0. These cements should be specified
or less and the heat of hydration to 70 calories when the cement is to be used in concrete with
per gram at 7 days and 80 calories per gram at 28 aggregate that may be deleteriously reactive.
days. Some engineers believe, that for more assured
2.2.4-Type IV portland cement, also referred protection from reactive aggregate, the alkalies
to as "low heat" cement, is used mainly where it should be limited to 0.40 percent.
is desired to produce low heat development in
massive structures. It has not been used in recent 2.3 - Po:z::z:olans
years because it has been found that in most 2.3.1-A pozzolan is defined as "A siliceous or
cases heat development can be controlled satis- siliceous and aluminous material which in itself
factorily by other measures. Type IV specifica- possesses little or no cementitious value but will,
tions limit the C:;A to 7 percent, the CaS to 35 in finely divided form and in the presence of
percent and place a minimum on the C 2 S of 40 moisture, chemically react with calcium hydrox-
percent. The heat of hydration is limited to 60 ide at ordinary temperatures to form compounds
calories per gram at 7 days and 70 calories per possessing cementitous properties." Pozzolans re-
gram at 28 days. act chemically with the alkalies (K 2 0 and Na20)
2.2.5-Type IS portland blast-furnace slag ce- of the portland cement as well as with the cal-
ment is an intimate and uniform blend of port- cium hydroxide or hydrated lime liberated dur-
land cement and fine blast-furnace slag produced ing the hydration of portland cement to form a
either by inter grinding portland cement clinker stable strength-producing cementitious compound.
and granulated blast-furnace slag or by blending For best activity the siliceous ingredient of a
portl~nd cement and finely ground blast-furnace pozzolan must be in an amorphous state such as
slag. The amount of slag used may vary between glass or opal. Crystalline siliceous materials, such
207-8 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
as quartz, do not combine readily with lime at be grouped into three categories: accelerators,
normal temperature unless they are ground into air-entraining agents, and water-reduCing and
a very fine powder. Pozzolans are covered by set-controlling agents.
ASTMll and federaP2 specifications. 2.4.2 Accelerators-Accelerators are seldom
2.3.2 Natural pozzolans-Natural pozzolanic ma- used in mass concrete because generally early
terials occur in large deposits throughout the strength is not required and they contribute to
western United States in the form of obsidian, early undesirable heat development in the mass.
pumicite, volcanic ashes, tuffs, clays, shales, and In rare cases, however, up to 1 percent calcium
diatomaceous earth. These natural pozzolans chloride by weight of the cement has been used
usually require grinding; however, some of the to accelerate strength development in mass con-
volcanic materials are of suitable fineness in crete during winter placing conditions.
their natural state. The clays and shales, in addi- 2.4.3 Air-entraining agents-Most air-entrain-
tion to grinding, must be activated by calcining at ing admixtures are inexpensive soaps that de-
temperatures in the range of 1200 to 1800 F velop bubbles in the concrete. Vinsol resin, a soap
(650 to 980 C). of wood resin, is the main ingredient of many
brand name air-entraining admixtures. Sulfo-
2.3.3 Fly ash-Fly ash is the flue dust from
nated hydrocarbons, detergents, and salts of pe-
powerplants burning ground or powdered coal.
troleum acids form the basis for some other air-
Suitable fly ash can be an excellent pozzolan; it
entraining agents.
has a low carbon content, a fineness about the
The entrainment of air greatly improves the
same as that of portland cement, and occurs in
workability of concrete, permits the use of harsh-
the form of very fine, glassy spheres. Because of
er and more poorly graded aggregates and also
its shape and texture, the water requirement is
those of undesirable shapes; i.e., flat, elongated.
usually reduced when fly ash is used in concrete.
It reduces bleeding, and in general facilitates the
There are indications that in many cases the
placing and handling of mass concrete. Air-en-
pozzolanic activity of the fly ash can be increased
trained concrete can be transported and placed
by cracking the glass spheres by means of grind-
with less segregation than regular concrete. Each
ing. However, this may also reduce its lubricat-
percent of entrained air permits a reduction in
ing qualities and increase its water requirement.
mixing water of from 2 to 4 percent, with some
2.3.4 Use-Pozzolans may be used to improve improvement in workability and with no loss in
the workability and quality of concrete, to effect slump. Entrained air substantially improves the
economy, or to protect against disruptive expan- resistance of concrete to deterioration caused by
sion caused by the reaction between certain ag- freezing and thawing and makes it somewhat
gregates and the alkalies in cement. Caution must more resistant to the passage of moisture than
be exercised in the selection and use of pozzolans, regular concrete.
as their properties vary widely and some may Entrained air reduces the strength of most con-
introduce adverse properties into the concrete, crete. At the same water-cement ratio, strength
such as excessive drying shrinkage and reduced is reduced by about 20 percent for the amounts of
early strength and durability. Before accepting a air recommended in ACI 613-54.14 Where the ce-
pozzolan for a specific job, it is advisable to test ment content is held constant and advantage is
it in combination with the cement and aggregate taken of the reduced water requirement, the re-
to be used, so as to determine accurately the duction in strength becomes negligible in lean
advantages or disadvantages of the pozzolan with mass concrete. Among the factors that influence
respect to quality and economy of the concrete. the amount of air entrained in concrete for a
2.4 - Chemical admixtures given amount of agent are: grading and particle
2.4.1-Admixtures are generally used to modify shape of the aggregate, richness of the mix, mix-
the properties of concrete so that it will be more ing time, slump and temperature of the concrete.
suitable for a particular purpose. This modifica- For a given quantity of air-entraining admixture,
tion may alter the characteristics of the fresh air content increases with increase in slump up
concrete or alter its properties after the concrete to 6 in. and decreases with increases in amount of
has hardened. Among the effects often sought fines, temperature of concrete, and mixing time.
2.4.4 Chemical water-reducing and set-control-
with admixtures are: increased workability or
ling agents-Admixtures of the water-redUCing
reduced W IC, acceleration or retardation of set-
type are materials generally consisting of certain
ting time, acceleration of strength development, organic compounds or mixtures which when
improved resistance to weather and chemical added to portland cement concrete, markedly in-
attack. A complete discussion of admixtures is crease the fluidity of the concrete. These ad-
given in the report of ACI Committee 212.13 The mixtures may be classified in the following ca te-
chemical' admixtures used in mass concrete may gories:
MASS CONCRETE FOR DAMS 207-9
700r---,---~---------,-----------------.---------------------------------.--~
(415)
+ t
+
5550
'\ ~ I
650 6540-7050----67°°----
(385)
~E 600~--~_ _+------~--~~----------~---------~~-----------------4---4
~(3571
o
~ t
~ ~ro
..,
~
Cl.
m 500r--i--~-----~~~--------------_+------------------------------~~~--~
~(297)
..,
;z
I- +
5430
Z
o<.)
I- 450 I----+-'..--+---=~----~----",...
~(267)
..,
~
<.)
400~--+---~~----
(237)
3501--~~~--,
(208)
250r---1----+-----4---------_+-------------------------+--~
(148)
'18 3 6
MAXIMUM SIZE AGGREGATE. INCHES
Fig. 2.5.2 -- Effect of aggregate size and cement content on compressive strength at I year (from Higginson, et of.,
Reference 15)
MASS CONCRETE FOR DAMS 207-11
Sizes are satisfactorily graded when one-third Cob- o/J.6 in. 3fs to o/J.6 in.
to one-half of the aggregate within the limiting Maximum bles Coarse Medium (#4) % (#4)
screens is retained on an intermediate screen. size aggre- 3-6 in. 1% to %to to % in. * to 3Js
gate in con- (76- 3 in. 1% in. in. (lO- in. *
Distribution of the particles among the sizes crete, in. 152 (38-76 (19-38 (5-19 19 (5-10
may be accomplished by trial or by anyone of (mm) mm) mm) mm) mm) mm) mm)
several theories. A commonly used theoretical % (19mm) 0 0 0 100 55-73 27-45
approach is the exponential grading characterized 1% (38 mm) 0 0 40-55 45-60 30-35 15-25
3 (76 mm) 0 20-40 20-40 25-40 15-25 10-15
by the following equation: 6 (152 mm) 20-35 20-32 20-30 20-35 12-20 8-15
p = (~rX 100 'These columns used only when fine gravel is separated into
two sizes.
207-12 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
Gap gradings can be used economically where and impermeability. In addition, there must be
the material occurs naturally gap-graded. But sufficient fine material to provide proper place-
comparisons which can be made between con- ability. Experience has shown that with the best
cretes containing gap-graded aggregate and con- shaped aggregates of 6 in. (15 cm) maximum size
tinuously graded aggregate indicate there is no the quantity of cement-size material required for
advantage in purposely producing gapgradings. workability is about 210 lb per cu yd (125 kg/m3)
Continuous gradings produce more workable mass of concrete while angular aggregates require at
concrete requiring somewhat lower slump, less least 235 lb per cu yd (140 kg/rn3). Although a
water and cement and having higher compres- lower cement factor may be calculated from the
sive strength. Continuous gradings can always be required water-cement ratio and the observed
produced from crushing operations, and most water requirement for the job materials, these
natural aggregate deposits in the United States figures should be used until field trials demon-
contain material from which continuous gradings strate that the cement factor may be safely
can be economically prepared. reduced.
2.6-Water 2.7.3 Trial batch weights-The first step in
2.6.1-Water used for mIxmg concrete should arriving at the actual batch weights is to select
be free of materials that significantly affect the the maximum aggregate size for each part of the
hydration reactions of portland cement or that work. Criteria for this selection are given in
otherwise interfere with the phenomena that are Section 2.5.2. The next step is to assume or de-
intended to occur during the mixing, placing, and termine the total water content required to pro-
curing of concrete. Water that is fit to drink may vide a slump of from 1Y2 in. (3.8 cm) to 2 in.
generally be regarded as acceptable for use in (5 cm). [In tests for slump, aggregate larger than
mixing concrete. When it is desired to determine 1Y2 in. must be removed by screening the wet
whether a water contains materials that sig- concrete. Slumps in excess of 2 in. (5 cm) and
nificantly affect the strength development of ce- 2Y2 in. (6 cm) for 6 in. (15 cm) and 3 in. (7.5 cm)
ment, tests should be made comparing the com- maximum size aggregates respectively are sus-
pressive strength of mortars made with water ceptible to undesirable segregation in handling.]
from the proposed source with that of mortars For 6 in. maximum size aggregate, water contents
made with distilled water. If the average of the for air-entrained concrete may vary from about
results of these tests on specimens containing the 120 to 150 lb per cu yd (71 to 89 kg/m3) for natu-
water being evaluated is less than 90 percent of ral aggregates, and from 140 to 180 lb per cu yd
that obtained with specimens containing distilled (83 to 107 kg/m3 ) for crushed aggregates. Cor-
water, the water represented by the sample responding water requirements for 3 in. maxi-
should not be used for mixing concrete. If a mum size aggregate are approximately 20 percent
potential water source lacking a service record is higher.
so unusual as to contain amounts of impurities as The batch weight of cement is the quotient of
large as 5000 to 10,000 ppm, or more, then, to in- the total weight of water divided by the water-
sure durable concrete, tests for volume stability cement ratio or, when workability governs, is
(length change) may be advisable as well as for merely the minimum weight of cement required
strength.IG to satisfactorily place the concrete (see Section
Waters containing up to several thousand parts 2.7.2). With the batch weights of cement and
per million of normally found mineral acids such water determined and with an assumed air con-
as hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid can be tol- tent of 3 to 5 percent, the remainder of the mate-
erated so far as strength development is con- rial is aggregate. The only remaining decision is
cerned. I6 Waters containing even very small to select the relative proportions of fine and
amounts of various sugars or sugar derivatives coarse aggregate. The optimum proportions de-
should not be used as set may be retarded un- pend on aggregate grading and particle shape,
acceptably. The harmfulness of such waters may and they can be finally determined only in the
be revealed in the comparative strength tests. field. For 6 in. aggregate concrete containing
natural sand and gravel, the ratio of fine ag-
2.7 - Selection of proportions
gregate to total aggregate by absolute volume
2.7.1-The procedure generally used for estab-
may be as low as 21 percent. With crushed ag-
lishing a mix for mass concrete is to select mix
gregates the ratio may be in the range 25 to 27
proportions by the trial mix method, generally
percent.
following the recommendations of ACI Committee
211.14 2.7.4 Pozzolans-Mixture proportioning proce-
2.7.2 Water-cement ratio-The key to propor- dures do not change appreciably when a pozzolan
tioning is. the selection of the water-cement ratio is included as a part of the cementitious materials.
which will provide adequate strength, durability, Attention must be given to the following matters:
MASS CONCRETE FOR DAMS 207-13
90-day Cement
Cement Water Predominant MSA. str efficiency
lb/cu yd lb/cu yd aggregate in. W/C psi psi/lb
Dam Country (kg/m') (kg/m') type (em) (kg/em") (kg/cm"/kg)
La Palisse France 506 250 Granite 4.7 0.49 4790 9.5
(3000) (148) (12.0) (337) (Ll)
Le Gage France 590 253 Granite 4.7 0.43 5060 8.6
(350) (150) (12.0) (356) (1.0)
Chastang France 379 169 Granite 9.8 0.45 3770 10.0
(225) (100) (25.0) (265) (1.2)
Tignes France 349 1900 Granite 7.9 0.54 4250 12.2
(207) (113) (20.0) (299) (1.4)
L'Aigle France 379 211 Granite 9.8 0.56 3200 8.5
(225) (125) (25.0) (225) (1.0)
Barrea Italy 5000 225 Limestone 3.2 0.45 5000 10.0
(297) (133) (8.0) (352) (1.2)
Pieve di Cadore Italy 337 213 Dolomite 4.0 0.63 6400 19.0
(200) (126) (10.0) (450) (2.3)
Forte Baso Italy 404 238 Porphyry 3.8 0.59 4920 12.2
(240) (141) (9.6) (346) (1.4)
Lumiei Italy 455 226 Limestone 3.1 0.50 5670 12.5
(270) (134) (8.0) (399) ( 1.5)
Cabril Portugal 370 195 Granite 5.9 0.53 41500 11.2
(220) (116) (15.0) (292) (1.3)
Bouca Portugal 420 195 Granite 5.9 0.46 5500 13.1
(249) (116) (15.0) (387) (1.6)
Salamonde Portugal 420 225 Granite 7.9 0.54 4250 10.1
(249) (133) (20.0) (299) (1.2)
Canicada Portugal 420 225 Granite 7.9 0.54 4650 ILl
(249) (133) (20.0) (327) (1.3)
Castelo Bode Portugal 370 180 Quartzite 7.9 0.49 3800 10.3
(220) (107) (20.0) (267) (1.2)
Rossens Switzerland 420 225 Glacial mix 2.5 0.54 5990 14.3
(249) (133) (6.4) (421) (1.7)
Mauvoisin Switzerland 319 162 Gneiss 3.8 0.51 4960 15.5
(189) (96) (9.6) (349) (1.8)
Zervreila Switzerland 336 212 Gneiss 3.8 0.63 3850 10.5
(199) (126) (9.6) (271) (1.4)
Hungry Horse USA 188-90 130 Sandstone 6 0.47 3100 11.1
(111-53) (77) (15.2) (218) (1.3)
Glen Canyon USA 188-94 153 Limestone 6 0.54 3810 13.5
(111-56) (91) (15.2) (268) (1.6)
Flaming Gorge USA 188-94 149 Limestone 6 0.53 3500 12.4
(111-56) (88) and (15.2) (246) (1.5)
sandstone
Krasnoiarsk USSR 338 213 Granite 3.9 0.55 3280 8.4
(230) (126) (10.0) (230) (1.0)
!
constant within the range of stresses to which strain reflects the volume taken up by these in-
mass concrete is usually subjected. terncoJ fissures, and Poisson's ratio and the elas-
3.3.2-The modulus of elasticity of concrete tic moduli are no longer constant.
representative of various dams is given in Table 3.4-Creep
3.3.2. These values range from 3.5 to 5.5 X 10(; psi 3.4.1-Creep of concrete is deformation that
(0.25 to 0.39 X 10(; kg/cm2) at 28 days and from occurs while concrete is under sustained stress.
4.3 to 6.8 X lOG psi (0.30 to 0.48 X 10 6 kg/cm 2 ) at Creep appears to be mainly related to the modulus
1 year. Usually, concretes having higher strengths of elasticity of the concrete. Concretes having
have higher values of elastic modulus and show high values of modulus of elasticity generally
a general correlation of increase in modulus with have low values of creep deformation and con-
increase in strength, although modulus of elas- cretes having a low value of modulus of elasticity
ticity is not directly proportional to strength. show greater amounts of creep deformation.
The modulus of elasticity of concrete is to some 3.4.2-0ne method of expressing the effect of
extent dependent on the modulus of elasticity of creep is as the sustained modulus of elasticity of
the aggregate. However, for a given cement paste the concrete in which the stress is divided by
the modulus of elasticity of the aggregate has the total deformation for the time under load.
less effect on the modulus of elasticity of the The instantaneous and sustained modulus of
concrete than can be accounted for by the volu- elasticity values obtained on 6 in. diameter by
metric proportions of the aggregate,:!:l 16-in. (15 x 40 cm) creep test cylinders made with
Modulus of elasticity for a given concrete ex- wet screened concrete, 1.5 in. (38 mm) maxi-
hibits a much higher coefficient of variation than mum-size aggregate, are recorded in Table 3.4.2.
the compressive strength. The greater variation The instantaneous modulus is measured immedi-
results in part from the greater inaccuracies of ately after the concrete is subjected to load. The
the test procedures necessary to measure small sustained modulus represents values after 365
strains on a heterogeneous mixture containing and 1000 days under load. The sustained modulus
large size aggregate. is approximately one-half that of the instan-
3.3.3-Poisson's ratio data given in Table 3.3.2 taneous modulus when load is applied at early
tend to range between the values of 0.16 to 0.20 ages and is a slightly higher percentage of the
with generally a small increase with increasing instantaneous modulus when the loading age is
time of cure. Extreme values may vary from 90 days and greater. Creep of concrete appears
0.11 to 0.27. Poisson's ratio, like modulus of to be approximately directly proportional to the
elasticity, varies with the Poisson's ratio of the applied stress up to about 40 percent of the ulti-
aggregate, the cement paste, and the relative mate strength of the concrete.
proportions of the two. 3.5 - Volume change
3.3.4-The growth of internal microcracks in 3.5.1-Volume changes are caused by changes
concrete under load commences at compressive in moisture content of the concrete, chemical re-
stresses equal to about 35 to 50 percent of the actions, changes in temperature, and stresses
nominal compressive strength under short term from applied loads. Excessive volume change is
loading. Above this stress, the over-all volumetric detrimental to concrete. Cracks are formed in
Shasta Andesite and 50 I 1.32 0.219 156.6 o.039 10 1.96 0.219 2510 3.6 0'TI
slate 100 - 4.8 1.31 0.233 o.036 38 - 8.6 1.95 0.233 3.3
150 1.31 0.247 o.034 66 1.95 0.247 3.2 ()
Kortes Granite, 50 1.61 I 0.208 151.8 o,050 10 2.40 0,208 2433 4.6 ~
gabbros and 100 5.2 4.5 1.60 0.221 o.047 38 9,4 8.1 2.38 0.221 4.1 m
quartz 150 1.59 0.234 o.044 66 2.36 0.234 4.1
."
;;Q
50 1.72 0.217 150.1 o,053 10 2.56 0.217 2406 4.9 ;I>
Hungry Horse Sandstone 100 6.2 5.7 1.71 0.232 o.049 38 11.2 10.3 2.54 0.232 4.6 ()
150 1.69 0.247 o.046 66 2.51 0.247 4.3 -I
Canyon Ferry Sandstone, 50 1.63 0.214 151.3 o.050 10 2.42 0.214 2425 4.6 n
m
metasiltstone, 100 5.4 5.2 1.61 0.224 o.047 38 9.7 9.4 2.40 0.224 4.4
quartzite, and 150 1.59 0.235 o.C45 66 2.36 0.235 4.2
rhyolite
Monticello Sandstone 50 1.57 0.225 153.1 o.046 10 2.34 0.225 2454 4.3
(graywacke), 100 5.2 - 1.55 0.237 o.043 38 9.4 - 2.31 0.237 4.0
and quartz 150 1.53 0.250 o.040 66 2.28 0.250 3.7
Anchor Andesite, 50 1.14 0.227 149.0 o.034 10 1.70 0.227 2388 3.2
latite, and 100 5.6 4.5 l.14 0.242 o.032 38 10.1 8.1 1.70 0.242 3.0
limestone 150 1.15 0.258 o.030 66 1.71 0.258 2.8
Ii
II
Glen Canyon Limestone, 50 2.13 0.217 150.2 o.065 10 3.17 0.217 2407 6.0
i chert, and 100 - - 2.05 0.232 o.059 38 I - - 3.05 0.232 5.5
sandstone 150 l.97 0.247 ! o.053 66 2.93 0.247 4.9
I i
I oo.054
2.65 0.221 2411 5.0
Flaming Gorge Limestone 'll1d
sandstone
50
leO - -
I 1.78
l.75
0.221
0.234
150.4
.050
10
38 - I - 2.60 0.234 4.6
150 [ 1.73 0.248 o.046 66 I 2.57 0.248 4.3
I I I
Yellowtail Linlestone and 50 1.55 0.226 152.5 o.045 10 II 2.31
I
0.226 2444 4.2
andesite 100 4.3 1.52 o.042 38 - 7.7 2.26 0.239 3.9
150 1.48 o.039 66 I I 2.20 I
0.252 3.6
MASS CONCRETE FOR DAMS 207-19
restrained concrete as a result of shrinkage and cretes containing pozzolans usually have greater
insufficient tensile strength. Cracking is a weak- autogenous shrinkage than portland cement con-
ening factor that may affect the ability of the crete without pozzolans.
concrete to withstand its designed loads and may 3.5.4-The thermal coefficient of expansion of
also detract from durability and appearance. Vol- a concrete varies mainly with the type and
ume change data for some mass concretes are amount of coarse aggregate in the concrete. Vari-
given in Table 3.5.l. ous mineral aggregates may range in thermal
3.5.2-Drying shrinkage ranges from less than coefficients from below 2 millionths to above 8
200 millionths for low slump lean mixes with millionths per deg F. Neat cement pastes will
good quality aggregates to over 1000 millionths vary from about 6 millionths to 12 millionths de-
for rich mortars or some concretes containing pending on the chemical composition and the de-
poor quality aggregates and an excessive amount gree of hydration. The thermal coefficient of the
of water. The principal drying shrinkage of concrete usually reflects the weighted average of
hardened concrete is usually occasioned by the the various constituents. Coefficient of expansion
drying and shrinking of the cement gel which is tests are frequently conducted on concrete that
formed by hydration of portland cement. The has been wet screened to H2 in. (38 mm) maxi-
main factors affecting drying shrinkage are the mum-size aggregate in order to work with smaller
unit water content and aggregate composition. size specimens. However, the disproportionately
Other factors influence drying shrinkage princi- larger amount of cement paste which has a higher
pally as they influence the total amount of water coefficient results in values higher than that of
in the mix. The addition of pozzolans generally the mass concrete.
increases drying shrinkage except where the wa- 3.5.5-Volume changes can also result from
ter requirement is significantly reduced, such as chemical reactions between reactive constituents
with fly ash. Some aggregates, notably gray- in the aggregate and the alkalies (Na20 and
wacke, have been known to contribute to ex- K 20) in the cement and also between soluble sul-
tremely high drying shrinkage. fates occurring in the soil or water in contact
3.5.3-Autogenous volume change results from with a concrete structure and the tricalcium
the chemical reactions within the concrete. Un- aluminate (C;IA) compound in the cement. These
like drying shrinkage it is unrelated to the volume changes result in deterioration of the
amount of water in the mix. The net auto- concrete and should be avoided. Low-alkali
genous volume change of most concretes is a cement should be specified when reactive aggre-
shrinkage of from 0 to 150 millionths. When gates are present and cement low in tricalcium
autogenous expansion occurs it usually takes aluminate specified when the concrete is ex-
place within the first 30 days after placing. Con- posed to sulfate waters.
*6 X 12 in. (15.2 X 30.5 cm) test specimens - dry. ns in. (3.8 em) maximum-size aggregate.
*C+P
w
tShear strength divided by compressive strength.
207-20 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
Sulfate attack can be rapid and severe. The ing and mixing operations. In large central plant
sulfates react chemically with the hydrated lime mixers, the large batches commonly used for
and hydrated tricalcium aluminate in cement mass concrete also tend to minimize the effect
paste to form calcium sulfate and calcium sulfo- of variations.
aluminate; these reactions are accompanied by 4.1.2-Since greater use is made in mass con-
considerable expansion and disruptions of the crete of such special purpose ingredients as ice,
concrete. Concrete containing cement low in tri- air-entraining agents, water-reducing and set-
calcium aluminate is more resistant to attack by controlling admixtures, and fly ash or other
sulfates. pozzolans, the dependable batching of these ma-
Hydrated lime is one of the products formed terials has become a very important aspect of
when cement and water combine in concrete. This the batching facilities. For most efficient use of
product is readily dissolved in pure water which ice, its temperature must be less than 32 F
may occur in high mountain streams. Surfaces (0 C); it must be brittle-hard, dry, and finely
of tunnel linings, retaining walls, piers, and other broken. Such ice is best batched by weighing
structures are often disfigured by lime deposits from a well insulated storage bin, and if quick-
from water seeping through cracks, joints, and ly discharged thereafter with the aggregates, it
interconnected voids. With dense, impermeable will achieve its full potential for reducing the
concrete leaching is seldom severe enough to im- temperature of the concrete. Pozzolan is batched
pair the serviceability of the structure. much the same as cement.
3.9.4 Resistance to erosion-The principal 4.1.3-Liquid admixtures are generally batched
causes of erosion of concrete surfaces are cavita- by volume, although weighing equipment has
tion and the movement of abrasive material due also been used successfully. Reliable admixture
to flowing water. Use of concrete of increased batching equipment is available from some ad-
strength and wear resistance offers some relief mixture or batch plant manufacturers. Batching
but the best solution lies in the prevention, elimi- accuracy of volumetric batchers should be within
nation, or reduction of the causes by proper ±3 percent of the amount required or ±1 fluid
design, construction, and operation of the con- ounce (30 cc), whichever is greater. When batch-
crete structure. ing by weight, accuracy should be ±3 percent of
that required. Means should be provided so that
CHAPTER 4 - CONSTRUCTION a visual accuracy check may be made. Provi-
4.1 - Batching sions should be made to prevent batching of ad-
4.1.1.-Proper batching of mass concrete re- mixture while discharge valve is open. Interlocks
quires little that is different from the accurate, should also be provided that will prevent inad-
uniform, reliable batching that is essential for vertent extra or overdose of the admixture. Par-
other classes of concrete. 34 ,35 ticularly with air-entraining and water-reducing
admixtures, any irregularities in batching can
However, because efficient mixes for mass con-
cause troublesome variation with slump and/or
crete contain unusually low portions of cementing
air control. The use of comparatively dilute solu-
materials, sand, and water, the critical level of
tions reduces gumming in the equipment. For
workability of these mixes is more sensitive to
continuing good operation the equipment must
shortcomings in the uniformity of batching. For-
be maintained and kept clean. The use of timed-
tunately, there are several factors which tend to
flow systems is discouraged. Also it is important
compensate for these requirements. Foremost
to provide winter protection for storage tanks
among these is the fact that usually production
and related delivery lines.
of mass concrete is on a larger scale, particularly
where it is used in dams, and it is therefore eco- 4.2- Mixing
nomically more feasible than it often is on smaller 4.2.1-To quickly discharge concrete with a
jobs to specify and use the most effective methods slump less than 2 in. (5 cm), and to ensure even
and equipment. Foremost among these are: (1) distribution of the larger coarse aggregate in the
finish screening of coarse aggregate at the batch- concrete as discharged, mixers for mass concrete
ing plant, preferably on horizontally operating are limited to stationary, central plant mixers.
screens; (2) refinements in batching equipment Commonly these mix a 4-cu yd (3-m3 ) batch al-
such as full scale springless dials which register though good work has been done with 2-
all stages of the weighing operation; (3) auto- (1.5 m 3 ) and 8-cu yd (6-m:l) mixers. The qUick
matic weighing and cutoff features; (4) inter- and uniform discharge features are accomplished
locks to prevent recharging when some material by a tilting discharge arrangement. Paving mixers
remains in a scale hopper; (5) a device for instant and truck mixers are not as well suited for mass
reading of approximate moisture content of sand; concrete. There is no record of the performance
and (6) graphic recording of the various weigh- of turbine-type mixers for mass concrete of low
207-22 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
slump, lean mix, and aggregate larger than 3 in. crete placement. Actually, for the high caliber of
(7% cm) except for one European dam where results it provides, the cost of wet sandblasting
4-in. (lO-cm) aggregate was reportedly used. is little, if any, more than the cost of trying to
Turbine-type mixers have been successfully used obtain a high quality surface by other means.
for mass concrete containing 3-in. aggregate. The less effective methods frequently have to
give way to sandblasting at the final inspection
4.2.2-Specifications for mixing time range from
before starting the next lift of concrete.
a minimum of 1 min for the first cubic yard plus
15 sec for each additional cubic yard of mixer 4.3.3-Brooming a thin layer of sand-cement
capacity 34 to 1% min for the first yard, or the mortar on horizontal construction joints has long
first 2 yd, plus 30 sec for each additional yard of been standard before placing mass concrete.
capacity.3;' Blending the materials during batch- Often this is brushed into and mixed with
ing makes it possible to reduce the mixing pe- puddles of water on a surface that is too wet.
riod. Some of the mixing water and aggregate Mortar batches delivered at intervals during the
should lead other materials into the mixer to placement as the fresh concrete face advances
prevent sticking and clogging. Specifications across the lift surface tend to interfere with a
usually state that mlxmg times must be smooth running batching, mixing and placing op-
lengthened or may be shortened, depending on eration. In spite of these possible problems the
the results of mixer performance tests. Criteria mortar coat is considered by some agencies as
for these are found in ASTM C 94, Table l,36 good insurance for bond under normal job
Mixing time is best controlled by a timing device conditions.
which will not release the discharge mechanism Tests conducted by the U. S. Army Engineer
until the time set for it has expired. Waterways Experiment Station3D failed to es-
4.2.3-During mixing the last opportunity exists tablish superiority of bond or watertightness by
to obtain a batch that has the desired uniform use or exclusion of a mortar coat. For mortar of
consistency or slump. This requires alertness and the same water-cement ratio as the concrete, su-
attentiveness on the part of the inspector and perior joints were obtained without the mortar
operator but the operator must have and must coat on joints sandblasted at 2 days of age and
use the necessary facilities for this purpose. Pref- covered after 3 days age. Mortar of slightly lower
erably the operator should be stationed in the water-cement ratio than the concrete was bene-
plant where he can see the batch in the mixer ficial on joints green-cut with air-water jet,
and be able to judge whether its slump is correct. cured 14 days and air dried 13 days before placing
If the slump is low, perhaps due to suddenly the second lift. Other tests indicated no definite
drier aggregate, he can immediately compensate superiority of joints made with or without mortar.
with a little more water and maintain the desired Dry surface conditions proved superior on sur-
slump. Lacking this arrangement to see into the faces covered within 28 days; however no ad-
mixer, he should be able to see the batch as it is vantages could be detected for dry surfaces sub-
discharged. From this he can note any change jected to 62 days of air drying prior to treatment.
from former batches and make water adjust- To ensure a tight, invisible joint (as shown by
ments accordingly. A sand moisture meter will drill cores), it is imperative that the first layer
assist in arriving at the appropriate quantitative of concrete be very thoroughly and systematical-
adjustment. ly vibrated to full depth and that any rock clus-
ters at batch perimeters where buckets are
4.3 - Placing dumped, are scattered.
4.3.1-Placing includes preparation of horizon-
4.3.4-Mass concrete for dams is transported in
tal construction joints, transportation, handling,
buckets which may range from 2 to 12 cu yd
placement, and vibration of the concrete. 17 .:J4,3G,
37,38 (1.5 to 9 m 3 ) in capacity. Railcars, trucks, cable-
ways or cranes, or some combination of these,
4.3.2-There are various methods for cleanup of may be used to deliver the buckets to the point
horizontal joint surfaces preparatory to placement of placement. As a rule, a bucket size of 4 to 8
of the next lift, including green cutting, sand-'
cu yd (3 to 6 m 3 ) is preferable, since smaller
blasting, high pressure water jet, and the use
of surface retarders. Under some but by no buckets often do not discharge readily and each
means all circumstances, each of these methods delivery is too small to organize well into the
may do a fairly acceptable job. * However, to be placement scheme. On the other hand, the 12-yd
certain of a first class, unquestionably clean and (9-m3 ) bucket puts such a large pile in one place
satisfactory surface every time under varying 'Of methods other than sandblast, the high pressure jet of not
circumstances, sandblasting, preferably wet to less than 6000 PSI (420. kg/em") is showing the most reliable per-
for'l'ance for normal Jomt ''?tervals and mass concrete mixes. It
avoid dust hazard, is required just prior to con- has the advantage of mvolvmg no cleanup and disposal of used
sandblast sand or supplying and handling it initially.
MASS CONCRETE FOR DAMS 207-23
that much of the crew's time is devoted to vi- anything less than this should not be tolerated.
brating and spreading. Extra care must be taken Ineffectual equipment is more costly to the
to offset the possibility of insufficient vibration builder because of a slower placing rate and the
at depth in the center or around the perimeter hazard of poor consolidation. Specific recom-
contacts. Usually, mass concrete of proper mix mendations for mass concrete vibration are given
proportions and low slump does not segregate in the report of ACI Committee 609."1
during such transportation over the relatively It is impossible to overemphasize that vibra-
short distances usually involved. tion of each batch must be systematic and should
4.3.5-Mass concrete is best placed in successive thoroughly cover and deeply penetrate the batch.
layers. These layers should not exceed 18 to 20 Particular attention must be paid to ensure full
in. (45 to 50 cm) in thickness for mass concrete vibration where the perimeters of two batches
with 4 to 6 in. (10 to 15 cm) maximum-size ag- join, since the outer edge of the first batch is not
gregate and less than I1f2-in. (4-cm) slump, vibrated (lest it flatten and pull away) until the
placed with 4 to 8-cu yd (3 to 6-m3 ) buckets and next batch is placed against it. Then the two can
powerful 6 in. (15 cm) diameter vibrators. The be vibrated monolithically together without caus-
layers should not exceed 12 to 15 in. (30 to 38 cm) ing either edge to flow downward. To ensure
in thickness for mass concrete with 3 to 4 in. penetration for several inches into lower layers,
(7.6 to 10 cm) maximum-size aggregate and less vibrators are operated in a vertical position and
than 2-in. (5-cm) slump, placed with smaller should remain in operation at each penetration
buckets and less powerful vibrators. Shallower point until large air bubbles have ceased to rise
rather than deeper layers give better assurance and escape from the concrete. The average time
of satisfactory consolidation and freedom from for one vibrator to fully consolidate a cubic yard
rock pockets at joint lines, corners, and other of this concrete may be as much as 1 min. Over-
form faces, as well as within the block itself. vibration of low-slump mass concrete is unlikely.
The layer thicknesses should be an even frac- To simplify cleanup operations, the top of the
tion of the lift height or of the depth of the uppermost layer should be leveled and made
block. (One-third of a 5-ft lift is 20 in.; one-fifth reasonably even by means of vibration. Large
of a 7.5-ft lift is 18 in.) The layers are carried aggregate should be all but embedded and boards
forward and added in the block by means of should be laid on the surface in sufficient number
successive rows of bucket dumps so there will be to prevent deep footprints.
a setback of about 5 ft (1.5 m) between the for-
4.4 -Curing
ward edges of successive layers. Placement of the
4.4.1-Mass concrete is best cured with water
steps is or.ganized so as to expose a minimum of
for the additional cooling benefit in warm weath-
surface to lessen warming of the concrete in er. In cold weather, probably little curing is
daytime warm weather and reduce the area af- needed beyond the moisture provided to keep
fected by rain in wet weather. This minimizes the concrete from drying during its initial protec-
the effort that may be necessary to offset these tion from freezing, but it should not be saturated
effectsyH A greater setback than 5 ft unneces- when it is exposed to freezing. In above-freezing
sarily exposes cold concrete to heat gain in warm weather when moisture is likely to be lost from
weather and, in rainy weather, increases the its surfaces, mass concrete should be water cured
danger of water damage; a narrower setback will for at least 14 days or up to twice this time if
cause concrete above it to sag when the step is pozzolan is used as one of the cementing mate-
rials. Except when insulation is required in cold
vibrated afterwards to make it monolithic with
weather, surfaces of horizontal construction
the succession of adjacent forward batches placed
joints should be kept moist until new concrete is
later against that step. This stepped front pro- placed on them or until the wetting will no
gresses forward until the block forms are filled. longer provide beneficial cooling. Sealing-com-
4.3.6-Vibration is the key to successful use of pound curing is not the best method of curing
efficient, lean, low-slump, large MSA mass con- mass concrete but in some instances is the most
crete. In recent years in the United States, vibra- practical. If used on construction joints it must
tion has for the most part been done by large be completely removed by sandblasting or im-
perfect bond will result.
one-man, air-driven, spud-type vibrators. In
Europe and Japan a battery of large vibrators is 4.5 - Forms
operated on the front of a track-mounted trac- 4.5.1-Forms for mass concrete have the same
tor, but concrete must be placed (and exposed) basic requirements for strength, mortar-tightness
in horizontal layers over the entire block. Ample under vibration, accuracy of position, and gen-
and effective vibration equipment is available; erally good surface condition as those described
207-24 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
III Formwork for Concrete, (ACI SP-4) .40 In 4.5.4-A common forming problem for spillway
United States practice they differ somewhat from sections of gravity dams is encountered in the
other formwork because of the comparatively flatly sloping and curved portions forming the
low height normally required of each lift. There crest and the bucket. These are the slopes that
may be some increase of form pressures due to range from horizontal to about 1% to 1 when use
use of low temperature concrete and the impact of fixed forms begins. Some builders attempt to
of dumping large buckets of concrete near the shape such slopes the hard way with screed
forms, despite the relieving effect of the general- guides and strikeoff. Actually such surfaces are
ly low slump of mass concrete. Form pressures much more easily shaped with temporary
actually depend on the methods used in placing holding forms. With no strikeoff involved the
concrete next to the form. For this reason some regular mass concrete face mix is as readily used
designers use 80-90 percent of equivalent hydro- as one with small aggregate. All that is required
static pressure plus 25 percent for impact when are strong, solidly anchored ribs between which
control of field conditions is questionable. rows of form panels are placed row-on-row up-
Form ties to wire loop anchors in the previous ward as the lift space is filled, and removed
lift and braces have long been used. Many large starting row-on-row at the bottom when the
jobs are now equipped with forms supported by concrete will no longer bulge out of shape but is
cantilever strongbacks anchored firmly into the still responsive to finishing operations. Consid-
lift below. Some of these are given the addi- erable time and labor are saved by this method
tional support of form ties, particularly when the and it permits a proper concrete to be used.
concrete is low in early strength. These forms are
raised by mechanized A-frames and considerable 4.6 - Height of lifts
4.6.1-From the standpoint of construction, the
care is necessary to avoid spalling concrete
higher the lift the fewer construction joints;
around the anchor bolts in the low-early-strength
with 7.5-ft (2.3-m) lifts there are only two-thirds
concrete of the lift being stripped. These are
as many joints as when 5-ft (1.5-m) lifts are used.
bolts which will be used to hold the forms from
From the standpoint of temperature control in
moving outward in the next form setup.
cold weather, the shallower the lift, the more
High lift concrete formwork of the type used
heat of hydration will escape before the next lift
in Canada is comparable to that for structural
is placed and the maximum temperature reached
concrete except that ties may be 20 to 40 ft
will be lower. In hot weather with lean mixes
(6 to 12m) long rather than 20 to 40 in. (50 to
and precooling the reverse may be true. In gen-
100 cm). To use large aggregate concrete, widely
eral, the longer the time between lifts the better
spaced large diameter high tensile ties are re-
for cooling, provided ambient temperatures are
quired to permit passage of concrete buckets.
lower than those of the concrete surfaces while
4.5.2-To mask offsets in nonoverflow sections
internal temperature is rising, since a lower am-
that sometimes occur at horizontal joint lines,
bient temperature will reduce the maximum
and to generally dress up and improve appear-
temperature attained. *
ance of formed surfaces, it has been found that
a beveled grade-strip and 1 in. (2% cm) or larger 4.6.2-The concern over temperature rise and
triangular toe fillet at the top and bottom of the the specified means to limit it are design con-
forms can be used to create an effective and siderations which will be reflected in designa-
pleasing groove which serves these purposes. A tion of lift height and placing frequency on draw-
I-in. chamfer should also be used in the corners ings and in specifications. (Reference is made to
of the forms at the upstream and downstream Chapter 5.) Influencing factors are size and type
end of contraction jOints for the sake of ap- of dam or other massive structure which involves
pearance, because sharp corners of the blocks concrete properties and cement content, prevail-
otherwise are often damaged and cannot be ef- ing climate during construction and in service,
fectively repaired. Such chamfers also prevent construction schedule required, and other temper-
pinching and spalling of joint edges caused by ature controls imposed. Accordingly, heights of
high surface temperatures. lift commonly range from 2% ft (76 em) for sev-
4.5.3-Sloping forms sometimes reach so far eral lifts just above the foundation in some cases,
over the construction joint that it is difficult to through 5-ft (1.5-m) and 7%-ft (2.3-m) lifts in
get buckets close enough to place concrete with-
many dams and other work, to 10 ft (3 m) or
out separation in the toe and to vibrate it well.
Accordingly, some specifications require such ·When lift thickness is increased above 10 ft (3 m), the law of
diminishing returns becomes increasingly apparent as losses from
forms to be hinged so the top half can be held in the upper surface become a decreasing percentage of the heat
generated within the full depth of the lift. Hence, with very
a vertical position until concrete is placed up to deep lifts, the internal temperature does not differ greatly
whether long delays are enforced or whether the lifts are
the hinged elevation. The top half is then low- stacked in rapid succession. In such extreme cases, continuous
placing in high lifts may be preferable, especially as a means of
ered into position and concrete placing continued. minimizing joint cleanup, or to permit the use of slipforms, e.g.,
for massive piers.
MASS CONCRETE FOR DAMS 207-25
more in thin arch dams, piers, and abutments, is made and temperatures lower than can be ob-
and other semimass concrete structures of such tained by this means are desired, coarse aggre-
limited horizontal thickness that temperature rise gate can usually be cooled sufficiently by passing
due to cement hydration is not a matter of major frigid air through it in the batch plant bins, and
concern. sand can be cooled by shading. Sand must also
High lift mass concrete construction has been have a uniformly low moisture content.
adopted by some authorities, particularly in Can- 4.7.2-To obtain full advantage of the low plac-
ada, in an attempt to reduce potential leak paths ing temperature, the concrete temperature should
and minimize cracking in dams built in cold not be allowed to rise, due to ambient conditions,
and even subzero weather. In its extreme form, higher than it naturally would due to heat of
the method provides for continuous placing of hydration alone in the first few weeks after
lifts up to 50 ft (15 m) high using wood or in- placement. Preferably, heat should be removed
sulated forms with housings and steam heat. and the surfaces cured as cold as possible. 43
Under these placing conditions the adiabatic This will reduce the thermal differential tending
temperature rise of the concrete and the maxi- to crack the surface later when much colder am-
mum temperature drop to low stable tempera- bient conditions may occur. During placement in
tures are approximately equal. For control of warm weather, warming of the cold concrete can
cracking most design criteria restrict this maxi- be minimized by placing it at night, by managing
mum drop to 25 or 35 F (14 to 20 C). Design re- placement so that minimum areas are exposed,
quirements can be met, under these conditions, and, if placement must be done in the sun, by
by controlling, through mix proportioning, the fog spraying the work area so that temperatures
adiabatic rise to these levelsY With precooled are at least as low as they are in the shade.
[50 F (10 C)] mass concrete of low cement con- Cooling sprays should also be started immediate-
tent in a warm climate, ambient heat removes ly over completed portions of the block.
the advantage of shallower lifts and is the 4.7.3-Aside from pipe cooling, much can be
reason 7% (2.3 m) or even 10-ft (3-m) lifts have done during the curing period to prevent heating
been permitted by specifications on several dam and to remove heat from the hardening concrete.
proj ects in recent years. Specifically the following practices are sug-
4.7 - Cooling and temperature control gested: (1) steel forms can be used for quick
4.7.1-Currently it is common practice to pre- transfer of heat and, when air is warmer than
cool mass concrete before placement. Efficient the concrete, the steel forms can be kept sprayed
equipment is now available to produce such con- with cold water, cooled with fine evaporating
crete at temperatures less than 50 F (10 C) in sprays, and shaded until they are removed (See
practically any summer weather. Merely the use Chapter 5 for conditions favoring insulated
of finely chipped ice instead of mixing water forms); (2) water curing and shading of formed
and the shading of damp (but not wet) aggre- and finished surfaces can be conducted in the
gate will reduce the temperature to a value ap- same manner, designed to cool as well as to pro-
proaching 50 F (10 C) in all but the hottest vide moisture for curing; and (3) water curing of
weather. By this means the temperature of 4 in. horizontal construction joints can be arranged
(10 cm) MSA mass concrete in the hot Sacramen- with controlled evaporative spraying such that
to Valley in California was held to an average no water remains on the surface long enough to
of 51 F (11 C) during August 1962. In hot, humid become warm.
areas aggregates can be cooled by vacuum and 4.7.4-Pipe cooling is used to control the rise in
inundation of aggregates. For other recommen- concrete temperature in restrained zones near
dations see ACI 605-59. 42 foundations when maximum temperatures can-
It has been found that the best uniformity of not be maintained by other, less expensive, cool-
mix results when maximum use of ice is made ing measures. It is also normally required to
for precooling mass concrete. Cooling methods control the minimum opening of contraction
which rely on moisture in the aggregate invari- joints when grouting of joints is necessary. It
ably cause moisture fluctuation in the aggregate consists of a series of evenly spaced pipe coils
as batched, with corresponding detriment to the through which refrigerated or cold water is cir-
uniformity of slump. Moreover, systems which culated. The size and spacing of pipes depends on
involve considerable handling 'and movement of block size, thickness of lift, and amount of heat to
the coarse aggregate are likely to develop con- be removed. (Examples of design are given in
siderable fines which, if the aggregate is moist, Chapter 5). When precooled [50 F (10 C)] con-
will not be removed during the finish screening crete is used pipe cooling is usually not re-
and will serve only to increase mixing water re- quired except in certain lifts immediately above
quirement and reduce strength, If full use of ice the foundation if placed in warm weather.
207-26 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
4.8 - Grouting contraction joints the temperature rise in mass concrete as dis-
4.8.1-"1s this necessary?" might well be asked cussed in previous chapters, is nearly adiabatic
concerning the grouting of many contraction and must be dealt with in mass concrete struc-
joints, particularly those in straight or nearly tures.
straight gravity dams. With increasingly effective 5.1.2-1n mass concrete, thermal stresses are
use of cold concrete as placed, and especially developed in two ways: from the dissipation of
when narrow shrinkage slots are left and later the heat of hydration and from periodic cycles of
filled with cold concrete, it may be questioned ambient temperature. Since all cements, as they
whether contraction joint grouting serves much hydrate, cause concrete to heat up to some de-
purpose fvr high, thin, arch dams, since a little gree, it is fortunate that the strength and the
downstream cantilever movement will bring corresponding cement requirements for mass con-
the joints into tight contact. Grouting relieves crete are much less than those of normal struc-
later arch and cantilever stresses and it remains tural concretes; hence, temperature rise is re-
general practice to grout contraction joints in stricted. As has been described in preceding
arch dams. chapters, some relief in temperature rise can be
4.8.2-Where there is reason to grout contrac- gained, in addition to the minimal use of cement,
tion joints, the program of precooling and post- by the use of substitutions for cement, and by
cooling should be so arranged as to secure a joint the use of special types of cement with lower, or
opening of at least 0.025 in. (0.064 cm) to assure delayed heats of hydration. When the potential
complete filling with grout even though, under temperature rise of a concrete has been reduced
special test conditions, grout may penetrate much to the minimum, the temperature drop that causes
narrower openings. tensile stress and cracking can be reduced to
zero if the initial temperature of the concrete is
CHAPTER. 5 - BEHAVIOR. set below the final stable temperature of the
structure by the amount of the potential tem-
5.1 - Thermal stresses and cracking
perature rise. Economy in construction can be
5.1.1-The most important characteristic of
gained if the initial temperature is set slightly
mass concrete that differentiates its behavior
above this value so that a slight temperature
from that of structural concrete is its thermal
drop is allowed, such that the tensile stresses
behavior. Mass concrete structures are typically
built up during this temperature drop are less
structures having large dimensions. These large
than the tensile strength of the concrete at that
dimensions in a material whose thermal proper-
time.
ties allow only slow movements of heat, means
that heat trapped within a mass concrete struc- 5.1.3-Previous chapters describe methods for
ture can hardly escape unless aided artificially. reducing the initial temperature of concrete, and
For instance, the laws of heat transfer tell us the benefits on placing of the use of cold con-
that heat can escape from a body inversely as crete. It can be seen that if the maximum tem-
the square of its least dimension. Consider a num- perature of the concrete is appreciably above
ber of walls, made of average concrete and ex- that of the final stable temperature of the mass,
posed to cooler air on both faces. For a wall 6 in. volume changes will take place continuously in
(15 cm) thick, 95 percent of the heat in the con- massive structures for centuries. Since this is
crete will be lost to the air in Ph hr. For a 5 ft intolerable in some structures that depend on fast
(1.5 m) thick wall, this same amount of heat construction for economy, this excess heat must
would be lost in a week. For a 50 ft (15 m) thick be removed artificially. The usual method is by
wall, which might represent the thickness of an circulating a cooling medium in embedded pipes.
arch dam, it would take 2 years to dissipate 95 5.IA-The behavior of the surface of mass con-
percent of the heat stored, and for a 500 ft crete structures is tremendously affected by
(152 m) thick dam, such as Boulder, Shasta, daily and annual cycles of temperature. At the
Grand Coulee, and many other massive dams, surface the temperature of concrete responds al-
it would take 200 years to dissipate this amount most completely to daily variations in air tem-
of heat. Thus in ordinary structural construction perature, while 2 ft (60 cm) from the surface,
most of the heat generated by the hydrating ce- only 10 percent of the daily surface temperature
ment is dissipated almost as fast as it is gen- variation is felt in the concrete. The annual tem-
erated and there is little temperature differential perature cycle, however, affects the concrete at
from the inside to the outside of the body. Since much greater depths. Ten percent of the annual
change of temperature results in change of vol- variation in temperature can be felt 25 ft (7.6 m)
ume, and when restrained, in change of stress from the surface. Directing our attention back to
in the tensile direction, very thin structures are the surface, it can be seen that the surface is
relatively free from thermal cracking. However, absolutely defenseless against stress cracking
MASS CONCRETE FOR DAMS 207-27
caused by temperature change. Since the interior stress due to the difference between the average
reacts so much more slowly than the surface to temperature rise and the temperature at a par-
cycles of temperature it is as though the surface ticular location. Most arch dams are designed
were completely restrained by the interior con- merely for the average temperature change; de-
crete. Thus in a location where the surface tem- signers should also consider the effect of the ad-
perature varies annually by 100 F (56 C) which is ditional stresses caused by the differential tem-
only average, if the concrete is assumed to have perature between the average and the maximum.
a modulus of elasticity as low as 3.0 x lOG psi
(0.21 x 10 6 kg/cm 2 ), without cracking the sur- 5.2 - Volume change
face stresses would vary about 1000 psi (70 5.2.1-In Chapter 3, properties affecting volume
kg/cm 2 ) above and below the average. While change have been listed for a number of dams.
concrete can quite easily take 1000 psi (70 Before accepting for use in mass concrete the
kg/cm~) compression, it usually has nowhere near numerical values given for drying shrinkage,
that capacity in tension, and cracking is inevit- autogenous volume change and permeability, it
able. However, because of the rapid deterioration must be remembered that all of these tests were
of the temperature cycles with distance from the performed on quite small specimens, and except
surface the variation in stress is likewise dissi- for the permeability tests, none actually con-
pated rapidly, with the result that surface crack- tained mass concrete. However, the values given
ing due to temperature changes is confined to a can be used as a guide to the actual behavior of
relatively shallow region at and near the surface. mass concrete in service. First, it can be seen
Thus it can be considered that mass concrete as that the permeability of mass concrete is very
in dams behaves as though the surface, even small, a fraction of a foot per year. As a working
though cracked by temperature cycles, protects guide to the behavior of concrete, it can be con-
the structural integrity of the concrete below it. sidered that mass concrete gives up water with
5.l.5-The above statements about the effect great reluctance, but accepts it at a free surface
of variations in surface temperature on cracking fairly easily. Thus at a surface exposed to air,
explain how injudicious form stripping at time the surface is quite capable of drying out, while
of extreme contrast between internal and outside the concrete behind that surface has lost little
temperatures will inevitably result in surface if any, of its moisture content. This leads directl;
cracking. This phenomenon has been termed to surface shinkage cracking in mass concrete in
"thermal shock" and will occur when forms that two ways. The most common cause of surface
act as insulators are removed on an extremely shrinkage cracking is due to drying at the surface.
cold day. Modern steel forms that allow the It can be seen in the table of properties that the
surface temperature of the concrete to more concrete exhibiting the minimum shrinkage had
nearly correspond to that of the air reduce this a volume change of roughly 300 millionths, and
differential temperature somewhat. However, if this can be considered completely restrained
they are open to the objection that the thermal by interior concrete with all its moisture intact
shock may be felt from extremes of temperature and therefore with no shrinkage, surface stresses
right through the form into the concrete. Either greater than 1000 psi (70 kg/cm~) are a natural
a dead airspace or insulation should be provided result. Actually, concrete can withstand nowhere
to protect concrete surfaces where steel forms are near that tensile stress, and the result is an ex-
used. Insulation requirements and the age for tensive pattern of surface cracking. Exactly as in
form stripping to avoid cracking the surface de- the case of thermal cracking at the surface, these
pend on the air temperature and the strength of cracks will extend inward a short distance and
concrete. For protection requirements see ACI disappear in the region of moisture equilibrium.
306-66. 44 5.2.2-Whenever a flat surface of mass concrete
5.l.6-For an average concrete, 1 percent of the is finished as in a dam roadway, a spillway apron
annual temperature cycle will be felt 50 ft (15 m) surface, or a powerplant floor, care must be taken
from the surface. Thus for a high arch dam 100 to avoid the conditions causing "plastic shrink-
ft (30 m) thick, all of the mass will respond to age cracks." This cracking occurs under extreme
the annual variation of temperature in different drying conditions, when water evaporates from
degrees. Considering that any change in tempera- the upper surface of the concrete faster than it
ture will cause corresponding change in stress, reaches the surface by water gain. Even as the
it can be seen that the entire thickness of this concrete is setting, wide cracks appear, in the
dam will undergo stress and volume change. same pattern as found on a drying mud flat,
Stresses at any particular part of the dam will making ugly scars across the entire finished sur-
be the sum of two superimposed types of stress: face. These can be prevented in extreme drying
the structural stress due to the average tempera- weather by shading the area of finishing opera-
ture rise of the entire cross section and the local tions, by providing barriers against the move-
207-28 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
ment of the air, by fog spraying, by surface seal- greatly modified, particularly in the early ages.
ing, or by any other means available to prevent While the effects of pozzolans differ greatly, de-
surface evaporation. pending on the composition and fineness of the
pozzolan and cement used in combination, a rule
5.3 -Heat generation
of thumb that has worked fairly well on prelimi-
5.3.1-Since the outstanding problem of mass
nary computations has been to assume that pozzo-
concrete construction is the necessity for con-
Ian gives off about 50 percent as much heat as the
trolling the heat entrapped within it as the ce-
cement that it replaces.
ment hydrates, a short statement will be given
here of the thermal properties and mathematical 5.3.3-In general, the effects of water-reducing
relationships that enable the engineer to esti- retarders in concrete are felt only during the
mate rapidly the degree of temperature control first few hours after mixing and can be neglected
needed for a particular application. in preliminary computations using these curves.
Both the rate and the total adiabatic tempera- However, in studies involving millions of cubic
ture rise differ among the various types of ce- yards of concrete, as in a dam, the above remarks
ment. Fig. 5.3.1 shows adiabatic temperature rise should be applied only to preliminary computa-
curves for mass concretes containing 376 Ib per tions, and the adiabatic temperature rise of the
cu yd (223 kg/m:l) of various types of cement exact mix to be used in the mass concrete start-
with a 4% in. (114 mm) maximum size aggre- ing at the initial temperature contemplated
gate. Values shown are averaged from a number should be determined.
of tests; individual cements of the same type 5.3.4-The characteristic that determines the
will vary considerably from the average for that relative ability of heat to flow through a par-
type. As might be expected, high-early-strength ticular concrete is its thermal diffusivity which
cement, Type III, is the fastest heat generator and is defined/as:
gives the highest adiabatic temperature rise. h2_~
Type IV, or low-heat cement, is not only the - Cp
slowest heat generator, but gives the lowest total where
temperature rise. Since the cement is the active h2 =
diffusivity, sq ft per hr (m2/hr)
heat producer in a concrete mix, the temperature K = conductivity, Btu/ft/hr/deg F (Kcal/m/hr/
rise of concretes with cement contents differing deg C)
from 376 Ib per cu yd (223 kg/m:l) can be esti- C = specific heat, Btu/lb/deg F (Kcal/kg/deg
C)
mated closely by multiplying the values shown p = density of the concrete, lb per cu ft (kg/
on the curves by a factor representing the propor- m 3)
tion of cement.
The value of diffusivity is largely affected by
5.3.2-When a portion of the cement is replaced
the rock type used in the concrete. Table 5.3.4
by a pozzolan, the temperature rise curves are
shows diffusivities for concrete made of a number
of rock types.
7 -n«I :..---
\i~
--
u
o
Dolomite
Granite
1.20
1.03
(0.111)
(0.096)
---
60
w
1 // V
~~
w
(f) Rhyolite 0.84 (0.078)
0::
50
V - 30 (f)
0:: Basalt 0.77 (0.072)
~~
w
0::
1// /
~ V The higher the value of diffusivity, the more
v/
:::>
I- 40
« V readily heat will move through the concrete. If
0::
w
CL 30
V -
the rock type is not known, an average value of
~
:;: diffusivity can be taken as 1.00 sq ft per day
W
I-
20
(0.093 m2/day) although as can be seen from the
-I o table the value of diffusivity varies substantially
10 from this average value.
5.3.5-Another source of heat in mass concrete
0
I 14 28 90 180 365
0 is the variation of external temperature. G2 If the
TIME - DAYS
external temperature variation can be considered
to be expressed as a sine wave, and if, as in a
Figure 5.3.1 - Temperature rise of mass concrete dam, the body of concrete is sufficiently thick so
MASS CONCRETE FOR DAMS 207-29
Q.Q.
~ ~ 0 3
\ Example 1
At a certain elevation an arch dam is 70 ft thick and
1-1-
'\ has a mean temperature of 100 F. If exposed to air at
'2 0 2
f\.
t-
65 F, how long will it take to cool to 70 F? Assume
--
<t
0:: V?AILY ,CYCLEI "'"
~ h 2 = 1.20 sq £t per day.
--- -
o I
Initial temperature difference, 00 = 100 - 65 = 35 F
\ 10 20 30 40 50
Final temperature difference, Om = 70 - 65 = 5 F
The portion of the original heat remaining is
DISTANCE FROM SURFACE - FEET
8m = ~ = 0.142
Fig. 5.3.5 - Temperature variation with depth 80 35
where Example 2
Rx is the range at distance x from the surface, A mass concrete bridge pier has a cross section of
Ro is the range at the surface (x = 0) 25 X 50 ft, and is at a mean temperature of 80 F. De-
h 2 is the diffusion constant termine the mean temperature at various times up to
'Y is the period of the cycle of temperature
variation in days 200 days if the pier is exposed to water at 40 F and if
the diffusivity is 0.90 sq ft per day. For a prismatic
For an average concrete with a diffusivity of body such as this pier, the part of original heat re-
1 sq ft per day (0.093 m 2 / day) the penetration of maining may be computed by finding the part remain-
the daily and the annual temperature cycles is as ing in two slabs of respective thickness equal to the
shown in Fig. 5.3.5. dimensions of the pier, and multiplying the two quanti-
ties so obtained to get the total heat remaining in the
pier. For this two-dimensional use, it is better to find
5.4 - Heat dissipation for various times the heat losses associated with each
direction and then combine them to find the total heat
5A.I-Studies of the dissipation of heat from loss of the pier.
bodies of mass concrete can be accomplished by Initial temperature difference, 00 = 80 - 40 = 40 F
the use of charts and graphs, or by direct com- For the 25-ft dimension
putation.
0.90 X t
When the body to be analyzed can be readily (25)2 = 0.00144t
approximated by a known geometrical shape,
and for the 50-ft dimension
charts are available for the direct determination
of heat losses. For instance, Fig. 5.4.1 can be 0.90 X t = 0.00036t
used to determine the loss of heat in hollow and (50P
solid cylinders, slabs with one or two faces ex- Then calculate numerical values of O.00144t and 0.00036t
posed, or solid spheres. The application of the for times from 10 to 200 days. See Table 5.4.1. These
values can be used with Fig. 5.4.1 to obtain the Om/O"
values found on these graphs can easily be made ratios for both 25-ft and 50-ft slabs. The product of
to a wide variety of problems such as the cooling these ratios indicates the heat remaining in the pier,
of dams or thick slabs of concrete, the cooling of and can be used to calculate the final temperature dif-
ference 0",. II", values are added to the temperature of
concrete aggregates, artificial cooling of mass surrounding water to obtain mean pier temperatures at
concrete by use of embedded pipes, and the various times up to 200 days.
207-30 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
Time,
days 0.00144t 0.00036t
( ~~ ) 25 (~)
0"
50 (II:
0"') pIer
. (JIll Temperature,
degF
I
1.0
0.8
~
./''r'
0.6
0.4
~e.(
C'i'i..\~~
.....
v~
7
0.2 /
y.o\~p /j
V
~
V
0.1
/
'/ ~\~
V / I
.08
.06 / /' /' /
I /' " /
.04
J / / ./
~/
" 7
/' ~\~
/
C;
'i..\~
~o
.02
I /' I~
~I~ .01
.008 /
/ /
/ /
~~
.~
.006
I / /
.004
I /
~
V
.002
i7 V~V
.001
.0008
I 7/
I I I
.0006
II /
.0004
I J /
.0002
77
.0001
1.0
II .9 .8 .7 .6 .5 .4 .3 .2 .1 o
8m - Port of Heat Remaining
80
--
>-
'"
0
a:
:z:
..... '".....
<II
LL. LL.
0.02
LaJ
.....
::>
~
::;:
-2
0.5 a:
LaJ
0-
3
1000 0.7 III
0.03 Z
LaJ 900 0
0- 800 III ...J
700 )( 1.0 0.04 ...J
0-
LL.
0
600
c(
1.2 -0.05 '"
C) 4
500 0.06 ~
:z: 1.5
..... 1.7 0.07 0
400 ...J 5
C) LL.
Z Z I
LaJ 300 0 .....
-z a 6
...J
Ill",
I ::> ..... ~
~ LL.C/l »
en
200 ~z en
00
I 0 n
OJ
..: oz
n
AI
100 ~
m
K E V TO D I A G RAM
Q through h 2 to oxis, pivot through 1..
to edge of grid ond go horizontolly.
S through h 2 to oxis, pivot through t.
to edge of grid and go vertically.
At intersection of horizontal and
verticol I ines read eo . 8m/
BASED ON USE Of 1"0.0. TUBING
4 40 50 60 80 100
VERTICAL SPACING OF PIPES - S'-O'
S-HORIZONTAL SPACING OF
FINAL MEAN TEMPERATURE
DIFFERENCE IN DEGREES
1.2 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 hZ-DIFFUSION PER DEGREE INITIAL
0.05 0.04 0.03 CONSTANT TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
AXIS
Fig. 5.4.2(a}--Mean temperature of concrete (from Reference 46). (Note: 1.0 ft equals 0.305 m and 1.0 gal.
per min equals 0.0631 liters per sec)
~
3000
« a::
J:
0
..................
N N W
I-- I--
I--
lJ.. lJ.. ::::>
~
~
0.02
o~ 0.5 a::
w
a.
(/)
1000 0.7 0.03 z
W 900 0
a. 800 (/) ...J
1.0 0.04 ...J
a. 700 x «
600 « 1.2 0.05 Cl
lJ..
0
SOO 1.5 0.06 ~
J:
I-- I. 7 0.07 0
400 ...J
<.:> lJ..
z Z I
w -300 01-- e ~
...J -z
(/)« »
z
I ::::>1-- c
,J
200
lJ..(/) »
r-
':Z
00
I 0 o..,.,
OJ
..c.
II
oZ
100 II
;;:c
S-HORIZONTAL SPACING OF
I FINAL MEAN TEMPERATURE
6
DIFFERENCE AT A GIVEN LENGTH
1.2 1.0 0.9 0.8 h2_DlfFUSION FROM INLET IN DEGREES
CONSTANT PER DEGREE INITIAL
0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
AX I S
Fig. 5.4.2(b}-Mean temperature of concrete at given length from inlet (from Reference 46). (Note: 1.0 ft equals
0.305 m and 1.0 gal. per min equals 0.631 liters per sec)
3000 >- ex:
«
0 J:
~~ W
I-- I-- I--
.... .... =>
2
::Ii'
0.5 0.02 ex:
w
Il.
KEY TO DIAGRAM o
Q through h 2 to aXIs, pivot through L »
to edge of grid and go horizontally ~
U>
S t h r 0 ugh h 2 to a xis, p I V 0 t t h r aug h t
to edge of grid and go vertically.
At Intersection of horizontal and
vertical lines read 6w/60
t-TIME-DAYS
r---------,-----,----r--~_r~~_r~----~--_r----~--~--~~ ______~ BASED ON USE OF 1"0.0. TUBING
I 3 6 7 8 9 10 40 50 60 80 100
VERTICAL SPACING OF PI PES - 5'-0"
S-HORIZONTAL SPACING OF
6 5 3 TEMPERATURE RISE OF WATER
IN PIPES IN DEGREES
FT 2/ DA Y - 1.7 1.5
__ 1.2
__ __1.0 __0.9 0.8 0.7 2
h -DIFFUSION
~~~~ ~-+ ~ ~ L-__- k__ ~L- __ ~~ __ ~~
PER DEGREE INITIAL
FT 2/ H R - 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 CONSTANT TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
AX I S
t-.)
o
Fig. 5.4.2(c)--Temperature rise of water in cooling coils (from Reference 46). (Note: 1.0 ft equals 0.305 m and ';'I
1.0 gal. per min equals 0.0631 liters per sec) w
w
207-34 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
sidered to be divided into a number of equal OF, and take h 2 to be 1.00 sq ft per day. If space in-
elements, and if a number of physical limitations terval is 1.0 ft, then time interval is
are satisfied simultaneously, the temperature for L1t =
= _1_ = 1,2 day.
(L1X)2
a given increment at the end of an interval of 2112 2X 1
In the following table the adiabatic temperature rise
time is the average of the temperature of the in lh day intervals for a 3-day investigation is taken
two neighboring elements at the beginning of from Fig. 5.3.1. (An estimate of the rise of 1/2 day was
that time interval. The necessary physical rela- obtained by projecting the Type II curve back.) The change
tionship is: in temperature tiO is determined by subtracting the
temperature at any time interval from that of the preced-
(~X)2 ing time interval.
~t = "'2h2
where ~t is the time interval, ~x is the length of Adiabatic temperature
Time, days rise, deg F L1fJ
element, and h 2 is the diffusion constant. Units of
~t and ~x must be consistent with units in which 0 0
h 2 is expressed. Stated mathematically, Op, Oq, and 0.5 20 20
Or are the temperatures of three successive ele- 1 31 11
ments at time t, then at time t2 1.5 37 6
2 40 3
Oq + Mq = 1/2 (Op + 8 r)
2.5
3
42.5
44.5
2.5
2.0
The beauty of Schmidt's method is that it can
be extended to cases of two-dimensional and In the tabular solution of Table 5.4.3 the space in-
terval of 1.0 ft divides each lift into six elements or
three-dimensional heat flow. For the two-dimen- stations. Boundaries such as rock surface, construction
sional case the numerical constant 2 is replaced joints, and exposed surfaces must be clearly defined.
by 4, and the averaging must take into account The adiabatic temperature rise at the rock surface is
temperatures on four sides of the given element. just one-half of the concrete rise since the rock is not
For the three-dimensional case, the constant 2 is generating heat. Ata construction joint the Tise is the
average of the two lifts which are generating heat at
replaced by the number 6 and the averaging must different rates at any given time. At the exposed sur-
be carried on for six elements surrounding the face the adiabatic rise is zero since the heat is dissipated
cubic element in question. The following example as quickly as it is generated from the concrete below.
demonstrates the use of Schmidt's method in a Normally where there are several stations in each lift
practical problem. the temperature distribution within the lift at any given
time can be obtained with sufficient accuracy by cal-
Determine temperatures throughout two 6-ft lifts of culating only half of the points at anyone time as
mass concrete placed at 2-day intervals, using a con- shown.
crete mix containing 376 lb of Type II cement per cu
yd (223 kg/m3 ). Since the method uses temperature 5.5 - Instrumentation
differences rather than actual temperatures, assume air 5.5.1-During the past 40 years, very sophisti-
temperature and concrete placement temperature to be cated instrumentation has been developed for the
207-36 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
measurement of the behavior of structures made characteristic quantity sought. These instru-
of mass concrete. Instrumentation has been in- ments can be installed in the fresh concrete, have
stalled for two primary reasons: for a continued proved durable in service, have a constant zero
check on the safety of the structure, and for new reading, maintain their calibration, and as now
knowledge on the behavior of mass concrete constructed may be depended on for 25 years.
under service conditions. For reliability, instruments must not only be in-
5.5.2-The first measurements of structural be- stalled in sufficiently large groups to give all
havior of mass concrete structures were made by values necessary according to theories of the
extensometer measurements at the surface, pos- mechanics of solids but account must be taken
sibly influenced by laboratory measurements on of the many things that can happen during and
models. It has been shown in the foregoing para- after construction to instruments and cable to
graphs that excessive stress and cracking at the cause faulty readings. On this account a judicious
surface resulted in certain failure of such mea- number of duplicate instruments is necessary. In
surements. Thus, the only meaningful measure- addition, isolated unusual indications are always
ments of strain and stress in mass concrete must suspect and instrumentation must be installed so
come from instruments embedded well within that readings from different types of instruments
the mass, or at least far enough from the free tend to reinforce each other and give certainty
surface to avoid the effects of daily temperature in the results.
cycles. Since the instruments must be embedded, 5.5.5-When these precautions are taken,
they have become nearly standardized as elec- backed up by laboratory determinations of the
trical measuring instruments, connected by cables essential elastic and creep properties of the con-
to convenient reading points in galleries or at crete in question, a clear picture is given of the
the surface of mass concrete structures. Electrical structural behavior of the mass concrete struc-
instruments are now available for measuring ture, leading to more accurate analyses of pro-
strain, stress, temperature, joint movements, posed designs. At the same time, indications are
foundation deformations, pore pressure, and the available to see how well the service behavior of
detection of cracks. Additional instruments have a structure falls within the assumptions used in
been devised for measuring gross movements its design. Thus, continued assurances may be
such as deflection, tilting, and directional changes. gained of the satisfactory behavior of the mass
5.5.3-Before describing the instruments them- concrete structure.
selves, it would be well at this point to review
the physical conditions under which they must REfERENCES
1. Mermel, T. W., Register of Dams in the United
work. The instruments must be rugged enough
States, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1958, 444 pp.
to be embedded in fresh mass concrete, using Abstract in ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 55, No.1,
care, of course. When measuring strain and dis- July 1958, p. 153.
placements, in particular, the instruments must 2. "Standard Specifications for Chemical Admix-
be at least three times the length of the largest tures for Concrete," (ASTM C 494), American Society
for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia.
particle in the fresh concrete mix. Since they
3. "Specification for Portland Cement," (ASTM
are electrical in nature, they must not only be C 150), American Society for Testing and Materials,
waterproof, but all materials must be resistant Philadelphia.
to the aggressive solutions of the hydrating 4. "Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements,"
cement. (ASTM C 595), American Society for Testing and Ma-
terials, Philadelphia.
5.5.4-After brief experimentation with other 5. "Specification for Natural Cement," (ASTM C 10),
types of instruments, measurements in mass con- American Society for Testing and Materials, Phila-
crete in United States practice have become near- delphia.
ly standardized in Carlson instruments read 6. "Cement, Portland," Federal Specification SS-C-
192, U.S. General Services Administration, Washing-
through rubber covered electrical cables. These ton, D. C.
comprise strain meters, stress meters, jOint me- 7. "Cement, Portland, Blast-Furnace Slag," Federal
ters, deformation meters, pore pressure cells, and Specification SS-C-197, U. S. General Services Admin-
reinforcement meters. In each of these devices, istration, Washington, D. C.
two sets of unbonded steel wires are so arranged 8. "Cement, Portland, Pozzolan," Federal Specifica-
tion SS-C-208, U. S. General Services Administration,
that when subjected to the action to be measured, Washington, D. C.
one set increases in tension, while the other de- 9. "Cement, Slag," Federal Specification SS-C-218,
creases. A test set is available that records the U. S. General Services Administration, Washington,
electric characteristics, resistance, and resistance- D. C.
ratio of these elastic wires, from which can be 10. "Cement, Natural (For use as a Blend with
Portland Cement) ," Federal Specification SS-C-185,
determined through the use of calibration con- U. S. General Services Administration, Washington,
stants, the temperature at the point and the D.C.
MASS CONCRETE FOR DAMS 207-37
11. "Specification for Fly Ash and Raw or Cal- 34. ACI Committee 614, "Recommended Practice for
cined Natural Pozzolans for use in Portland Cement Measuring, Mixing, and Placing Concrete (ACI614-59),"
Concrete," (ASTM C 618), American Society for Testing American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1959, 31 pp.
and Materials, Philadelphia. 35. Conc'rete Manual, U. S. Bureau of Reclamation,
12. "Pozzolan (For use in Portland Cement Con- 7th Edition, Denver, 1963,618 pp.
crete) ," Federal Specification SS-P-570, U. S. General 36. "Standard Specifications fnr Ready-Mixed Con-
Services Administration, Washington, D. C. crete," (ASTM C 94), American Society for Testing
13. ACI Committee 212,'Admixtures for Concrete," and Materials, Philadelphia.
ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 60, No. 11, Nov. 1963, pp. 37. Tuthill, L. H., "Inspection of Mass and Related
1457-1470. Concrete Construction," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V.
14. ACI Committee 613, "Recommended Practice for 46, No.5, Jan. 1950, pp. 349-360.
Selecting Proportions for Concrete (ACI 613-54) ," 38. Tuthill, L. H., "Vibration of Mass Concrete," ACI
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1954, 16 pp. (See JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 49, No. 10, June 1953, pp.
also proposed revision of this standard by ACI Com- 921-932.
mittee 211, ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 66, No.8,
39. "Investigation of Methods of Preparing Horizon-
Aug. 1969, pp. 612-628.)
tal Construction Joints in Concrete," Technical Report
15. Higginson, E. C.; Wallace, G. B.; and are, E. L.,
No. 6-518, U. S. Army Engineer Waterway Experiment
"Effect of Maximum Size Aggregate on Compressive
Station, Vicksburg, Miss., July 1959; "Tests of Joints
Strength of Mass Concrete," Symposium on Mass Con-
in Large Blocks," Report 2, July 1963; and "Effects of
crete, SP-6, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1963,
Iron Stain on Joints," Report 3, June 1966.
pp. 219-256.
16. Steinour, Harold S., "Concrete Mix Water-How 40. ACI Committee 347, Formwork for Concrete,
Impure Can It Be?," Journal, PCA Research and De- SP-4, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1963, 350 pp.
velopment Laboratories, V. 2, No.3, Sept. 1960, pp. 41. Klein, A.; Pirtz, D.; and Adams, R. F., "Thermal
32-48. Properties of Mass Ooncrete During Adiabatic Curing,"
17. Symposium on Mass Concrete, SP-6, American Symposium on Mass Concrete, SP-6, American Con-
Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1963, 400 pp. crete Institute, Detroit, 1963, pp. 199-218.
18. "Concrete for Massive Structures," Concrete In- 42. ACI Committee 605, "Recommended Practice for
formation, Portland Cement Association, 1966. Hot Weather Concreting (ACI 605-59) ," American Con-
19. Ginzburg, Ts. G.; Zinchenko, N. A.; and Skuort- crete Institute, Detroit, 1959, 10 pp.
sova, G. F., "Concrete for Krasnoyarsk Dam," Gid'ro- 43. Carlson, R. W., and Thayer, D. P., "Surface Cool-
tekhnecheskoe Stroitel'stvo (Moscow), No.2, 1966, pp. ing of Mass Concrete to Prevent Cracking," ACI
6-12. (in Russian). JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 56, No.2, Aug. 1959, pp.
20. Transactions, Eighth International Congress on 107-120.
Large Dams, International Commission on Large Dams 44. ACI Committee 306, "Recommended Practice
(Paris), 1964, V. 2. for Cold Weather Concreting (ACI 306-66) ," American
21. "New Horizons-Topmost Dams of the World," Concrete Imltitute, Detroit, 1966, 25 pp.
The Japan Dam Association, Oct. 1963. 45. Schmidt, E., The method developed by E. Schmidt
22. Copen, M. D.; Rouse, G. C.; and Wallace, G. B., was published in "A. Foeppl's Festschrift," 1934 and is
European Practice in Design and Construction of Con- described in "Cracking and Temperature Control of
crete Dams, U. S. Bureau of Reclamation, Feb. 1962, Mass Concrete," by C. Rawhouser, Reference 46 of this
V.2. list.
23. World Register of Dams, International Commis- 46. Rawhouser, C., "Cracking and Temperature Con-
sion on Large Dams, Paris, 1961, V. 1-4. trol of Mass Concrete," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V.
24. Transactions, Seventh International Congress on 41, No.4, Feb. 1945, pp. 305-348.
Large Dams, Rome, 1961, International Commission on 47. Civil Works Standard Practice for Concrete, U. S.
Large Dams (Paris), 1962, V. l.
Corps of Engineers, Oct. 1953, Chapter 5.
25. Harboe, E. M., "Properties of Mass Concrete in
48. Waugh, W. R., and Rhodes, J. A., "Control of
Bureau of Reclamation Dams," Report No. C-1009,
Cracking in Concrete Gravity Dams," Proceedin.gs,
Concrete Laboratory, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation,
ASCE, V. 85, P05, Oct. 1959, pp. 1-20.
Dec. 1961, 6 pp.
26. Transactions, Sixth Congress on Large Dams, New 49. "Cooling of Concrete Dams," Final Reports,
York, 1958, International Commission on Large Dams Boulder Canyon Project, Part VII-Cement and Con-
(Paris), 1959, V. 3. crete Investigations, Bulletin 3, U. S. Bureau of Recla-
27. "Properties of Mass Concrete in United States mation, 1949, 236 pp.
and Foreign Dams," Report No. C-880, Concrete Lab- 50. Ross, A. D., and Bray, J. W., "The Prediction of
oratory, U. S. Bureau of Reclamation, July 1958, 3 pp. Temperature in Mass Concrete by Numerical Compu-
28. Proceedings, Institution of Civil Engineers (Lon- tation," Magazine of Concrete Research (London), V. 1,
don), V. 1, Part 1, No.5, 1952. No. I, Jan. 1949, pp. 9-20.
29. Roberts, H. H., "Cooling Materials for Mass Con- 51. ACr Committee 609, "Consolidation of Concrete,"
crete," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 47, No. 10, June ACI Manual af Cancrete Practice, Part 1, American
1951, pp. 821-832. CO'ncrete Institute, DetrO'it, 1968, p. 309-12 (also, ACI JOURNAL,
30. Semenza, C., and Giuseppe, T., "Le Barrage de Proceedings V. 56, NO'. 10, Apr. 1960).
Pieve di Cadore," Travaux (Paris), Sept. 1951. 52. Burks, S. D., "Five-Year Temperature Records of
31. "The Kentucky Project," Technical Report No. 13, a Thin Concrete Dam," ACI JOURNAL, Praceedings V. 44,
Tennessee Valley Authority, Knoxville, 1950. No. I, Sept. 1947, pp. 65-76.
32. "The Norris Project," Technical Report No.1,
Tennessee Valley Authority, Knoxville, 1939.
33. LaRue, H. A., "Modulus of Elasticity of Aggre-
This report was submitted to letter ballot of the committee which
gates and its Effect on Concrete," Proceedings, ASTM, consists of 18 members; 15 members returned ballots, all of whom
V. 46, 1946, p. 1298. voted affirmatively.
ACI 207.2R-73
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and Com-
mentaries are intended for guidance in designing, planning, executing, From ACI JOURNAL, July 1973
or inspecting construction, and in preparing specifications. Reference
to these documents shall not be made in the Project Documents. If
items found in these documents are desired to be part of the Project
Documents, they should be incorporated directly into the Project.
Documents.
D. H_ BASGEN
JAMES E. BENNETT, JR.
R. W. CANNON
0_ E. JACK
Chairman
J. NEIL MUSTARD
J. LAGINHA SERAFIM
LEWIS H. TUTHILL
•
S. D. BURKS WALTER H. PRICE JACK W. WARD
ROY W. CARLSON JEROME M. RAPHAEL WILLIAM R. WAUGH
JAMES L. COPE JAMES A. RHODES R. P. WENGLER
LANCE A. ENDERSBEE CECIL H. WILLETTS
This report presents a discussion of the effects of heat generation and volume
change on the design and behavior of massive reinforced concrete elements and
structures. Particular emphasis is placed on the effects of restraint on cracking and
the effects of controlled placing temperatures, concrete strength requirements,
type and fineness of cement on volume change. Formulas are presented for deter-
mining the amounts of reinforcing steel needed to control the size and spacing of
cracks to specified limits under varying conditions of restraint and volume change.
Keywords: adiabatic conditions: age: cement types: concrete dams: concrete slabs: cooling: crack
propagation; crack width and spacing; cracking (fracturing): creep properties; drying shrinkage;
foundations; heat of hydration; heat transfer; machine bases; mass concrete; modulus of elasticity;
moisture content; placing; portland cement physical properties; portland cements; pozzolans; re-
inforced concrete; reinforcing steels; restraints; shrinkage; stresses; structural design; temperature;
temperature rise (in concrete); tensile strength; thermal expansion; volume change; walls.
CONTENTS
Notation 207-40
Copyright © 1973, American Concrete Institute printed or written or oral, or recording (or sound or visual
All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use reproduction, or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system
in any form or by any means. including the making of copies or device, unless permis.sion in writing is obtained from the
by any photo process, or by any electronic or mechanical device, copyright proprietors.
207-40 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
NOTATION
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.1-Scope "Any large volume of cast-in-place concrete with
dimensions large enough to require that measures
This report presents a detailed discussion of be taken to cope with the generation of heat and
the effects of heat generation and volume changes attendant volume change to minimize cracking."
on the design and behavior of massive reinforced
concrete elements and structures. It is written Massive reinforced concrete differs from un-
reinforced mass concrete in that reinforcement is
primarily to provide guidance for the selection
utilized to limit crack widths that may be caused
of concrete materials, mix requirements, rein-
forcement requirements, and construction pro- by external forces or by inadequately controlled
cedures necessary to control the size and spacing volume changes.
of cracks. Particular emphasis is placed on the
effect of restraint to volume change in both pre- 1.3-Approaches to control of cracking
venting and causing cracking and the need for All concrete elements and structures are sub-
controlling peak concrete temperatures. The quali- ject to volume change in varying degrees, de-
ty of concrete for resistance to weathering is not pendent upon the makeup configuration and
emphasized in recommending reduced cement environment of the concrete. Uniform volume
contents; however, it should be understood that change will not produce cracking if the element
the concrete should be made sufficiently durable or structure is relatively free to change volume in
to resist expected service conditions apart from all directions. This is rarely the case for massive
strength requirements. The report can be applied concrete members; however, since size alone us-
to normal structural concrete; however, its ap- ually causes nonuniform change and there is often
plication is not usually warranted and the major sufficient restraint either internally or externally
emphasis is on massive concrete. to produce cracking.
The measures used to control cracking are de-
1.2-Definition pendent to a large extent on the economics of the
Mass concrete is defined in "Mass Concrete for situation and the seriousness of cracking if not
Dams and Other Massive Structures"! as: controlled. The appearance of cracks in almost
207-42 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
any concrete structure is undesirable irrespective reinforcing steel to distribute the cracking so that
of whether or not the designer has allowed for one large crack is replaced by many smaller
cracks in his design. For this reason some agen- cracks of acceptable width. The selection of the
cies or organizations take the position that cracks necessary amount and spacing of reinforcement to
should be controlled to the minimum practicable accomplish this depends on the extent of the
size in all structures. Even so, the economics of volume change to be expected, the spacing or
construction must be considered. The change in number of cracks which would occur without the
volume can be minimized by such measures as reinforcement, and the ability of reinforcement
reducing cement content, replacing part of the to distribute cracks.
cement by pozzolans, precooling, post cooling, in- The degree to which the designer will either
sulation to control the rate of heat absorbed or reduce volume changes or use steel for the control
lost, and by other measures outlined in Reference of cracks in a given structure depends largely on
1. Restraint is modified by contraction or expan- the massiveness of the structure itself and on the
sion joints and also by the rate at which volume magnitude of forces restraining volume change.
change takes place. Construction joints may also No clear-cut line can be drawn to establish the
be used to reduce the number of uncontrolled extent to which measures should be taken to con-
cracks which may otherwise be expected. It is trol the change in volume. Design strength
usually possible by appropriate consideration of requirements, placing restrictions, and the en-
the above measures to eliminate cracks or at least vironment itself are sometimes so severe as to
reduce their size. The subject of crack control in make it impractical to prevent cracking by meas-
mass concrete is also discussed in Chapter 7 of ures to minimize volume change. On the other
Control of Cracking in Concrete Structures by hand, the designer normally has a wide range of
ACI Committee 224.13 choices in the selection of design strengths and
In the design of reinforced concrete structures, structural dimensions.
cracking is presumed in the proportioning of rein- In many cases, the cost of increased structural
forcement for stress considerations. For this dimensions by the selection of lower strength con-
reason the designer does not normally distinguish crete, within the limits of durability requirements,
between cracks due to volume change and those is more than repaid by the savings in reinforcing
due to flexure. Instead of employing many of the steel, reduced placing costs, and the savings in
above recommended measures for controlling material cost of the concrete itself. (See Example
volume change, he may choose to add sufficient 6.1.)
CHAPTER 2-RESTRAINT
'"u<t:
0.2 MnH = O.2f/BH2 (1 - i::t) (2.2)
5 0.1
where:
0 MnH = the restraint moment required of the
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
M/f; B HZ reinforcing steel for full height crack-
ing
MOMENT OF INTERNAL STRESS BLOCK
ABOUT THE BASE
ft' = the tensile strength of the concrete
Fig. 2.3-Effect of crack propagation on internal forces H = the height of block
initiation of cracking can be determined from the B = the width of block
internal stress block for various L/H ratios, and
is shown in Fig. 2.2. Since cracks do not im- 2.3-Discontinuous external or end restraint
mediately propagate to the full block height When the contact surface of the concrete ele-
throughout the member a driving force of con- ment under restraint and the supporting element
tinuing volume change must be present. If we is discontinuous, restraint to volume change re-
assume that the stress at the top of a propagating mains concentrated at fixed locations. This is typi-
crack is equal to the tensile strength of the con- cal of all concrete elements spanning between
crete and that the increase in tensile stresses at supports. It is also typical for the central portions
CRACKING OF MASSIVE CONCRETE 207-45
~
MBC MCB
by the shear in the deflected supports. (See Fig. MBA
o 'I TBC ""
2.4.) The end moments thus induced will increase (~ ~\
VBA Veo
tensile strains in the bottom face and decrease
tensile strains in the top face of the member
undergoing volume change. The magnitude of
induced stress depends on the relative stiffnesses
of the concrete element under restraint and the
supporting members and may be determined whEm MAO
" - - . MAB MOC~
the degree of restraint KII has been determined for
COLUMN BALANCED DEFLECTION
the support system. For members spanning be- MOMENT DIAGRAM
I- where:
it' = the tensile strength of concrete
fs = the allowable steel stress
2.3.3 Cracking pattern of vertically supported
members-When the stress of a member subject
to discontinuous restraint or restrained at its ends
exceeds the tensile strength of the concrete, a
.o.T single crack will form between the points of re-
.0. TN =.0. c IN THE MIDDLE straint. Any additional cracking of the member
I. d .0. T s = 6. c AT THE SURFACE
must be provided by enough reinforcing steel at
a controlled stress level to equal the total restraint
SECTIONAL PLAN
TEMPERATURE CHANGE
force induced at the member ends.
.o.c = UNRESTRAINED CHANGE IN VOLUME
the effects of 100 percent external restraint. the daily temperature cycle is not usually sig-
Therefore, where high external restraint condi- nificant in dams and large masses, particularly in
tions exist the effects of internal restraint may be moderate climates, because of the limited pene-
negligible. tration or significance of such cracks. The 24 F
2.4.1 Stress distribution and cracking-Internal drop in mean daily temperature corresponds to
restraint is similar to continuous edge restraint, normal winter temperature fluctuations for mod-
except that the effective restraining plane is the erate climates. See Chapter 5 of Reference 1 for
plane of zero stress in the internal stress block a more complete discussion of surface cracking.
and is dependent on the actual temperature gra- Temperatures through a wall or slab may be
dient in the concrete. (See Fig. 2.5.) For section nonuniform because of a difference in exposure
stability the summation of tensile stress induced conditions on opposite faces. Temperature dis-
by the temperature gradient on a cross section tribution of this sort will curl the slab or wall if
must be balanced by an equal compressive force. unrestrained, or induce bending stresses along
This balance line locates the depth (d s ) of internal the member if its ends are restrained as previous-
stress block. If the depth of the tensile stress ly discussed in Section 2.3.1.
block (d s ) is large in comparison to the spacing The plane of zero stress of the tensile stress
of joints (L), then the stress induced by volume block for projecting portions of concrete walls or
change will not be significant. As an example, slabs may be determined by a heat flow analysis
the annual temperature cycle for a 100 ft thick or by trial as described above. The portion of cold
dam would have a 15 ft deep tensile stress block volume to total volume is larger for members of
using the distribution shown in Fig. 5.3.5 of Ref- this type than for dams or other large concrete
erence 1. If we assume a 50 ft spacing of joints, masses. The penetration of the daily temperature
the Lids ratio would be 3.3 and the degree of cycle may therefore be assumed somewhat more
restraint at the surface would be 0.25 percent using than the 2 to 2.5 ft penetration previously men-
Fig. 2.1 of this report and Lids as L/ H. In contrast tioned for dams. Restraint at the free edge may
from the same chart the daily cycle shows a pene- also be determined for these cases from Fig. 2.1
tration of only 2 to 2.5 ft. Using 2 ft as d s , the by setting the depth of the tensile stress block
degree of restraint at the surface would be ap- (d.,) as a fixed plane 3 ft inside the exterior sur-
proximately 85 percent and assuming a concrete face or by the following:
tensile strength of 300 psi, a concrete modulus of 1
3 X 106 psi and a coefficient of thermal expansion KII = -T-+-~ (2.8)
of 5 X 10-6 in. per in. per F, cracking would occur w -2d s
The behavior of mass concrete has been thor- predictable actions such as alkali aggregate expan-
oughly discussed in Chapter 5 of Reference 1 sion are not considered. Volume changes due to
and various other references contained in the expansive cements are also not considered.
Committee 207 report, "Mass Concrete for Dams The change in temperature to be considered in
and Other Massive Structures." The purpose of the design of reinforced concrete elements is the
this chapter is to offer some practical guidance difference between the peak temperature of the
in the magnitude of volume change which can be concrete attained during early hydration (normal-
expected in reinforced concrete structures or ly within the first week following placement) and
elements. Such structures are apt to utilize cement the minimum temperature to which the element
of higher heat generation, smaller aggregate, wet- will be subjected under service conditions. The
ter concrete, and less temperature control than initial hydration temperature rise produces no
normally used or recommended for mass con- stress in the concrete in changing from a plastic
crete. state to solid concrete, and the modulus of
In reinforced concrete elements the primary elasticity of young concrete is so small that com-
concern is with the volume changes resulting pressive stresses induced by the rise in tempera-
from thermal and moisture changes. Autogenous ture are insignificant even in zones of restraint
changes, which are usually insignificant, and un- and can be ignored.
207-48 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
100
90 50 50
80
u.. oU
0
40 ~ 40 ~
70 oU
w w
-
" U) U)
~ ~ cc cc
cC cC w w
60 0:: 60 0::
I~
OJ OJ
30 >- 30 >-
0. 50 '~" 50 '~"
~
>- >- ~ ~
40 >- 40 >-
~
U U
.0 20 ;:: 20 ;::
-0 -0 ;:\ 30 ;:\
30
'" '" :'!
Cl 'Ci"
20 ~~~-
10
'" 20 10 '"
~~~- .. "~~.~.
10
types of cement, it is possible to vary widely the The rate of heat generation as affected by
rate and total adiabatic temperature rise of the initial temperature, member size, and environ-
typical types shown in Fig. 3.1. It is therefore es- ment is difficult to assess because of the complex
sential that both the fineness and chemical com- variables involved. The problem is somewhat
position of the cement in question be considered simplified if we assume that the placing tempera-
in estimating the temperature rise of massive Ctiln- ture and ambient air temperature are the same.
crete members. We can then make a correction for the actual
For a given fineness the chemical composition differences considering the size or volume to
of cement has a relatively constant effect on the surface ratio of the member in question. Peak con-
generation of heat beyond the first 24 hr. This crete temperatures for reinforced concrete struc-
can be shown using Fig. 3.2 for effect of fineness tures may occur any time during the first week
and assuming the difference in 28 day adiabatic depending on member size, type of cement, and
temperatures as constant after the first 24 hr concrete placing temperature. Fig. 3.4 shows the
to compare the adiabatic curves of the different effect of placing temperature and member size
types of cement of Fig. 3.1 during the first week. on the age at which peak concrete temperatures
The 28 day adiabatic temperature rise in degrees occur for concrete containing Type 1 cement. Time
F may be calculated by: would be shortened or lengthened for cements of
higher or lower heat-generating characteristics.
H - 1.8 (Call gm) (lb of cement). F (3.1) For comparative purposes the early age heat gen-
a- 0.22 (150) (27) In
eration of a Type 3 cement is approximately
where: equivalent to a Type 1 cement at a 20 F higher
0.22 and 150 is the specific heat and density placing temperature. In similar fashion the
respectively of the concrete and (Cal/gm) is heat-generating characteristic of Types 2 and 4
the 28-day measured heat generation of the cement correspond closely to that of Type 1
cement by heat of hydration as per ASTM cement at 10 and 20 F lower placing temperatures,
C 186. For a concrete mix containing 376 lb respectively. Fig. 3.4 shows that a large range of
of cement per cu yd: Ha = 0.76 (Cal/gm) in F. concrete member sizes and placing conditions will
The total quantity of heat generated at any age peak in 15 to 18 hr time. The approximate maxi-
is directly proportional to the quantity of cement mum temperature rise for concrete members
in the concrete mix. When fly ash or other poz- containing four bags (376 lb) of Type 1 cement
zolans are used the total quantity of heat gen- for placing temperatures ranging from 50 to 100 F
erated is directly proportional to an equivalent are given in Fig. 3.5 assuming ambient air tem-
cement content (Ceq) which is the total quantity peratures equal to placing temperatures. Correc-
of cement plus a proportion of total pozzolan tions are r e qui red for different types and
content. The contribution of pozzolans to heat quantities of cementitious materials. A correction
generation as equivalent cement varies with age of
concrete, type of pozzolan, the fineness of the DIFFUSIVITY = 1.2 sq. ft.iday (1120 cm2/day)
pozzolan compared to the cement, and heat gen-
erating characteristics of the cement and pozzolan VOLUlvlE TO SURFACE RATIO
IN METERS
itself. It is best determined by testing the com- 0.5 1.0
bined portions of pozzolan and cement for fineness
and heat of hydration and treating the blend in
the same fashion as a type of cement. In general
the relative contribution of the pozzolan as :i! 6 1---+--\---+--+'---1 -~-+--- 1--¥---.4
OJ
equivalent cement increases with age of concrete, f-
<t
~ 5 1--+--1---1--+---+-----1--+
fineness of pozzolan compared to cement, and
~~
with lower heat generating cements. Fly ash is ~;3 4 I--+-+-+-+--l-~'-"::
generally lower in fineness, water requirements, "z
~-
and heat contribution than other pozzolans. The ::: 3 1---+--\---+-~1--~~--+~
o
early age heat contribution of fly ash may con- w
~ 2 1---+-~~4-~-¥=--jC7"'=-+-
servatively be estimated to range between 15 and
35 percent as equivalent cement while· other
pozzolans may contribute from 5 to 10 percent
more depending on the pozzolan. In general the o~~~IC~~~LL~~~
234 5 6 7 B 9 10
low percentages correspond to combined finenesses VOLUME TO SURFACE RATIO
IN FEET
of fly ash and cement as low as two-third to
three-fourth of the cement alone while the higher
Fig. 3.4-Effect of placing temperature and exposure on
percentages correspond to finenesses equal to or age of peak temperature. Type I cement. Air tempera-
grea ter than the cement alone. ture equals placing temperature
207-50 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
""
90
0.5 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
\ \\1\ '\
1.0 ::J
>-
<1:
~ 80
30
0:;
Ww
>->- \ 1\\ \
:1:>-
-2
"'w
"'-
o~
70
60 1\ \ \\ \ I~
25
0::<1:
0 0
\ \ \ ,\
""
02
~<1: 50 t---
u..
o
40 _.- 0::'"
02
~u 40
\ \ \ ~ ""~ f---
<I
~~ ~ f--
~ 20 oU
w >-Q.
\
""
2
t5~
U)
cc w 30
~ 30 '"cc Uw
O::u "- ~ ,,~3DOYtl
~ '<---.[tl.
W
::J w Q. 2w
, Do ~ r:--
_ r--
----
>- 15 a: f{
20 ~
~
<1: ::J
~ TEMPERATURES
>-
<1: r'--___ ~I-
:;
~ 20
~ 0
u.. 10
ai 0
10 >- I I I J
o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
from the values used herein depending on the 7 of Table 1.4.1 of "Recommended Practice for
aggregate. Cold Weather Concreting" by ACI Committee
In the design of reinforcement for exterior re- 306. 8 These minimums establish the lowest placing
straint to volume change, it is more convenient to temperatures for consideration. Placing tempera-
design only for temperature change rather than tures for spring and fall can reasonably be con-
for temperature and shrinkage volume change; sidered to be a bou t half way between the summer
therefore, it is desirable to express drying shrink- and winter placing temperatures.
age in terms of an equivalent change in concrete The minimum expected final temperatures of
temperature. Creep can be expected to significant- concrete elements are as varied as their prolonged
ly reduce the stresses induced by drying shrinkage exposure conditions. We are primarily concerned
because of the long period required for full drying with the final or operating exposure conditions
shrinkage to develop. We have therefore assumed since cracks which may form or open during
a potential drying shrinkage of 150 millionths and colder construction conditions may be expected
an expansion coefficient of 5 X lO-n as a basis in to close during operating conditions provided steel
establishing the following formula for equivalent stresses remain in the elastic range during con-
temperature drop. We also assume that when the struction conditions. Heated interiors would rarely
drying path (V I S) is more than 15 in. shrinkage be heated to temperatures less than 60 F and
will not effect external restraint calculations. closed unheated interiors would rarely fall below
50 F. Minimum concrete temperatures can be con-
TDS = (30 - 2;)(W\oo125) (3.2) servatively taken as the average minimum ex-
posure temperature occurring during a period of
where: approximately one week. The mass temperature of
W" = the unit water content of the fresh con- earth or rock against concrete walls or slabs forms
crete but not less than 225 lbs a heat source which affects the average tempera-
V = the total volume in cu in. ture of concrete members depending upon the
cooling path or volume to surface ratio of the
S = the area of the exposed surface in sq in.
concrete. This heat source can be assumed to
effect a constant temperature T" at some point 8
3.3-Temperature
to 10 ft from the exposed concrete face.
In many structures the most important tem-
The minimum temperature of concrete against
perature considerations are the average air tem-
earth or rock mass can be approximated by:
peratures during and immediately following the
placement of concrete, and the minimum average
temperature in the concrete which can be ex- T . -T 1
,111,11 - .'
+ ~Q'~-=T·I).
3 11/vl~
96
(3.3)
pected during the life of the structure. The tem-
perature rise due to hydration may be small, where:
particularly in thin exposed members, regardless TA = the minimum expected average ambient
of the type or amount of cement used in the mix air temperature in deg F over a prolonged ex-
if placing and cooling conditions are right. On posure period of approximately one week.
the other hand, the same member could have a T,lf would vary from approximately 40 to 60 F
high temperature rise if placed at high tempera- (4 to 16 C) depending on climate.
ture in insulated forms. V I S = the volume to exposed surface ratio in
Specifications usually limit the maximum and in.
mmlmum placing temperatures of concrete.
"Recommended Practice for Hot Weather Con- 3.4-Heat dissipation and cooling
creting" by ACI Committee 605 7 recommends a Means of determining the dissipation of heat
maximum placing temperature of 90 F, but sug- from bodies of mass concrete are discussed in
gests placing temperature of 60 F as desirable. The Reference 1 and can readily be applied to massive
placing temperature of concrete during hot reinforced structures. Reinforced elements or
weather may exceed the mean daily ambient air structures do not generally require the same
temperature from 5 to 10 F unless measures are degree of accuracy in determining peak tempera-
taken to cool the aggregate or the concrete. Cor- tures as unreinforced mass concrete. In unrein-
rections should be made for the difference in air forced mass concrete peak temperatures are
temperature and placing temperature using Fig. determined for the purpose of preventing cracking.
3.6. The maximum placing temperature in summer In reinforced concrete cracking is presumed to
should be the high average summer temperature occur and the consequences of overestimating or
for a given locality but not more than 90 F. underestimating the net temperature rise is usual-
Minimum temperature requirements for the ly minor compared to the overall volume change
first 72 hr after placing concrete are given in line consideration. Sufficient accuracy is normally ob-
207-52 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
tained by use of charts or graphs such as Fig. 3.5 When the placing temperature is higher, the op-
to quickly estimate the net temperature rise for posite effect is obtained. As an example assume
concrete members cooling in a constant tempera- for an ambient air temperature of 75 F that the
ture environment equal to the placing tempera- placing temperature of a 4 ft thick wall 12 ft
ture, and by use of Fig. 3.6 to account for the high is 60 F instead of 75 F. The (V IS) ratio
difference in the actual and assumed cooling en- would be 3.4 ft assuming wooden forms. The age
vironment. for peak temperature would be 2.3 days from Fig.
Fig. 3.5 gives the maximum temperature rise for 3.4. From Fig. 3.6, 50 percent of the heat difference
concrete containing 376 lb of Type I portland will be absorbed or 7.5 F; therefore, the base
cement per cu yd of concrete in terms of volume temperature or the effective placing temperature
to surface ratio of the member. Volume to surface for determining temperature rise will be 68 F. If
ratio actually represents the average path length no cooling methods are used the actual placing
through which heat is dissipated from the con- temperature of the concrete will be 85 F, the age
crete. The average path length will always be less of peak temperature would be 1 day, and the base
than the minimum distance between faces. In temperature or effective placing temperature for
determining the volume to surface ratio consider determining temperature rise will be 81 F.
only the surface area exposed to air or cast against
forms. Steel forms, without insulation can be 3.5-Summary and examples
ignored; however, wood forms or steel forms with The maximum effective temperature change
insulation must be considered in the minimum constitutes the summation of three basic tempera-
flow direction on the basis of the effective increase ture determinations. They are: (1) the difference
in flow length due to the insulating effect. Each between effective placing temperature and the
in. of wood has an equivalent insulating value of temperature of final or operating exposure con-
about 20 in. of concrete but can, for convenience, ditions, (2) the temperature rise of the concrete
be assumed equivalent to 2 ft of additional con- due to hydration, and (3) the equivalent tem-
crete. Any faces farther apart than 20 times the perature change to compensate for drying shrink-
thickness of the member can be ignored as con- age. Measures for making these determinations
tributing to heat flow. Volume to surface ratio were previously discussed, therefore, the following
can best be determined by multiplying the cal- example problems employ most of the calculations
culated volume to surface ratio of the member, required in determining the maximum effective
excluding the insulating effect of forms by the temperature change.
ratio of the minimum flow path including forms Example 3.1-A 2 ft wide retaining wall with
divided by the minimum flow path excluding rock base and backfill on one side; 20 ft high, and
forms. For slabs, the V IS ratio should not exceed 100 ft long placed in two 10 ft lifts, wood forms;
three fourths of the slab thickness. While multi- summer placing with concrete cooled to 60 F; con-
ple lift slabs are not generally classed as rein- crete mix designed for a specified strength of 3000
forced slabs, the V IS ratio should not exceed the
psi or average strength of 3700 psi at 90 days con-
height of lift if ample time is provided for cooling
tains 215 lb of Type II cement (adiabatic curve
lifts. same as Fig. 3.1), 225 lb of fly ash and 235 lbs of
The temperature rise for other types of cement water per cu yd.
and for mixes containing differing quantities of 1. Determine the volume to surface ratio
cement or cement plus pozzolan from 376 lb can
be proportioned as per Section 3.1 above.
V IS = (22(10)
(10)
+ 2 )2---2-
+ 4 = 2.7 ft
Fig. 3.6 accounts for the difference in placing
temperatures and ambient air temperatures. Vol- 2. Determine the difference between effective
ume to surface ratios for Fig. 3.6 should be iden- placing temperature and final exposure tem-
tical to those used with Fig. 3.5. In all previous perature:
temperature determinations the placing tempera- (a) Establish ambient air temperature for
ture has been assumed equal to ambient air tem- summer placement based on locality.
perature. This is often not the case because of Assume 75 F average temperature
the cooling measures required for the concrete
(b) Concrete peaks at 2 days from Fig. 3.4.
during hot weather and the heating measures re-
Using Fig. 3.6 the heat absorbed for a
quired during cold weather. When the placing
V IS = 2.7 is approximately 60 percent
temperature of concrete is lower than the average
ambient air temperature, heat will be absorbed (c) Net effective placing temperature
by the concrete such that only a proportion of the =
T pli 60 + 0.6 (15) =
69 F
original temperature difference will be effective (d) Establish minimum exposure tempera-
in lowering the peak temperature of the concrete. ture for I-week duration. Assume 20 F
CRACKING OF MASSIVE CONCRETE 207-53
(e) For final exposure conditions V IS equals above the ambient temperature of 75 For
approximately 24 in. since heat flow is Tp= 85 F
restricted to one direction by the back- (b) Concrete peaks at 18 hr ±
fill. For two faces exposed V IS would Heat dissipated = 0.36 (10) = 4 F
equal approximately 12 in. ... Heat absorbed = 6 F
(f) Tmin = 20 F + 2fa (60-20) -y 24/96 = 33.5 F, (c) Effective placing temperature T pE = 75
say 34F + 6 = 81F
(d) Minimum = 34 F
(g) Difference = 69 - 34 F = 35 F (e) Difference = 81 - 34 = 47 F
3. Determine the temperature rise: 2. (a) Temperature rise from Fig. 3.5 for V IS
(a) From Fig. 3.5 the temperature rise for an = 2.7 and effective placing temperature
effective placing temperature of 69 F of 86F = 34F
and V I S of 2.7 = 25 F (b) Correction for cement
From Fig. 3.2, difference in fineness of
(b) Correction for Type II cement peaking at
2000 VIS 1800 cm2/gm @ 11/2 days =
2 days = Tc = 5040 (25) = 20 F 58/52 = 1.12
Temperature difference for heat of solu-
(c) Correction for mix. Ceq = 215 + 2!5 = 272 tion = 0.76 (94 - 87) = 5 F
Ha @ 1% days=1.12 (45+5) =56F
(272)
Ib TC+F = 20 F (376) = 14.5 F, say 15 F
.'. Correction = :~ (34) = 42 F
4. Determine the equivalent temperature for
drying shrinkage. Since VIS for final expo- . 5 (42)
(c) CorrectIOn for cement content = -4"
sure conditions is greater than 15 in. no
additional temperature considerations are re- =52F
quired for external restraint considerations 3. No addition for drying shrinkage
4. The maximum effective temperature change
5. The maximum effective temperature change
TE = 35 + 15 F = 50 F TF = 47 + 52 = 99 F
Examp Ie 3.2-Same wall as Example 1 except In comparing the above two examples the cool-
that no cooling measures were taken and the ing measures accounted for a net temperature
concrete mix contains 5 bags of a Type 1 cement difference of 20 F and the differences in concrete
having a turbidimeter fineness of 2000 cm 2/gm mixes accounted for a net difference of 29 F for
and 28-day heat of solution of 94 call gm. a combined difference of 49 F which constitutes a
1. (a) With no cooling measures the placing 98 percent increase in volume change for Example
temperature could be as much as 10 F 2 over Example 1 for the same retaining wall.
CHAPTER 4-PROPERTIES
4.1-General they have when concrete stresses in the elastic
range are low and crack spacing is con trolled
This chapter discusses the principle properties
primarily by volume change.
of massive concrete which affect the control of
The dimensions of massive reinforced concrete
cracking and provides guidance to evaluate those
sections are often set by criteria totally unrelated
properties.
to the strength of concrete. Such criteria often
is based on stability requirements where weight
4.2-Strength requirements and not strength is of primary importance; on
The dimensions of normal structural concrete arbitrary requirements for water tightness per
are usually determined by structural requirements ft of water pressure; on stiffness requirements
utilizing 28-day strength concrete of 3000 psi or for the support of large pieces of vibrating ma-
more. When these dimensions are based on con- chinery where the mass itself is of primary im-
crete stresses in the elastic range which approach portance; or on shielding requirements as found
ACI 318 Code limitations, the spacing of cracks in nuclear power plants. Once these dimensions are
will be primarily influenced by flexure, and the established they are then investigated using an
resultant steel stresses induced by volume change assumed concrete strength to determine the rein-
will normally be small in comparison with flex- forcement requirements to sustain the imposed
ural stresses. Under these conditions volume con- loadings. In slabs the design is almost always con-
trol measures do not have the significance that trolled by flexure. In walls the reinforcement re-
207-54 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
J f~ = 2000 psi
Most massive reinforced concrete members sub-
jected to flexural stress will have steel ratios in
100 ~ e/d= CO
f~ ::: 3000 psi J the range of 0.0015 to 0.002 in the tensile face.
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 Fig. 4.1 shows that in this range reinforced con-
P = As/bd
RATIO OF TENSILE STEEL IN PERCENT
crete in flexure is capable of sustaining up to
85 percent of the structural capacity of 3000 psi
Fig. 4.1 Effect of concrete strength on ultimate capacity concrete with concrete strengths as low as 1000
fy 60,000 psi = psi. Construction loadings rarely control design
quirements are usually controlled by flexure or by and a 15 percent increase in safety factor for con-
minimum requirements as load bearing partitions. struction loadings will also not likely control.
Shear rarely controls except in the case of canti- Therefore, for massive reinforced sections within
levered retaining walls or structural frames in- these limits a simple restriction of limiting im-
volving beams and columns. posed flexural loads until the concrete achieves
a minimum compressive strength of 1000 psi
In flexure the strength of massive reinforced
should be adequate.
sections is controlled almost entirely by the rein-
forcing steel. The effect of concrete strength on It should be obvious from the above that for
structural capacity is dependent on the quantity massive reinforced concrete a much higher per-
of reinforcing steel (steel ratio) and the relation- cent of strengths less than design strength can be
ship of direct load to bending moment. If the tolerated without incroaching on structural safety
eccentricity of the loading with respect to mem- than can be allowed for normal structural con-
ber depth (e/ d) is greater than 2, Fig. 4.1 shows crete containing high steel ratios. From Fig. 4.1
the relationship of required concrete strength to a minimum strength of 2000 psi results is less than
structural capacity for steel ratios up to 0.005 an 8.5 percent loss in ultimate capacity compared
using 3000 psi as the base for strength comparison. with 3000 psi strength.
For steel ratios less than 0.005, there is no sig- As previously mentioned, shear strength may
nificant increase in structural capacity with high- control the thickness of a cantilevered retaining
er strength concretes within the eccentricity wall. The strength of concrete in shear is ap-
limits of the chart. Most massive concrete walls proximately proportional to Vf/ and, therefore,
and slabs will fall within the chart limits. the loss in shear strength of a given member is
The principal reason for consideration of the greater than the loss in flexural strength for a
effects of lower concrete strengths concerns the given reduction in compressive strength. The
early loading of massive sections and the pre- design loading for a wall sized on the basis of
eminent need in massive concrete to control the shear strength is the load of the backfill and
heat of hydration of the concrete. If design load- rarely will construction schedules allow the lower
ing is not to take place until the concrete is 90 or lifts to attain 90 to 180 days strength before com-
180 days old, there is no difficulty using pozzolans pletion of the backfill is needed. Since shear at
in designing low heat-generating concrete of the base of the wall upon completion of the back-
3000 psi at these ages. Such concrete will, how- fill controls, a design based on 2000 psi will require
ever, have significantly lower early strengths for approximately a 22 percent wider base. For tap-
sustaining construction loadings. Normally, the ered walls this would only mean a 11 percent
designer only investigates those construction loads increase in total volume. The 22 percent increase
which exceed operational live loads and usually in base wall thickness would allow a 30 to 35
allows for a somewhat smaller factor of safety for percent reduction in bending steel requirements
CRACKING OF MASSIVE CONCRETE 207-55
'PROPORTIONED FOR MAXIMUM STRENGTH GAIN
(using USD) which would directly offset the cost
TYPE IT CEMENT
of the added concrete volume, possibly resulting
in a lower overall cost for the wall. By restricting
the placing of backfill against any lift until it
has obtained a minimum strength of 1000 psi and ii!
restricting completion of backfill until the first §6
lift has attained 2000 psi, a reasonable schedule ~ 51---4--~--+---~
for backfill with respect to concrete construction l-
e?
Z
can be established. A 2000 psi strength require- ~ 4
ti;
ment at 28 days works conveniently with this ~ 3~~--~~~~L-~~
type of construction requirements and will provide o
sufficient strength for durability under most ex- ~~ 2~~~~~~--~~--~-
o
posure conditions particularly if 90 day strengths '"
exceed 3000 psi.
2
4.3-Tensile strength 28 DAY STRENGTH IN 1000 PSI
It also should be based on probable strength as effect on the change in concrete volume which
discussed in Section 4.3. may be expected and should be determined in
the laboratory using job materials in advance of
4.5-Creep design, if possible. Reference 1 discusses these
Creep is particularly related to elastic modulus properties in detail and presents a broad range of
at the time of loading and to the length of time measured values.
under load. It is also affected by the age of the Where laboratory tests are not available, it is
concrete at the time of loading and by the volume recommended that the thermal coefficient of ex-
to surface ratio. Its primary effect is, as noted in pansion be assumed as 5 X 10- 6 in. per in. per F
Section 4.3, the relief of drying shrinkage stresses for calcareous aggregate, 6 X 10-1> in. per in. per F
in small elements. In general, when maximum for silicious aggregate concrete, and 7 X 10-6 in.
temperature changes occur over a relatively short per in. per F for quartzite aggregate.
time period, creep can only slightly modify tem- A diffusivity of 1.2 sq ft per day has been as-
perature stresses. sumed in the preparation of Fig. 3.4, 3.5, and 3.6.
A concrete of higher or lower diffusivity will have
4.6-Thermal properties of concrete the effect respectively of decreasing or increasing
The thermal properties of concrete are coeffici- the volume to surface ratio, and can be accounted
ent of expansion, conductivity, specific heat and for by multiplying the actual V IS ratio by 1.2 di-
diffusivity. These properties have a significant vided by the measured concrete diffusivity.
CHAPTER 6-APPUCATION
6.1-General w X 10 3
The determination of restraint, volume change,
fs = 0.076 -ijd,A (in ksi) (6.2)
appropriate concrete properties and crack widths where:
have been discussed. They will now be combined w is the permissible crack width.
for calculation of steel areas. Exterior loads which 6.3.1 Continuous external restraint-Members
induce tensile stress in the concrete in addition to subject to continuous restraint at their bases or
those induced by volume change must also be on one or more edges will crack under continuing
accounted for in steel area calculations. volume change as described in Section 2.2.2. Cracks
are not uniform and will vary in width through-
6.2-Volume change plus flexure out the height of the member with the maximum
The change in stress ofs induced by a decrease crack opening occurring just above the top of the
in volume of flexural members spanning between
supports (discussed in Section 2.3.1) should be
CD
added directly to the service load stress and crack
width checked as per Sections 5.2 and 5.3. In
lieu of crack width, ACI 318-71 checks a value
of z:
z = f., -v'd,A (6.1)
with the notation as in 318-71.
For normal structural concrete as opposed to mas-
sive concrete, the value of z should be limited to CONTINUOUS BASE RESTRAINT
SEQUENCE OF CRACK PROPAGA TION
175 for normal interior exposure, 145 for normal
exterior, and 100 for severe exposure conditions.
For massive reinforced concrete the combined
stresses should be limited by crack width based on
Chapter 5. In addition the minimum ratio of ten- TENSION IN CONCRETE
sile steel reinforcement for massive concrete
H----.-1f==1>\·~}.d.X
should not be less than 0.0015.
f
6.3-Volume change without flexure
1_ _ _ _...
' S 8
(6.3)
(h / U 0.2 ~-- .~+--+-+--.
for Lin ft
If the average crack spacing equals L' then NL'
=L and:
L' - W (6.4)
-18 (KliCTT E - iT' /Ee)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 It is necessary to calculate the above required
DESIGN TEMPERATURE DROP IN OF average crack spacing to determine the required
C ;:; 5 x 10· 5 per OF
T
restraining moment to be supplied by the rein-
FOR OTHER COEFFICIENTS OF THERMAL EXPANSION:
forcing steel. Cracking throughout a member may
or may not extend the full height of the mem-
Fig. 6.2-Wall height requiring maximum temperature ber, depending on the L/H relationship (see Fig.
and shrinkage reinforcement as a ratio of base length 6.1). When cracks extend only a portion of the
height only the reinforcing steel below the top
~
ALLOWABLE MAXIMUM CRACK WIDTH
DESIGN TEMPERATURE IN °c
0.009"
of the crack is effective in contributing to the
o 10 20 ' 30 40 50 internal restraint moment. (From Fig. 6.1, the in-
ternal restraint moment between full block cracks
0.007 f---r--\--+--t----t--: +
= To x As'f,h}/2.) Even when some cracks do
~I.:r 0.006 1--+_-/-_+-_' extend the full height others extend only part
way so that the same situation applies between
0.005 1---+--l--+--I1'- full height cracks. For this reason reinforcement
is more effectively distributed if the wall is ex-
0.004 I--+--/--+-Hr-f--rf-
amined at several locations above the base to de-
0.003 f-- --+--l--++--j~-+t--+-t-r- termine the average crack spacing required at
each location corresponding to the degree of re-
straint (Kn) at each distance h from the base. The
0.001 I---+--j---f+-I-H--ft--I--'l--!-+---j--\----I additional restraining moment (As'f,hc~) /2 re-
OL-~_LL~LL~L-~~~_LL~_~~ quired of the reinforcing steel between the point h
10· 20" 30· 40· 50· 60· 70· 80· 90· 100·
and the restrained base to produce the required
DESIGN TEMPERATURE IN OF
C = 5 x 10·t> per OF
T crack spacing L' at h can be conservatively deter-
de = 2 1/2", A = 600," fs = 22.3 ksi, f1 = 420 PSI
mined by substituting h for H in Eq. (2.2).
FOR PROPORTIONING TO OTHER COVER THICKNESS
AND CONCRETE STRENGTH:
PPI = 53 P(f /fsl(2) t
Mnli = 0.20 f/Bh2 (1 - ;~) (6.5)
where:
N H = the total number of bars in the h dis-
tance above the base
Ab = the size of bars required in each face of
the walL (As'h/NH) = Ab
:g
As the distance h from the base increases, steel
requirements will first increase and then decrease. '<;2'""'
0.
0.003
Maximum steel requirements depend on base f-
~l
«
length, effective temperature drop and coefficient 0:
...J
W
of thermal expansion. Fig. 6.2 gives the point of w
f-
en
maximum steel requirements in terms of base 0
w
length and design temperature for a coefficient 0:
5
0
of thermal expansion of 5 X 10-:; in. per in. per F w
0:
(9 X 10-5 cm per cm per C). The same curve can
be used for other expansion coefficients by using
another design temperature equal to C7,TE /5 X 10-5 •
Fig. 6.2 also provides the point h above which
o
only minimum steel is required. Recommendations 10° 20° 30· 40° 50° 60° 70° 80· 90° 100°
for minimum steel requirements are given in Sec- DESIGN TEMPERATURE IN OF
FOR C = 5 X 10. 5 per OF
tion 6.4. Only minimum steel is required where T
U is greater than 2h. Fig. 6.3, 6.4, and 6.5 give the de 2 1/2"; A = 60 "; fs = 32.2ksi; fi = 420 psi
maximum steel requirements in terms of crack FOR OTHER COVER THICKNESS AND CONCRETE STRENGTH:
width, effective temperature drop, and base length Pm = 77 If;/fsl'2I
for concrete walls having a C r = 5 X 10-5 per F.
These figures can be used to proportion steel re- FOR OTHER COEFFICIENTS OF THERMAL EXPANSION:
T(2) =C T (2) T/5x 10-
5
quirements in place of the multiple calculations
described above with only slightly higher total
Fig. 6.4--Maximum temperature and shrinkage reinforce-
steel quantities being required. The maximum ment walls with fixed bases
height "h" over which these steel quantities are
required can be determined from Fig. 6.2. Above
ALLOWABLE MAXIMUM CRACK WIDTH = 0.016"
h, only minimum steel is required. Requirements DESIGN TEMPERATURE IN °c
for concrete properties and cover distances other o 10 20 30 40 50
than noted can be proportioned as shown.
For slabs with continuous base restraint or wans
with one side continuously restrained:
~
N B = the total number of bars in the free face t;;
of the slab or wall. 80:
5 0.001
In the case of relatively thick slabs, the amount 8a:
of reinforcement required in the top face of the
slab may be reduced by including the effect of the
reinforcement in the sides. For this: o.
o 10 60 70 80 90 100
ft'( U) (H-t)
Ab=O.20-f.1-2H
BH
N
DESIGN TEMPERATURE IN OF
, N H +-fn Ii
(6.8) de =
C = 5 x 10:) per OF
T
2 1/2", A = 60 ", fs = 39.6 ksi, Ii = 420 psi
In applying the above formulas to relatively FOR OTHER COEFFICIENTSOF THERMAL EXPANSION:
large masses the amount of reinforcement required TI2I = CTI2I T/5 x 10"
not practical in controlling the crack widths of more than the surface stress due to the annual
very large externally restrained masses, and for change in temperature. The depth of tensile stress
these structures the principles of mass concrete block for the daily temperature fluctuations was
construction described in Reference 1 must be less than 2.5 ft in the example. If this is assumed
followed to control cracking. The above formulas as the maximum depth of the critical restraint
for crack spacing, however, can be utilized to plane for internal restraint, then a maximum sur-
establish a somewhat higher allowable tempera- face crack spacing in large masses of approxi-
ture drop than normally used for mass concrete mately 5 ft can be expected. If CTT B , usi.ng the
by acknowledging an acceptable crack. This can maximum normal daily temperature fluctuation
be seen in the design temperatures corresponding for T B, is less than w /12L', for L' in ft, then no
to zero steel requirements for the lengths of wall surface reinforcement is required (Note L' should
shown in Fig. 6.3 through 6.5. not be taken as more than 5 ft). If C'I'TF) > w112L'
Design temperatures in unrein forced sections then the minimum steel requirements of Section
should be kept approximately 10 F less than indi- 6.4 should probably be utilized.
cated for zero steel requirements because of the When internal restraint results from exposure
apparent sensitivity of crack widths to tempera- of projecting elements from warm interiors, such
ture in the cracking temperature range. Table as slabs projecting through exterior walls or walls
6.3.1 is based on this criteria. projecting out of the ground, determine the depth
of the tensile stress block and restraint factor as
TABLE 6.3.I-DESIGN TEMPERATURE LIMITS FOR outlined in Section 2.4.1. If the required average
UNREINFORCED CONCRETE WALLS (FOR LIMITING crack spacing is less than twice the depth of the
CRACKS TO 0.009 IN.) tensile stress block determine the size of bars to
be distributed throughout the tensile stress block
Contraction Coefficient of thermal expansion X 10-5 by:
joint
spacing
ft 4 5 6 7 1 ft' Bd.,
Ab = 3 fs 1\T (6.10)
HJT
100 30F 24 F 20F 17 F
where:
60 37 F 30F 25F 21 F
40 44 F 29F
NH = the total number of bars distributed
35 F 25 F
20 62F 50 F 42 F
throughout d s
36 F
cracking of mass concrete provided the environ- Design for limited leakage by limiting crack width
mental conditions are such that cracking from in- to 0.009 in. and determine required wall thickness
ternal restraint as discussed in Section 6.3.3 is not and reinforcement for the following conditions:
significant. (a) Design for 3000 psi at 28 days and use the
5 bag mix of Example 3.2
6.S-Design procedure (b) Same as (a) except contraction joints
spaced 67 ± ft apart
The basic procedure for problem solving is: (c) Design for 2000 psi at 28 days using mix of
1. Determine the maximum effective tempera- Example 3.1, no contraction joints and con-
ture as outlined in Section 3.5 crete cooled to 60 F placing temperature
2. Determine the restraint characteristics of the 6.1 (a)
element or structure as outlined in Chapter 2 Step l.l-The minimum thickness of the wall
3. Determine the physical properties of the con- at the base is 40 in. based on shear requirements
crete; tensile strength, elastic modulus, and for 3000 psi concrete. Assume wall tapers to a
coefficien t of thermal expansion as outlined maximum thickness of 18 in. at the top
in Chapter 4 Step 1.2-VIS ratio (assume 10 ft lifts and
wooden forms). Average thickness for first two
4. Determine the allowable maximum crack
lifts = 3 ± ft
width from Section 5.2 or by some other es-
tablished criteria
5. Determine the area of steel required to main-
VIS - (_~QQL)..L+_~
- 2 (10) +3 3
- .~ - 31 ft-l-
- 23 - . -
tain cracking at the acceptable level Step 1.3-Assuming a placing temperature of
(a) For members subject to continuous ex- 90 F without cooling measures, the effective plac-
ternal edge restraint determine the re- ing temperature using Fig. 3.6 is 84 F ±
quired average crack spacing for the Step l.4-The final temperature using formula
height of slab or height intervals of 5 to 10 3.3 is 54 F
ft above the base of walls as per Section Step 1.5-The temperature rise following Ex-
6.3.2. Where the required crack spacing is ample 3.2 is 52 F
less than the spacing of joints provide rein- Step 1.6-The design temperature equals 84 +
forcement as per Section 6.3.2. In lieu of 52 - 54 = 82 F
this the reinforcement in walls may be
Step 2-Restraint (Fig. 2.1)
proportioned using Fig. 6.2 through 6.5.
When the element or member is of suf- Step 3-Physical properties, t/ @ 6 months =
ficient size to require unreasonable 5000 psi .'. t/ = 6\r5000 =
420 psi, assume C'J' =
amounts of reinforcement then additional 5 X 10-6 in./in./deg F and tT'IE" = 105 X 10-6 in./
measures will be required to control vol- in.
ume changes as recommended in Refer- Step 4-Limiting crack width = 0.009 in.
ence 1 Step 5 (b) -f., = 22 ksi for 2% in. cover and 12
(b) For discontinuous external or end re- in. spacing of bars from Eq. (6.2). Using Fig.
straint, reinforcement will be required if: 6.2 and Fig. 6.3, maximum temperature and
w L LCTT/iJ. If the member is subject to shrinkage reinforcement is required for full height
flexure determine the change in steel of wall for average thickness of 33 in.
stress as per Section 6.2. If not determined
KR Rein-
the steel requirements as per Section 6.3.2 (L= 200 ft) L' A" A" force-
h (it) B (in.) Fig. 2.1 6.4* U/2h 6.6* Fig. 6,3 ment
(c) For members subject to internal restraint --- -- --
provide reinforcement as per Section 6.3.3 5 40 0.90 1.9 0.19 1.46 1.44 #9@8
if the required average crack spacing is 10 36 0.84 2.1 0.10 1.45
less than twice the depth of the tensile 15 33 0.80 2.3 0.07 1.38
stress block 20 29 0.75 2.5 0.06 1.23
25 25 0.68 3.0 0.05 1.04 #9@12
The following example problems illustrate this
design procedure. 30 22 0.62 3.5 0.05 0.92 I
[1.3;·~ 3.2J + 4
-- -- - - --- 0
e3 [0.003] 9 [0.94]) = 6800 psi
5 48 0.90 17 it 1+ 0.43 0.70 #6@9
10 43 0.84 24 ft 1+ 0.39
... j, = 24,000 +
6800 = 30,800 psi
15 38 0.80 33 it 1+ 0.35 Note: This is less than allowable of 34,300 psi
20 33 0.75 0.30
I
therefore no additional steel is required for vol-
25 28 0.68 0.25 0.24 #4@1 ume change in the stress direction.
30 25 0.62 0.23 I I 6.2 (a)
,.
as Example 3.2
(b) Assume same concrete mix and conditions 0.20 (405) (1 _ 2.4) 12 (72) = 1.73 in. (6.7)
32,000 12 1
as Example 3.1
6.3 (a) Check
Step 1 - vis = 0.75 (6 ft) = 4.5 ft maximum I'::,. fs for flexure (2.5)
(a) Effective placing temperature using Fig. 3.6 I'::,. fs = 2 (0.9) (5 X 10-°) (91) (29 X lOG) = 23,800
TPE = 85 F - 0.4 (10) = 81 F± psi
(b) Temperature rise using Fig. 3.5 ~ f.. = 24,000 + 23,800 = 47,800 psi
For vis = 4.5 @ T PE = 81 F; temperature Since combined stress is greater than the allow-
rise = 39 F able additional steel is needed, however, maxi-
For vis = 2.7 @ T/,E = 81 F; temperature mum steel requirements will be less than 1.56 +
rise= 31 F 1.73 = 3.29 in./in. or #11@6 in. o.c. Assume final
:. Net temperature rise = 39/31 (52 F) = bar spacing of 7 in. o.c. for an allowable steel
65F
(c) Final temperature using Eq. (3.3) stress of 38,500 psi. As = 1.56 (38.5 ~ 23.8) =
TJi'=50+2h (60-50) "54/96=55F 2.55 in./1; #11@7 ... OK.
(d) Design temperature 6.3 (b)
TJ;] = 81 F+ 65 F -55 F = 91 F For Example (b) the design temperature would
Step 2-Restraint (Fig. 2.1) be 32 F and I'::,.j. = 8300 psi so that combined stress
Without contraction of expansion joints the length equals 32,300 psi which equals the allowable,
is unspecified therefore assume L/H is greater therefore no additional steel is needed for tem-
than 20 or KII = 0.9 maximum perature.
REFERENCES
1. ACI Committee 207, "Mass Concrete for Dams and 8. ACI Committee 306, "Recommended Practice for
Other Massive Structures," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings Cold Weather Concreting (ACI 306-66)," American
V. 67, No.4, Apr. 1970, pp. 273-309. Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1966, 25 pp.
2. "Measurements of the Structural Behavior of Nor- 9. ACI Committee 318, "Building Code Requirements
ris and Hiwassee Dams," Technical Monograph No. 67, for Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318-71)," American Con-
Tennessee Valley Authority, Knoxville, Aug. 1950, crete Institute, Detroit, 1971, 72 pp.
p. 420.
10. Tuthill, Lewis H., and Adams, Robert F., "Crack-
2a. "Control of Cracking in Mass Concrete Structures," ing Controlled in Massive, Reinforced Structural Con-
Engineering Monograph No. 34, U. S. Bureau of Rec- crete by Application of Mass Concrete Practices," ACI
lamation, Denver, 1965. JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 69, No.8, Aug. 1972, pp. 481-
3. Verbeck, George J., and Foster, Cecil W., "Long- 491.
Time Study of Cement Performance in Concrete, Chap- 11. Hognestad, Eivind, "High Strength Bars As
ter 6-The Heats of Hydration of the Cements," Concrete Reinforcement, Part 2, Control of Flexural
Proceedings, ASTM, V. 50, 1950, pp. 1235-1262. Cracking," Journal, PCA Research and Development
4. Carlson, Roy W., "Drying Shrinkage of Large Con- Laboratories, V. 4, No.1, Jan. 1962, pp. 46-63. Also,
crete Members," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 33, No. Development Department Bulletin D53, Portland Ce-
3, Jan.-Feb. 1937, pp. 327-336. ment Association.
5. Concrete Manual, U. S. Bureau of Reclamation, 12. Gergely, Peter, and Lutz, LeRoy A., "Maximum
Denver, 7th Edition, 1963, p. 17. Crack Width in Reinforced Concrete Flexural Mem-
6. Troxell, George Earl, and Davis, Harmer E., Com- bers," Causes, Mechanism, and Control of Cracking in
position and Properties of Concrete, McGraw-Hill Book Concrete, SP-20, American Concrete Institute, Detroit,
Company, New York, 1956, p. 236. 1968, pp. 87-117.
7. ACI Committee 605, "Recommended Practice for 13. ACI Committee 224, "Control of Cracking in Con-
Hot Weather Concreting (ACI 605-59)," American Con- crete Structures," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 69, No.
crete Institute, Detroit, 1959, 10 pp. 12, Dec. 1972, pp. 717-753.
207-64 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
APPENDIX-METRIC CONVERSIONS
GENERAL CONVERSION FACTORS Section 3.3
From to Multiply by Eq. (3.3)
in. cm 2.54
Section 4.3
ft m 0.3048
in. 2 cm 2 6.451
Y to' in psi 0.265Y ie' in kgf/cm2
in. 3 cm3 16.387 Section 4.4
ft 2 m2 0.0929 w1. 533W in psi w1.G (0.01368) :y fa' in kgf/cm2
-
these documents are desired to be part of the Project
Documents, they should be incorporated directly into the
Project Documents.
707-"0;
207-66 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
2.1 - Preeollstructioll evaluatioll 2.2.3 For hydraulic structures: Hydrostatic and hy-
Engineering data relating to design criteria, de- drodynamic loads
sign site conditions, purpose of project, and con- 2.2.4 Type of analysis: static, dynamic
struction planning and procedure should be collected
and arranged for ease of information retrieval. Docu- 2.3 - tOllcrete laboratory reeords
ments which are readily available can be assembled 2.3.1 Materials used
first. Data which are missing but deemed necessary 2.3.1.1 Cement
for evaluation can be identified. A suggested list of 2.3.1.1.1 Certified mill test records
data to be reviewed is as follows: 2.3.1.1.2 Additional physical and chemical properties
2.1.1 Project description document tests
2.1.1.1 For a hydroelectric plant, the Federal Energy 2.3.1.2 Pozzolan
Regulatory Commission (FERC) licensed application 2.3.1.2.1 Certified test records
2.1.1.2 For a nuclear plant, the Preliminary Safety 2.3.1.2.2 Physical and chemical properties
Analysis Report (PSAR) 2.3.1.3 Aggregates
2.1.1.3 All formal and final completion reports 2.3.1.3.1 Type and source(s)
2.1.2 Contract documents 2.3.1.3.2 Gradation
2.1.2.1 Contract documents: Technical specifications 2.3.1.3.3 Summary of properties as specified in
and drawings ASTM C33
2.1.2.2 As-built drawings 2.3.1.3.4 Results of tests for potential reactivity
2.1.2.3 Original issue drawings 2.3.1.3.5 Report of petrographic examination
2.1.3 Regional data 2.3.1.4 Water
2.1.3.1 Land use map showing location of structure 2.3.1.4.1 Mixing water quality tests
and its relation to surrounding localities 2.3.2 Concrete records
2.1.3.2 Topographic map of site and drainage area 2.3.2.1 Mix proportions
2.1.3.3 Geologic plans and sections 2.3.2.2 Water-cement ratio
2.1.3.4 Climatological data 2.3.2.3 Slump
2.1.3.5 Seismic data 2.3.2.4 Unit weight
2.1.3.6 Reservoir volume versus elevation curve 2.3.2.5 Temperature records
2.1.4 Site subsurface data 2.3.2.6 Records of strength tests
2.1.4.1 Logs of borings 2.3.2.7 Admixtures or air-entraining agents used,
2.1.4.2 Geological maps, profiles and cross sections percent air entrained.
2.1.4.3 Soils investigation, availability of test results
2.1.4.4 Foundation treatment reports 2.4 - Batch plallt alld field illspectioll records
2.1.4.5 Water table elevation 2.4.1 Storage and processing of aggregates
2.1.4.6 Geohydrologic data 2.4.1.1 Stockpiles
2.1.5 Site surface data 2.4.1.2 Rinsing and finish screeens for coarse aggre-
2.1.5.1 Control elevations gate
2.1.5.1.1 For buildings: Finished grade, basement, 2.4.1.3 Bins or silos
floors, roof, etc 2.4.2 Cement, pozzolan and admixture storage and
2.1.5.1.2 For dams and spillways: Crest, maximum handling
and minimum reservoir surface, outlet works, etc 2.4.3 Forms
2.1.6 Drainage 2.4.3.1 Type and bracing, tightness of joints
2.1.6.1 Details of drains in structure 2.4.3.2 Time interval for stripping
2.1.7 Environmental 2.4.4 Preparation and condition of construction joints
2.1.7.1 Temperatures: Maximum, minimum and mean 2.4.5 Mixing operation
daily 2.4.5.1 Type of batch plant
2.1.7.2 Precipitation, maximum and mean annual 2.4.5.2 Type of mixing equipment and mixing time
2.1.7.3 Average humidity, and range 2.4.5.3 Condition of equipment
2.1.7.4 Number of sunny days 2.4.5.4 Monitoring and control practices
2.1.7.5 Exposure: To sulfates from manufacturing 2.4.5.5 Any unscheduled interruptions due to plant
plant wastes or natural sources; to deleterious or- breakdown or weather
ganic acids from sewage or coal or cinder storage 2.4.5.6 Any scheduled seasonal interruption
piles; to deleterious atmospheric gases from nearby 2.4.6 Method of transporting concrete: Pumps,
industry chutes, conveyor belts, trucks, etc
2.4.7 Method of placing concrete in forms, including
vibrator types and number
2.2 - Deslgll criteria 2.4.8 Concrete protection
2.2.1 Design memorandum 2.4.8.1 Curing methods: Water ponding or spray;
2.2.2 Values of intermittent loadings, wind, temper- curing compounds; shading; starting time and dura·
ature impact, loads tion
207-68 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
The scope of the inspection should also include iden- available hand-held illuminated microscope with in-
tification of causes of deterioration. Methods and ternal scale divisions of 0.02 mm. When a series of
techniques for performing investigative work in con- measurements are to be made over a period of
nection with periodic inspections will be discussed in weeks or months, the measurement point location
detail in Chapters 4, 5, and 6. should be marked and the sharp edges of the crack
Documentation of the inspections should be on file protected by a thin coat of clear epoxy to avoid
with the responsible authority. breakage. If possible, the depth should be deter-
mined by observing edges or inserting a fine wire or
3.4 - IDspeetioD reports aUlId I'eeords feeler gage; however, in most situations the actual
The in-service inspection reports and records pre- depth may be indeterminable without drilling or use
viously described are in essence a history of the of other detection techniques such as the pulse ve-
project or structure from which future performance locity described in Chapter 5.
can be predicted. In addition to a qualitative descrip- The nature of the cracking should be defined in
tion, the information presented may supply actual common terminology which can be visualized by oth-
values which can be utilized in structural analysis ers less familiar with the structure. These terms, in
and comparison with the original design. addition to the classifications previously mentioned,
should also include such visual cracking terminology
as, pattern cracking, surface checking, hairline
cracking, and D-cracking.
A condition survey is a visual examination of ex- Conditions which may be associated with the
posed concrete for the purpose of identifying and de- cracking either over portions of the length or for the
fining areas of distress and may include examination entire length should be noted. These conditions may
of interior concrete. Conditions are described in com- include seepage through the cracks, deposits from
mon terminology which can later be perceived by leaching or other sources, carbonation of surfaces ad-
the Engineer. The appendix to the ACI Committee jacent to cracks, spalling of edges, differential move-
201 report, "Guide for Making a Condition Survey of ment (offsets), etc. Chemical analyses of the seepage
Concrete in Service," presents terms associated with water and the deposits may be desirable.
the durability of concrete and a series of photo-
graphs typical of these conditions. 6 This should be It may be worthwhile to repeat the survey under
reviewed prior to making a condition survey. ASTM various loading conditions when change in crack
C823, "Examination and Sampling of Hardened Con- width is suspected. Furthermore, tapping of surfaces
crete in Constructions," contains additional informa- with a hammer may detect shallow cracking beneath
tion useful in conducting a condition survey. and parallel to the surface. A hollow sound generally
indicates that such cracking is likely even though it
4.1 - {:I'aeidlilllg slillll'veys cannot be seen.
4.4.1 Scope - A cracking survey is an examination
of a concrete structure for the purpose of locating, 4.2 - Surfaee mappiDg
marking, and identifying cracks, and of the relation- 4.2.1 Scope - Surface mapping may consist of de-
ship of the cracks with the other destructive phe- tailed drawings produced from hand mapping, photo-
nomena. In most cases, cracking is the first symp- graphic or movie film mapping, or a combination of
tom of concrete distress. Hence, a cracking survey is these or similar techniques. Surface maps become
significant in evaluating the future serviceability of permanent record of the condition of the concrete at
the structure. Some cracks may occur at an early the time each survey is made and are an integral
age and may not be progressive; others may occur part of the report. Items most often identified and
at later ages and increase in extent with time; and mapped include: cracking, spalling, scaling, popouts,
some may occur following some unusual event.7,8 honeycombing, exudation, distortion, unusual dis-
4.1.2 Procedure - The initial step in making a crack coloration, erosion, cavitation, seepage, conditions of
survey is to locate and mark the cracking and define joints and joint materials, corrosion of reinforcement
it by type. The ACI Committee 201 report, cited (if exposed), and soundness of surface concrete.
previously, should be consulted and utilized. Cracks 4.2.2 Procedure - A list of items recommended for
are classified therein by direction, width and depth, surface mapping by hand is as follows:
using the following adjectives: longitudinal, trans- (a) Structure drawings, if available.
verse, vertical, diagonal, and random. The three (b) Clipboard and paper or field book.
width ranges suggested are: fine - generally less (c) Tape measure, 50 to 100 ft (15 to 30 m).
than 1 mm; medium - between 1 and 2 mm; and (d) Ruler graduated in 1116 in. or mm.
wide - over 2 mm. Width and depth can normally (e) Feeler gage.
be determined using an average of feeler gage read- (f) Pocket comparator or hand microscope.
ings or by readings from a suitable measure or (g) Knife.
pocket comparator. Highly accurate determination of (h) Hammer - 2 lb (1 kg).
crack widtli can be obtained with a commercially (i) Fine wire (not too flexible).
207-70 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
ture senses changes in rotation of the order of 10 These instruments are successors to the Corps of
sec of arc. This is comparable to the electrolevel pre- Engineers borehole camera which is no longer gener-
cision. ally available. The TV cameras are housed in 6 in.
4.6.8 Observation wells - Are simply open holes (150 mm) and 3 in. (75 mm) diameter probes, ca-
into the foundation in which water level measure- pable of remote focusing and aiming axially as well
ments can be taken to determine uplift pressure at as in a radial direction. The transmitted picture is
that location. continuously displayed on a scanner screen, and can
4.6.9 Piezometer - An instrument for measuring be supplemented by video recording for a permanent
pressure head. Generally, the piezometer consists of record. The camera assembly will resist hydrostatic
a pressure cell installed in a drill hole in the founda- heads up to 1300 ft (400 m) and the focusing capabil-
tion. ity will permit estimating the size of caverns or cav-
4.6.10 Vertical and horizontal control - Survey ities encountered. Turbidity of the water must be
points for line and level measurements are estab- controlled for best results. Both the Bureau of Rec-
lished at various locations on the structure for the lamation and Corps of Engineers have used this
purpose of measuring differential movements with technique with satisfactory results. 29
time. History plots of data, covering months or
years, may be necessary to differentiate between
normal and extreme or critical movements. Data 4.9 - Seepage
may reveal cycles associated with temperature or Seepage is the movement of water or other fluids
applied loading. Whenever possible, estimated val- through pores or interstices. Some structures may
ues of deformation or displacement should be devel- include design features to safely control seepage
oped, based on theoretical analyses using the best such as waterstops, sealed joints, cut off walls, grout
available data on materials, properties and parame- curtains, granular drains and drainage galleries.
ters. Observed values may indicate distress when These features should be checked to assure they are
the expected or normal movements are exceeded. functioning as designed. Seepage can be important
with respect to durability, can indicate failure of the
4. "I - Geopbysieallogging structure to function monolithically and may also in-
Several geophysical drill hole logging techniques dicate operating problems in water retention struc-
often used in the oil industry are available and may tures. Seepage occasionally occurs through unbonded
be utilized to provide supplemental data on the horizontal or vertical construction joints; around wa-
physical properties and condition of in-situ concrete. 9 terstops or sealants in expansion, contraction or con-
Geophysical logging consists of lowering various in- trol joints; along cracks; along the interface between
struments into an open drill hole; the type of in- concrete and some other material such as foundation
strument dependent on the type of measurement contacts, form bolt or tie holes, or other embedded
(log) to be developed. As the instrument is lowered to items; or through areas of porous low quality con-
or withdrawn from the bottom of the hole, an auto- crete.
matic recorder traces the log on graph paper. The Water from seepage may result in the devel-
recorder paper on which the log is traced moves on opment of excessive hydrostatic heads on portions of
a vertical scale with the instrument and measure- the structure, may attack the concrete chemically,
ments received from the instrument are plotted on provide excess moisture to produce mechanical fail-
the horizontal scale. In general, porosity and density ure during freeze-thaw cycles, or may transport un-
are the most common parameters derived from geo- desirable particles from the concrete or foundations.
physical logs. Porosity may be determined from sev- Analysis of seepage water can be used to evaluate
eral logs including Sonic, Density, and Neutron chemical activity. The appearance of seepage water,
Logs. Density can be directly obtained from the whether clear or cloudy, will indicate the presence of
Density Log. Also, the previously mentioned logs to- transported sediments or dissolved minerals. Deter-
gether with Resistivity and Caliper Logs provide a mination should also be made of the extent and the
graphic record of the uniformity of concrete through- quantity of seepage water if measurable.
out the depths examined. When drill hole core recov- Frequently, it is important to know the source and
ery is poor or is not practical, geophysical logging velocity of seepage. The source can sometimes be
can provide a method of locating cracks, voids, con- obtained by simple measurements comparing the
tacts and other discontinuities of significance. Log- temperature of seepage with groundwater or reser-
ging of drill holes and interpretation of logs should voir temperatures. Dye tests can be made utilizing
be done by firms which specialize in this exploration commercial dyes such as Rhodamine B (red) or Fluo-
technique. roscein (green) both of which are acceptable by the
DEQ (Department of Environmental Quality). The
4•• - Down bole TV camera dye is introduced into water at some location near
The condition of interior concrete and foundation the upstream face, in drill holes, or other appropri-
rock can be examined directly, and video-taped if de- ate accessible points. The location and time of
sired, by use of small transistorized TV cameras. reappearance will indicate the source of various
EVALUATION OF EXISTING MASSIVE STRUCTURES 207-73
seeps and will provide the velocity of dye move- Chapte.. :» - Nondest....etive testing
ment.
5.1- Seepe
Features designed to control seepage should be The purpose of nondestructive testing is to deter-
checked to assure they are in good conditions and mine the various properties of the concrete such as
functioning properly. strength, modulus of elasticity, homogeneity, integ-
rity, as well as conditions of strain and stress with-
out damaging the structure. Selection of the most
4.le - smaee da_age
applicable method or methods of testing will require
Surface damage may be caused by cavitation, im- good judgment based on the information needed,
pact, abrasion, freeze-thaw deterioration, chemical size and nature of the project, and the seriousness of
attack, etc. A survey of such damage should provide observed conditions.13.26 In-situ testing, if required,
information on the area affected, depth, and its na- normally should follow a condition survey. Generally
ture. Sections and profiles utilizing surveying tech- determination of the concrete properties is only nec-
niques are valuable in evaluating the extent and essary to further evaluate the effects of observed
depth of erosion. Notation of evidence in the areas of distress on the safety or serviceability of the struc-
damage commonly provide keys to diagnosing the ture. In-situ testing will provide parameters for
cause. Such evidence may be loose, semi-detached structural analysis by current analytical techniques
fragments, D-cracking, rock and debris piles, offsets for comparison with present day design require-
or protrusions, coloration, and overall condition of ments.
the damaged area and of the surrounding concrete.
These observations should be recorded. 5.2 - SUl'veying teehniques
During routine inspections only exposed surfaces
5.2.1 General - Although compressive strength and
modulus of elasticity, depending on the method used,
are generally surveyed. However, for periodic in-
can be estimated from the survey techniques de-
spections or for special observations deemed neces-
scribed in the following subsections, the accuracy of
sary during routine inspections, surfaces flooded, un-
these estimations are usually considered to be only
der water, or backfilled and underground should be
checked for surface damage by various methods. The relative based on the many factors which can in-
fluence the various measurements. The measure-
method selected may depend on the size and depth
ments of strength estimations may be greatly im-
of the area to be sur.veyed, conditions in the area, in-
cluding water depth, and whether maintenance work proved if they are correlated with test results on
will be done at the time of the inspection. Usual drilled core specimens from the same structure. The
methods used include excavation, dewatering the techniques described are valuable survey tools in
structure, observation by submerged closed circuit that results provide comparative values. When sur-
television camera mini-submarine inspection, diver veys are made at different times, changed conditions
inspection, and sounding. Dewatering or excavation can be detected and monitored.
are usually the most expensive and, therefore, are 5.2.2 Schmidt hammer - The Schmidt hammer, also
generally done only when there is concern about referred to as a Swiss, rebound, or impact hammer,
safety of the structure. is a lightweight portable instrument used for qual-
Failure to properly identify and correct surface itative measurement of in-place concrete strength.
damage can result in excessive wear or cavitation The greatest value of the hammer is for comparison
resulting in loss of the design hydraulic character- of indicated strength between different areas,
istics, mechanical equipment malfunction and, in ex- thereby detecting areas of potentially low strength.
treme cases, the loss of structural stability. The indicated strength is recorded on a built-in scale
which measures the rebound of a spring-driven
plunger after it strikes the concrete surface.
4.11 - I.llllt 81111'vey Rebound is affected by many factors such as the mix
Joints in massive structures should be surveyed to composition, aggregate properties, surface texture
assure they are in good condition and functioning as and curvature, moisture content, and mass of the
designed. 12 Location and type of each joint, whether concrete tested. Calibration by statistical correlation
expansion, contraction, or construction, should be with the strength of cores drilled from the structure
noted together with a description of its existing con- will indicate the degree of reliance that can be
dition. Joint openings should be measured under placed on strength estimated from rebound readings.
various loading conditions if appropriate. The joints Calibration on concrete test cylinders is helpful in
should be carefully examined for spalling or D-crack- estimating strength or relative differences in
ing, absences or presence and condition of joint fill- strength, but such estimates must be used with
ers, and evidence of seepage, emission of solids or care. Use of published calibration data to estimate
chemical attack. Measurements should also be taken strength from rebound readings is of only limited
of surface offsets on either side of the joints or other value. However, the Schmidt hammer is an excellent
irregularities. Joint construction deta,ils should be tool for quickly determining the uniformity of con-
recorded -and mapped if drawings are not available. crete in-place. The method of testing concrete by the
207-74 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
Schmidt hammer is described in ASTM C805. No 5.2.5 Other techniques - A variation in the pulse
correlation has been found between rebound read- velocity technique is a proposed pulse echo system
ings and modulus of elasticity. wherein a compressional wave pulse is transmitted
from, and its echo received back at, the same sur-
5.2.3 Windsor probe - The Windsor probe method face or same point. Reflection times from interfaces,
of test consists of driving a precision probe into con- cracks, or voids, together with the known velocity
crete utilizing a "gun" which produces a specific
within the concrete, permit calculation of distances
energy. Generally, three probes are driven into the from the discontinuity to the transmitting and re-
concrete at each location in a triangular pattern, con- ceiving point. The scheme has been demonstrated to
trolled by template. The protruding ends of the be feasible, but is still under development.
probes are measured. The Windsor probe system
has been found comparable with the Schmidt ham- Similarly still in a development stage, is an acous-
mer. On concrete 40 to 50 years old, the probe sys- tical imaging system which is intended to produce a
tem may yield higher strength than actually exists. digital contour map or profile of the top and bottom
Limited information suggests that the cause of surfaces of a submerged concrete surface, such as a
higher indicated values may relate to microcracking dam stilling basin. The principle is borrowed from
between the aggregate and paste which are in- the acoustical holography procedure used to examine
dicated by test cylinder results but not by the probe steel vessels and welds.
readings. As with the rebound hammer, inter-
pretation of test results based on other known fac-
tors as discussed above, are necessary to effectively Chapter 6 - Identification of destructive phe·
use this equipment. The Windsor probe test pro- nomena
cedure is described in ASTM C803.
6.1 - Petrographic analysis
5.2.4 Pulse velocity - Pulse velocity testing in- 6.1.1 The petrographic analysis of concrete should be
volves measurement of the velocity of groups of made by a person qualified by education and expe-
compression waves through concrete. The method rience to operate the equipment used in the analysis
provides a quick means of assessment of the unifor- and to record and interpret the results obtained.
mity of in-place concrete and detection of deteriora- The petrographer should be consulted before sam-
tion or cracking, or both. 14 The test method is de- ples are taken in the field and should be furnished
scribed in ASTM C597, "Pulse Velocity Through with preconstruction, construction and condition re-
Concrete." ports described in Chapters 2, 3, and 4.
The equipment used is very portable consisting 6.1.1.1 - Taking of samples of concrete for labora-
only of a lightweight instrument housing a pulse tory testing and analysis presents great problems of
generator and receiver and high speed electronic judgment in order that the samples are truly repre-
clock, transmitting and receiving transducers, and sentative of the conditions to be studied. The sur-
cable connectors. Velocity is determined by dividing veys made under Chapters 2, 3, and 4 should furnish
the measured wave travel time by the shortest di- information for location and number of samples re-
rect distance or path length between transducers. quired. The most useful samples for petrographic ex-
When a signal cannot be received it usually indicates amination of concrete are diamond-drilled cores with
one of the following conditions: an open crack, in- a diameter of at least twice, and preferably three
sufficient consolidation, or the energy was absorbed times, the maximum size of the coarse aggregate in
between the transducers. Accordingly, pulse velocity the concrete. If 6 in. (150 mm) aggregate was used, a
equipment may be used in determining crack depth. core 8 to 10 in. (200 to 250 mm) in diameter has been
A vail able equipment is effective up to a path length found to be satisfactory and is commonly taken in
of approximately 50 ft. It is important that a high practice to avoid the high cost and handling diffi-
degree of accuracy is used in determining both culty of 12 to 18 in. (305 to 457 mm) cores.
travel time and path length since small errors in ei-
6.1.1.2 - Sampling should be done with complete
ther measurement may produce significant changes
objectivity, so that the suite of samples is not
in the indicated pulse velocity.
weighted with either the unusually poor or unusu-
Velocity measurements are usually made between ally unsound materials. In securing samples care
exposed surfaces with one transducer stationary should be taken to avoid disturbance or con-
while the other transducer is moved from point to tamination of the materials to assure laboratory
point within an effective area. Measurements can tests and analyses are truly representative. Coring
also be made from inspection or drainage galleries is preferable to sampling by other means because
within the structure if available and accessible. the concrete is disturbed to a minimum. Use of
Pulse velocity surveys have had relatively wide us- sledges or air hammers may induce internal fractur-
age as one of the techniques for quality investigation ing or may so disrupt the concrete as to make it dif-
of existing concrete dams and other concrete struc- ficult or impossible to describe its structure accu-
tures. rately and in detail.
EVALUATION OF EXISTING MASSIVE STRUCTURES 207-75
6.1.1.3 - The sampling should include both near-sur- concrete for the volumetric proportions of aggre-
face concrete and concrete at depth, inasmuch as gate, cement paste, and air voids.
they may differ substantially in development of
cracking, deterioration of the cement paste, progress 1.2 - CliaeBieal alllalysis
of cement-aggregate reactions and other features. 6.2.1 - Although hardened concrete may be sub-
The samples should be sufficient in size and number jected to chemical analysis for any of many reasons,
to permit all necessary laboratory tests. The pet- the most common is for determination of the propor-
rographic examination should be performed on con- tion of cement used in the mixture_ ASTM Method
crete that has not already been subjected to a com- CB5 and variants of this are usually employed for
pression test or some other test. this purpose.
6.1.1.4 - Visual inspection with the unaided eye, a 6.2.2 - Dependable quantitative chemical methods
hand lens· and a stereoscopic microscope can provide for detection of organic admixtures in hardened con-
valuable information when applied to original exte- crete have not been developed. Calcium chloride is
rior surfaces, surfaces of fractures and voids, sur- the only commonly used admixture that can be quan-
faces of fresh fractures, and through the cement titively determined by chemical methods_ Sub-
paste and aggregate. From this examination the fol- stances formed by degradation of lignosulfonate in
lowing features can be studied and described: portland cement mixtures can be detected by charac-
• Condition of the aggregate teristic fluorescence of water solutions produced by
" Pronounced cement-aggregate reactions acid extractions of hardened concrete at ages up to 2
.. Deterioration of aggregate particles in place years. The method, although not quantitative, is suf-
ficiently sensitive to indicate the presence of ligno-
" Denseness of cement paste sulfonate in amounts equivalent to less than 0_1
• Homogeneity of the concrete percent by weight of the cement. No generally-appli-
• Occurrence of settlement and bleeding of fresh cable methods are available for detection of the
concrete many other organic admixtures used in concrete.
• Depth and extent of carbonation 6.2.3 - Concrete may contain any of a wide variety
• Occurrence and distribution of fractures of organic or inorganic substances, either as con-
• Characteristics and distribution of voids taminants in the concrete making materials or the
fresh concrete, or because they were absorbed into
• Presence of contaminating substances the hardened concrete. Inorganic chemicals can be
As part of the visual examination, noteworthy por- determined by classical analytical methods, but the
tions of the concrete, secondary deposits, or par- results may be difficult to interpret when they are
ticles of aggregate are separated for more detailed similar to chemicals that were deliberately included
microscopical study or for chemical, x-ray diffraction in the concrete. Organic substances are particularly
or other types of analyses. difficult to identify. Evidence available at the job site
6.1.1.5 - Petrographic thin sections permit thor- might present the solution to problems of attack of
ough examination of concrete because details of tex- aggressive chemicals upon the hardened concrete.
ture and structure are preserved. Such sections are
slices of concrete that are cemented to a small glass 6.3 - Physical tests
plate and then are ground thin enough to readily Frost and freeze-thaw resistance of concrete speci-
transmit light. When so prepared, the sections can mens can be determined by ASTM Test Methods
be examined under the petrographic microscope at C671 and C666, respectively. Furthermore, results of
magnifications up to about 1000 diameters, or with the freeze-thaw tests may be useful in predicting the
oil immersion objectives to about 2000 diameters. relative rate at which deterioration of concrete in
From the examination of thin sections the following the structure may occur and service life of the struc-
features can be studied and described: ture.
• Composition of fine and coarse aggregates
1.4 - Report
" Evidence of cement-aggregate reaction
6.4.1 Location and orientation of cores tested
• Proportion of un hydrated granules of cement 6.4.2 List of physical and chemical tests and their re-
• Presence of mineral admixtures sults
6.1.1.6 - In some instances, petrographic methods 6.4.3 Photographs of cores as received, photographs
other than microscopy, such as x-ray diffraction and and photomicrographs of features of interest, and
differential thermal analysis, may be required or photomicrographs of thin sections
might most rapidly serve to identify fine-grained ma- 6.4.4 Conclusions based on test results of condition
terials. of concrete
6.1.1.7 - Sawed and finely ground surfaces of con-
crete are used in microscopical analysis of concrete 1.5 - "",lieable doeumelllas
to determine the air content and various parameters 6.5.1 ASTM standards
of the air void system in accordance with ASTM C42, Obtaining and Testing Drilled Cores and
C457. This method can also be used to analyze the Sawed Beams of Concrete
207-76 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
C85, Cement Content of Hardened Portland Ce- Cracks originating from structural action will usually
ment Concrete be substantial in width, and the opening may tend to
C204, Descriptive Nomenclature of Constituents of increase as a result of continuous loading and creep
Natural Mineral Aggregates of the concrete. Laboratory testing of cores or in-
C295, Petrographic Examintion of Aggregates for situ testing should reveal any deficiencies in con-
Concrete crete strength or unusual elastic modulus. These re-
C457, Microscopical Determination of Air-Void sults should be compared with reliable and adequate
Content and Parameters of the Air- Void System construction records if available.
in Hardened Concrete
C666, Resistance of Concrete to Rapid Freezing 7.1.3 Cavitation and erosion - Cavitation distress of
and Thawing concrete surfaces can be very severe at high water
C671, Critical Dilation of Concrete Specimens Sub- velocities but can occur at low water velocities. The
jected to Freezing process of cavitation is associated with the creation
C823, Recommended Practice for Examination and and sudden collapse of negative pressures, resulting
Sampling of Hardened Concrete in Constructions in the extraction of solid pieces of aggregate or mor-
C856, Recommended Practice for Petrographic Ex- tar. Abrupt projections, uneven surfaces, and
amination of Hardened Concrete changes in direction of flow can cause cavitation con-
ditions to develop.
6.5.2 - Stanton Walker Lecture by R. C. Mielenz,
Erosion is caused by suspended solids, generally
Diagnosing Concrete Failures, November 18, 1964
fine and hard, which wear away the relatively soft
cement paste or mortar. Characteristics of erosion
damage are sharp ridges remaining on the harder
Chapter '7 - Evaluation and reeommendations portions of the exposed materials.
Abrasion is the result of large and hard bodies,
7.1 - Origin of distress such as aggregate cobbles or reinforcing steel, being
When evidences of structural distress or deterio- entrapped and churned around on a relatively small
ration (chemical or mechanical) are uncovered, the concrete surface area. With time, these materials
cause of such conditions must be established. This will wear away the concrete to form a hole, and the
information is necessary in order to evaluate the sta- abrading action will continue until the cavity ex-
bility of the structure, estimate the length of service tends completely through the concrete mass.
life remaining, select the best type of repair, and
avoid a repetition of circumstances which lead to the 7.1.4 Cement-aggregate reaction - Both the alkali-
currently existing condition. 27 • 28 silica and alkali-carbonate reactions are character-
ized by reaction rims surrounding individual pieces
7.1.1 Temperature and shrinkage cracks - Cracks of
of aggregate. 17 . 18 The effect in either instance is an
this type are characterized by their fineness and ab-
expansion of the concrete due to the increased vol-
sence of any indication of movement. They are usu-
ume of the reaction products. The intensity and
ally shallow, a few inches in depth, and are not de-
magnitude of such reactions will depend upon the
tected by sonic procedures. Where reinforcing steel
mineralogical composition of the aggregate, the al-
exists near the surface, the cracks provide an access
kali content of the cementing material, availability of
for water which may result in the formation of rust
moisture, and the age of the structure. Only a very
and subsequent discoloration or spalling. Steep tem-
approximate estimate can be made of the rate of fu-
perature gradients during construction were likely
ture expansion and the length of satisfactory service
responsible for excessive tensile strains at the sur-
life remaining. Certain maintenance procedures have
face. Drying during and subsequent to the curing pe-
been effective, to a limited extent, in slowing the ex-
riod would have produced the same result. The
pansion and regression of concrete strength and
shrinkage crack pattern is typically orthogonal or
elastic properties. Filling of cracks with grout or
blocky. This surface cracking should not be confused
other suitable sealants and waterproofing exposed
with thermally induced deeper cracking occurring
surfaces generally inhibits the entrance of moisture
when dimensional change is restrained in newly
required in the reaction process. In some instances it
placed concrete by rigid foundations or old lifts of
may be necessary to provide additional structural
concrete. Because all of the cracking described in
support.
this section likely is the result of construction condi-
tions, the basic cause cannot be eliminated. 7.1.5 Environmental distress - Aggressive chem-
7.1.2 Structural cracking - Causes of this type of icals in soils or water, above various minimum con-
cracking are either excessive stress (which may be centrations, may be evidenced by discoloration
due to loading or stress pattern different from that around pattern cracking, disintegration of the mor-
expected by the designer) or inadequate concrete tar, or excessive expansion. The most common cause
strength. The validity of the first possibility may be is likely a sodium, calcium, or magnesium sulfate oc-
established by a review of the original design com- curring in the soil, in rivers, and in salt water. 19
putations or a reanalysis of the structure design. Acidic waters will affect the concrete to lesser de-
EVALUATION OF EXISTING MASSIVE STRUCTURES 207-77
gree, but may cause corrosion of reinforcement not tamination, or freeze-thaw conditions are respon-
adequately covered by good quality concrete. The ef- sible, this should be so indicated.
fects of many acids, salts, and other materials are 7.2.3 Surface protection - Thin surface coatings are
described in Reference 11. effective only in mildly distressed circumstances.
Leaching of lime from an inundated concrete sur- Overlays of s.everal inches thickness require removal
face such as the upstream face of a dam can result in of all concrete of doubtful quality, and replacement
up to 50 percent loss in strength. 21 Generally, only by a superior material. In-place polymerized con-
depths less than 1/4 in. (6 mm) are affected. The crete or mortar, epoxy mortar, fiber-reinforced con-
leaching potential increases with increases in purity crete, or very low water-cement ratio concrete are
of the water and decrease in temperature. Lime has alternative materials potentially capable of resisting
the peculiar property of being more soluble in cold mechanical abrasion or ingress of chemicals or wa-
water than warm water. ter.30.33.34.35
Virtually all mass concrete placed in recent years 7.2.4 Restoring structural integrity - Obvious in-
has included entrained air. While this has sub- dications of doubtful structural stability are cracks
stantially reduced deterioration due to freeze-thaw of substantial width, cracks which change in width
actions, such distress still can occur under some cir- with load changes or temperature cycles, or signifi-
cumstances. Inadequate air content, or an aggregate cant leakage. If the crack movement and the hydro-
which is itself vulnerable to freeze-thaw deteriora- static head is not high, leakage can be eliminated by
tion, coupled with near-complete saturation, are ex- routing out the crack, and injecting an elastomeric
amples of such conditions. Closely spaced, fine, par- filler or a rigid epoxy mortar depending upon the
allel cracks near edges or joints may indicate that probability of crack movement. In cases of high hy-
freeze-thaw expansions are occurring. Entrance of drostatic pressure, leakage may have to be con-
water into the cracks and subsequent freezing, fur- trolled by drainage systems. When structural analy-
ther aggravates the condition. ses indicate a fundamental deficiency in stability,
7.1.6 Physical and thermal properties - Structural post-tensioning between structural components or
analyses of existing structures, either to determine components and foundation rock should be consid-
stress magnitude and direction or to establish stabil- ered. An adequate cover of grout or mortar around
ity of the entire structure, require definite values of the steel strands is a necessity to avoid corrosion of
tensile strength, compl'essive strength, and elastic the steel strands.
modulus. These data can be developed most reliably
from drilled cores taken from the structure. When Chapter 8 - Report
the structural analysis will require a knowledge of
8.1 - General
creep, the related parameters can likely be esti-
mated from existing literature. 2o Similarly, the A formal report describing the condition of the
coefficient of thermal expansion (with consideration concrete in the various structures of the project
of aggregate type and moisture conditions) and Pois- should be submitted to the owner or regulatory
son's ratio may be estimated. If necessary, these agency or Engineering organization requesting the
properties can also be determined by tests on cores. evaluation. Hazardous conditions found during the
evaluation should be reported to appropriate oper-
'7.2 - Repair and rehahilitation ating officials of the project without delay prior to
preparation of the formal report.
The objective of the recommendations is to pre-
sent optimum alternatives for arresting deteriora-
tion, restoring deficient concrete, preventing leak- 8.2 - Contents of report
age, and methods for reestablishing structural 8.2.1 Description of the project - Regional vicinity
stability where such is deemed necessary by the maps for the project, plans, elevations, sections of
structural engineer. the structures, and geologic maps when applicable
should be shown. General purrose and operating re-
7.2.1 Estimated service life - The rate at which the
quirements of the project and safety hazards and
surface concrete is deteriorating or disintegrating
economic impacts involved in case of structural fail-
should permit making an estimate of the useful life
ure should be described.
of the structure, assuming no repairs will be made
and continued exposure to the cause of the distress. 8.2.2 Pertinent design criteria for structures of proj-
ect - Significant structural design criteria upon
7.2.2 Eliminating the cause - Where the cause of
which evaluation of the concrete was made and anal-
deterioration can realistically be controlled, as for
yses, test methods, data and investigations pertinent
example eliminating the use or presence of aggres-
to the evaluation should be described.
sive chemicals, such practices should be identified
and the potential benefits, in terms of extended ser- 8.2.3 Summary of data collected
vice life and maintenance, presented. Where natural 8.2.3.1 Existing records
causes, such as sulfate soils, river water con- 8.2_3.2 Visual inspection of concrete
207-78 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
21. Mather, Katharine, "Leaching of Lime from Con- 29. Logan, M. H., "Drill Hole Television in U.S. Bureau
crete," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 46, No.6, Feb. 1950, of Reclamation Engineering Geology," Proceedings, Third
pp. 473-475. Annual Engineering Geology and Soils Engineering Sym-
22. Hansen, Robert J.; Nawy, Edward G.; and Shah, posium (Apr. 1965), State of Idaho, Boise, 1965, pp. 133-
J ayant M., "Response of Concrete Shear Keys to Dynamic 145.
Loading," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 57, No. 11, May 30. ACI Committee 201, "Guide to Durable Concrete,"
1961, pp. 1475-1490. ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 74, No. 12, Dec. 1977, pp.
23. Chung, H. W., "Shear Strength of Concrete Joints 573-609.
Under Dynamic Loads," Concrete (London), V. 12, No.3, 31. Wallace, George B.; Slebir, Edward L.; and Ander-
Mar. 1978, pp. 27-29. son, Fred A., "Foundation Testing for Auburn Dam," Pro-
24. Saucier, K. L., "Dynamic Properties of Mass Con- ceedings, Eleventh Symposium on Rock Mechanics (June
crete," Miscellaneous Paper No. C-77-6, U.S. Army Engi- 1969), University of California, Berkeley, 1969, 55 pp.
neer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, June, 32. Carlson, R. W., "Manual for Use of Strain Meters
1977. and Other Instruments," 1190-C Dell Avenue, Campbell,
25. Kirillov, A. P., "Strength of Concrete Under Seismic Calif., 1975, pp. 1-24.
Loads," Translated from the Russian, U.S. Bureau of Rec- 33. Schrader, Ernest K., and Kaden, Richard A., "Out-
lamation, Denver, Sept. 1977. let Repairs at Dworshak Dam," The Military Engineer, V.
26. Silk, M. B.; Williams, N. R.; and Bainten, F. F., "Po- 68, No. 443, May-June 1976, pp. 254-259.
tential Role of NDT (Nondestructive Testing) Techniques 34. Houghton, D. L.; Borge, O. E.; and Paxton, J. A.,
in the Monitoring of Fixed Offshore Structures," British "Cavitation Resistance of Some Special Concretes," ACI
Journal of Non-Destructive Testing (Essex), May 1975, pp. JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 75, No. 12, Dec. 1978, pp. 664-
83-87. 667.
27. Marshall, Daniel P., Jr., "Replacement Lock and 35. Concrete Manual, 8th Edition, U.S. Bureau of Recla-
Dam No. 26: Condition of Existing Structure," Pro- mation, Denver, 1975, pp. 12-13.
ceedings, ASCE, V. 96, WW1, Feb. 1970, pp. 27-47.
28. Pirtz, David; Strassburger, Arthur G.; and Mielenz,
Richard C., "Investigation of Deteriorated Concrete Arch
This report was submitted to letter ballot of the committee which
Dam," Proceedings, ASCE, V. 96, POI, Jan. 1970, pp. 23- consisted of 21 members; 16 members returned affirmative bal-
38. lots, 5 ballots were not returned.
WALTER H. PRICE
Chairman
R. R. CLARK A. M. RAWN
JACOB j. CRESKOFF D. S. WALTER
W. T. McCLENAHAN GEORG W ASTLUND
H. F. PECKWORTH R. B. YOUNGt
SYNOPSIS
..
Attention is given mainly to the physical erosion of concrete in hydraulic structures resulting from particles
carried by flowing water and from pitting resulting from cavities forming and collapsing in water flowing at high
velocities. Disintegration of concrete by chemical attack as may occur in hydraulic structures is also discussed.
Materials, mix proportions, and construction procedures which will make concrete more resistant to erosion
are presented. Means of improving concrete resistance to chemical disintegration are also discussed.
CONTENTS
Introduction 210-1
Erosion by Cavitation '" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 210-2
Erosion by Abrasion ...................................... 210-4
Erosion by Chemical Attack ............................... 210-5
Mix Proportions and Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 210-6
Finishes and Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 210-7
Curing ................................................... 210-8
Repairs of Eroded Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 210-9
Bibliography ............................................. 210-9
INTRODUCTION
This report In form and substance as here submitted was approved unanimously by the committee as listed
above.
tDeceased.
210-1
210-2 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
EROSION BY CAVITATION
Vapor bubbles will form ill running water whenever the pressure at a point
in the liquid is reduced to its vapor pressure in accordance with the following
relationship:
V2
p - - C = Vp
2g
where
P = appm'Pllt ahsolutp pressure, ft of water
V'j2g = velocity head, ft
C coetfieicnt depending upon the shape ami/or roughness of the surface
boundary
Vp vapor pressure of water at given temperature, ft of water, absolute
These vapor bubbles flow dowllstream with the water and upon entering
an area of higher pressure collapse with great impact. '¥hen water vapor
is compressed, the pressure of the vapor will increase until the vapor becomes
saturated; then suddenly with very small increase in prcssure thc vapor will
condense into a liquid state. The liquid occupies much less space than the
vapor from which it \Vas condensed, thus leaving a cavity. The collapse of
these cavities has been termed "implosions," the opposite of "explosions,"
but is similar in effect. Hcpeated collapse of such cavities on or ncar the
surface of the concrete will cause pitting. Pitting due to cavitation is readily
recognized from the holes or pits formed, which are distinguished from the
smoother worn-appearing surface caused by sand, silt, or rocks carried by the
flowing water.
Boundary irregularities and shape cause local reductions in pressure when
water flows past them at high velocity. When the size and nature of the
irregularity and the flow velocity are such that reduced pressure is equal to
the vapor pressure of water, cavitation will occur. Damage from cavitation
is not common in open conduits at water velocities below 40 ft per sec. Fig. 1
shmn; the damage \\-hieh resulted at Park(~r Darn fot' 11 maXillltllll velocity
of about 50 ft per i'lCC_ Fig. 2 i'lhow" damage to ('OIH'wte baffle" in the BOllne-
ville Dam stilling basin after 17 years of scrviee. Velocities ranged frolll GO
to 70 ft per sec. Concrete in t1o"ed conduit" ha" been pitted by cavitation at
velocities as low as 25 ft per "ec where the air pres:mre was redll('(~d by the
sweep of the flowing water. Fig. 3 shows such damage in a conduit helow a
control gate, produced at a velocity of about 25 ft per "cc. At higher veloeities
the forces of cavitation are sufficient to erode away large quantities of high-
quality ('onerete and to penetrate through thick steel plates in a comparatively
short time. Concrete ill spillways and outlet works of many high dams has
been severely damaged by forces of cavitation. In clo:;ed conduit:; the liquid
can be made more compressible by introducing air into the flowing water near
the point of disturbance, and the forces resulting from collapsing vapor
bubbles can be reduced_
The best means, however, of protecting concrete from forees of cavitation
is the elimination of these forces, whenever possible, by de:;ign and construc-
tion procedures which will produce smooth, uniform flow ill the hydraulic
structure. Abrupt changes in slope and curvature, particularly adverse
changes which tend to allow the flow to pull away from the concrete surface,
should be avoided, and care should be exercised to obtain a smooth :;urfa('e
free from irregularities. An example of damage, on the inclined face of Grand
Coulee Dam, resulting from poor alignment below a place where the forms
had sprung out of line is shown in Fig. 4. There are a number of examples
where the bottom of inclined tunnels, spillway buckets, stilling pools, and
piers and erests just downstream from gate guide slots have been damaged by
forces of cavitation, and these locations need special attention in design and
construction. Computed eavitation-free designs are often so eonservative
that their costs are prohibitive. In such cases hydraulic model studies may
be used to arrive at acceptable designs with due regard to cost.
The sloping faces of overflow spillways have not been damaged by cavita-
tion whore reasonable care has been taken to produce surfaces of sound COIl-
crete without irregularities. Small voids or "bug holes" which oceur on
formed surfaces arc not necessarily objectionable, but obstructions which
protrude above the plane of the surface will result in pitting dowllstream from
the obstruction.
Concrete is comparatively strong in eompression and there are many tests
and experiences which show that dense eoncrete can withstand the impact
of a jet of \yater hitting it at velocities as high as 100 ft per sec without damage
at the point of impaet. Damage has OCCUlTed in some cases as a result of
water impaet, and it is indicated that such failures may bedue to the pressures
built up in the pores of the concrete which are suffieient to eause failure in
the concrete in tension at points of reduced pressure. For this reasoll it
is desirable to use dense concrete having an impermeable surface when it
will be expected to withstand the impact of water fiowing at high velocities.
EROSION BY ABRASION
Erosion of concrete by silt, sand,
gravel, and other solids can be as se-
vere as that caused by cavitation.
Fig. 5 shows erosion caused by move-
ment of sand and gravel by eddy cur-
rents in the bucket of Grand Coulee
Dam. Stilling basins which are not
self-cleaning in whic:h rocks and sand
collec:t are eroded by the movement
of solids by eddy currents in the pool,
and concrete over which large quanti-
ties of sand and gravel are transported
by floods may be seriously eroded.
Concrete in the invert of the 20-ft di-
ameter, 1300ftlongtunnel at Anderson
Fig. 4-View looking up spillway face
Ranch Dam was worn away to a depth
of Grand Coulee Dam showing pitted
area at elevation 990 below place of about 3 in. while it was used for
where form sprung out of line during diverting the flow of the river for 43
construction months during construction of the dam.
The water carried large Cjllillltlttl's of i:iilt, sand, and gmvd Liul'ilig the i:ipring
runoff, alld \\'hcn the tUllncl \nl" llll,,'atcrcd the inn;rt \Y[1" covcred to a d,'ptll
of several fed "'ith such material. The wcar \Y(lei fairly uniform OIl all tYPl'"
of aggr('ga tc and the C'xpo::;ed "llrfa('('s of t h(~ 1:1 rg('r aggrpgat e \\'('rc ,~Illouth
and flat. SUllle of the 1:2 dry-packed Illort HI' patchl'Oi in'thi" (unnel were
l'ompletcly eroded ~L\\'ay, alld ill g;c'lwral tlw mortar patdws \\'('re l'rolkd more
than the :-:UITOlllHlilig c:oncrete. JTaxillllllll velocity of til(' \Yail'r in the (ullnel
\ya,; about :Hl ft pCI' "cc. The 11('''' l()\y-::;llIIllP ('oll('l'('(e ,,'hich has bCl'1l ill,~tallcd
ill this (Ulille! aile! subjected to high veiocitil'" of n'btil'('ly clear \yater :-;illce
it \YHOi ('()Il\"uried to Hn outlet tunlld, ::;ho\y" oilly slight. \\'l~al'. 8illlilar erusion
\\'a::; l'x]wril'll('cd ill the divcr::;ion tUllllel" of HOO\"l'r Dam prior 10 their COIl-
version to outlet alld spilllyay tUlIllcb. Tlwl'C arc mallY casC's \yhere the
('Ol}('reil: of dams aile! tUlillcl lillillgs hac; bl'C'1l damaged by erosion durillg
t he l'lJII.~( I'lldioll period, and this possi hi lity should !lot he o\"erlooked ill
de::;ign cOII::;idcratiolls.
Fig, U* :-;hu\\'::; that the comparatively hm bottom I'('loc:ity of 5 ft per ::iCC
is C:lpn hll' uf 1I1U\'i IIg rock part ide::; a::; large a::; -~ ill. ill dianw1l'r. Apparell t ly,
the rnt(: of crosiun is dependellt OIL the quantity. shape, size', and hal'dnc;;s
of t 1](' part ide::; beillg trallsported, the \'Cloc:ity of the \I'atcr, and the quality
of the ('ol1('rl't.('. COllcretc-lillcd irrigation callais ,,'hich u.~llally carry sillall
Cj unll t it.ie::i of solidi:i sho\l' no appreciable ero::;ion after year::; uf service for
vcdocitie::; as high as G ft pel' ::;ec:.
*FroJIl "The Start of Bcd-Load :;Vlovclllent and the Relation between Competent Bottolll Velocities in a Channel
and the Transportable Sediment Size," by Norendra Kumar Berry, University of Colorado, 1948,
EROSION OF CONCRETE IN HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES 210-5
>-
::; 6--
~
~
o
W"
>
O·\Ol-,-.l---.-!:----;:----;-.6~.8~1l".O-~Z:----;:------;----;;--,k-~=~~~~~~~~~=~~~~
d -
,Vhere it is expected that the cOllduit \\'ill carry solids or that abrasion
will 1'e::;ult from ::;olids and eddy (:urrcn(s, tlw concrete ;;h()uld he of the highe;;t
quality, because abrasion re'li"tance increases ;iCi "trengih of the eoncrcie is
illr:reasecL It is not necessary to be a" particular about alignment alld surface
::;moothlll'ss where ollly abrasion is expeded am! \\'hcrc the velocity of the
water will not exceed -10 It per sec,
Cement
The type of portland cemellt is of little impOl'tallC:e from an abrasion and
cavitatioll-rct)i"UlIIce :-;talldpoillt, provided adequate compre::;::;ive strength is
obtai lied at the desired time. Cement::; low ill tricaieiulll aluminate (sueh as
Type V) are much more resistant to "lllfate attack thall c:cm(~lIts high ill this
compound. No port land cement i" resistant to acid attack.
Pozzolans
POllllolans are silieeou::; materia!::;, lIatural or artificial, which, though lIot
cemelltitio1l8 ill them"elvet), contain cOll:otitucnt::; that lI'ill, at ordinary temper-
atures, combine "'ith lime in the pre::lellce of l\'ater to form compollnds which
have low solubility and possess cementillg propertiel:l. Suitable pOllwlnns,
when used to replace a portion of the portland cemellt ill the cOllcrete, I:om-
*ACI Committee m3, "Recommended Practice for Selecting Proportions for Concrete (ACI 613-54),"ACI
JOtACI\;~:;;itl~~4ill~~o'~R~~o~r:~~~d:t~~~ctice for Measuring, Mixing and Placing Concrete (ACI 614-42),"
ACI JOURNAL. June 1945, Proc. V. 51, PI'. 625-650.
EROSION OF CONCRETE IN HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES 210-7
bine with the lime liberated during the hydration processes to form a more
stable product. Usually concrete is made more impermeable through ad-
dition of a finely divided pozzolan. Pozzolans improve the resistanee of
concrete to leaching and weak acid attack and to sulfate attack where they
replace portions of cements relatively high in tricaleium aluminate. Concrete
in which a portion of the cement has been replaced by a pozzolan usually
develops strength slower than a concrete made with straight portland cement
and this should not be overlooked where abrasion is expected soon after
placing the concrete.
Aggregates
It has been demonstrated that the larger partieles of aggregate are plucked
out or pushed out of the concrete by the forces of cavitation more easily
than the smaller partieles. It is indicated, therefore, that the maximum size
aggregate should be limited to % in. where cavitation might occur. The
aggregate should be sound, but its hardness is not of as great importallce as
JTl the case of abrasion where the aggregates resist abrasion after the layer
of mortar has been eroded away. Good bond is more important than hard-
ness in the case of eavitation.
In the case of abrasion, the aggregates are not pulled out of the matrix,
but are worn down by solids carried in the flowing water. All aggregate
which will resist wear is desirable in this instance, and the fine and coarse
aggregate should preferably contain not more than 2 percent of sQft partieles.
Aggregates are more resistant to chemical attack than cement paste, and any
aggregate which meets the usual specifications should be suitahle where this
is the main consideration.
Entrained air
Elltrailled air, obtaill(~d either by Wie of all air-elltrailling ("C:I11(~lIt or an
admixture, greatly improves the \\"llrkability of COllcrete alld its resistance
to weathering;. For the same cement cOlltent Ow strength of richer mixes
is reduced slightly by air pntrainmellt. Bul, in spite of this reduction in
strength, use of ('Ill rai !led air ill the proportio!ls list ed in "H(~corn nH'llded
Practice for S(~lecting Proportiolls for COller('«' (ACl (i l:l-.i-i)," i,'i l'l'c()nl-
mCll(kd wherever freezing; am! t/ta\\'illg j,'i ('xlwi"t('d. Ent raill(,d air also
illlprOV(~s the r('~isUlll('C of cOllcrete to sulfate alld acid attack ulldpr S()lll(~
exposure (;()lIditiOIlS, dup appar(,lIt1y to imp!'()\'pd impprlllPability.
Slump
CO!l(:rcte for structures s}l<lllld be as dryas call be adc<juat(:ly placed. but
in IlO case should the slump be over :l in. Dry-tamped l'oll(Tde used III
maehillc-I1Utllllfadurpd pipe should be Oil til(: moist "ide for hest rt'Slllt".
The formula given previously in this report :-;ho\\"s that as the dl:pth of
water ov(~r the surface is increased the tendency toward furmation of cavities
ill the water is decreased. X eveltheless, \dtere waU:r velocitie:-; of more
than '10 ft per ~ee are expected, the eonerete should he built to acnlrat.e
alignment and evelllless of l:iurface. Abrupt irregularities ctl,ul:icd by dis-
placed or misplaced form sheathing, lilling or form sections, or by loose knots
ill forms or otherwise ddecti\'e form lumber, should not exceed J~1 in. parallel
(0 the direetioll of flow alld Ys in. at right angles to the ciireetioll of flow.
Gradual irregularities which can be lIwa,,;ured by a [) ft 101lg t(~mplaU: should
not exeeed ~1 ill. For formed smfaces of open, overflow-type spilh\'ays,
irregularities may be increased to t\yice the siz(~ of those listed. For vdoc-
ities above 100 ft per sec, irregularities should be rl'duced to half t.he size of
those listed above.
Forms may be made of steel, \yoocl, alumillum, or ally other material
\yhich will give the desired smoothllcss alld aligllment. Green lumber "h()ulel
!lot he u~ed because, ill addit ion to shri nkage alld \yarping \\"hich may Ul"("U l',
thc tannic acid in the lumber lllay soften the surfaee of thc concrete.
210-8 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
Form::; should be removed at the earlie"t pmcticalJle time ::;0 that curing
may proceed without delay and neee::lsary repair::l or ::lurface treatment done
while the concrete is still green and conditions are most favorable for good
bond. The AC1 Committee 60,1 report* gives information on form removal
during cold weather. Offsets and bulges should be removed by grinding to
specification limits.
The concrete of unformed surfaces should contain just sufficient mortar
to avoid the neces;,;ity for excei:i::live floating, If the mix is wet and over-
sanded, an excess of water alld fine material will be broul;ht to the surfa(;c
allll the result \\'ill be a layer of inferior lllortar having a high wat(;r-cemcni
ratio with a temlency to dust, crazo, craek, and p(),~sihly separate from the
mas:,; beneath. Working of the s\lI'faec in the variuus fini"hing operations
should be the minimum nece"sary to produce the de"ired filli"h. The fir"t
step ill the finishing operation i::l the leveling and eicn;(;din!!: of the cOllcrete
to produce an even and uniform surface. Thiei is followed by floating, which
::lhould not be ::;tarted until some stiffening hail takell pla(:e in the surfaee
of the concrete and the moisture fiJ III or "shine" has disappeared. The
floating; should work the conerete no more than neces;;al'Y to produc(; a ::lur-
face that is uniform ill texture and free of tlcreed marks.
From all erosion standpoint, floated surfac(:ei are of ::lufIiciellt smoothness
for veloeitie" Jess than 40 ft per sec. For hil;h velocities the :mrfa(:e ::;hould
be smoothed by steel troweling. Steel trO\\'(;Jing ::;hould llut be slarted ulltil
after the Il1Cistllre film ane! "shille" have disappeared from the floated illlrface
alld after tl1<: eOll('rete has harclcn(:d ellough to prevellt all exe(:ss of fille
material and \\'ater fro III being worked to the surface, Sh'(:l I.rO\\'elillg ::lbollle!
be performed \\'ith firm pl'eStiUl'e sllch as will fiatten the salldy text.me of the
Hunted surface and produce a dense, uniform surfacp. DCIl:-W, impermeable
surfaecil are more r('sii-it.ant to impad. by hi!!:h-velo('ity jets ihall porow:, OII(,S.
Thl'Oll!!:h usc of alisorptive form" or the vacuulll pr(JC(':iS Oil flat CillrfaccCi,
the dl'IlSCIlC:-;S aile! ~ircll!!:Lh of t.he: surfar:c: of cOIl(:rck ('all I);: ill(:J'cn:icd above
that \\'hich call usually be olJt.ailiccI hy propcl' placinl; uml/illisliillg IIlcth()(ls.
Tlwsc ))I'O('(;,,;ses ],(;Il1O\'(; \\'ater from the surface of the COIl('rr;L(; Il'hile it i:i
::ltiJl ill 1he plaeitic "tate. COil crete surl'aecs call be pro1ret.rcl from fon·(:.'; of
('a\'ilalioll aud abrasion by I'llblwr-likc c:oating" (eice "Hesislancc: of CUIl('!'('lc
aile! Protective Coalill!!:s to Forc(:s of C;tyitaiioll," by I\'. n, Pri('C alld C. B.
Wallacl', l\ C I ./ () UJt'\.\ L, Oct. ] !ll D, j'ruc. Y. -1(;, PI', ]()!J-1:20). Tp::;/." lia \'(;
also sil()\\'1l thal llwl allir: aggn'!!:aic !!:!'cat Iy ill1jll'o\'('s thl' n,;·,isl :1III'C ()f ('011-
erc/<; ~lI]'fac('s t.0 l'l'()sioll alld pillillg a:-; a ]'('.')\\11. of (';wilatioll.
P]'cc:nst ('OI](']'('lc pip(: is IlIHllIlfadul'cd ill a llllillber of e1i/Tpn'lli: W;IYS,
f)w'.h as hy placillg :llId \'illratillg COII(,!,(,tc ill \'l'rticul forms n:i ill allY \\'a II,
I)y iampi IIg :Illd P:l(' ki IIg n:laii \'('Iy dry CO!lcrd.c a" i II the Pt\(' knliead alHI
t:lllll)('d Jlro('c.~,,('.'i, hy Spilillilig plastic mo]'ial' 0]' 1:011('I'('(e ill a horiwilial
furnl, alld by spill lli IIg, vibratillg, allcl rollillg relatively dry ('OIlCI'l'iC ill a
rotalillg hori~ollial forlll. COllduit::; an; also lilJed by \'arious jJrl)c('sse::l of
applying and "mootliing mortar on t,he inside surface of the cOllduit. There
is considerable differellce in density and eitrellgth of the :mrface concrete
produced under the different methods and by different manufacturers under
the same method due to variations in materials, consistency, and curing
employed. It is recommended, therefore, after it has been decided what
surface is desirable for the eonditions of the job, that a process and procedure
which will obtain thiil surface be specified. Specifications of the American
Society for Testing Materials and the American Water Works A::lsn. for
concrete pipe and mortar-lined "teel pipe are given in the bibliography.
CURING
Proper hydration of the cement to form hard and durable eOllercte requires
that the concrete be maintained in a moist eondition for a ::luitable p(']'iud,
*ACI Committee 604, "Proposed Recommended Practice for Winter Concreting," ACI JOUR:iAL, Oct. 1955,
Proc. V. 52, pp. 113-130.
EROSION OF CONCRETE IN HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES 210-9
usually 14 days. Usual procedure for accomplishing this is to hep tlw ('x-
posed surface continuously (Ilot periodically) wet by spraying, ponding, or
by covering with earth, sand, or hurlap maintained ill a \I"d. condition. :\Ioist
curing should start a,~ soon as forms can he loosell('d or rell1o\"(~(1. Cmillg
of ullformed cOllcrete should start imll1ediatPly after the con('!"l'te has taken
its initial set. Gudn certain ('onditions it is desirahle to cure ('Ol}('rt'ic hy
applying to the exposed surfa(,(,s a s('aling compound de:-;igned to re,,( rict
enLporation of the mixing \\"aier. All ('ffccti\·c COlllPOUI}(I, properly applipd
and maintained for at least :28 days, \,"ill, under ll10st ('onditi()lIs, retain enollgh
ll1()i"t ure for adequate ('uring. A \I"hit('-pigmuntul cUllIpoulid has 1)('en found
t() Iw (;specially suitahle for hot \I"('ather curing, as it ('onsid('rahly d('(,!,(,~h('';
th(~ heat \\hich would Ill: ah'iOr])('d from dircd "unlight.
Although att"ntion t() curing rcquin'.nwnts is impurtant. al all timl'';, it. is
especially so ill hoi dry weather because of thl' gn'atcr danger of crazing and
crackillg. Concret(; as deposited should ha\'(~ a tempcratlJrl: of not morc thall
90 F 1)('c1(uSC it has bccn "h(J\\"1l thal ~trellgth and durahility ()f ('O]I(:r('(' d('-
creases as t.he: placing temperaturc is raised. Con('rete pla("(,d in culd \\"('at he]'
should hc pl'okctc:d from freezing ill a(:cordancc \"ith til(' .\Cr CC)Jllll1itl('c
(iO'+ report.
REPAIRS OF ERODED AREAS
\Vhcre concrete Ita::; bccn damageu by crosion it is allllo~t c(;rt ai n tha ( 1he:
repaircd section will be damaged abo unlei:ls the caUCie of the (']'()sioll is rl'Il1()I"(,d.
'fhe best COllcrete mack will not \I"ithstand the forces of ca\"itatioll or S('\"('r\:
abrasion for a prolonged period. It may be more c('onoillical, how('\"('r, t ()
rcplace the ('ollc]"(:(e periudically than to reshape tile "tmet me t() pl'lIducc
str(:amlined flo\\' or to eliminate the sulids causing abrasioll. FurtIH'rnlOJ'(', it
Illay be und(~i)irable to streamline those portions of the structure: designed (()
dis::;ipate l;nergy such as dentated sills and other t ype::i of nbst ructions to til('
flo\\' of water placed in stilling hasins of spillways. Such ,;ills should ue ]rmd(~
of the best possible concrete.
In t"(;pail'ing concrete it is nCl'essary that attelltion be paid to many detaiL;,
because experience has demon~trated that repairs that are carelessly Illade
later become defective and have to be replac-cd. c\ll damaged concrete and
loose anu broken partil'les should be removed. Where the thiekncss of section
permits, holes to be repaired should be enlarged to a minimum depth of G
in. with a minimum area of Y2 sq ft in reinforced and 1 sq ft ill unreillforced
concrete. There should be a l'learanee of at least 1 in. arouud each exposed
reillforcing bar; they should not be left partially embedded. The top edge
of the hole in walls at the face of the structure should be cut to a fairly hori-
zontal line. If the shape of the eroded area makes it advisable, the top of
the cut may be stepped down and continued on a horizontal line. In all
cases in walls or floors it is desirable to make a square edge by cutting around
the area to be repaired with a conerete saw prior to chipping out the area
to be repaired.
It is extremely important that the eoncrete to be repaired be thoroughly
clealled by wet sandblasting, followed by washing with an air-water jet.
The holes should be kept continuously wet for not less than 12 hI' prior to
placing new concrete. Cavities should be free of any water at the time of
placing and preferably should be surface dry. The replacement concrete
should have a slump as low as is consistent with thorough vibration and good
placement.
'Wherc velocities above 40 ft per sec are encountered, the repaired areas
should be made smooth. It may be nece::;sary to grind them after they have
hardelled.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. "}'.Touel Studies of Spillways," Part VI-H!Jdraulic InIJcstl:(Jalions, Bonlder Canyon
Project Final Reports, U. S" Bureau of Reclamation"
210-10 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
~. Davis, Arthur 1'., "Safe Velocities of \Vat.er on Concrete," Enuinecrinu News, Jan. 4,
1D12, p. 20.
:3. "Cement. and Conerct.c Investigat.ions for t.he Colorado Hiver Aqueduct.," Report No.
702, :\Ietropolit.an Water !list.rict. of Southern Calii"omia.
,I. "Con('1·c1.e Abrasion Study, Bonneville Spillway Dam," R(mncville Hydraulic Lahoratory
Report No. 15-1, U. S. Army Corps of EngiueiCrs.
5. l\"fci"ncr, H. S., and Smith, S. E., "Coneret.c Curing Compounds," ACI JOLR"A[~,
l\"fa.y-June HJ:lS, Proc. V. :3·1, PIJ. ;j.fD-560.
6. Vidal, E. N., and Blank:;, R. F., "Absorptive Form Lining," ACI JOUHNAL, Jan. 1942,
Proc. V. :3S, pp. 2,5:3-2li8.
7. "The Development and 1Jse of Absorptive Concrete Form Lining," Concrete Laboratory
Ncport No. C-114, U. S. Bmeau of Hcclamation.
S. "Technical St.udies on Absorptive Form Lining," Concrete Lnboratorfj Report No. C-I77,
U. S. BllI"eau of Heclamation.
~). "Vacuum PrcH"cssed Concretc," Concrcie Laboratoi'Y Report ;';-0. C-2:32, U. S.. Bllre:\.u of
Heclamation.
10. J\clllwdy, H. L., "Honwgeneit.y of Air-Ent.raining COllerete," ACI .iOCHNAL, June
HJ4G, Proc. V. 42, pp. lill-M4.
II . .Keener, J\enneth B., uEroRion CauseR Invert Break in Boulder J)am Spillwa,y Tunnel,"
Eu[}ineerinu I\Tews-Record, Nov. IS, 19.f:3.
12. "Cavitation in Hydraulic St.ruetures-A Symposium," l'roceediu[Js, ASCE, V. 71,
p. 1000.
];3. Concrete iv! arwal, 6ih Edition, U. S. Bureau of Reclamation, p. 12.
14. Kinzie, P. A., "High-Pressure lleservoir OutletR," Dams and Control Works, 2nd
Edit.ion, U. S. Bureau of Reclamation.
15. Sailer, Robert, and Davis, Bruce G., "Unique Caissons Make Spillway Repairs Possible
at Grand Coulee," Civil Engineering, Sept. 1D46.
16. McBirney, H. R, and Crocker, E. R, "Erosion of Concrete by Clear Water Flowing
at. High Veloeities in Open Concrete Channels and on Concrete Surfaces," U. S. Bureau of
Reclamation office memorandum, Oct. 5, 19:31.
17. Price, Walter H., and WaIIace, George B., "Resistance of Concrete and Protective
Coatings to Forces of Cavitation," ACI JOURNAL, Oct. 1949, Proc. V. 46, pp. 109-120.
IS. Wallace, G. B., "Bubble Trouble," Engineers' Bulletin, Colorado Society of Engineers,
May 1950, p. 4.
19. Rasmussen, R. E., "Experiments on Flow with Cavit.ation in 'Vater Mixed with Air,"
Transactions, Danish Academy of Technical Sciences, No.1, 1949.
20. Lea, F. M., and Desch, C. H., The Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, Edward Arnold
& Co., London.
21. Pomeroy, Hichard, and Bowlus, F. D., "Progress Report on Sulphide Control Research,"
Sewage Works Journal, V. IS, July 1946, pp. 597-640. .
22. Miller, Dalton G., and Manson, Philip W., Durability of Concretes and Mortars in
U
Acid Soils, with Particular Reference to Drain Tile," Technical Bulletin No. ISO, Minnesot.a
Agricultural Experiment Station, June 1948, pp. I-SO.
23. Clark, R. R, "Effects of High-Velocity Water on Bonneville Dam Concrete," ACI
JOURNAL, June 1950, Proc. V. 46, pp. S21-840.
24. ,,'filler, Dalton G., ami Manson, Philip W., "Long-Time Test.s of Concrete and Mortars
Exposed to Sulphate Waters," Technical Bulletin No. 194, l\Iinllesota Agricult.ural Experiment
Station, May ID51, pp. I-Ill.
25. iJ:wis, Haymond E., "Pozzoianic :\1ateri:tl-vVith Special Heference to Their Gse in
Concrete Pipe," Technical Jlf cmorandwl/, American COllcrct(~ Pipe Assn., Sept. ID5·1.
26. W:tslm, G. W., and Wit.hey, H. N., "Strength and Durability of Concrete Containing
Chicago Fly Ash,"ACI JOURNAL, Apr. 195~{, Proc. V. 4D, pp. 701-712.
27. "Tests of Certain Cements and Ccmtmt Blends Hegartiing Their Suitability [or Con-
cret.e Construction," Heport No. B.B. l(i:3, June lD5:3, sponwrcd by the Engineering Board
of Review, City of Chicago.
2S. \Vittekinclt, VV., uThe Acid-Resisting 'Ocrat' Concrete," Zement-li.alk-Gips, No.7,
July 1952.
2D. Halsted, P. E., "Investigation of the Errosive Effect on Concrete of Soft Water of
Low pH Value," 111 agazine of Concrete Research, Sept. 1954.
30. A WWA Designation C 205-"Speeificatiolls for Cement-1VIortar Protective Coatings
for Steel Water Pipe of Sizes :30 in. and Over."
:31. AWWA Designation C ;jOO-USpecifications for Heinforced Concrete Water Pipt-
Steel Cylinder Type, Not Prestressed."
32. A WWA Designation C :301-- uSpccifications fOI" Heinforeed Concrete 'Valer Pipc~
Steel Cylinder Type, Prestressed."
:3:3. AWWA Designation C :302-"Specifieations for Hcinforced Concrete \rater Pipe-
Cylinderless, Not Prestressed."
;34. ASTl\T Designation C 4--"Specifications for Drain Tile."
:35. ASTM Designation C I "l-uSpecific:ttions [or Concrete Se\\"er Pipe."
:3(j. AST:\I Designation C 75-"Specifications for Reinforced Concrete Se\\"er Pipe."
:37. ART:\f Designation C 7li--"Spccifications for Reinforced ConcrPle Culvert Pipe."
:3S. ASTM Designat.ion C 11S-"Specifications for Concrete Irrigation Pipe."
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and Com-
mentaries are intended for guidance in designing, planning, executing,
or inspecting construction, and in preparing specifications. Reference
to these documents shall not be made in the Project Documents. If
items found in these documents are desired to be part of the Project
Documents, they should be incorporated directly into the Project
Documents.
Act Standard
Recommended Practice for Selecting Proportions for
Normal and Heavyweight Concrete (AC. 211.1 .. 77)*
Reported by ACI Committee 211
JOHN R. WILSON
Chairman
1. SCOPE 2. INTRODUCTION
l.l-This recommended practice describes meth- 2.1-Concrete is composed principally of ce-
ods for selecting proportions for concrete made ment, aggregates, and water. It will contain some
with aggregates of normal and high density (as amount of entrapped air and may also contain
distinguished from lightweight and special high purposely entrained air obtained by use of an
density aggregates) and of workability suitable admixture or air-entraining cement. Admixtures
for usual cast-in-place construction (as distin- are also frequently used for other purposes such
guished from special mixtures for concrete prod- as to accelerate, retard, improve workability, re-
ucts manufacture). duce mixing water requirement, increase strength,
1.2-The methods provide a first approximation or alter other properties of the concrete.
of proportions intended to be checked by trial 2.2-The selection of concrete proportions in-
batches in the laboratory or field and adjusted, volves a balance between reasonable economy
as necessary, to produce the desired character- and requirements for place ability, strength, dura-
istics of the concrete. bility, density, and appearance. The required
1.3-U. S. customary units are used in the main characteristics are governed by the use to which
body of the text. Adaptation for the metric sys- the concrete will be put and by conditions ex-
tem is provided in Appendix 1, and demonstrated
in an example problem in Appendix 2. • Adopted as a standard of the American Concrete Institute in
September 1977, to supersede ACI 211.1-74 (Revised 1975). in
lA-Test methods mentioned in the text are accordance with the Institute's standardization procedure.
listed in Appendix 3. Copyright © 1969, 1973, 1975, 1977. American Concrete Institute.
211-2 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
pected to be encountered at the time of placement. 3.3-Consistency, loosely defined, is the wet-
These are often, but not always, reflected in speci- ness of the concrete mixture. It is measured in
fications for the job. terms of slump-the higher the slump the wetter
2.3-The ability to tailor concrete properties to the mixture-and it affects the ease with
job needs reflects technological developments which the concrete will flow during placement.
which have taken place, for the most part, since It is related to but not synonymous with work-
the early 1900s. The use of the water-cement ratio ability. In properly proportioned concrete, the
as a tool for estimating strength was recognized unit water content required to produce a given
about 1918. The remarkable improvement in du- slump will depend on several factors. Water re-
rability resulting from the entrainment of air quirement increases as aggregates become more
was recognized in the early 1940s. These two angular and rough textured (but this disad-
significant developments in concrete technology vantage may be offset by improvements in other
have been augmented by extensive research and characteristics such as bond to cement paste).
development in many related areas, including the Required mxing water decreases as the maxi-
use of admixtures to counteract possible de- mum size of well graded aggregate is increased.
ficiencies, develop special properties, or achieve It also decreases with the entrainment of air.
economy. * It is beyond the scope of this discus- Mixing water requirement may often be sig-
sion to review the theories of concrete propor- nificantly reduced by certain admixtures.
tioning which have provided the background and 3.4-Strength. Strength is an important char-
sound technical basis for the relatively simple acteristic of concrete, but other characteristics
methods of this recommended practice. More de- such as durability, permeability, and wear re-
tailed information can be obtained from the list sistance are often equally or more important.
of references. These may be related to strength in a general
2.4-Proportions calculated by any method way but are also affected by factors not sig-
must always be considered subject to revision on nificantly associated with strength. For a given
the basis of experience with trial batches. De- set of materials and conditions, concrete strength
pending on circumstances, the trial mixes may is determined by the net quantity of water used
be prepared in a laboratory or, perhaps pref- per unit quantity of cement. The net water con-
erably, as full-size field batches. The latter pro- tent excludes water absorbed by the aggregates.
cedure, when feasible, avoids possible pitfalls of Differences in strength for a given water-cement
assuming that data from small batches mixed in ratio may result from changes in: maximum size
a laboratory environment will predict perfor- of aggregate; grading, surface texture, shape,
mance under field conditions. Trial batch pro- strength, and stiffness of aggregate particles; dif-
cedures and background testing are described in ferences in cement types and sources; air con-
Appendix 3. tent; and the use of admixtures which affect the
cement hydration process or develop cementitious
3. BASIC RELATIONSHIP properties themselves. To the extent that these
effects are predictable in the general sense, they
3.1-Concrete proportions must be selected to
are taken into account in this recommended prac-
provide necessary place ability, strength, dura-
tice. However, in view of their number and com-
bility, and density for the particular application.
plexity, it should be obvious that accurate pre-
Well established relationships governing these
dictions of strength must be based on trial
properties are discussed briefly below.
batches or experience with the materials to be
3.2-PlaceabiHty (including satisfactory finish- used.
ing properties) encompasses traits loosely ac-
3.5-Durability. Concrete must be able to en-
cumulated in the terms "workability" and "con-
dure those exposures which may deprive it of its
sistency." For the purpose of this discussion,
serviceability-freezing and thawing, wetting and
workability is considered to be that property of
drying, heating and cooling, chemicals, deicing
concrete which determines its capacity to be
agents, and the like. Resistance to some of these
placed and consolidated properly and to be fin-
may be enhanced by 11se of special ingredients:
ished without harmful segregation. It embodies
low-alkali cement, pozzolans, or selected aggre-
such concepts as moldability, cohesiveness, and
gate to prevent harmful expansion due to the
compactability. It is affected by the grading,
alkali-aggregate reaction which occurs in some
particle shape and proportions of aggregate, the
areClS when concrete, is exposed in a moist en-
amount of cement, the presence of entrained
vironment: sulfate resisting cement or pozzolans
air, admixtures, and the consistency of the mix-
for concrete exposed to seawater or sulfate-
ture. Procedures in this recommended practice
permit these factors to be taken into account to
achieve satisfactory placeability economically. 'See ACI Committee 212, "Admixtures for Concrete" ACt
Proceedings V. 60, No. 11, Nov. 1963, pp. 1525-1534.
JOURNAL,
PROPORTIONS FOR NORMAL AND HEAVYWEIGHT CONCRETE 211-3
bearing soils; or aggregate free of excessive soft straightforward steps which, in effect, fit the
particles where resistance to surface abrasion is characteristics of the available materials into a
required. Use of a low water-cement ratio will mixture suitable for the work. The question of
prolong the life of concrete by reducing the suitability is frequently not left to the individ-
penetration of aggressive liquids. Resistance to ual selecting the proportions. The job specifica-
severe weathering, particularly freezing and tions may dictate some or all of the following:
thawing, and to salts used for ice removal is 5.2.1 Maximum water-cement ratio
greatly improved by incorporation of a proper 5.2.2 Minimum cement content
distribution of entrained air. Entrained air should 5.2.3 Air content
be used in all exposed concrete in climates where 5.2.4 Slump
freezing occurs. * 5.2.5 Maximum size of aggregate
3.6-Density. For certain applications concrete 5.2.6 Strength
may be used primarily for its weight characteris- 5.2.7 Other requirements relating to such
tic. Examples of applications are counterweights things as strength overdesign, admixtures, and
on lift bridges, weights for sinking oil pipelines special types of cement or aggregate.
under water, shielding from radiation, and for 5.3-Regardless of whether the concrete char-
insulation from sound. By using special aggre- acteristics are prescribed by the specifications or
gates, placeable concrete of densities as high as are left to the individual selecting the propor-
350 lb per cu ft can be obtained-see Appendix 4. tions, establishment of batch weights per cubic
yard of concrete can best be accomplished in the
4. BACKGROUND DATA following sequence:
4.1-To the extent possible, selection of con- 5.3.1 Step 1. Choice of slump. If slump is not
crete proportions should be based on test data or specified, a value appropriate for the work can
experience with the materials actually to be be selected from Table 5.3.1. The slump ranges
used. Where such background is limited or not shown apply when vibration is used to consoli-
available, estimates given in this recommended date the concrete. Mixes of the stiffest consistency
practice may be employed. that can be placed efficiently should be used.
4.2-The following information for available
materials will be useful: TABLE 5.3.I-RECOMMENDED SLUMPS
FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION
4.2.1 Sieve analyses of fine and coarse ag- -----------~----- ----~
4.2.3 Bulk specific gravities and absorptions Reinforced foundation walls and footings
Plain footings, caissons, and
of aggregates substructure walls 3
Beams and reinforced walls 4
4.2.4 Mixing water requirements of concrete Building columns 4
developed from experience with available aggre- Pavements and slabs 3
Mass concrete 2
gates --'----~-----~--.-
4.2.5 Relationships between strength and wa- *May be increased 1 in. for methods of consolidation other
than vibration.
ter-cement ratio for available combinations of
cement and aggregate 5.3.2 Step 2. Choice of maximum size of ag-
4.3-Estimates from Tables 5.3.3 and 5.3.4, re- gregate. Large maximum sizes of well graded
spectively, may be used when the last two items aggregates have less voids than smaller sizes.
of information are not available. As will be Hence, concretes with the larger-sized aggre-
shown, proportions can be estimated without the gates require less mortar per unit volume of
knowledge of aggregate specific gravity and ab- concrete. Generally, the maximum size of ag-
sorption, Item 4.2.3. gregate should be the largest that is economically
available and consistent with dimensions of the
5. PROCEDURE structure. In no event should the maximum size
exceed one-fifth of the narrowest dimension be-
5.1-The procedure for selection of mix propor-
tween sides of forms, one-third the depth of slabs,
tions given in this section is applicable to normal
nor three-fourths of the minimum clear spacing
weight concrete. Although the same basic data
between individual reinforcing bars, bundles of
and procedures can be used in proportioning
bars, or pretensioning strands. These limitations
heavyweight concrete, additional information as
are sometimes waived if workability and methods
well as sample computations for this type of con-
of consolidation are such that the concrete can be
crete are given in Appendix 4.
5.2-Estimating the required batch weights for "For further details, see ACI Committee 201, "Durability of
the concrete involves a sequence of logical, Concrete in Service," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 59, No. 12.
Dec. 1962, pp. 1771-1820.
211-4 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
Non-air-entrained concrete
Air-entrained concrete
'These quantities of mixing water are for use in computing cement factors for trial batches.
They are maxima for reasonably well-shaped angular coarse aggregates graded within limits
of accepted specifications.
tThe slump values for concrete containing aggregate larger than liS in. are based on slump
tests made after removal of particles larger than 1% in. by wet-screening.
tAdditional recommendations for air content and necessary tolerances on air content for
control in the field are given in a number of ACI documents, including ACI 201, 345, 318, 301,
and 302. ASTM C 94 for ready-mixed concrete also gives air content limits. The requirements
in other documents may not always agree exactly, so in proportioning concrete consideration
must be given to selecting an air content that will meet the needs of the job and also meet
the applicable speCifications.
§For concrete containing large aggregates which will be wet-screened over the 1 ~S in. sieve
prior to testing for air content, the percentage of air expected in the l~S in. minus material
should be as tabulated in the l~S in. column. However, initial proportioning calculations should
include the air content as a percent of the whole.
**When using large aggregate in low cement factor concrete, air entrainment need not be
detrimental to strength. In most cases mixing water requirement is reduced sufficiently to
improve the water-cement ratio and to thus compensate for the strength reducing effect of
entrained air on concrete. Generally, therefore, for these large maximum sizes of aggregate, air
contents recommended for extreme exposure should be considered even though there may
be little or no exposure to moisture and freezing.
ttThese values are based on the criteria that 9 percent air is needed in the mortar phase
of the concrete. If the mortar volume will be substantially different from that determined in
this recommended practice, it may be desirable to calculate the needed air content by taking 9
percent of the actual mortar volume.
placed without honeycomb ~r void. When high of concrete required to produce a given slump is
strength concrete is desired, best results may be dependent on the maximum size, particle shape
obtained with reduced maximum sizes of aggre- and grading of the aggregates, and on the amount
gate since these produce higher strengths at a of entrained air. It is not greatly affected by
given water-cement ratio. the quantity of cement. Table 5.3.3 provides esti-
mates of required mixing water for concretes
made with various maximum sizes of aggregate,
5.3.3 Step 3. Estimation of mixing water and with and without air entrainment. Depending on
air content. The quantity of water per unit volume aggregate texture and shape, mixing water re-
PROPORTIONS FOR NORMAL AND HEAVYWEIGHT CONCRETE 211·5
quirements may be somewhat above or below the carefully evaluated. If a member is not continually
tabulated values, but they are sufficiently ac- wet and will not be exposed to deicing salts, lower
curate for the first estimate. Such differences in air content values such as those given in Table
water demand are not necessarily reflected in 5.3.3 for moderate exposure are appropriate even
strength since other compensating factors may though the concrete is exposed to freezing and
be involved. For example, a rounded and an thawing temperatures. However, for an exposure
angular coarse aggregate, both well and simi- condition where the member may be saturated
larly graded and of good quality, can be ex- prior to freezing, the use of air en trainmen t should
pected to produce concrete of about the same not be sacrificed for strength.
compressive strength for the same cement factor When trial batches are used to establish
in spite of differences in water-cement ratio re- strength relationships or verify strength-produc-
sulting from the different mixing water require- ing capability of a mixture, the least favorable
ments. Particle shape per se is not an indicator combination of mixing water and air content
that an aggregate will be either above or below should be used. This is, the air content should be
average in its strength-producing capacity. the maximum permitted or likely to occur, and
the concrete should be gaged to the highest per-
Table 5.3.3 indicates the approximate amount of
missable slump. This will avoid developing an
entrapped air to be expected in non-air-entrained
over-optimistic estimate of strength on the as-
concrete in the upper part of the table and shows
sumption that average rather than extreme con-
the recommended average air content for air- ditions will prevail in the field. For information
entrained concrete in the lower part of the table. on air content recommendations, see ACI 201,
If air entrainment is needed or desired, three levels
301, and 302.
of air content are given for each aggregate size
depending on the purpose of the entrained air and 5.3.4 Step 4. Selection of water-cement ratio.
the severity of exposure if entrained air is needed The required water-cement ratio is determined
for durability: not only by strength requirements but also by
Mild exposure-When air entrainment is desired factors such as durability and finishing proper-
for a beneficial effect other than durability, such ties. Since different aggregates and cements gen-
as to improve workability or cohesion or in low erally produce different strengths at the same
cement factor concrete to improve strength, air water-cement ratio, it is highly desirable to have
contents lower than those needed for durability or develop the relationship between strength
can be used. This exposure includes indoor or and water-cement ratio for the materials actually
outdoor service in a climate where concrete will to be used. In the absence of such data, approxi-
not be exposed to freezing or to deicing agents. mate and relatively conservative values for con-
crete containing Type I portland cement can be
Moderate exposure-Service in a climate where taken from Table 5.3.4 (a). With typical mate-
freezing is expected but where the concrete will rials, the tabulated water·cement ratios should
not be continually exposed to moisture or free produce the strengths shown, based on 28-day
water for long periods prior to freezing and will tests of specimens cured under standard labora-
not be exposed to deicing agents or other aggres- tory conditions. The average strength selected
sive chemicals. Examples include: exterior beams, must, of course, exceed the specified strength
columns, walls, girders, or slabs which are not in by a sufficient margin to keep the number of low
contact with wet soil and are so located that they tests within specified limits. *
will not receive direct applications of deicing salts. For severe conditions of exposure, the water-
cement ratio should be kept low even though
Severe exposure-Concrete which is exposed to strength requirements may be met with a higher
deicing chemicals or other aggressive agents or value. Table 5.3.4 (b) gives limiting values.
where the concrete may become highly saturated
by continual contact with moisture or free water
5.3.5 Step 5. Calculation of cement content.
prior to freezing. Examples include: pavements,
The amount of cement per unit volume of con-
bridge decks, curbs, gutters, sidewalks, canal lin-
crete is fixed by the determinations made in
ings, or exterior water tanks or sumps.
Steps 3 and 4 above. The required cement is
The use of normal amounts of air entrainment equal to the estimated mixing water content
in concrete with a specified strength near or (Step 3) divided by the water-cement ratio
about 5000 psi may not be possible due to the fact (Step 4). If, however, the specification includes a
that each added percent of air lowers the maxi- separate minimum limit on cement in addition to
mum strength obtainable with a given combination
of materials. 1s In these cases the exposure to water,
deicing salts, and freezing temperatures should be ·See "Recommended Practice for Evaluation of Compression
Test Results of Field Concrete (ACI 214-68).n
211-6 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
6.1.4 The fine aggregate has a bulk specific crete made with aggregate having a maximum
gravity of 2.64,* an absorption of 0.7 percent, and size of 1% in. is estimated to be 4070 lb. (For a
fineness modulus of 2.8. first trial batch, exact adjustments of this value
6.2-Example 1. Concrete is required for a por- for usual differences in slump, cement factor,
tion of a structure which will be below ground and aggregate specific gravity are not critical.)
level in a location where it will not be exposed Weights already known are:
to severe weathering or sulfate attack. Structural
Water (net mixing) 300 lb
considerations require it to have an average 28- Cement 484 lb
day compressive strength of 3500 psi. t On the Coarse aggregate 1917lb (dry)j
basis of information in Table 5.3.1, as well as Total 2701 lb
previous experience, it is determined that under
the conditions of placement to be employed, a The weight of sand, therefore, is estimated to be
slump of 3 to 4 in. should be used and that the 4070 - 2701 = 13691b (dry) ~
available No.4 to l%-in. coarse aggregate will be
6.2.7.2 Absolute volume basis. With the
suitable. The dry-rodded weight of coarse aggre-
quantities of cement, water, and coarse aggregate
gate is found to be 100 lb per cu ft. Employing
established, and the approximate entrapped air
the sequence outlined in Section 5, the quan-
content (as opposed to purposely entrained air)
tities of ingredients per cubic yard of concrete
taken from Table 5.3.3, the sand content can be
are calculated as follows:
calculated as follows:
6.2.1 Step 1. As indicated above, the desired
slump is 3 to 4 in. Volume of 300
6.2.2 Step 2. The locally available aggregate, water --6~
4.81 eu ft
Solid
graded from No.4 to 11/2 in., has been indicated volume 484
as suitable. of cement 2.46 eu ft
Solid 3:15 X 62.4-
6.2.3 Step 3. Since the structure will not be volume
exposed to severe weathering, non-air-entrained of coarse
aggregate - - - 1917 11.46 cu ft
---
concrete will be used. The approximate amount Volume of 2.68 X 62.4
of mixing water to produce a 3- to 4-in. slump in entrapped
air = 0.01 X 27 0.27 cu ft
non-air-entrained concrete with l%-in. aggre- Total solid volume of ingredients
gate is found from Table 5.3.3 to be 300 lb per except sand 19.00 cu ft
Solid
cu yd. Estimated entrapped air is shown as 1 volume
percent. of sand
required 27 - 19.00 8.00 eu ft
6.2.4 Step 4. From Table 5.3.4 (a), the water- Required
cement ratio needed to produce a strength of weight of
3500 psi in non-air-entrained concrete is found
dry sand = 8.00 X 2.64 X 62.4 = 1318lb
Coarse aggregate (wet) = 1917 (1.02) = 1955 lb same as in the trial batch. The amount of coarse
Fine aggregate (wet) = 1369 (1.06) = 1451lb aggregate per cubic yard becomes
58.65
Absorbed water does not become part of the 0.83 X 27 = 1908 lb wet
mixing water and must be excluded from the
which is
adjustment in added water. Thus, surface water
contributed by the coarse aggregate amounts to 1908
-1.02 = 1871 lb dry
2 - 0.5 = 1.5 percent; by the fine aggregate
6 - 0.7 = 5.3 percent. The estimated requirement and
for added water, therefore, becomes
1871 (1.005) = 1880 SSD*
300 - 1917 (0.015) - 1369 (0.053) = 199 lb
6.2.9.4 The new estimate for the weight of
The estimated batch weights for a cubic yard of a cubic yard of concrete is 149.0 X 27 = 4023 lb.
concrete are: The amount of sand required is, therefore,
Water (to be added)
Cement
199 lb
484 lb
4023 - (342 + 552 + 1880) = 1249 Ib SSD
Coarse aggregate (wet) 1955 lb or
Fine aggregate (wet) 1451 lb 1249/1.007 = 1240 Ib dry
6.2.9 Step 9. For the laboratory trial batch, it The adjusted basic batch weights per cubic yard
is found convenient to scale the weights down to of concrete are
produce 0.03 cu yd or 0.81 cu ft of concrete. Al-
though the calculated quantity of water to be Water (net mixing) 342 Ib
Cement 552 Ib
added was 5.97 lb, the amount actually used in 1871 Ib
Coarse aggregate (dry)
an effort to obtain the desired 3 to 4 in. slump is Fine aggregate (dry) 1240 Ib
7.00 lb. The batch as mixed therefore, consists of
6.2.10 Adjustments of proportions determined
Water (added) 7.00 lb
Cement 14.52 lb on an absolute volume basis follow a procedure
Coarse aggregate (wet) 58.65 lb similar to that just outlined. The steps will be
Fine aggregate (wet) 43.53 lb given without detailed explanation:
Total 123.70 Ib 6.2.10.1 Quantities used in nominal 0.81 cu
The concrete has a measured slump of 2 in. and ft batch are
unit weight of 149.0 Ib per cu ft. It is judged to
Water (added) 7.00 Ib
be satisfactory from the standpoint of workabil-
Cement 14.52 Ib
ity and finishing properties. To provide proper Coarse aggregate (wet) 58.65 Ib
yield and other characteristics for future batches, Fine aggregate (wet) 41.91 Ib
the following adjustments are made: Total 122.08 lb
6.2.9.1 Since the yield of the trial batch was
Measured slump 2 in.; unit weight 149.0 Ib per cu
123.70/149.0 = 0.830 cu ft
ft; yield 122.08/149.0 = 0.819 cu ft; workability
and the mixing water content was 7.00 (added)
o.k.
+ 0.86 on coarse aggregate + 2.18 on fine aggre-
6.2.10.2 Re-estimated water for same slump
gate = 10.04 Ib, the mixing water required for a
as trial batch:
cubic yard of concrete with the same slump as
the trial batch should be 27 (7.00 + 0.86 + 2,.09) _ 328 Ib
0.819 -
10.04 X 27 _ 327 lb
0.830 - Mixing water required for slump of 3 to 4 in.:
As indicated in Paragraph 5.3.9.1, this amount 328 + 15 = 343 lb
must be increased another 15 lb to raise the
slump from the measured 2 in. to the desired 6.2.10.3 Adjusted cement content for in-
3 to 4 in. range, bringing the net mixing water creased water:
to 342 lb. 343/0.62 = 553 Ib
6.2.9.2 With the increased mixing water, 6.2.10.4 Adjusted coarse aggregate require-
additional cement will be required to provide the ment:
desired water-cement ratio of 0.62. The new ce-
ment content becomes 58.65
0.819 X 27 = 1934 lb wet
342/0.62 = 552 Ib
6.2.9.3 Since workability was found to be or
satisfactory, the quantity of coarse aggregate per 1934/1.02 = 1896 lb dry
unit volume of concrete will be maintained the *Saturated-suriace-dry
211-10 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
6.2.10.5 The volume of ingredient~ other of satisfactory quality is graded from No. 4 to 1
than air in the original trial batch was in. and this will be used. Its dry-rodded weight is
found to be 95 lb per cu ft. Other characteristics
9.95
Water 62.4 = 0.159 cu ft are as indicated in Section 6.1.
14.52
The calculations will be shown in skeleton form
Cement 3.15 X 62.4 0.074 cu ft only. Note that confusion is avoided if all steps
of Section 5 are followed even when they appear
57.50
Coarse aggregate 0.344 cu ft repetitive of specified requirements.
2.68 X 62.4
39.54
6.3.1 Step 1. The desired slump is 1 to 2 in.
Fine aggregate 0.240 cu ft 6.3.2 Step 2. The locally available aggregate,
2.64 X 62.4
=0.817cuft
graded from No.4 to 1 in., will be used.
Total 6.3.3 Step 3. Since the structure will be ex-
Since the yield was 0.819 cu ft, the air content posed to severe weathering, air-entrained con-
was crete will be used. The approximate amount of
0.819 - 0.817 mixing water to produce a 1 to 2-in. slump in air-
0.819 = 0.2 percent entrained concrete with I-in. aggregate is found
from Table 5.3.3 to be 270 lb per cu yd. The
With the proportions of all components except recommended air content is 5 percent.
fine aggregate established, the determination of 6.3.4 Step 4. From Table 5.3.4 (a), the water-
adjusted cubic yard batch quantities can be com- cement ratio needed to produce a strength of
pleted as follows: 3000 psi in air-entrained concrete is estimated to
be about 0.59. However, reference to Table
Volume of 343
water 62.4
5.50 cu ft 5.3.4 (b) reveals that, for the severe weathering
exposure anticipated, the water-cement ratio
Volume of 553
cement = 2.81 cu ft should not exceed 0.50. This lower figure must
3.15 X 62.4
govern and will be used in the calculations.
Volume of 6.3.5 Step 5. From the information derived in
air 0.002 X 27 0.05 cu ft
Steps 3 and 4, the required cement content is
Volume of
coarse 1896
found to be 270/0.50 = 540 lb per cu yd.
aggregate 11.34 eu ft 6.3.6. Step 6. The quantity of coarse aggregate
2.68 X 62.4
Total volume exclusive of is estimated from Table 5.3.6. With a fine aggre-
fine aggregate 19.70 cu ft gate having a fineness modulus of 2.8 and a
Volume of 1 in. maximum size of coarse aggregate, the table
fine ag- indicates that 0.67 cu ft of coarse aggregate, on
gregate
7.30 cu ft
a dry-rodded basis, may be used in each cubic
required 27 - 19.70
Weight of foot of concrete. For a cubic yard, therefore, the
fine ag- coarse aggregate will be 27 X 0.67 = 18.09 cu ft.
gregate Since it weighs 95 lb per cu ft, the dry weight of
(dry coarse aggregate is 18.09 X 95 = 1719 lb.
basis) = 7.30 X 2.64 X 62.4 = 1203lb
6.3.7 Step 7. With the quantities of water,
The adjusted basic batch weights per cubic yard cement and coarse aggregate established, the re-
of concrete, then, are: maining material comprising the cubic yard of
concrete must consist of sand and air. The re-
Water (net mixing) 343 lb quired sand may be determined on the basis of
Cement 553 Ib either weight or absolute volume as shown below.
Coarse aggregate (dry) 1896 Ib 6.3.7.1 Weight basis. From Table 5.3.7.1, the
Fine aggregate (dry) 1203 Ib weight of a cubic yard of air-entrained concrete
These differ only slightly from those given in made with aggregate of 1 in. maximum size is
Paragraph 6.2.9.4 for the method of assumed estimated to be 3900 lb. (For a first trial batch,
concrete weight. Further trials or experience exact adjustments of this value for differences
might indicate small additional adjustments for in slump, cement factor, and aggregate specific
either method. gravity are not critical.) Weights already known
6.3-Example 2. Concrete is required for a are:
heavy bridge pier which will be exposed to fresh Water (net mixing) 270 lb
water in a severe climate. An average 28-day Cement 540 lb
Coarse aggregate (dry) 1719 lb
compressive strength of 3000 psi will be re-
Total 2529Th
quired. Placement conditions permit a slump of
1 to 2 in. and the use of large aggregate, but The weight of sand, therefore, is estimated to be
the only economically available coarse aggregate 3900 - 2529 = 1371lb (dry)
PROPORTIONS FOR NORMAL AND HEAVYWEIGHT CONCRETE 211-11
6.3.7.2 Absolute volume basis. With the 6.3.9 Step 9. For the laboratory trial batch, the
quantities of cement, water, air, and coarse ag- weights are scaled down to produce 0.03 cu yd or
gregate established, the sand content can be cal- 0.81 cu ft of concrete. Although the calculated
culated as follows: quantity of water to be added was 5.04 lb the
amount actually used is in an effort to obtain
Volume of 270 the desired 1 to 2-in. slump is 4.50 lb. The batch
water 4.33 cu ft
62.4 as mixed, therefore, consists of
Solid volume 540
of cement - 3.15 X 62.4 2.75 cu ft Water (added) 4.50 Ib
Solid volume Cement 16.20 lb
of coarse 1719 Coarse aggregate (wet) 53.13 Ib
aggregate - 2.68 X 62.4 10.28 cu ft Fine aggregate (wet) 43.20 Ib
Total 117.03 Ib
Volume of
air = 0.05 X 27 1.35 cu ft The concrete has a measured slump of 2 in., unit
Total volume weight of 141.8 lb per cu it, and air content of
of ingredi- 6.5 percent. It is judged to be slightly oversanded
ents except
sand 18.71 cu ft for the easy placement condition involved. To
Solid volume provide proper yield and other characteristics for
of sand future batches, the following adjustments are
required = 27 - 18.71 8.29 cu ft made:
Required
weight of 6.3.9.1 Since the yield of the trial batch
dry sand = 8.29 X 2.64 X 62.4 = 13n6 lb was
117.03/141.8 = 0.825 cu ft
6.3.7.3 Batch weights per cubic yard of
and the mixing water content was 4.50 (added)
concrete calculated on the two bases are com-
pared below: + 1.29 on coarse aggregate + 1.77 on fine aggre-
gate = 7.56 lb the mixing water required for a
Based on Based on
estimated
cubic yard of concrete with the same slump as
absolute
concrete volume the trial batch should be
weight, of ingredients,
lb lb 7.56 X 27 _ 247 lb
Water (net mixing) 270 270 0.825 -
Cement 540 540
Coarse aggregate The slump was satisfactory but, since the air
(dry) 1719 1719 content was too high by 1.5 percent, more water
Sand (dry) 1371 1366 will be needed for proper slump when the air
6.3.8 Step 8. Tests indicate total moisture of content is corrected. As indicated in Paragraph
3 percent in the coarse aggregate and 5 percent 5.3.9.2, the mixing water should be increased
in the fine aggregate. If the trial batch propor- roughly 5 X 1.5 or about 8 lb, bringing the new
tions based on assumed concrete weight are used, estimate to 255 lb per cu yd.
the adjusted aggregate weights become 6.3.9.2 With the decreased mixing water,
less cement will be required to provide the de-
Coarse aggregate (wet) = 1719 (1.03) = 1771lb sired water-cement ratio of 0.5. The new cement
Fine aggregate (wet) = 1371 (1.05) = 1440 lb content becomes
Absorbed water does not become part of the
mixing water and must be excluded from the 255/0.5 = 510 lb
adjustrrcnt in added water. Thus, surface water
6.3.9.3 Since the concrete was found to be
contributed by the coarse aggregate amounts to
oversanded, the quantity of coarse aggregate per
3 - 0.5 = 2.5 percent; by th~ fine aggregate
unit volume will be increased 10 percent, to 0.74,
5 - 0.7 = 4.3 percent. The estimated requirement
in an effort to correct the condition. The amount
for added water, therefore, becomes
of coarse aggregate per cubic yard becomes
270 - 1719 (0.025) - 1371 (0.043) = 168 lb
The estimated batch weights for a cubic yard of 0.74 X 27 X 95 = 1898 lb dry
or
concrete are:
1898 X 1.03 1955lb wet
Water (to be added) 168 Ib and
Cement 540 lb 1898 X 1.005 1907lb SSD*
Coarse aggregate (wet) 1771 Ib
Fine aggregate (wet) 1440 Ib
Total 3919Th *Saturated-surface-dry
211-12 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
6.3.9.4 The new estimate for the weight of 6. Weymouth, C. A. G., "A Study of Fine Aggregate
the concrete with 1.5 percent less air is 141.8/0.985 in Freshly Mixed Mortars and Concretes," Proceedings,
ASTM, V. 38, Part 2, 1938, pp. 354-372.
= 144.0 Ib per cu ft or 144.0 X 27 = 3888 lb per
cu yd. The weight of sand, therefore, is 7. Dunagan, W. M., "The Application of Some of the
N ewer Concepts to the Design of Concrete Mixes,"
ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 36, No.6, June 1940, pp.
3888 - (255 + 510 + 1907) = 1216 Ib SSD* 649-684.
or 8. Goldbeck, A. T., and Gray, J. E., "A Method of
1216/1.007 = 1208lb dry Proportioning Concrete for Strength, Workability, and
Durability," Bulletin No. 11, National Crushed Stone
The adjusted basic batch weights per cubic yard Association, Dec. 1942, 30 pp. (Revised 1953 and 1956).
of concrete are 9. Swayze, M. A., and Gruenwald, E., "Concrete Mix
Design-Modification of Fineness Modulus Method,"
ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 43, No.7, Mar. 1947, pp.
Water (net mixing) 255 lb 829-844.
Cement 510 lb 10. Discussion of "Concrete Mix Design-A Modifica-
Coarse aggregate (dry) 1898 lb tion of the Fineness Modulus Method" by Stanton
Fine aggregate (dry) 1208 lb Walker and Fred F. Bartel, ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings
V. 43, Part 2, Dec. 1947, pp. 844-1-844-17.
Admixture dosage must be reduced to provide 11. Henrie, James 0., "Properties of Nuclear Shield-
the desired air content. ing Concrete," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 56, No.1,
July 1959, pp. 37-46.
6.3.10 Adjustments of proportions determined 12. Mather, Katharine, "High Strength, High Density
on an absolute volume basis would follow the Concrete," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 62, No.8,
procedure outlined in Paragraph 6.2.10 which will Aug. 1965, pp. 951-960.
not be repeated for this example. 13. Clendenning, T. G.; Kellam, B.; and MacInnis, C.,
"Hydrogen Evolution from Ferrophosphorous Aggregate
in Portland Cement Conc.:rete," ACI JOURNAL, Proceed-
REFERENCES ings V. 65, No. 12, Dec. 1968, pp. 1021-1028.
1. Fuller, William B., and Thompson, Sanford E., "The 14. Popovics, Sandor, "Estimating Proportions for
Laws of Proportioning Concrete," Transactions, ASCE, Structural Concrete Mixtures," ACI JOURNAL, Proceed-
V. 59, Dec. 1907, pp. 67-143. ings V. 65, No.2, Feb. 1968, pp. 143-150.
2. Abrams, Duff A., "Design of Concrete Mixtures," 15. "Tentative Specification for Aggregates for Radia-
Bulletin No.1, Structural Materials Research Labora- tion-Shielding Concrete," (ASTM C 637), American
tory, Lewis Institute, Chicago, 1918. Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia.
3. Edwards, L. N., "Proportioning the Materials of 16. Davis, H. S., "Aggregates for Radiation Shielding
Mortars and Concretes by Surface Areas of Aggregates," Concrete," Materials Research and Standards, V. 7,
Proceedings, ASTM, V. 18, Part 2, 1918, p. 235. No. 11, Nov. 1967, pp. 494-501.
4. Young, R. B., "Some Theoretical Studies on Pro- 17. CCT/,crete for Nuclear Reactors, SP-34, American
portioning Concrete by the Method of Surface Area of Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1972, 1736 pp.
Aggregate," Proceedings, ASTM, V. 19, Part 2, 1919, 18. Gaynor, Richard D., "High-Strength Air-Entrained
p. 444. Concrete," Joint Research Laboratory Publication No.
5. Talbot, A. N., "A Proposed Method of Estimating 17, National Ready Mixed Concrete Association and
the Density and Strength of Concrete and of Propor- National Sand and Gravel Association, 1968, 19 pp.
tioning the Materials by Experimental and Analytical
Consideration of the Voids in Mortar and Concrete,"
Proceedings, ASTM, V. 21, 1921, p. 940. *Saturated-surface-dry
PROPORTIONS FOR NORMAL AND HEAVYWEIGHT CONCRETE 211-13
APPENDICES
APPENDIX l-METRIC SYSTEM ADAPTATION way that values are realistic in terms of usual prac-
tice and significance of numbers. For example, ag-
AI.I-Procedures outlined in this recommended prac- gregate and sieve sizes in the metric tables are ones
tice have been presented using British (United States commonly used in Europe. Thus, there is not always a
customary) units of measurement. The principles are precise mathematical correspondence between British
equally applicable in the metric system with proper
and metric values in corresponding tables.
adaptation of units. This Appendix provides all of the A1.S.2 Steps in calculating proportions. Except
information necessary to apply the proportioning proce-
as discussed below, the methods for arriving at quan-
dure using International SI (metric) measurements. tities of ingredients for a unit volume of concrete are
Table A1.1 gives relevant conversion factors. A numeri-
essentially the same when metric units are employed as
cal example is presented in Appendix 2.
when British units are employed. The main difference
A1.2-For convenience of reference, numbering of is that the unit volume of concrete becomes the cubic
subsequent paragraphs in this Appendix corresponds meter and numerical values must be taken from the
to the body of the report except that the designa- proper "AI" table instead of the one referred to in the
tion "AI" is prefixed. All tables have been converted text.
and reproduced. Descriptive portions are included only
where use of the metric system requires a change AI.S.2.1 Step 1. Choice of slump. See Table
in a procedure or formula. To the extent practicable, A1.5.2.1.
conversions to metric units have been made in such a
A1.S.2.2 Step 2. Choice of maximum size of ag-
gregate.
TABLE AI.I-CONVERSION FACTORS. AI.S.2.3 Step 3. Estimation of mixing water and
BRITISH TO METRIC UNITS* air content. See Table A1.5.2.3.
l
Conversion
British SIt factor AI.S.2.4 Step 4. Selection of water-cement
(U.S. customary) (Metric) (Ratio: ratio. See Table A1.5.2.4.
Quantity unit unit British/SI)
inch (in.) centimeter (cm) 2.540
AI.S.2.S Step 5. Calculation of cement content.
Length
inch (in.) millimeter (mm) 25.40 A1.S.2.6 Step 6. Estimation of coarse aggregate
Volume cubic foot (ftS) cubic meter (m') 0.02832
content. The dry weight of coarse aggregate required
cubic yard (yd S) cubic meter (mS) 0.7646 for a cubic meter of concrete is equal to the value
Mass pound (lb) kilogram (kg) 0.4536
from Table A1.5.2.6 multiplied by the dry-rodded unit
weight of the aggregate in kilograms per cubic meter.
Stress pounds per kilograms force
square inch per square
(psi) centimeter
(kgf/cm 2 ) 0.0703
Density pounds per kil0:t;ams per
cubic foot cu Ic meter
(lb/ft 3 ) (kg/m') 16.02
Slump. cm
pounds per kil0l{;ams per
cubic/aard cu Ic meter Types of construction Maximum' Minimum
(lb/y ') (kg/mS) 0.5933 Reinforced foundation walls and
Temperature de~ees de~rees
footings 8 2
Fa renheit (F) entigrade (C) t Plain footings. caissons. and
substructure walls 8 2
°Gives names (and abbreviations) of measurement units In Beams and reinforced walls 10 2
the British (U.S. customary) system as used In the body of
this report and In the S.I. (metric) system. along 'Y.lth mult1plie~s Building columns 10 2
for converting the former to the latter. From ASTM MetriC Pavements and slabs 8 2
Practice Guide" (2nd Edition. 1966). Heavy mass concrete 8 2
tSysteme International d'Unites
"May be Increased cm for methods of conSOlidation other
tc = (F - 32)/1.8. than vibration.
211-14 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
The concrete has a measured slump of 5 cm and unit A2.2.10.2 Re-estimated water for same slump as
weight of 2390 kg/m3. It is judged to be satisfactory trial batch:
from the standpoint of workability and finishing prop-
erties. To provide proper yield and other characteristics 2.70 + 0.34 + 0.83 = 192 kg
for future batches, the following adjustments are made: 0.0202
A2.2.9.1 Since the yield of the trial batch was Mixing water required for slump of 8 to 10 cm:
and the mIxmg water content was 2.70 (added) + 0.34 A2.2.10.3 Adjusted cement content for increased
(on coarse aggregate) +
0.86 (on fine aggregate) = 3.90 water:
kg, the mixing water required for a cubic meter of con-
200/0.62 = 323 kg
crete with the same slump as the trial batch should be
A2.2.10.4 Adjusted coarse aggregate require-
~ =190kg ment:
0.0205
23.50
As indicated in A1.5.2.9.1, this amount must be in- 0.0202 = 1163 kg wet
creased another 8 kg to raise the slump from the
or
measured 5 cm to the desired 8 to 10 cm range, bring-
ing the total mixing water to 198 kg.
1163/1.02 = 1140 kg dry
A2.2.9.2 With the increased mixing water, ad-
ditional cement will be required to provide the desired A2.2.10.5 The volume of ingredients other than
water-cement ratio of 0.62. The new cement content air in the original trial batch was
becomes
3.87
198/0.62 = 319 kg Water
1000
= 0.0039 m'
5.64
A2.2.9.3 Since workability was found to be satis- Cement
3.15 X 1000
= 0.0018 m'
factory, the quantity of coarse aggregate per unit
volume of concrete will be maintained the same as Coarse aggregate
23.D4
2.68 X 1000
= 0.()086 m"
in the trial batch. The amount of coarse aggregate per
cubic meter becomes Fine aggregate 15.58 = 0.0059 m'
2.64 X 1000
Total 0.0202 m'
23.50
0.0205 = 1146 kg wet Since the yield was also 0.0202 m 3 , there was no air in
which is the concrete detectable within the precision of the unit
~=
1.02
1124 kgdr
y
weight test and significant figures of the calculations.
With the proportions of all components except fine
and aggregate established, the determination of adjusted
1124 X 1.005 = 1130 kg SSD* cubic yard batch quantities can be completed as fol-
lows:
A2.2.9.4 The new estimate for the weight of a
cubic meter of concrete is the measured unit weight of 200
2390 kg/m:l. The amount of sand required is, therefore Volume of water
1000
= 0.200m'
323
2390 - (198 + 319 + 1130) = 743 kg SSD Volume of cement
3.15 X 1000
= 0.103 m'
or Allowance for volume
743/1.007 = 738 kg dry of air = 0.000 m'
Volume of coarse 1140
The adjusted basic batch weights per cubic meter of aggregate
2.68 X 1000
= 0.425 m'
concrete are
Total volume exclusive
of fine aggregate = 0.728 m'
Water (net mixing) 198 kg Volume of fine
Cement 319 kg
aggregate required = 1.000 - 0.728 = 0.272 m'
Coarse aggregate (dry) 1124 kg Weight of fine
Fine aggregate (dry) 738 kg aggregate (dry basis) = 0.272 X 2.64 X 1000 == 718 kg
A2.2.10 Adjustments of proportions determined on
an absolute volume basis follow a 'procedure similar The adjusted basic batch weights per cubic meter of
to that just outlined. The steps will be given without concrete, then, are:
detailed explanation:
Water (net mixing) 200 kg
A2.2.10.1 Quantities used in the nominal 0.02 m 3 Cement 323 kg
batch are Coarse aggregate (dry) 1140 kg
Fine aggregate (dry) 718 kg
Water (added) 2.70 kg These differ only slightly from those given in Para-
Cement 5.64 kg
Coarse aggregate (wet) 23.50 kg
graph A2.2.9.4 for the method of assumed concrete
Fine aggregate (wet) 16.51 kg weight. Further trials or experience might indicate
Total 48.35 kg small additional adjustments for either method.
Measured slump 5 cm; unit weight 2390 kg/m3; yield
48.35/2390 = 0.0202 m3; workability o.k. ·Saturated-surface-dry
PROPORTIONS FOR NORMAL AND HEAVYWEIGHT CONCRETE 211-17
APPENDIX 3-lABORATORY TESTS A3.3.3 Samples for concrete mix tests should be
representative of aggregate available for use in the
A3.1-Selection of concrete mix proportions can be work. For laboratory tests, the coarse aggregates
accomplished effectively from results of laboratory should be separated into required size fractions and
tests which determine basic physical properties of reconstituted at the time of mixing to assure represen-
materials to be used, establish relationships between tative grading for the small test batches. Under some
water-cement ratio, air content, cement content, and conditions, for work of important magnitude, labora-
strength, and which furnish information on the work- tory investigation may involve efforts to overcome
ability characteristics of various combinations of in- grading deficiencies of the available aggregates. Un-
gredient materials. The extent of investigation desirable desirable sand grading may be corrected by: (1) separa-
for any given job will depend on its size and im- tion of the sand into two or more size fractions and
portance and on the service conditions involved. De- recombining in suitable proportions; (2) increasing or
tails of the laboratory program will also vary, depend- decreasing the quantity of certain sizes to balance the
ing on facilities available and. on individual preferences. grading; or (3) reducing excess coarse material by
A3.2-Properties of cement grinding or crushing. Undesirable coarse-aggregate
A3.~.1 Physical and chemical characteristics of ce- gradings may be corrected by: (1) crushing excess
ment influence the properties of hardened concrete. coarser fractions; (2) wasting sizes that occur in
However, the only property of cement used directly excess; (3) supplementing deficient sizes from other
in computation of concrete mix proportions is specific sources; or (4) a combination of these methods. What-
gravity. The specific gravity of portland cements of ever grading adjustments are made in the laboratory
the types covered by ASTM C 150 and C 175 may should be practical and economically justified from the
usually be assumed to be 3.15 without introducing standpoint of job operation. Usually, requiredaggre-
appreciable error in mix computations. For other gate grading should be consistent with that of eco-
types such as the blended hydraulic cements of ASTM nomically available materials.
C 595, the specific gravity for use in volume calcula- A3.4-Trial batch series
tions should be determined by test. A3.4.1 The tabulated relationships in the body of
A3.2.2 A sample of cement should be obtained this report may be used to make rcugh estimates of
from the mill which will supply the job, or preferably batch quantities for a trial mix. However, they are
from the concrete supplier. The sample should be ample too generalized to apply with a high degree of ac-
for tests contemplated with a liberal margin for curacy to a specific set of materials. If facilities are
additional tests that might later be considered desirable. available, therefore, it is advisable to make a series
Cement samples should be shipped in airtight con- of concrete tests to establish quantitative relationships
tainers, or at least in moisture-proof packages. for the materials to be used. An illustration of such a
A3.3-Properties of aggregate test program is shown in Table A3.4.1.
A3.3.1 Sieve analysis, specific gravity, absorp- A3.4.2 First, a batch of medium cement content
tion, and moisture content of both fine and coarse ag- and usable consistency is proportioned by the described
greglJ.te and dry-rodded unit weight of coarse aggre- methods. In preparing Mix No.1, an amount of water
gate are physical properties useful for mix computa- is used which will produce the desired slump even if
tions. Other tests which may be desirable for large or this differs from the estimated requirement. The fresh
special types of work include petrographic examination concrete is tested for slump and unit weight and ob-
and tests for chemical reactivity, soundness, durability, served closely for workability and finishing character-
resistance to abrasion, and various deleterious sub- istics. In the example, the yield is too high and the
stances. Such tests yield information of value in judg- concrete is judged to contain an excess of sand.
ing the long-range serviceability of concrete. A3.4.3 Mix No. 2 is prepared, adjusted to cor-
A3.3.2 Aggregate gradation as measured by the rect the errors in Mix No.1, and the testing and
sieve analysis is a major factor in determining unit evaluation repeated. In this case, the desired prop-
water requirement, proportions of coarse aggregate erties are achieved within close tolerances and cylinders
and sand, and cement content for satisfactory work- are molded to check the compressive strength. The
ability. Numerous "ideal" aggregate grading curves information derived so far can now be used to select
have been proposed, and these, tempered by practical proportions for a series of additional mixes, No. 3 to
considerations, have formed the basis for typical sieve 6, with cement contents above and below that of Mix
analysis requirements in concrete standards. ASTM No.2, encompassing the range likely to be needed.
C 33, "Specification for Concrete Aggregates," provides Reasonable refinement in these batch weights can be
a selection of sizes and gradings suitable for most achieved with the help of corrections given in the notes
concrete. Additional workability -realized by use of to Table 5.3.7.1.
air-entrainment permits, to some extent, the use of A3.4.4 Mix No.2 to 6 provide the background, in-
less restrictive aggregate gradations. cluding the relationship of strength to water-cement
ratio for the particular combination of ingredients, Flexural strength of concrete (using simple
needed to select proportions for a range of specified beam with third-point loading)-ASTM C 78
requirements. Flexural strength of concrete (using simple
A3.4.5 In laboratory tests, it seldom will be found, beam with center point loading)-ASTM
even by experienced operators, that desired adjust- C 293
ments will develop as smoothly as indicated in Table Splitting tensile strength of molded concrete
A3.4.I. Furthermore, it should not be expected that cylinders-ASTM C 496
field results will check exactly with laboratory results.
An adjustment of the selected trial mix on the job A3.6-Mixes for small jobs
is usually necessary. Closer agreement between lab- A3.6.1 For small jobs where time and personnel
oratory and field will be assured if machine mixing are not available to determine proportions in accordance
is employed in the laboratory. This is especially de- with the recommended procedure, mixes in Table
sirable if air-entraining agents are used since the type A3.6.1 will usually provide concrete that is amply
of mixer influences the amount of air entrained. Be- strong and durable if the amount of water added at
fore mixing the first batch, the laboratory mixer the mixer is never large enough to make the concrete
should be "buttered" or the mix "overmortared" as overwet. These mixes have been predetermined in con-
described in ASTM C 192. Similarly, any processing of formity with the recommended procedure by assuming
materials in the laboratory should simulate as closely conditions applicable to the average small job, and
as practicable corresponding treatment in the field. for aggregate of medium specific gravity. Three mixes
A3.4.6 The series of tests illustrated in T.able are given for each maximum size of coarse aggregate.
A3.4.1 may be expanded as the size and special re- For the selected size of coarse aggregate, Mix B is in-
quirements of the work warrant. Variables that may tended for initial use. If this mix proves to be over-
require investigation include: alternative aggregate sanded, change to Mix C; if it is undersanded, change
sources, maximum sizes and gradings; different types to Mix A. It should be noted that the mixes listed in
and brands of cement; admixtures; and considerations the table are based on dry or surface-dry sand. If the
of concrete durability, volume change, temperature rise, sand is moist or wet, make the corrections in batch
and thermal' properties. weight prescribed in the footnote.
A3.6.2 The approximate cement content per cubic
A3.5-Test methods
foot of concrete listed in the table will be helpful in
A3.5.1 In conducting laboratory tests to provide estimating cement requirements for the job. These
information for selecting concrete proportions, the requirements are based on concrete that has just enough
latest revisions of the following methods should be water in it to permit ready working into forms with-
used: out objectionable segregation. Concrete should slide,
A3.5.1.1 For tests of ingredients: not run, off a shoveL
Sampling hydraulic cement-ASTM C 183
Specific gravity of hydraulic cement-ASTM
C 188
Sampling stone, slag, gravel, sand, and stone TABLE A3.6.I-CONCRETE MIXES FOR SMALL JOBS
block for use as highway materials-ASTM
Procedure: Select the proper maximum size of aggregate (see
D75 Section 5.3.2). Use Mix B, adding just enough water to produce
a workable consistency. If the concrete appears to be under-
Sieve or screen analysis of fine and coarse sanded, change to Mix A and, if it appears oversanded, change
aggregates-ASTM C 136 to MIX C.
Specific gravity and absorption of coarse ag- Approximate weights of solid ingredients
gregates-ASTM C 127 per cu ft of concrete, lb
Specific gravity and absorption of fine ag- Maxi- Sand· Coarse aggregate
mum
gregates-ASTM C 128 size of Gravel Iron
Surface moisture in fine aggregate-ASTM C 70 aggre- Mix Air- or blast
gate, desig- entrained .1 Concrete
without crushed furnace
Total moisture content of aggregate by drying in. nation Cement concretet air stone slag
-ASTM C 566 l'
,2 A 25 48 51 54 47
Unit weight of aggregate-ASTM C 29 B 25 46 49 56 49
Voids in aggregate for concrete-ASTM C'30 C 25 44 47 58 51
Fineness modulus-Terms relating to concrete ~~ A 23 45 49 62 54
and concrete aggregates, ASTM C 125 B 23 43 47 64 56
C 23 41 45 66 58
A3.5.1.2 For tests of concrete: -
1 A 22 41 45 70 61
Samplin~ fresh concrete-ASTM C 172 B 22 39 43 72 63
Air content of freshly mixed concrete by the C 22 37 41 74 65
volumetric method-ASTM C 173 -
1 ~2 A 20 41 45 75 65
Air content of freshly mixed concrete by the B 20 39 43 77 67
pressure method-ASTM C 231 C 20 37 41 79 69
---
Slump of portland cement concrete-ASTM 2 A 19 40 45 79 69
C 143 B 19 38 43 81 71
C 19 36 41 83 72
Weight per cubic foot, yield, and air content
(gravimetric) of concrete-ASTM C 138 ·Weights are for dry sand. If damp sand IS used, Increase
tabulated weight of sand 2 lb and, if very wet sand is used, 4
Concrete compression and flexure test speci- lb.
mens, making and curing in the laboratory- t Air-entrained concrete should be used in all structures which
will be exposed to alternate cycles of freezing and thawing.
ASTM C 192 Air-entrainment can be obtained by the use of an air-entraining
Compressive strength of molded concrete cylin- cement or by adding an air-entraining admixture. If an admix-
ture is used, the amount recommended by the manufacturer
ders-ASTM C 39 will, in most cases, produce the desired air content.
PROPORTIONS FOR NORMAL AND HEAVYWEIGHT CONCRETE 211-19
Fine aggregate Coarse aggregate on the absolute volume basis. With the quantities of
Fineness modulus 2.30 cement, water, air and coarse aggregate established,
Specific gravity (Bulk SSD) 4.95 4.61 the sand content can be calculated as follows:
Absorption (percent) 0.05 0.08
Dry rodded weight 165 Ib per cu ft
310
Maximum size 1 in. Volume of water
62.4
== 4.97 cu ft
Volume of air == 0.015 X 27 == 0.40 eu ft
Employing the sequence outlined in Section 5 of this 596
recommended practice, the quantities of ingredients per Solid volume of cement
== 3.'15 X 62.4 == 3.03 eu it
cubic yard of concrete are calculated as follows: Solid volume of _ _ 3208._
coarse aggregate - 4.61 X 62.4
== 11.15 Cli ft
A4.3.1 Step 1. As indicated above, the desired slump
is 2 to 3 in. Total volume of all ingredients
except sand == 19.55 cu ft
A4.3.2 Step 2. The available aggregate sources have
Solid volume of sand == 27 - 19.55 == 7.45 eu it
been indicated as suitable, and the coarse aggregate will
be a well-graded and well-shaped crushed ilmenite Required weight of
sand == 7.45 X 4.95 X 62.4 == 2301 Ib
with a maximum size of 1 in.
A4.3.3 Step 3. By interpolation in Table 5.3.3, non- A4.3.8 Step 8. Tests indicate total moisture of 0.15
air-entrained concrete with a 2 to 3 in. slump and a percent in the fine aggregate and 0.10 percent in the
1 in. maximum size aggregate requires a water content coarse aggregate; therefore, the adjusted aggregate
of approximately 310 lb per cu yd. The estimated en- weights become:
trapped air is 1.5 percent. (Non-air-entrained concrete
will be used because (1) the concrete is not exposed to Fine aggregate (wet) == 1.0015 X 2301 == 2304 Ib
severe weather, and (2) a high air content could reduce Coarse aggregate (wet) == 1.0010 X 3208 == 3211 Ib
the dry unit weight of the concrete.) Absorbed water does not become part of the mixing
Note: Table 5.3.3 values for water requirement are water and must be excluded from the adjustment in
based on the use of well-shaped crushed coarse aggre- added water. Thus surface water contributed by the
gates. Void content of compacted dry fine or coarse fine aggregate amounts to 0.15 - 0.05 = 0.10 percent;
aggregate can be used as an indicator of angularity. by the coarse aggregate 0.10 - 0.08 = 0.02 percent. The
Void contents of compacted 1 in. coarse aggregate of estimated requirement for added water, therefore be-
significantly more than 40 percent indicate angular comes:
material which will probably require more water than
that listed in Table 5.3.3. Conversely rounded aggre- 310 - 2301 (0.001) - 3208 (0.0002) = 307 lb
gates with voids below 35 percent will probably need
less water. A4.3.9 Step 9. The resulting estimated proportions
A4.3.4 Step 4. From Table 5.3.4 (a) the water-cement by weight of the heavyweight concrete becomes:
ratio needed to produce a strength of 4500 psi in non-
air-entrained concrete is found to be approximately Cement = 596lb
0.52. Fine aggregate (wet) == 2304lb
A4.3.5 Step 5. From the information derived in Steps Coarse aggregate (wet) =3211lb
3 and 4, the required cement content is calculated to be Water == 307lb
31010.52 = 596 lb per cu yd. Estimated unit wt (fresh) == 6418/27 == 237.7 lb per eu it
A4.3.6 Step 6. The quantity of coarse aggregate is
estimated by extrapolation from Table 5.3.6. For a fine
aggregate having a fineness modulus of 2.30 and a 1 in. A4.4-The above heavyweight concrete proportioned
maximum size aggregate, the table indicates that 0.72 mixture was actually used for approximately 5060 cu
cu ft of coarse aggregate, on a dry-rodded basis, may be yd. Field adjustments resulted in the following actual
used in each cubic foot of concrete. For a cubic yard, batch weights:
therefore, the coarse aggregate will be 27 X 0.72 = 19.44
cu ft. Since the dry-rodded unit weight of the coarse Cement 590lb
aggregate is 165 lb per cu ft, the dry weight of coarse Fine aggregate 2310lb
aggregate to be used in a cubic yard of concrete would Coarse aggregate 3220lb
be 19.44 X 165 = 3208 lb. The angularity of the coarse Water 285lb (plus a water-reducing agent)
aggregate is compensated for in the ACI proportioning
method through the use of the dry-rodded unit weight; The actual field test results indicated the concrete
however, the use of an extremely angular fine aggre- possessed the following properties:
gate may require a higher proportion of fine aggregate,
an increased cement content, or the use of air-entrain- Unit weight (fresh) 235.7 Ib per Cli ft
ment to produce the required workability. Air content 2.8 percent
A4.3.7 Step 7. For heavyweight concrete, it is recom- Slump 2)2 in.
mended that the required fine aggregate be determined Strength 5000 psi at 28 days
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and Com-
mentaries are intended for guidance in designing, planning, executing,
or Inspecting construction, and in preparing specifications. Reference
to these documents shall not be made in the Project Documents. If
items found in these documents are desired to be part of the Project
Documents, they should be incorporated directly into the Project
Documents.
ACI Standard
PAUL KLiEGER
Chairman, Committee 211
HECTOR I. KI NG
Chairman, Subcommittee 1 ..
EDWARD A. ABDUN-NUR A. T. HERSEY CHARLES T. RABER
DELMAR L. BLOEMt GEORGE W. HOLLON CARL M. ROLLINSt
A. W. BRUST EDWARD J. HYLAND V. D. SKIPPER
ROBERT A. BURMEISTER L. A. THORSSENt
GEORGE L. CHIAGOURIS J. G. McKENDRY CHARLES A. VOLLICK
WI LLiAM A. CORDON HARRY H. MITCHELL GEORGE W. WASHA
CLAYTON L. DAVIS JOHN T. MOLNAR BENJAMIN WILK
DONALD E. DIXON J. N. MUSTARD CECIL H. WILLETTS
ROBERT VON K. DUEyt E. J. PELTIER CEDRIC WI LLSON t
FRAN K G. ERSKI N P SAN DOR POPOVICS JOHN R. WILSON
RICHARD J. FRAZIERt WALTER H. PRICE PAUL M. WOODWORTHt
JOSEPH E. GRAY JOH N C. WYCOFP
• Adopted as a standard of the American Concrete Institute in expedited procedure effective May 1977.
April 1969, to supersede ACI 613a-59, in accordance with the tMembers of Subcommittee 1 which prepared this report.
Institute's standardization procedure. It was amended by the Copyright © 1968, 1977, American Concrete Institute.
211-21
211-22 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
CONTENTS
Chapter I-Introduction ..... 211-22
1.1--Purpose
1.2-Scope
1.3-Specifications cited in this Standard
Appendix A-Determination of specific gravity factors of structural lightweight aggregate ...... 211-38
CHAPTER l-INTRODUCTION
1.1-Purpose this standard." Normal weight aggregates where
The purpose of this standard is to provide a used should conform to the requirements of
generally applicable method for selecting and ASTM C 33.
adjusting mix proportions for structural light-
1.3-Specifications cited in this standard
weigh t concrete. 1
Other procedures, such as those used for pro- The specifications of the American Society for
portioning normal weight concrete/·;j may be Testing and Materials referred to in this report
used with some lightweight aggregates, particu- are listed below with their serial desi.gnation in-
larly with those having a low rate of absorption cluding the year of adoption or revision: *
and a low total absorption. This standard provides C 33-74 Standard Specification for Concrete
a proportioning method which is applicable to Aggregates
most structural lightweight aggregate concretes,
C 127-73 Standard Method of Test for Specific
and is also applicable to normal weight concretes,
and to concretes containing a combination of Gravity and Absorption of Coarse
lightweight and normal weight aggregates.~~'·" Aggregate
C 128-73 Standard Method of Test for Specific
1.2-Scope
Gravity and Absorption of Fine Ag-
Discussion in this standard is limited to struc-
gregate
tural grade lightweight aggregates and structural
lightweight aggregate concretes."" Structural C 173-73 Standard Method of Test and Air Con-
lightweight aggregate concrete is defined as con- tent of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the
crete which: (a) is made with lightweight ag- Volumetric Method
gregates conforming to ASTM C 330, (b) has a C 330-69 Standard Specifica tion for Light-
compressive strength in excess of 2500 psi (175 weight Aggregates for S t r u c t u I' a 1
kg/cm~) at 28 days when tested in accordance Concrete
with methods stated in ASTM C 330, and (c) C 567-71 Standard Method of Test for Unit
has an air dry weight not in excess of 115 lb per Weight of Structural Ligh tweigh t
cu ft (1840 kg/m") as determined by ASTM Concrete
C 567. Concrete in which a portion of the light-
weight aggregates is replaced by normal weight "The specifications listed were the latest at the time this
aggregates, and which meets the strength and standard was prepared. Since these specifications are revised
frequently. generally in minor details only. the user of this
weight limitations noted, is within the scope of standard should check di rectly with the sponsoring society if it
is desired to refer to the latest edition.
PROPORTIONING LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE 211-23
TABLE 2.2.2-COMPARISON OF FINENESS MODULUS BY WEIGHT AND BY VOLUME FOR A TYPICAL LIGHT-
WEIGHT AGGREGATE
Cumulative Bulk Cumulative
Opening Percent percent specific Percent percent
Sieve retained retained gravity retained retained
size in. mm by weight by weight s.s.d. basis by volume by volume
4 0.187 4.76 0 1.40 - -
8 0.0937 2.38 21.6 21.6 1.55 25.9 25.9
16 0.0469 1.19 24.4 46.0 1.78 25.4 51.3
30 0.0232 0.590 18.9 64.9 1.90 18.5 69.8
50 0.0117 0.297 14.0 78.9 2.01 12.9 82.7
100 0.0059 0.149 11.6 90.5 2.16 10.0 92.7
Pan 9.5 10.0.0 2.40 7.3 100.0
Fmeness modulus (by weIght) _ 3.02 Fmeness modulus (by volume I = 3.22
211-24 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
6000 6000
(4.1, 4) (41,4)
"
(j)
g; (34,5)
(34,5)
OJ
:5b, '"
rt
"
(j)
r::
QJ "
';!,
~ ::r
'"
~
'"
U)
4000
(27,6) 4000 '""
'-<
U)
QJ (27,6) :s:
'"
Q, ;:."
~
3000
(20,7) 30 De
(20,7)
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
(178) (237) (296) (355) (414) (473) (533) (178) (237) (236) (355) (414) (473) (533)
3 3
Cement Content LB/CY (KG/rn ) Cement Content LB/CY (KG/m )
Fig. 3.3-Relationship of compressive strength and cement content of field concrete for" all-lightweight" and "sand-
lightweight" aggregate
'Water is total water in dry basis tabulations; added water in damp ba3is tabulations.
Dry
basis, Damp basis, Dry basis, Damp basis,
kg kg kg kg
--~---~" -- ~.--- - - - - - - _ . ----- - ~----.~.- .. -,,~.
'Water is total water in dry basis tabulations; added water in damp basis tabulations.
by the method of Appendix A, is termed a specific sary. These adjustments can be made with con-
gravity factor. 1 It is the ratio of the weight of the siderable confidence based on either a first trial
aggregates as introduced into the mixer, to the mix as described in Chapter 3, or on previous
effective volume displaced by the aggregates. The field or laboratory mixes with similar aggregates.
weight of aggregates as introduced into the Small mixes of perhaps 1.0 to 2.0 cu ft (0.03 to
mixer includes any moisture absorbed in the ag- 0.06 m:l) total volume which are made and ad-
gregate and any free water on the aggregates. justed in the laboratory will require some further
adjustments when extrapolated to field mixes of
4.2.2-Specific gravity factors generally vary possibly 100 to 300 times the laboratory volume.
with moisture content of aggregates.! For each It is recommended that tests of fresh unit weight,
aggregate type and gradation, therefore, it is nec- air content, and slump be made on the initial
essary to determine by the method of Appendix field mixes, and any necessary adjustments be
A the specific gravity factors over the full range made on the field batch quantities. Procedures for
of moisture conditions likely to be encountered adjustments are illustrated in Sections 4.3.3
in service. Fig. 4.2.2 shows a typical plot of such through 4.3.7. *
determinations. The variation is usually approxi-
mately linear in the lower range of moisture 4.3.2 Guides for adjusting mixes-When it is
contents, but may digress from linearity at higher desired to change the amount of cement, the vol-
moisture contents. The full curve, therefore, ume of air, or the percentage of fine aggregate in
should be established and extrapolation should a mix, or when it is desired to change the slump
be avoided. of the concrete, it is necessary to offset such
changes with adjustments in one or more other
4.2.3-Indicated specific gravity factors of ag- factors, if yield and other characteristics of the
gregates increase slightly with time of immer- concrete are to remain constant. The following
sion in the pycnometer because of continued ag- paragraphs indicate some of the compensating
gregate absorption. The rate of increase becomes adjustments, show the usual direction of adjust-
smaller with longer immersion periods. The in- ments necessary, and give a rough approximation
crease with time of immersion generally is great- of the amount of the adjustments per cu yd
est when the aggregate is tested in the dry condi- (m 3 ) of concrete. It should be noted, however,
tion and will become smaller as the moisture that the numerical values given are intended fot
content of the aggregate before immersion in- guidance only, that they are approximations, and
creases. Pycnometer specific gravity factors ob- that more accurate values obtained by observa-
tained after 10 min immersion of aggregates tion and experience with particular materials
should normally be suitable for mix proportion- should be used wherever possible.
ing and adjustment procedures. Where some loss
of slump is anticipated in long haul ready-mixed 4.3.2.1 Proportion of fine aggregate. An in-
concrete operations due to continued absorption crease in the percentage of fine to total aggre-
of water into the aggregates, additional water is gates generally requires an increase in water
required to offset the resultant loss of yield. The content. For each 1 percent increase in fine ag-
mix proportions should be determined on the gregate, increase water by approximately 3 lb
basis of the 10 min specific gravity factor. How- per cu yd (2 kg/m3). Increase in water content
ever, a calculation of the lower effective dis- will require an increase in cement content to
placed volumes of aggregates, based on the longer maintain strength. For each 3 Ib per cu yd (2
time specific gravity factor, should provide kg/m3) increase in water, increase cement by ap-
guidance to the anticipated loss of yield to be proximately 1 percent. Adjustment should be
compensated for by additional water. made in the coarse and fine aggregate weights as
necess:lry to obtain desired proportions of each,
4.3-Examples of adjustment procedures and to maintain required total effective dis-
placed volume. An example of adjustment for
4..3.1-Both field mixes and laboratory mixes
change in fine aggregate proportion is shown in
may require adjustment from time to time either
Section 4.3.4.
to compensate for some unintentional change in
the characteristics of the concrete or to make a
planned change in the characteristics. Adjust- 'The examples of adjustment procedures shown in Sections
4.3.3 through 4.3.7 assume the use of all lightweight aggregates.
ment may be required, for example, to compen- If part or all of the lightweight fine aggregate is replaced by
sate for a change in moisture content of the ag- normal weight sand. it is recommended that the adjustments be
based on an original mix which incorporates normal weight
gregates; it may be desired to proportion a mix sand, with adjustments to the natural sand fraction being based
either (1) on saturated surface dry weight and bulk specific
for greater or lesser cement content; or perhaps, gravity, saturated surface dry basis or, (2) on aggregate in
a change in slump or air content may be neces- moisture condition as used and a corresponding specific gravity
factor.
2l1-30 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
4.3.2.2 Air content. An increase in air content lb per cu yd (6 kg/m3) increase in water, in-
will be accompanied by an increase in slump crease cement content approximately 3 percent.
unless water is reduced to compensate. For each Adjustment should be made in fine aggregate
1 percent increase in air content, water should be weight as necessary to maintain required total
decreased by approximately 5 lb per cu yd (3 effective displaced volume. An example of adjust-
kg/m 3). An increase in air content may be ment for change in slump is shown in Section
accompanied by a decrease in strength unless 4.3.7.
compensated for by additional cement. (See Sec-
4.3.3 Adjustment for changes in aggregate
tion 2.4.2). Adjustment should be made in fine
moisture condition-Assume that a field mix
aggregate weight as necessary to maintain re-
quired total effective displaced volume. An ex- consists of the batch weights of materials per cu
ample of adjustment for change in air content is yd (per m 3 ) , based on aggregates in the damp
shown in Section 4.3.6. condition, shown in upper right quadrant of
4.3.2.3 Slump. An increase in slump is ob- Table 4.3.3a (Table 4.3.3b for metric units), and
tained by increasing water content. For each de- that this mix has satisfactory characteristics for
sired 1 in. (25 mm) increase in slump, water the particular application. Assume that moisture
should be increased approximately 10 lb per cu contents of the coarse and fine aggregates were
yd (6 kg/m3) when initial slump is about 3 in. me = 1% percent* and mf = 4 percent*, respec-
(75 mm); somewhat more when initial slump is
lower; somewhat less when intial slump is higher. 'In the adjustment tables the following notation applies:
Increase in water content will be accompanied m = moisture content of aggregate as percent of dry weight.
Subscript c refers to coarse aggregate; subscript f
by a decrease in strength unless compensated for refers to fine aggregate
by an increase in cement content. For each 10 S = specific gravity factor. Numerical subscripts refer to
moisture percentage.
415
Cement 415 .0.132 415
100'!) X 3.15
= .0.132
Air 5% percent .0 ..055 - .0.055
tively. Assume relationship between specific grav- gate moisture conditions as shown in lower right
ity factors and moisture contents of the particular quadrant of Table 4.3.3a (Table 4.3.3b).
coarse and fine aggregates has been predeter- Detailed procedure to adjust for changes in
mined as shown in Fig. 4.2.2. Effective displaced
moisture content of aggregates is 'as listed below
volumes of each component of the mix are cal-
and as shown in Table 4.3.3a (Table 4.3.3b) :
culated as shown, using damp weights of aggre-
gates and the specific gravity factors correspond- (a) Maintain constant the weight of cement
ing to the moisture contents of the aggregates, and the effective displaced volumes of cement
resulting in a total yield of 27.00 cu ft ·(1.000 m3). and air
Assume that in a subsequent shipment of ag- (b) Calculate new weights of both coarse and
gregates the moisture contents have changed to fine aggregates, using the appropriate value of m,
me = 5 percent and mf = 8 percent, and it becomes such that the dry weights of both coarse and fine
necessary, therefore, to adjust batch weights of aggregates remain constant
materials to maintain the yield of 27.00 cu ft (c) Calculate effective displaced volumes of
(1.000 m 3 ). General procedure is to convert the both coarse and fine aggregates using weights of
original mix as recorded on a damp aggregate the aggregates in the appropriate moisture condi-
basis to the equivalent mix recorded on the dry tion and the specific gravity factor corresponding
aggregate basis, as shown in upper left quadrant to that moisture condition
of Table 4.3.3a (Table 4.3.3b), and then to adjust (d) Calculate the required effective displaced
from the dry aggregate basis to the new aggre- volume of added water as the difference between
211-32 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
Effective Effective
Weight, displaced volume, Weight, displaced volume,
lb cu ft lb cu ft
-.. -----.---+------ -.------- - - - - - .------.----+---. - - - - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - - - -
Cement 700 - 35 = 665 665 3.38 665 3.38
62.4 X 3.15
Air 5% percent I 1.49 1.49
Coarse aggregate! 8.03 X 62.4 0.537 X 14.95:::: 8,03 671 X 1.015:::: 681 681 :::: 8.08
I X 1.34 =
671 62.4 X 1.35
Fine aggregate 6,92 859 X 1.04 :::: 893 ~--,--8:..::9_3---c-= = 7.26
~
JO~.463
I 6.92 X 62.4
I X 1.99 = 859 •X. 14,95 = 62.4 X 1.97
:::: 448 448 _ 6.79 X 62.4 :::: 424 27.00 - 2'0.21:::: 6.79
_A_d_d__e__
d __w_a_t_e_r_ _ 1 463 - 15 7.18
62.4 -
the required 27.00 cu ft (1.000 m 3 ) and the total = 10 kg/m~) decrease in water content (see Sec-
of the effective displaced volumes of the cement, tion 4.3.2.1). Adjusted water, dry basis, is 463
air, and coarse and fine aggregates - 15 = 448 Ib (275 - 10 = 265 kg)
(e) Calculate required weight of added water
(b) Assume 15 Ib decrease in water will permit
as 62.4 Ib per cu ft (1000 kg/m:!) multiplied by
reduction in cement of 0.05 X 700 = 35 Ib (0.05
the required effective displaced volume of added
X 415 = 21 kg) (see Section 4.3.2.1). Adjusted
water determined in (d).
cement is 700 --,-- 35 = 665 Ib (415 - 21 = 394 kg)
4.3.4 Adjustment for change in aggregate pro-
portions-Assume that an original mix having (c) Required effective displaced volume of total
the batch weights shown in upper part of Table aggregates is then 27.00 cu ft (1.000 m:l) minus
4.3.4a* (Table 4.3.4b for metric units) * has a satis- the sum of the volumes of cement, air, and water
factory cement content, air content, slump and = (27.00 - 12.05) = 14.95 cu ft [(1.000 - 0.445)
yield, but that observations indicate more coarse = 0.555 m:!]. Required effective displaced volume
aggregate may be used without harming work- of coarse aggregate is then 0.537 X 14.95 = 8.03
a bili ty or finisha bili ty. cu ft (0.537 X 0.555 = 0.298 m 3 ), and of fine
Total effective displaced volume of aggregates aggregate 0.463 X 14.95 = 6.92 cu £t (0.463 X 0.555
in the original mix is 7.07 +
7.46 = 14.53 cu ft = 0.257 m:!). These effective displaced volumes
(0.262 + 0.276 = 0.538 m:J) , (dry aggregate basis). are converted to dry weights as shown in lower
Coarse aggregate is 48.7 percent of the total left quadrant of Table 4.3.4a (Table 4.3.4b)
volume of aggregates and fine aggregate is 51.3
(d) Convert the adjusted mix on the dry aggre-
percent of the total. Assume that it is desired to
increase coarse aggregate by 5 to 53.7 percent of gate basis to the adjusted mix on the damp
total. aggregate basis as shown in lower right quadrant
Procedure to adjust for desired change in ag- of Table 4.3.4a (Table 4.3.4b)
gregate proportions is as listed below and as
shown in Table 4.3.4a (Table 4.3.4b):
*For illustration the same original mix is assumed as upper
(a) Assume 5 percent decrease in fineaggre- part of Table 4.3.3a (Table 4.3.3b). See Section 4.3.3 for details of
gate will require 5 X 3 = 15 Ib per cu yd (5 X 2 conversion from damp aggregate basis to dry aggregate basis,
and vice versa.
4.3.5 Adjustment for change in cement factor- (e) Convert the adjusted weight of fine ag-
Assume that a mix as shown in the upper part gregate on the dry aggregate basis to the ad-
of Table 4.3.5a * (Table 4.3.5b* for metric units) justed weight on the damp aggregate basis as
has been used satisfactorily for part of a struc- shown in lower right quadrant of Table 4.3.5a
ture, but that for other parts a desired increase (Table 4.3.5b)
in strength indicates a new cement factor of 750 (f) Calculate required effective displaced vol-
lb per cu yd (445 kg/m~) to be required. ume of added water and from this calculate the
Procedure to adjust for change in cement factor required weight of added water as shown in lower
is as listed below and as shown in Table 4.3.5a right quadrant of Table 4.3.5a (Table 4.3.5b)
(Table 4.3.5b):
4.3.6 Adjustment for change in air content-
(a) Maintain constant the weights of coarse Assume that an original mix as shown in upper
aggregate and added water, and the effective dis- part of Table 4.3.6a* (Table 4.3.6b* for metric
placed volumes of air, coarse aggregate, and units) has 5112 percent air content and that it is
added water desired to increase 'air content to 71J2 percent.
(b) Calculate effective displaced volume for Procedure to adjust for desired change in air
increased weight of cement content is as listed below and shown in Table
(c) Calculate required effective displaced vol- 4.3.6a (Table 4.3.6b):
ume of fine aggregate on dry basis as the dif- (a) Assume 2 percent increase in air will re-
ference between 27.00 cu ft (1.000 m 3 ) and the quire 2 X 5 = 10 lb per cu yd (2 X 3 = 6 kg/m:l)
sum of the effective displaced volumes of cement, decrease in water content to maintain slump
air, coarse 'aggregate, and added water (see Section 4.3.2.2)
(d) Calculate required weight of fine aggregate
on the dry basis from the effective displaced "For illustration, the same original mix is assumed as in upper
part of Table 4.3.3a (Table 4.3.3b). See Section 4.3.3 for details
volume determined in (c) of conversion from damp aggregate basis to dry aggregate basis
and vice versa.
PROPORTIONING LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE 211-35
Fine aggregate 6.9-6 X 62.4 27.00 - 20.04 = 6.96 864 X 1.04 = 899 899 7.31
X 1.99 = 864 62.4 X 1.97
Added water 463 - 10 = 453 453
= 7.26 62.4 X 6.86 = 428 27.00 - 20.14 = 6.86
62.4
Total 2633 27.00 2652 27_00
(b) Assume increase in air content will re- istics, or when there is an appreciable change ln
quire an additional 25 lb of cement per cu yd added water requirement.
(15 kg/m:l) to maintain strength (see Section A change in fresh unit weight of concrete, with
2.4.2) batch weights and air content remaining constant,
(c) Adjust effective displaced volume of fine shows that the batch is over yielding (with lower
aggregate to maintain yield at 27.00 cu ft (1.000 unit weight) or under yielding (with higher unit
m 3 ) as shown in lower left quadrant of Table weight). The over yielding batch will have lower
4.3.6a (Table 4.3.6b) than planned cement content 'and the under
yielding batch will have higher than planned
(d) Convert adjusted mix on dry basis to ad-
cement content.
justed mix on damp basis as shown in lower
right quadrant of Table 4.3.6a (Table 4.3.6b) A change in fresh unit weight of concrete indi-
cates (a) a batching error, (b) a change in air
4.3.7 Adjustment for change in slump-Assume
that an original mix as shown in upper part of Change in fresh unit weight of concrete
Table 4.3.7a* (Table 4.3.7b* for metric units) has
a slump of 3 in. (75 mm) and that it is desired (Lower unit weight indicates (Higher unit weight indicates
to increase slump to 5 in. (125 mm) without over yielding and lower under yielding and higher
cement factor than planned) cement factor than planned)
changing compressive strength.
Procedure to adjust for desired change in slump
IS as listed below and shown in Table 4.3.7a
(Table 4.3.7b):
(a) Assume 2 in. (50 mm) increase in slump
will require 2 X 10 = 20 lb increase in water con-
tent per cu yd (50/25 X 6 = 12 kg/m 3 ) (see Sec- Batching error Change in air content Change in
specific gravity
tion 4.3.2.3) (Check and correct (Check and change factor
if necessary) dosage of air-
(b) Assume cement factor must be increased entraining admixture
by 2 X 0.03 X 700 = 42 lb per cu yd (2 X 0.03 if necessary)
X 415 = 25 kg/m a) to maintain strength (see
Section 4.3.2)
(c) Adjust effective displaced volume of fine
aggregate to maintain yield at 27.00 cu ft (1.000
m 3 ) as shown in lower left quadrant of Table
4.3.7a (Table 4.3.7b)
(d) Convert adjusted mix on dry basis to ad-
justed mix on damp basis as shown in lower right
Change in moisture Basic change in
quadrant of Table 4.3.7a (Table 4.3.7b) content of aggregates aggregate density
A change in aggregate specific gravity factor dicate (a) a change in air content, (b) a change
may be the result of (a) a change in the moisture in moisture content of aggregate without corre-
content of the aggregate, or (b) a basic change sponding change in batching, or (c) a change in
in aggregate density. If a moisture test indicates aggregate gradation or density. Each of these fac-
moisture changes, the mix should be adjusted as tors is also indicated by the fresh unit weight
test.
shown in Section 4.3.3. If the basic aggregate
Note: Control of concrete mixes in the field
density has changed, determination of new mois-
also requires recognition of possible changes due
ture content - specific gravity factor relation- to changes in ambient temperature, changes in
ships are indicated. (Aggregate density changes temperature of ingredients, length of mixing and
may be a result of changes in raw material and/ agitating time, and other causes. Discussion of
or its processing.) A change in slump may in- such factors is beyond the scope of this standard.
BUOYANCY METHODS FOR COARSE Specific gravity factors by this method are
AGGREGATES calculated by the equation:
If larger t("st samples of coarse aggregate than
Specific gravity factor, S
can be evaluated in the pycnometer are desired,
coarse aggregate specific gravity factors may be where
determined by the wholly equivalent weight-in-
C same as above (the weight in air)
air-and-water procedures described in ASTM E weight of coarse aggregate sample
C 127. The top of the container used for weighing under water, g
the aggregates under water must be closed with a S specific gravity factor, equal (by the
screen to prevent light particles from floating theory of the method) to the pycnom-
away from the sample. eter specific gravity factor
REFERENCES
1. Landgren, R; Hanson, J. A.; and Pfeifer, D. W., 10. Richart, F. E., and Jensen, V. P., "Construction
"An Improved Procedure for Proportioning Mixes of and Design Features of Haydite Concrete," ACI JOUR-
Structural Lightweight Concrete, " JournaL, PCA Re- NAL, Proceedings V. 27, No.2, Oct. 1930, pp. 151-182.
search and Development Laboratories, V. 7, No.2, 11. Murlin, J. A., and Willson, Cedric, "Field Practice
May 1965, pp. 47-65. Also, PCA Research Department in Lightweight Concrete," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings
Bulletin 183. V. 49, No.1, Sept. 1952, pp. 21-36.
2. ACI Committee 211, "Recommended Practice for 12. "Workability is Easy," Lightweight Concrete In-
Selecting Proportions for Concrete (ACI613-54)," ACI formation Sheet No.1, Expanded Shale, Clay and Slate
JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 51, No.2, Sept. 1954, pp. 49-64. Institute, Washington, D.C., Mar. 1958.
3. "Design of Concrete Mixtures," Concrete Informa- 13. Landgren, R, "Determining the Water AbsorptiDn
tion Sheet ST 100, Portland Cement Association, 1966. of Coarse Lightweight Aggregates for Concrete," Pro-
ceedings, ASTM, V. 64, 1964, pp. 846-865. Also, PCA
4. Nelson, G. H., and Frei, O. C., "Lightweight Struc- Research Department Bulletin 179.
tural Concrete Proportioning and Control," ACI JOUR-
NAL, Proceedings V. 54, No.7, Jan. 1958, pp. 605-622. 14. Price, W. H., and Cordon, W. A., "Tests of Light-
weight-Aggregate Concrete Designed for Monolithic
5. "Suggested Mix Design for Job Mixed Structural Construction," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 45, No.8,
Concrete," Lightweight Concrete Information Sheet No. Apr. 1949, pp. 581-600.
3, Expanded Shale, Clay and Slate Institute, Washing- 15. Kluge, R W., "Structural Lightweight-Aggregate
ton, D.C., Sept. 1958.
CDncrete," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 53, No.4,
6. ACI Committee 211, "Proposed Recommended Oct. 1956, pp. 383-402.
Practice for Selecting Proportions for Structural Light- 16. Kluge, R W.; Sparks, M. M.; and Tuma, E. C.,
weight Concrete (ACI 613A-59)," ACI JOURNAL, Pro- "Lightweight-Aggregate Concrete," ACI JOURNAL, Pro-
ceedings V. 55, ND. 3, Sept. 1958, pp. 305-314. ceedings V. 45, No.9, May 1949, pp. 625-644.
7. ACI Committee 213, "Guide for Structural Light- 17. Shideler, J. J., "Lightweight-Aggregate Concrete
weight Aggregate Concrete," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings for Structural Use," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 54,
V. 64, No.8, Aug. 1967, pp. 433-467. No.4, Oct. 1957, pp. 299-328. Also, PCA Development
8. "Structural Lightweight Concrete," Concrete In- Department BuLletin D17.
formation Sheet ST 82, Portland Cement Association, 18. Klieger, P., and Hanson, J. A., "Freezing and
1962. Thawing Tests of Lightweight Aggregate CDncrete,"
ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 57, No.7, Jan. 1961, pp.
9. Hanson, J. A., "Replacement of Lightweight Ag-
779-796. Also, PCA Research Department Bulletin 121.
gregate Fines with Natural Sand in Structural Con-
crete," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 61, No.7, JUly
This report was submitted to letter ba 1I0t of the committee which
1964, pp. 779-794. AlsD, PCA DeveLopment Department
consists of 36 members; 25 members returned their ballots, all of
Bulletin D80. whom voted affirmatively.
ANSI
A167.2·1975
ACI STANDARD
..
ROBERT A. BURMEISTER EDWARD J. HYLAND FRANK P. NICHOLS, JR.
WILLIAM A. CORDON HECTOR I. KING JOHN E. PALO
EDWIN A. DECKER PAUL KLlEGERt SANDOR POPOVICS
DONALD E. DIXON FRANK J. LAHM JOHN M. SCANLON, JR.
FRANK G. ERSKINE RICHARD C. MEININGER CECIL H. WILLETTS
H. P. FAUERBY JOHN T. MOLNAR CEDRIC WILLSON
A. T. HERSEyt AUSTIN H. MORGAN, JR. JOHN C. WYCOFF
')11.,d1
211-42 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
CONTENTS
Chapter 1-Scope and limits 211'42
Chapter 2-Preliminary considerations ..................................... . 211'42
2.1-General 2.3-Mixing water requirement
2.2-Methods for measuring consistency
Chapter 3-Selecting proportions ........................................... 211'44
3.1-General 3.4-Selecting water-cement ratio
3.2-Slump and maximum size of aggregate 3.5-Estimate of quantity of coarse aggre-
3.3-Estimating water requirements gate
Chapter 4-Computation of proportions ...................................... 211'48
4.1-General design criteria 4.3-Batch weights for field use
4.2-Example of computation of proportions 4.4-Adjustment of trial mixture
References . .............................................................. 211·50
Appendix 1-Metric system adaptation . ......... , ........................... 211'51
Appendix 2-Example problem in metric system ............................. 211'53
Appendix 3-Laboratory tests . ......................... " ................. , 211'55
CHAPTER 1-SCOPE AND LIMITS different sources, and the need for a knowledge
The ACI standard "Recommended Practice for of some of the physical properties of the aggre-
Selecting Proportions for Normal Weight and gates and the cement apply equally to this stan-
Heavyweight Concrete (ACI 211.1-74) "1 presents dard.
the details of a method for proportioning concrete
having consistencies, as measured by the slump 2.2-Methods for measuring consistency
test, in the range of 1 to 7 in. The present stan-
2.2.1-Workability is that property of concrete
dard is an extension of ACI 211.1-74 which will
which determines the ease with which it can be
facilitate proportioning concretes having drier
mixed, placed, consolidated, and finished. There
consistencies (slump measurements of 1 in. or
is no one test known at this time which will meas-
less). Three possible methods of measuring these
ure this property in quantitative terms. It is
consistencies are described, since the slump test
usually expedient to use some type of consistency
is impractical for these drier consistencies.
measurement as an index to workability. Con-
sistency may be defined as the ability of freshly
CHAPTER 2-PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
mixed concrete to flow. The slump test is the
2.1-General most familiar one in the United States and is the
2.1.1-The general comments contained in the basis for the measures of consistencies shown in
introduction to ACI 211.1-74 are pertinent to the ACI211.1-74.
procedures discussed in this standard. The descrip- 2.2.2 - Translating a particular consistency
tion of the make-up of concrete, the possible dif- measurement into a determination of whether
ferences in properties of the ingredients from workability is adequate is based on judgment and
II
n[I
Ii
\
compaction by hand rodding is attempted. If vi-
bration is used, however, such a concrete might
be considered as having excellent workability
characteristics. The range of workable mixtures
J ~
I
can therefore be widened by adopting compaction
techniques which impart greater energy into the
mass to be consolidated. The Vebe apparatus,2,3
the compacting factor apparatus,'1,8 and the drop
table developed by Thaulow," described in the
following paragraphs, are devices which can pro-
vide a useful measure of the consistency for con-
crete mixtures with less than 1-in. slump. A more FFn
detailed description of each is presented in the
appendix. At this time, no such methods have
been standardized for use in the United States. t h
Of the three, the Vebe apparatus appears to be
the most suitable for obtaining a measure of con-
sistency for the concretes described in this stan-
dard. If none of these methods is available, com-
paction of the trial mixture under actual placing .iii
conditions in the field or laboratory will, of neces- '(- ~-
sity, serve as a means for determining whether the
consistency and workability are adequate. In this
- \
case, however, it is likely that the first selected
Fig. 2.2.4-Compacting factor apparatus
job mixture will not be as close to the final mix-
ture as one selected when using either of the
to compact the sample. In very dry mixtures, this
three suggested methods of measuring consist-
method appears to be the most sensitive in deter-
ency.
mining differences in consistency.
2.2.3 Vebe apparatus-The operation of the Vebe
apparatus is shown in Fig. 2.2.3. The main parts 2.2.4 Compacting factor-This method is de-
are a vibrating table, a sample container, slump scribed in British Standard 1881. 8 The details of
cone, and a plastic plate and graduated rod serv- the compacting factor apparatus are shown in
ing as a surcharge weight and end-point reference. Fig. 2.2.4. The upper hopper is carefully filled
The measure of consistency is the time of vibra- with a sample of the freshly-mixed concrete us-
tion in seconds required to change the shape of ing a scoop. The sample is dropped through a trap
the truncated cone of concrete, left standing door into the somewhat smaller hopper below,
after removal of the slump cone, into that of a and then dropped by gravity into the 6 x 12-in.
cylinder with a level top surface. This time is pre- cylinder mold below. After strike-off of the cylin-
sumed directly proportional to the energy used der mold, the weight of the concrete in the mold
is determined. The ratio of this weight to the TABLE 2.3.l(b)-APPROXIMATE RELATIVE WATER
weight of concrete from the same batch fully CONTENT FOR DIFFERENT CONSISTENCIES
compacted by heavy vibration in the mold is Approximate relative water
called the compacting factor. The test is sensitive content, percent
Consistency
for mixtures having a very stiff consistency (Table Table 5.3.3
description
2.3.1a) and for wetter mixtures. It is not as sen- Thaulow 6 ACI 211.1-74
sitive as the Vebe method for extremely dry con-
sistencies. Extremely dry 78
2.2.5 ThauLow drop tabLe-The operation of the Very stiff 83
Stiff 88
drop table is illustrated in Fig. 2.2.5. Like the
Stiff plastic 93 92
Vebe, the test consists of transforming a truncated Plastic 100 100
cone mold by rodding and subsequent drops of Flowing 108 106
the table prior to strike-off. The energy for trans-
formation is obtained by successive drops of the
extremely dry consistencies. The table also shows
table and the measure used to characterize the
the present mixing water requirements in Table
consistency is the number of revolutions of the
5.3.3 of ACI 211.1-74 for convenience.
hand crank (4 drops per revolution). While not
2.3.2-In a series of laboratory tests conducted
as sensitive as the Vebe in the very dry con-
for the committee, limited to maximum sizes of
sistencies, this simple apparatus appears to have
aggregate of % in., % in., and 1% in., the relative
merit.
2.2.6-The interrelationship of these methods water contents for the six different levels of con-
is shown in Table 2.3.1 (a). Note that the Vebe or sistencies compared favorably with those suggest-
the drop table can provide a measure of con- ed by Thaulow. Consistency measurements
sistency in mixtures termed extremely dry. included the slump test, the Vebe test, and the
drop table. The committee feels that this con-
2.3-Mixing water requirement firmation, admittedly limited, is sufficient to
justify the recommendations shown in Table
2.3.1-In ACI 211.1-74, Table 5.3.3, approximate 2.3.1 (c). These are recommended approximate
mixing water requirements are given for con- mixing water requirements. It must be remem-
cretes conforming to the consistency descriptions bered that for a given combination of materials,
of stiff plastic, plastic, and flowing, as shown in a number of factors will contribute to the actual
Table 2.3.1 (a) of this standard. Considering the mixing water requirements and may result in
w~ter requirement for the 3 to 4-in. slump as 100 a considerable difference from the value shown
percent, the relative water contents for these in Table 2.3.1 (c). These will include the particle
three consistencies are 92 percent, 100 percent, and shape and grading of the aggregate, temperature
106 percent, respectively. Thaulowr. extended this of the concrete, the effectiveness of mixing, and
concept of average relative water contents to in- the method of compaction. With respect to mix-
clude stiffer mixtures. These are shown in Table ing, for example, spiral blade batch and pan-type
2.3.1 (b), establishing the 3 to 4-in. slump classi- mixers are more effective for no-slump concretes
fication as 100 percent, and comparing where pos- than are rotating drum mixers.
sible with the ACI 211.1-74 values. Based on this
relationship between approximate relative water CHAPTER 3-SELECTING PROPORTIONS
content and the six consistency designations,
Table 2.3.1 (c) has been prepared showing the ap- 3.1-General
proximate mixing water requirements in pounds 3.1.1-As recommended in ACI 211.1-74, concrete
per cubic yard using the relative water contents should be placed using the minimum quantity of
shown by Thaulow for the stiff, very stiff, and mixing water consistent with mixing, placing,
TABLE 2.3.I{c)-APPROXIMATE MIXING WATER REQUIREMENTS FOR DIFFERENT CONSISTENCIES AND MAXIMUM SIZES OF AGGREGATES*
Consistency Water, lb per cu yd for indicated
Relative maximum sizes of coarse aggregate
water
Drop content,
Description Slump, Vebe, table, Compacting percent
in. sec revolutions factor ~8 in. ~2 in. ~~ in. 1 in. 1~2 in.
Non-air-entrained concrete
Air-entrained concrete n
o
Z
Extremely dry I
- 32-18 112-56 - 78 265 250 235 225 210 n
;:0
Very stiff - 18-10 56-28 0.70 83 285 I 265 250 235 225 m
-I
Stiff 0-1 28-14 250 235
m
10- 5 0.75 88 300 285 265
Stiff plastic 1-3 5- 3 14- 7 0.85 92 305 295 280 270 250
Plastic 3-5 3- 0 <7 0.91 100 340 325 305 295 275
Flowing 5-7 - - 0.95 106 365 345 325 310 290
I
Recommended average total air content, percentt 8 7 6 5 4.5
I I
'These quantities of mixing water are for use in computing cement factors for trial batches. They are for reasonably well-shaped angular coarse aggregates graded within limits of ac-
cepted specifications.
If more water is required than shown, the cement factor, estimated from these quantities, should be increased to maintain desired water-cement ratio, except as otherwise indicated by
laboratory tests for strength.
If less water is required than shown, the cement factor, estimated from these quantities, should not be decreased except as indicated by laboratory tests for strength.
tFor consistencies below 1 in. slump, the volume of air entrained by either an air-entraining cement or the usual amount of air-entraining admixture used for more plastic mixtures may
be significantly lower than those shown. For these mixtures, it is recommended that the air content resulting from the use of air-entraining cement or the usual amount of air-entraining
admixture per unit of cement for more plastic mixtures be accepted as adequate for insuring durability. In the absence of such information for a particular air-entraining admixture, the
amount to use per unit of cement can be determined on a trial mix having a slump in the 3 to 4 in. range, or by determining the amount needed to obtain 19 ± 3 percent air in mortar
prepared in accordance with ASTM C 185. 7
211-46 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
and consolidating and finishing requirements, dictated primarily by consideration of both the
since this will have a favorable influence on minimum dimension of a section and the minimum
strength, durability, and other physical proper- clear spacing between reinforcing bars, prestress-
ties. The major considerations in selecting pro- ing tendons, ducts for post-tensioning tendons, or
portions apply equally well to no-slump concretes other embedded items. The largest permissible
as to the more plastic mixtures. These considera- maximum size of aggregate should be used, un-
tions are: (1) provide adequate durability to less smaller sizes are available and their use
withstand satisfactorily the weather and other would result in equal or greater strength at no
destructive agencies to which it may be exposed; detriment to other concrete properties, or if
(2) produce the strength required to withstand smaller sizes would result in improved durability
the loads to be imposed without danger of failure; of the concrete.
(3) use of the maximum size of aggregate con-
sistent with economic availability, satisfactory 3.3-Estimating water requirements
placement, and concrete strength; and (4) use of
3.3.1-The quantity of water per unit volume of
the stiffest consistency which can be compacted
concrete required to produce a mixture of the
efficiently to a homogeneous mass.
desired consistency is influenced by the maximum
size, particle shape and grading of the aggregate,
3.2-Slump and maximum size of aggregate and by the amount of entrained air. It is relatively
3.2.1-Table 5.3.1 of ACI 211.1-74 contains rec- unaffected by the quantity of cement below about
ommendations for consistencies in the range of 600 to 650 lb per cu yd. In mixtures richer than
"stiff plastic" to "flowing." These as well as these, mixing water requirements may increase
stiffer consistencies are included in Table 2.3.1 (c) . significantly as cement content is increased.
Consistencies in the stiff range or lower are often Guides to acceptable aggregate gradings are
used in the fabrication of concrete pipe and available in the recommendations of such organi-
various precast elements, both prestressed and zations as the American Society for Testing and
conventionally reinforced. However, there doesn't Materials, the American Association of State
appear to be any justification for setting fixed Highway Officials, in Federal Specifications, and
limits for maximum and minimum consistency in the requirements of local bodies such as state
in these types of construction. The optimum con- highway departments, counties, and cities.
sistency for such work is closely dependent on the 3.3.2-The quantities of water shown in Table
methods and equipment in use at a particular 2.3.1 (c) of this standard are sufficiently accurate
plant, and the diversity of available facilities is for preliminary estimates of proportions. If, with
such that a recommended range for one plant a particular combination of materials, the water
operation may not be suitable for another. The requirement is higher than indicated, the cement
committee does recommend, however, that wher- content should be increased to maintain the de-
ever possible the consistencies used should be in sired water-cement ratio, unless otherwise indi-
the stiff range or lower, since the use of these cated by laboratory tests. Examples of such
drier consistencies, adequately compacted, will adjustment are given later and can also be found
result in an improved and more economical prod- in ACI 211.1-74.
uct. 3.3.3-Some materials may require less water
3.2.2-The maximum size of aggregate to be se- than indicated in Table 2.3.1 (c). Unless supported
lected for a particular type of construction is by laboratory tests for strength, no adjustment
should be made in cement content, since other
TABLE 3.4.I-MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE compensating factors may be involved. For ex-
WATER-CEMENT RATIOS FOR ample, a rounded gravel and a normally angular
CONCRETE IN SEVERE EXPOSURES* coarse aggregate, both well and similarly graded
Structure wet con-
and of good quality, usually will produce concrete
Type of structure
tinuously or fre- Structure exposed
quently and exposed to seawater or
of about the same compressive strength for the
to freezing and
thawingt
sulfates same cement factor in spite of differences in
water-cement ratio. Also, for the same propor-
Thin sections (rail-
ings, curbs, sills, tions, different cements may produce concretes
ledges, ornamental 0.45 0.40t
work) and sections having strengths which differ.
with less than 1 in.
cover over steel
All other structures 0.50 0.45t 3.4-Selecting water-cement ratio
·Based on report of ACI Committee 201, "Durability of Con- 3.4.1-Table 3.4.1, reprinted from ACI 211.1-74,
crete in Service," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 59, No. 12, Dec.
1962, pp. 1771-1820. shows the maximum permissible water-cement
tConcrete should also be air-entrained.
tIf sulfate resisting cement (Type II or Type V of ASTM ratios for different types of structures and degrees
C 150) is used, permissible water-cement ratio may be increased
by 0.05. of exposure. These values, based on an extensive
NO-SLUMP CONCRETE 211-47
background of actual field performance and lab- required per cubic yard by the water-cement
oratory studies, and intentional air entrainment ratio, by weight. If the specifications for the job
will provide the proper quality of cement pastes. at hand contain a minimum cement factor re-
In addition, other factors such as mixing, placing, quirement, the corresponding water-cement ratio
consolidating, finishing, curing, quality of ingredi- for estimating strength can be computed by di-
ents, etc., influence durability and must be suit- viding the pounds of water per cubic yard by
ably controlled to insure that the concrete will be the cement factor in pounds per cubic yard. The
durable. lowest of the three water-cement ratios-those for
3.4.2-Intentionally entrained air, as provided durability, strength, or cement factor-should be
by acceptable air-entraining admixtures or air- selected for calculating concrete proportions.
entraining additions interground to make air-en- 3.4.5-In Table 3.4,3 at equal water-cement ra-
training cements, is of great benefit in insuring tios, the strengths for the air-entrained concretes
durable concrete, in addition to providing other are about 20 percent lower than for the non-air-
advantages, and should always be used when ex- entrained concretes. These differences may not
posure to weathering is expected to be severe. be as great in the no-slump mixtures, since the
Note in Table 3.4.1 that for all concretes exposed volume of entrained air in these mixtures using
to a severe range in temperature, or frequent al- an air-entraining cement or the usual amount of
ternations of freezing and thawing, intentionally air-entraining admixture per unit of cement will
entrained air should be used. be reduced significantly with no sacrifice in dur-
3.4.3-In addition to durability, the selection of ability,7 In addition, when cement content and
water-cement ratio is dependent on the strength consistency are maintained constant, the differ-
required. This can best be determined by labora- ences in strength are partially or entirely offset
tory tests made with the same materials, including by reduction of mixing water requirements which
cement, as will be used in the work. However, if result from air entrainment.
it is not practicable to make such detailed tests, 3.4.6-The required average strength necessary
Tables 2.3.1 (c) and 3.4.3 afford a basis for esti- to ensure the design strength specified for a par-
mating water and cement requirements. Table ticular job will be dependent on the degree of
3.4.3 reproduces the information in Table 5.3.4(a) control over all operations involved in the pro-
of ACI 211.1-74 and provides additional informa- duction and testing of the concrete. For a com-
tion for lower water-cement ratios. The strengths plete guide in this respect, see ACI 214-65 "Rec-
shown are conservative average strengths for the ommended Practice for Evaluation of Compression
various water-cement ratios. Test Results of Field Concrete." If flexural
3.4.4-Using the maximum permissible water- strength is a requirement, rather than compres-
cement ratio from Table 3.4.1 or Table 3.4.3 and sive strength, the relationship between water-
the approximate mixing water requirement from cement ratio and flexural strength should be
Table 2.3.1 (c), the cement factor required can be determined by laboratory tests using the job ma-
calculated by dividing the pounds of mixing water terials.
sistent with adequate placeability and workabili- 3.5.2-Concrete of comparable workability can
ty. For a given aggregate, the amount of mixing be expected with aggregates of comparable size,
water required will then be at a minimum and shape, and grading when a given dry-rodded
strength at a maximum. This quantity of coarse volume of coarse aggregate per unit volume of
aggregate can best be determined from laboratory concrete is used. In this case of different types
investigations, using the materials for the intend- of aggregates, particularly those with different
ed work, with later adjustment in the field or particle shapes, the use of a fixed dry-rodded
plant. If such data are not available or cannot be volume of coarse aggregate automatically makes
obtained, Table 3.5.1 (a) (from Table 5.3.6, ACI allowance for differences in mortar requirements
211.1-74) provides a good estimate of the amount as reflected by void content of coarse aggregate.
of coarse aggregate for various concretes having For example, angular aggregates have a higher
a degree of workability suitable for usual rein- void content; therefore require more mortar than
forced construction (approximately 3 to 4-in. rounded aggregates. The procedure does not re-
slump). These values of dry-rodded volume of flect variations in grading of coarse aggregates
coarse aggregate per unit volume of concrete are within different maximum size limits, except as
based on established empirical relationships for they are reflected in percentage of voids. How-
aggregates graded within conventional limits. ever, for coarse aggregates falling within the
Changes in the consistency of the concrete can limits of conventional grading specifications, this
be effected by changing the amount of coarse omission is probably of little practical importance.
aggregate per unit volume of concrete. As greater It will be seen that the optimum dry-rodded
amounts of coarse aggregate per unit volume are volume of coarse aggregate per unit volume of
used, the consistency will be decreased. For the concrete depends on its maximum size and the
"flowing" and "plastic" consistencies, the volume fineness modulus of the fine aggregate as indi-
of coarse aggregate per unit volume of concrete cated in Table 3.5.1 (a).
are essentially unchanged from those shown in
Table 3.5.1 (a). For the stiffer consistencies, those CHAPTER 4-COMPUTATION OF PROPORTIONS
requiring vibration for compaction, the amount of
coarse aggregate that can be accommodated in- 4.1-General design criteria
creases rather sharply in relation to the amount 4.1.1-Computation of proportions will be ex-
of fine aggregate required. Table 3.5.1 (b) shows plained by one example. The following design
some typical values of the volume of coarse ag- cri teria are assumed.
gregate per unit volume of concrete for different 4.1.1.1 Non-air-entraining cement will be used
consistencies expressed as a percentage of the and its specific gravity is assumed to be 3.15.
values shown in Table 3.5.1 (a). The information 4.1.1.2 Coarse and fine aggregates in each
contained in these two tables provides a basis for case are of satisfactory quality and are graded
selecting an appropriate amount of coarse aggre- within limits of generally accepted specifications.
gate for the first trial mixture. Adjustments in 4.1.1.3 The coarse aggregate has a specific
this amount will probably be necessary in the gravity, bulk dry, of 2.68 and an absorption of
field or plant operation. 0.5 percent.
*Based on tests of non-alr-entramed concretes made With a natural sand havmg a fineness
modulus of 2.90 and a rounded gravel, containing some crushed over-size. Maximum sizes used
were. ~8 in .. ~4 in., and l;~ in. Values for 1/~ in. and 1 in. are interpolated.
It IS assumed, for the purpose of this method, that the multiplication factors shown are ap-
prop nate for sands having other fineness moduli. These values are intended as a guide in
establishing the first trial mixtures. Further adjustments will be necessary.
NO-SLUMP CONCRETE 211-49
4.1.1.4 The fine aggregate has a specific grav- be required in each cubic foot of concrete having
ity, bulk dry, of 2.64, an absorption of 0.7 percent, a consistency of about 3 to 4-in. slump (plastic).
and fineness modulus of 2.80. 4.2.1.6 From Table 3.5.1 (b) it is found that
for the "very stiff" consistency desired, the
4.2-Example of computation of proportions amount of coarse aggregate should be 125 percent
4.2.1-Concrete is required for a precast pre- of that for the "plastic" consistency, or 0.71 X 1.25
stressed girder for a bridge which will be exposed = 0.89. The quantity in a cubic yard will be 27 X
to severe weather with frequent alternations of 0.89 = 24.03 cu ft which in this case weighs
freezing and thawing. Structural considerations 100 X 24.03 or 2403 lb.
require it to have a design compressive strength 4.2.1.7 With the quantities of cement, water,
of 4000 psi at 28 days. From previous experience coarse aggregate, and air established, the sand
in the plant producing these girders, the expected content is calculated as follows:
coefficient of variation of strengths is 10 percent. 523
It is further required that no more than one test Solid volume of cement = = 2.66 cu ft
3.15 X 62.4
in ten will fall below the design strength of 4000
psi at 28 days. From Fig. 5 of ACI 214-65, the re- 225
Volume of water 3.61 cu ft
quired average strength at 28 days should be 62.4
4000 X 1.15 or 4600 psi. The size of the section Solid volume of coarse 2403
14.37 cu ft
and spacing of prestressing tendons are such that aggregate 2.68 X 62.4
a maximum size aggregate of 1% in. is indicated 27 X 0.030 0.81 cu it
Volume of air =
and a properly graded No.4 to 1% in. coarse ag-
Total solid volume of 21.45 cu ft
gregate is locally available. Heavy internal and
ingredients except sand
external vibration is available to achieve com-
paction, enabling the use of very stiff concrete. Solid volume of sand 27 - 21.45 5.55 cu ft
The dry-rodded weight of the coarse aggregate is required
found to be 100 lb per cu ft. The proportions may Required weight of dry 5.55 X 2.64 X
914lb
be computed as follows: sand 62.4
4.2.1.1 Since the exposure is a severe one, air- Water absorbed by dry (914 X 0.007
entrained concrete will be used and reference to aggregates = 6.4 Ib) +
(2403 X 0.005
Table 3.4.1 shows that the water-cement ratio = 12.0 lb) = 18.41b
should not exceed 0.50 by weight.
4.2.1.2 From Table 3.4.3, the water-cement 4.2.1.8 The estimated batch quantities per
ratio required to produce an average 28-day cubic yard of concrete are:
strength of 4600 psi in air-entrained concrete is Cement 523 lb
shown to be about 0.43 by weight. Since this is Water 243.4 lb
lower than required for durability considerations,
Sand (dry basis) 914 lb
this value of water-cement ratio governs.
Coarse aggregate (dry basis) 2403 lb
4.2.1.3 The approximate quantity of mixing
water needed to produce a consistency in the
"very stiff" range in air-entrained concrete made 4.3-Satch weights for field use
with 11/2 in. aggregate is found in Table 2.3.1 (c) 4.3.1-For the sake of convenience in making
to be 225 lb per cu yd. In that same table, the trial mixture computations, the aggregates have
desired air content, which in this case will be been assumed to be in a dry state. Under field
secured by use of an air-entraining admixture, * conditions they will generally be moist and the
is indicated as 4.5 percent for the more plastic quantities to be batched into the mixer must be
mixtures (see note). The note to the table calls adjusted accordingly.
attention to the lower air contents entrained in 4.3.2t-With the batch weights determined in
these stiffer mixtures. For this concrete, assume the example, let it be assumed that tests show the
the air content to be 3.0 percent when the sug- sand to contain 5.0 percent and the coarse aggre-
gestions in the note are followed. gate 1.0 percent total moisture. Since the quantity
4.2.1.4 From Sections 4.2.1.2 and 4.2.1.3, it can of dry sand required was 914 lb the amount of
be seen that the required cement content is 225/ moist sand to be weighed out must be 914 X 1.05
0.43 = 523 lb per cu yd.
4.2.1.5 From Table 3.5.1 (a) it is found that, * Air-entraining admixture when added at the mixer as fluid
with a maximum size of aggregate of 1% in. and should be included as part of the water volume.
tWeights in this section have been calculated to a greater
a fineness modulus of sand of 2.80, 0.71 cu ft of degree of accuracy than is usually required in order to make
the comparison shown in Table 4.3.2. For example. the calcu-
coarse aggregate, on a dry-rodded basis, would lated weight of the moist sand (959.7 lb) would usually be
taken as 960 lb in the field.
211-50 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
= 959.7 lb. Similarly, the weight of moist coarse the cement factor should be increased to maintain
aggregate must be 2403 X 1.01 = 2427 lb. the water-cement ratio, unless otherwise indi-
4.3.2.1 The free water on aggregates in excess cated by laboratory tests. This adjustment will
of their absorption must be considered as part of be illustrated by assuming that the concrete of
the mixing water. Since the absorption of sand the example was found in the field to require
is 0.7 percent, the amount of free water which 240 lb of net mixing water instead of 225 lb. Con-
it contains is 5.0 - 0.7 = 4.3 percent. The free sequently, the cement content should be increased
water on coarse aggregate is 1.0 - 0.5 = 0.5 per- from 523 to 240/225 X 523 = 558 lb per cu yd and
cent. Therefore, the mixing water contributed by the batch quantities recomputed accordingly.
the sand is 0.043 X 914 = 39.3 lb and that con- 4.4.2-It was pointed out also that less water
tributed by the coarse aggregate is 0.005 X 2403 = than indicated in Table 2.3.1 (c) may sometimes be
12 lb. The quantity of mixing water to be added, required, but it was recommended that no adjust-
then, is 225 - (39.3 + 12) = 173.7 lb. Table 4.3.2 ment be made in cement factor, except as indi-
shows a comparison between the computed batch cated by laboratory tests. Nevertheless, some
adjustment in batch quantities is necessary to
TABLE 4.3.2-COMPARISON BETWEEN COMPUTED compensate for the loss of volume due to the re-
BATCH QUANTITIES AND THOSE USED IN THE FIELD duced water. This is done by increasing the solid
Quantities per cubic yard of volume of sand in an amount equal to the volume
concrete, lb of the reduction in water. For example, assume
Ingredient that 215 lb are required instead of 225 for the
Computed Used in field
concrete of the example. Then 215/62.4 is sub-
Cement
stituted for 225/62.4 in computing the volume of
523 523
Net mixing water
water in the batch and the solid volume of sand
225 225
Sand
becomes 5.71 instead of 5.55 cu ft.
914 (dry) 959.7 (moist)
Coarse aggregate 2403 (dry) 2427 (moist) The percentage of air in concrete can be mea-
Water absorbed 18.4 sured directly with an air meter (ASTM C 231)
Excess water -51.3 or it can be computed from theoretical and
measured unit weights in accordance with ASTM
Total 4083.4 4083.4 test methods listed in the appendix of ACI
211.1-74. For any given set of conditions and ma-
Water added at
mixer 243.4 173.7 terials, the amount of air entrained is roughly
proportional to the quantity of air-entraining ad-
mixture used. Increasing the cement content or
quantities and those actually to be used in the the fine fraction of the sand, decreasing slump,
field for each cubic yard of concrete. or raising the temperature of the concrete usually
4.3.2.2 The preceding trial mixture computa- decreases the amount of air entrained for a given
tions provide batch quantities for each ingredient amount of admixture. The grading and particle
of the mixture per cubic yard of concrete. It is shape of aggregate also have an effect on the
seldom desirable or possible to mix concrete in amount of air entrained. The job mixture should
exactly 1 cu yd batches. It is therefore necessary not be adjusted for minor fluctuations in water-
to convert these quantities in proportion to the cement ratio or air content. A variation in water-
size batch to be used. Let it be assumed that a cement ratio of ± 0.02, resulting from maintenance
16 cu ft capacity mixer is available. Then to pro- of a constant slump, is considered normal. A
duce a batch of the desired size and maintain the variation of ± 1 percent in air content is also
same proportions, the cubic yard field batch considered normal. This variation in air content
weights of all ingredients must be reduced in the will be smaller in the drier mixtures.
ratio 16/27 = 0.593, thus:
Cement 0.593 X 523 310 lb REFERENCES
Sand (moist) 0.593 X 959.7 569 lb
1. ACI Committee 211, "Recommended Practice for
Coarse aggregate Selecting Proportions for Normal and Heavyweight
(moist) 0.593 X 2427 1439 lb Concrete (ACI 211.1-74)," American Concrete Insti-
Water to be added = 0.593 X 173.7 103 lb tute, Detroit, 1974, 19 pp.
2. Bahrner, V., "New Swedish Consistency Test Ap-
4.4-Adjustment of trial mixture paratus and Method," Betong (Stockholm), No.1, 1940,
pp. 27-38. Also, Abstract in Chemical Abstracts, V. 34,
4.4.1-In discussing the estimate of total water No. 22, 1940, p. 8206.
requirements given in Table 2.3.1 (c), it was point-
3. Cusens, A. R., "The Measurement of the Work-
ed out that in some cases more water might be ability of Dry Concrete Mixes," Magazine oj Concrete
required than indicated and that, in such cases, Research (London), V. 8, No. 22, Mar. 1956, pp. 23-30.
NO-SLUMP CONCRETE 211-51
Compacting Drop
Consistency Slump, Vebe, factor, table,
description cm sec average revolutions
Non-air-entrained concrete
'These quantities of mixing water are for use in computing cement factors for trial batches. They are for reasonably well-shaped angular coarse aggregates graded within limits of ac-
cepted specifications.
If more water is required than shown, the cement factor, estimated from these quantities, should be increased to maintain desired water-cement ratio, except as otherwise indicated
by laboratory tests for strength.
If less water is required than shown, the cement factor, estimated from these quantities, shOUld not be decreased except as indicated by laboratory tests for strength.
tFor consistencies below 3 em slump, the volume of air entrained by either an air-entraining cement or the usual amount of air-entraining admixture used for more plastic mixtures may
be significantly lower than those shown. For these mixtures, it is recommended that the air content resulting from the use of air-entraining cement or the usual amount of air-entraining
admixture per unit of cement for more plastic mixtures be accepted as adequate for Insuring durability. In the absence of such information for a particular air-entraining admixture,
the amount to use per unit of cement can be determined on a trial mix having a slump in the 8 to 10 cm range, or by determining the amount needed to obtain 19 ± 3 percent air in mortar
prepared in accordance with ASTM C 185.7
NO-SLUMP CONCRETE 211-53
TABLE A2.2.3.1 (b)-APPROXIMATE RELATIVE WATER weight of the coarse aggregate is 1602 kg/m3 • The
CONTENT FOR DIFFERENT CONSISTENCIES coarse aggregate has a specific gravity, bulk dry,
Approximate relative water content, percent of 2.68 and an absorption of 0.5 percent. The fine
Consistency aggregate has a specific gravity, bulk dry, of 2.64,
description Table 5.3.3
Thaulowr. ACI 211.1-74 an absorption of 0.7 percent, and a fineness mod-
ulus of 2.80. The prestressed bridge girder will
Extremely dry 78 be exposed to severe weather with frequent al-
Very stiff 83 ternations of freezing and thawing. Heavy internal
Stiff 88 and external vibration is available to achieve com-
Stiff plastic 93 92 paction, enabling the use of concrete having a
Plastic 100 100 very stiff consistency. The proportions may be
Flowing 108 106 computed as follows:
A2.1.1-Since the exposure is a severe one, air-
A1.3.2 Step 2-Select maximum size of aggre- entrained concrete will be used and reference to
gate. Table A2.3.4.1 shows that the water-cement ratio
A1.3.3 Step 3-Determine w/c, by weight, need- should not exceed 0.50, by weight.
ed for durability (Table A2.3.4.1) and for strength
A2.1.2-From Table A2.3.4.3, the water-cement
(Table A2.3.4.3). The lower w /c ratio governs
ratio required to produce an average 28 day
and should be used in subsequent calculations.
A1.3.4 Step 4-Determine the approximate strength of 325 kgf/cm 2 in air-entrained concrete
is shown to be about 0.43, by weight. Since this
quantity of mixing water needed for the con-
sistency and maximum aggregate size and the
percentage of entrapped or entrained air from TABLE A2.3.4.I-MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE
WATER-CEMENT RATIOS FOR CONCRETE IN
Table A2.2.3.1 (c). SEVERE EXPOSURES (METRIC)*
A1.3.5 Step 5-Calculate the cement content.
Structure
A1.3.6 Step 6-Determine coarse aggregate con- Structure wet continuously exposed to
or frequently and exposed sea-\vater
tent. The dry weight of coarse aggregate required Type of structure to freezing and thawingt or sulfates
for a cubic meter of concrete is equal to the value
Thin sections (railings,
from Table A2.3.5.1 (a) multiplied by the dry- curbs, sills, ledges,
ornamental work) and 0.45 OAOt
rodded unit weight of the aggregate in kilograms sections with less than
3 cm cover over steel
per cubic meter multiplied by the appropriate
,All other structures 0.50 OA5t
factor from Table A2.3.5.1 (b).
A1.3.7 Step 7-Determine the fine aggregate 'Based on the report of ACI Committee 201, "Durability of
Concrete in Service," previously cited.
content. The absolute volume of the fine aggre- tConcrete should also be air-entrained.
tIf sulfate resisting cement (Type II or Type V of ASTM
gate is obtained by (a) calculating the absolute C 150) is used, permissible water-cement ratio may be in-
creased by 0.05.
volumes of the cement, water, coarse aggregate
and air in cubic meters, and (b) subtracting the TABLE A2.3.4.3-RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN WATER-
sum of these absolute volumes from 1.000 cubic CEMENT RATIO AND COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF
meters. The required weight of fine aggregate, CONCRETE (METRIC)
kg, is then calculated by multiplying its absolute
Water-cement ratio, by weight
volume by its specific gravity and the product Compressive strength 1 - - - - - - - - - - ; - - - - - - - -
by 1000. at 28 days, kgf/cm a Non-air-entrained Air-entrained
concrete concrete
Al.3.8 Step 8-In the field, necessary corrections
must be made for the water absorbed by the ag- 500 0.33
gregates if they are dry, or by the excess water 450 0.38
provided by the aggregates if they are moist. 400 0.43 0.34
350 0.48 0.40
APPENDIX 2-EXAMPLE PROBLEM 300 0.55 0.46
IN METRIC SYSTEM 250 0.62 0.53
A2.1-Description of problem 200 0.70 0.61
150 0.80 0.71
The example presented in Section 4.2 will be
solved here using metric units of measure. The 'Values are estimated average strengths for concrete con-
taining not more than the percentage of air shown in Table
required compressive strength will be 325 kgf/ A2.2.3.l (c). For a constant water-cement ratio, the strength of
concrete is reduced as the air content is increased. See Section
cm 2 at 28 days. The size of the section and spac- 3.4.5.
Strength is based on 15 x 30 em cylinders moist-cured 28 days
ing of prestressing tendons are such that a maxi- at 23:'.: 1.7 C in accordance with Section 9 (b) of ASTM C 31 for
Making and Curing Concrete Compression and Flexure Test
mum size aggregate of 40 mm is indicated and a Specimens in the Field. Cube strengths will be higher by ap-
proximately 20 percent.
properly graded coarse aggregate (4.75 mm to Relationship assumes maximum size of aggregate about 20
40 mm) is locally available. The dry-rodded to 30 mm; for a given source, strength produced by a given
water-cement ratio \vill increase as maximum size decreases.
211-54 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
is lower than required for durability considera- be required in each cubic meter of concrete hav-
tions, this value of water-cement ratio governs. ing a consistency of about 8 to 10-cm slump
A2.1.3-The approximate quantity of mixing (plastic) .
water needed to produce a consistency in the A2.1.6-From Table A2.3.5.1 (b) it is found that
"very stiff" range in air-entrained concrete made for the "very stiff" consistency desired, the
with 40mm aggregate is found in Table amount of coarse aggregate should be 125 per-
A2.2.3.1 (c) to be 135 kg/m 3 • In that same table, cent of that for the "plastic" consistency, or
the desired air content, which in this case will 0.72 X 1.25 = 0.90. The weight of the coarse ag-
be secured by use of an air-entraining admixture,* gregate will be 0.90 X 1602 = 1442 kg.
is indicated as 4.5 percent for the more plastic A2.1.7-With the quantities of cement, water,
mixtures (see note). The note to the table calls coarse aggregate, and air established, the sand
attention to the lower air contents entrained in content is calculated as follows:
these stiffer mixtures. For this concrete, assume
the air content to be 3.0 percent when the sug- 314
Solid volume of cement = 3.15 X 1000
0.100 m 3
gestions in the note are followed.
A2.1.4-From Sections A2.1.2 and A2.1.3, it can 135
Volume of water 0.135 m 3
be seen that the required cement content is 135/ 1000
0.43 = 314 kg/m 3 • 1442
A2.1.5-From Table A2.3.5.1 (a) it is found that, Solid volume of coarse 0.538 rn 3
2.68 X 1000
with a maximum size of aggregate of 40 mm and aggregate
a fineness modulus of sand of 2.80, 0.72 m 3 of Volume of air = 0.03 X 1.000 0.030 rn 3
coarse aggregate, on a dry-rodded basis, would
Total volume of 0.803 rn 3
ingredients except sand
TABLE A2.3.5.I(a)-VOLUME OF COARSE
AGGREGATE PER UNIT OF VOLUME OF Solid volume of sand 1.000 - 0.803 0.197 rn 3
CONCRETE (METRIC) OF PLASTIC required
CONSISTENCY (8-13 CM SLUMP) Required weight of = 0.197 X 2.64
dry sand X 1000 520 kg
Volume of dry-rodded coarse aggregate'
Maximum size per unit volume of concrete for different
of aggregate, fineness modulit of sand Water absorbed by (520 X 0.007
mm
2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00 aggregates = 3.6 kg) +
(1442 X 0.005
10 0.50 0.48 0.46 0.44 = 7.2 kg) = 10.8 kg
12.5 0.59 0.57 0.55 0.53
The estimated batch quantities per cubic meter
20 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.60
of concrete are:
25 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.65
Cement 314 kg
40 0.76 0.74 0.72 0.70
Water 145.8 kg
'Volumes are based on aggregates in dry-rodded condition as Sand (dry) 520 kg
described in ASTM C 29 for Unit Weight of Aggregate.
These volumes are selected from empirical relationships to Coarse aggregate (dry) 1442 kg
produce concrete with a degree of workability suitable for
usual reinforced construction.
tFineness modulus of sand = sum of ratios (cumulative) re-
tained on sieves with square openings of 0.149, 0.297, 0.595, 1.19, 'Air-entraining admixture when added at the mixer as fluid
2.38, and 4.76 mm. should be included as part of the water volume.
'Based on tests of non-air-entrained concretes made with a natural sand having a fineness
modulus of 2.90 and a rounded gravel, containing some crushed over-size. Maximum sizes used
were 10, 20, and 40 mm. Values for 12.5 mm and 25 mm are interpolated.
It is assumed, for the purpose of this method, that the multiplication factors shown are ap-
propriate for sands having other fineness moduli. These values are intended as a guide in
establishing the first trial mixtures. Further adjustments will be necessary.
NO-SLUMP CONCRETE 211-55
tween water-cement ratio, air content, cement (1) separation of the sand into two or more size
content, and strength, and which furnish infor- fractions and recombining in suitable proportions;
mation on the workability characteristics of vari- (2) increasing or decreasing the quantity of cer-
ous combinations of ingredient materials. The ex- tain sizes to balance the grading; (3) reducing
tent of investigation desirable for any given job excess coarse material by grinding; or (4) by the
will depend on its size and importance and ser- addition of manufactured sand. Undersirable
vice conditions involved. Details of the laboratory coarse aggregate gradings may be corrected by:
program will also vary, depending on facilities (1) crushing excess coarser fractions; (2) wasting
available and on individual preferences. excess material in other fractions; (3) supple-
menting deficient sizes from other sources; or
A3.2-Physical properties of cement (4) a combination of these methods. To the ex-
tent that grading limitations and economy in use
A3.2.1-Physical and chemical characteristics of
of cement permit, the proportions of various sizes
cement influence the properties of hardened con-
of coarse aggregate should be held closely to the
crete. However, the only property of cement di-
grading of available materials. Whatever process-
rectly concerned in computation of concrete mix
ing is done in the laboratory should be practical
proportions is specific gravity. As stated, the
from a standpoint of economy and job operation.
specific gravity of cement may be assumed to be
Samples of aggregates for concrete mixture tests
3.15 without introducing appreciable error in mix
should be representative of aggregate selected for
computations.
use in the work. For laboratory tests, the coarse
A3.2.2-A sample of cement should be obtained aggregates should be cleanly separated into re-
from the mill which will supply the job, or pref- quired size fractions to provide for uniform con-
erably from the job itself. The sample should trol of mixture proportions.
be ample for tests contemplated with a liberal
A3.3.4-The particle shape and texture of both
margin for additional tests that might later be
fine and coarse aggregate also influence the mix-
considered desirable. Cement samples should be
ing water requirement of concrete. Void content
shipped in airtight containers, or at least in
of compacted dry fine or coarse aggregate can be
moisture-proof packages.
used as an indicator of angularity. Void contents
of more than 40 percent in conventionally graded
A3.3-Properties of aggregate aggregates indicate angular harsh material which
A3.3.1-Sieve analysis, specific gravity, absorp- will probably require more mixing water than
tion, and moisture content of both fine and coarse given in Table 2.3.1 (c). Conversely rounded ag-
aggregate and dry-rodded unit weight of coarse gregates with voids below 35 percent will probably
aggregate are essential physical properties re- need less water.
quired for mixture computations. Other tests
which may be desirable for large or special types A3.4-Concrete mixture tests
of work include petrographic examination and
A3.4.1-The values listed in the tables may be
tests for chemical reactivity; tests for soundness,
used for establishing a preliminary trial mixture.
durability, resistance to abrasion, and for various
However, they are based on averages obtained
deleterious substances. All such tests yield in-
from a large number of tests and do not neces-
formation of value in judging the ultimate quali-
sarily apply exactly to materials being used on a
ty of concrete and in selecting appropriate pro-
particular job. If facilities are available, therefore,
portions.
it is advisable to make a series of concrete tests
A3.3.2-Aggregate gradation or particle size to establish the relationships needed for selection
distribution is a major factor in controlling unit of appropriate proportions based on the materials
water requirement, proportion of coarse aggregate actually to be used.
to sand, and cement content of concrete mixtures
A3.4.2-Air-entrained concrete or concrete with
for a given degree of workability. Numerous
no measurable slump must be machine mixed.
"ideal" aggregate grading curves have been pro-
Before mixing the first batch the laboratory mixer
posed, but a universally accepted standard has not
should be "buttered" as described in ASTM C 192
been developed. Experience and individual judg-
because a clean mixer retains a percentage of
ment must continue to play important roles in
mortar. Similarly, any processing of materials in
determining acceptable aggregate gradings. Ad-
the laboratory should simulate as closely as prac-
ditional workability realized by use of air entrain-
ticable corresponding treatment in the field. Ad-
ment permits, to some extent, the use of less re-
justments of the preliminary trial mixture will
strictive aggregate gradations.
almost always be necessary. Furthermore, it
A3.3.3-Undesirable sand grading may be cor- should not be expected that field results will
rected to desired particle size distribution by: check exactly with laboratory results. An adjust-
NO-SLUMP CONCRETE 211-57
ment of the selected trial mixture on the job is ured, as per ASTM C 143. The swivel arm is then
usually necessary. moved into position with the plastic disk and
graduated rod resting on top of the concrete
A3.4.3-Alternative aggregate sources and dif- sample. The vibrator is switched on and the time
ferent aggregate gradings, different types and in seconds to deform the cone into a cylinder, at
brands of cement, different admixtures, different which stage the whole face of the plastic disk is
maximum sizes of aggregate, and considerations in contact with the concrete, is determined. This
of concrete durability, volume change, tempera- time in seconds is used as a measure of the con-
ture rise, and thermal properties are some of the
sistency of the concrete.
variables that may require a more extensive pro-
gram.
A3.8-Compacting factor apparatus
quick release, hinged trap doors. Metal plate l/S in. published in the ACI News Letter referred to in
thick is suitable for these trap doors. The frame is the same reference. The equipment is available
rigidly constructed using steel angles or chan- commercially through Ingeniorforretningen Atlas
nels. The hoppers and the cylinder are easily de- A/S, Postboks 198, Oslo 7, Norway.
tachable from the frame. Accessory equipment
required includes two steel trowels, a hand scoop A3.9.2-The sample container has a volume of
about 6 in. long, a steel rod o/s in. in diameter and 10 litres and is made of hardened aluminum alloy
24 in. long, rounded at one end, and a scale or or stainless steel (latest model) having an inside
balance having a capacity of about 45 to 50 lb and diameter of 91/2 in. and an inside height of 9%
with a least scale division of about 0.10 lb. in. A 5-litre mark is grooved on the inside sur-
A3.8.4-The sample of concrete is placed gently face of the container. The slump cone meets the
in the upper hopper, using the hand scoop, level requirements of ASTM C 143, with the funnel
with the top of the hopper (the precise quantity adaptor shown as an aid in filling and compaction.
is not important). The trap door is opened, per- The drop table, to which the container is clamped,
mitting the concrete to fall into the lower hopper. is operated by a hand crank, each revolution of
The trap door of the lower hopper is then opened, which drops the table 0.394 in. four times. The
permitting the concrete to fall into the cylinder. number of revolutions are indicated on an at-
Without further consolidation the mold is struck tached revolution counter. The triangular con-
off, weighed and the contents then discarded. The crete base, 3 in. thick and 16 in. on each side,
cylinder mold is then refilled with concrete which provides stability for the unit.
is thoroughly compacted by vibration, or other-
A3.9.3-The slump cone is filled and compacted
wise, and again weighed. The ratio of the weight
in accordance with ASTM C 143, after which ad-
of partially compacted concrete to the weight of ditional concrete is added in the funnel adaptor
the fully compacted concrete is called the com- and the whole assembly subjected to 15 drops,
pacting factor.
turning the handle at the rate of 1% - 2 revolu-
tions per sec. After strike-off and removal of the
A3.9-Thaulow drop table
cone, the number of revolutions required to de-
A3.9.1-The Thaulow drop table, developed by form the cone (5% litres) to a 5-litre cylinder
Sven Thaulow, is part of a collection of equipment with a half-litre topping, i.e., when the entire
assembled for field testing of concrete. It is de- periphery of the concrete is at the 5-litre mark,
scribed in Reference 5, a resume of which was is a measure of the consistency of the concrete.
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and Com- ACI 212.2R-71
mentaries are intended for guidance in designing, planning, executing,
or inspecting construction, and in preparing specifications. Reference From ACI JOURNAL, Sept. 1971
to these documents shall not be made in the Project Documents. If
items found in these documents are desired to be part of the Project
Documents, they should be incorporated directly into the Project
Documents.
BRYANT MATHER
Chairman
This guide outlines the purposes of and factors to be considered in the use of
admixtures. One chapter gives information on the preparation and batching of ad-
mixtures. Other chapters give information on the properties, effects, and use of
various classes of admixtures. Information is included on: (I) air-entraining admix-
tures; (2) accelerators; (3) water-reducing and set-controlling admixtures; (4)
finely divided mineral admixtures, including relatively inert powders, cementitious
materials, and pozzolans; and (5) miscellaneous admixtures, including gas-forming,
grouting, expansion-producing, bonding, coloring, flocculating, fungicidal, germicidal,
insecticidal, dampproofing, and permeability-reducing admixtures; admixtures to
reduce alkali-aggregate reaction expansion; and corrosion inhibitors.
Keywords: accelerating agents; admixtures; air-entraining agents; alkali-aggre-
gate reactions; aluminum powder; bactericides; batching; bonding; calcium chlorides;
colors (materials); concrete durability; concretes; corrosion inhibitors; dispensers;
expanding agents; flocculating; freeze-thaw durability; fungicides; gas-forming
agents; grouting; hydroxylated carboxylic acids; insecticides; lignin and derivatives;
lignosulfonates; mineral admixtures; mix proportioning; permeability reducing ad-
mixtures; pozzolahs; quality control; retardants; setting (hardening); shrinkage;
strength; sulfate resistance; temperature rise (in concrete); vinsol resin; volume
change; water-reducing agents; waterproofing admixtures.
FOREWORD
. ACI Committee 212, Admixtures for Concrete, was organized in 1943. It has func-
tIOned in close, but informal, liaison with the Highway Research Board Committee
MC-BS (now A 2EOS) on Admixtures and Subcommittee III-h on Specifications and
Methods of Testing Admixtures of ASTM Committee C-9 on Concrete and Concrete
Aggregates. Symposia, bibliographies, reports of research, and the state-of-the-art re-
views sponsored by all three groups have been studied and used, with benefit, by the
other two. Recent reviews covering significant portions of the area of interest of Com-
mittee 212 were distributed in 1970 as Part IV (V. IV) of the Proceedings of the Fifth
International Symposium on the Chemistry of Cement, entitled "Admixtures and Spe-
? 12-1
212-2 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
CONTENTS
1.3 - Specifications for admixtures 1.5.1 - Quality control test methods are used
The following specifications are most widely by producers of admixtures to determine a prod-
used and they cover those types or classes that uct's compliance with the producer's own finished
make up the bulk of current production of product specifications. Such test methods are
admixtures: often developed for the particular product and
thus are not to be found in compilations of stan-
ASTM D 98 G Calcium Chloride dard test methods. Standard test methods, as
well as those recommended by individual pro-
ASTM C 260 i Air-Entraining Admixtures ducers, are available to evaluate admixtures from
AASHO M 154~ Air-Entraining Admixtures the consumer's viewpoint.
CRD-C 13 9 Air-Entraining Admixtures
1.5.2 - Although qualifying tests, such as
ASTM C 618 10 Fly Ash and Raw or Cal- those of the ASTM, afford a valuable screening
cined Natural Pozzolans procedure for selection of admixture products,
any substantial use in continuing production of
Federal Specification Pozzolans
concrete should be preceded by testing that allows
SS-P-570b ll
observation and measurement of the performance
CRD-C 2621~ Pozzolan of the product under concrete plant operating con-
ditions in combination with the concrete-mak-
ing materials then in use. Uniformity of results
ASTM C 494'-' Chemical Admixtures is usually as important or more important than
CRD-C 87 1:, Chemical Admixtures the average result with respect to each significant
USBR14 Water-Reducing Set-Con- property of the admixture or the concrete.
trolling Admixtures
1.6 - Decision on use
1.4 - Sampling
Use of an admixture may increase or decrease
Samples for testing and inspection should be
the unit cost of the concrete. The cost of doing
obtained by procedures prescribed for the re-
the work using an admixture should be compared
spective types of materials in applicable specifi-
with that of alternative materials or methods.
cations, such as those listed in Section 1.3.
The effect of a given admixture can sometimes
Samples for use in qualifying tests should be
be obtained, at least in some degree, by other
obtained from plant pro.d~udion and from pre-
means or by other admixtures. The cost of the
viously unopeIl~p§lc~a.:g~s or containers, or from
ingredients making up a concrete mixture con-
fresh bulksIlipments. To facilitate the securing
taining the admixture should be compared with
of samples, the location of lots that are available
the cost of ingredients of concrete without ad-
for sampling can be identified by the producer
mixture.
or supplier so that suitable samples can be
secured by the prospective purchaser or his 1.6.1 - The cost of hal!dlLl].~g. an extra ingredient
representative. and any effect the use of the admixture may
have on the cost of transporting, placing, finish-
1.5 - Testing ing, curing, and protecting the concrete should
Admixtures are tested for acceptance for one be taken into account. Frequently an admixture
or more of four reasons: (a) to determine com- permits use of less expensive construction meth-
pliance with a purchase specification; (b) to ods or even of less expensive structural design.
evaluate the effect of the admixture on the For example, novel and economical designs of
properties of the concrete to be made with job structural units have been predicated on use of
materials under the anticipated ambient con- retarding admixtures that permit placing of con-
ditions and construction procedures; (c) to de- crete over extended periods in homogeneous
termine within-lot uniformity of product; and units of large size and great volume, thus re-
(d) to provide data showing that any lot is the ducing need for forming and the placing and join-
same as those previously supplied. ing of separate units. Use of air-entraining and
water-reducing admixtures commonly makes pos-
When required by the purchase contract or
sible the attaining of required physical properties
specifications, the admixture should be tested
of lightweight aggregate concrete at lower unit
by a laboratory to show that it meets current weight.
ASTM or other applicable specifications before
being allowed for use. The manufacturer of the 1.6.2 - Evaluation of the use of any given ad-
admixture may be required to certify that indi- mixture or combination ;~ixtures should be
vidual lots meet the requirements of applicable based on the results obtained with the particular
standards. concrete in question under conditions expected
ADMIXTURES FOR CONCRETE 212-5
on the job, since the results obtained are tests. Of primary concern may be workability,
influenced to an important degree by the char- pumping qualities, placing and finishing char-
acteristics of the cement and aggregate and their acteristics, early strength development, reuse of
relative proportions, construction practices, and forms and molds, appearance of formed surfaces,
ambient conditions. The plant operator, contrac- and so on. These features may dictate selection
tor, and owner of the construction project are of an admixture and a dosage of the admixture
interested in features other than the properties more than do the properties that are covered
of the concrete that are measured by standard by usual specifications.
such as power inlet and outlet valves, reservoir 1. The charging valve of a volumetric batcher
pumps, and automatic float controls and air cannot be opened until the liquid level within
discharge mechanisms. Gravity flow from a the container has returned to zero within an ac-
typical calibrated container through a % in. curacy of ±0.3 percent of the capacity of the
(2 cm) line is about 3 gal. per min (11 dm 3 /min). container, or 1 fluid ounce (30 cm3 ), whichever
Faster flow rates or discharge against gravity may is greater. Positive displacement flow meters
be obtained with air pressure. Such containers equipped with pulsing devices are excluded from
should be designed for pressure operation. Usual- this requirement. Charging valves of weigh batch-
ly, 0.5 psi (0.035 kgf/cm 2 ) of air pressure per foot ers cannot be opened until the scale has returned
of static head, plus 5 psi (0.35 kgf/cm2) is suffi- to zero balance within an aC'curacy of ± 0.3 per-
cient. cent of the capacity of the scale.
2.2.4 ~'r:._~_~Qr/,_tr.oHf!g sY$tems - Although 2. The charging valve cannot be opened if the
timer controlled systems may be used, their discharge valve is open.
use is not recommended due to extreme in-
accuracy and nonreproducibility. In essence, these 3. The discharge valve cannot be opened if the
systems involve the timing of flow through charging valve is open.
an orifice. Electrical timers can be affected by 4. The discharge valve of a volumetric batcher
changes in power supply to the timer motor. Par- cannot be opened until the designated volume is
tial restriction of the orifice by foreign matter within an accuracy of ± 3 percent of the required
can seriously reduce accuracy. Changes in vis- volume or 1 fluid ounce (30 cm3 ) , whichever is
cosity due to temperature change of the solution greater, unless otherwise stipulated in the job
also cause variations in flow rate. specifications. The discharge valve of a weigh
2.2.5 WeiglLbatching - Weigh batching is batcher cannot be opened until the designated
a feasibie method of controlling the addition of weight of admixture in the batcher is within an
admixtures. The type of scale, beam or dial, must accuracy of ± 3 percent of the required weight.
be such that the required batching accuracy is In no case should the quantity weighed be so
obtained. An indicator should be included in a small that 0.4 percent of the full scale capacity
weigh system in order that the operator can be exceeds 3 percent of the required weight.
certain that all of the admixture weighed has been
discharged. The indicator may be in the form 2.4 - liquid ad l11 i.?,tures
of a sight glass if the weigh hopper is in the
operator's view, or an electrical mechanism to 2.4.1 General - Materials introduced into the
signal when the hopper is empty, or when it concrete mixture as liquids generally fall into
has failed to discharge completely. A weigh the following categories: air-entraillingadrni:x-
batcher has the disadvantage that all liquid tures,Vlat(2r~E~cl1dcil1gadmixtures,. water-ied~~ing
admixture dosages have to be converted from retClgI~.r$,.[~t<'lr.cler$, .... \\Tater-reducing .. ac.celerators,
volume to weight. It is also often necessary to andacceleratOfs. The dosage of these admixtures
dilute admixture solutions to obtain sufficient may vary from as little as 0.1 oz (3 cm3 ) to as
quantity for accurate weighing. much as 64 oz (1900 cm3 ) per 100 lb (45 kg) of
cement.
2.3 - ~~~c:htrlgJQ~.l?r~.r1c;es 2.4.1.1 I~p'!'!.!ibility of aclrni:xtllre$, Two or
2.3.1 Admixture batchers for manual and semi- more admixtures may not be compatible in the
automatic concrete batch plants - Admixture same solution. It is therefore important that un-
batching systems for use in manual or semiauto- less shown to be permissible by appropriate tests
matic plants should be capable of volumetric or the advice of the manufacturer, admixtures
batching within an accuracy of ± 3 percent of not be intermixed prior to their introduction into
the required volume, or one fluid ounce (30 cm3 ), the concrete. It may also be desirable to introduce
whichever is greater, unless otherwise stipulated the admixtures into the mixer at separate times
in the job specifications. Weight batchers should during mixing.
be capable of weighing within an accuracy of ± 3 2.4.2 PTf!Pa.T.ation
percent of the required weight. In no case should 2.4.2.1 From I?myders--.and particl.es. Some
the quantity weighed be so small that 0.4 per- chemical admixtures are supplied as water-solu-
cent of the full scale capacity exceeds 3 percent ble solids requiring job mixing at the point of
of the required weight. usage. Such job mixing may require that low
2.3.2 Admixture bate hers for automatic con- concentration solutions be made due to difficulty
crete batching systems with mixture selection - in mixing. Under these conditions, the water
An admixture batcher for use in an automatic in the solution must be considered a part of
concrete plant must be capable of being inter- the total water content of the batch in order to
locked into the batching system as follows: maintain correct water-cement ratio. Manufactur-
ADMIXTURES FOR CONCRETE 212-7
ers' recommendations should be followed carefully periodically. This will prevent a build up of
to assure complete solution of the product or to sediment or mold growth, or both, in the system.
prepare a standard solution of uniform strength 2.4.3.3 GQ1L.w:eath~r. Measures should be
for easier use. Since certain admixtures may con- taken for cold weather protection of the solution
tain significant amounts of finely divided in- and batching system, particularly with respect
soluble materials or active ingredients which may to protection of the solution from freezing in
or may not be readily soluble or dispersible, it is storage tanks and delivery lines. This may involve
important that precautions be taken to ensure installation of immersion heaters in the tanks
that these constituents will be kept in a state of and wrapping lines with insulation or heating
uniform suspension before actual batching. The tapes, or both. Means should be provided to com-
practice of adding the water-soluble powders di- pletely clear discharge lines to avoid retention of
rectly to the concrete mixture should usually be liquids susceptible to freezing. Usually an admix-
discouraged since the small quantity of material ture that has frozen in storage tanks or drums
involved may not be adequately dispersed may be reconstituted after thawing without
throughout the batch. detrimental effect on the quality of the admix-
2.4.2.2 As ready-to-use lig.1li~:..Admixtures that ture. However, it is advisable to obtain the
are supplied as ready-to-use liquids may be of manufacturer's recommendation regarding this
a much higher concentration than job-mixed so- point.
lutions, and as a result any finely divided in- 2.4.3.4 Vents. Bulk storage tanks, drums, and
soluble matter, if present, will tend to stay in calibrated Sight-tubes should be vented so that
suspension and continuous agitation may not be they do not become air bound and restrict flow.
required. Since vents tend to pull in atmospheric dust as
2.4.3 Batching tanks drain, they should include an air filter.
2.4.3.1 General. The time of introduction and Vents on sight tubes must extend above the
the rate of discharge of the admixture must be liquid level of overhead gravity supply tanks.
synchronized with other steps in the batching 2.4.3.5 Flush!.!1g! All systems should be sup-
operation. Rate of discharge is critical. The entire plied with a water inlet valve for flushing.
amount of admixture should be added prior to Cool water should be passed through the system
the completion of the addition of the mixing until it runs clear.
water. The time at which certain chemical ad-
mixtures are introduced in the mixing cycle is 2.5 - Finely diyld.~c;L.ml~.~.!.<lt admixtures
also of major importance. For some cement-ad-
mixture combinations, varying the time at which 2.5.1 .StQr.qg~ ...!1TId. handling - Admixtures in
they are added during mixing may result in this class, such as fly ash or natural pozzolan,
varying degrees of retardation or acceleration, or are most readily conveyed and batched dry. It is
Significantly affect the water requirement of the necessary, therefore, to keep them dry during
mixture. Chemical admixtures in liquid form storage, conveying, and batching. Storage facili-
should not come in contact with dry cement. For ties should be as weathertight as for portland
any given condition or project, a procedure for cement. Since the appearance (color and texture)
controlling the time and rate of the admixture of some finely divided mineral admixtures is
addition to the concrete batch should be estab- close to that of portland cement, storage and
lished and adhered to closely. To assure uniform auxiliary facilities for bulk material should be
distribution of the admixture throughout the con- clearly marked to avoid errors in delivery and
crete mixture during the charging cycle, the misuse. If compartmented bins are used for bulk
mineral admixtures and cement, precautions
rate of admixture discharge should be adjust-
should be taken in design, construction, and use,
able.
to avoid leakage from one compartment to another.
2.4.3.2 ProtectioE_._~.n.:.~.~Cl.j~!.<:~a_~s:~: It is Compartmented bins should be inspected fre-
important that batching systems receive periodic quently to make certain that no leaks develop.
routine maintenance to prevent inaccuracies Bulk mineral admixtures may be conveyed to
caused by such things as sticky valves, build elevated storage pneumatically or by bucket eleva-
tors. If bucket elevators are used an adjustment
up of foreign matter in meter bodies, and worn
in operating speed depending on the weight of
pumps. Whenever pOSSible, batching system com-
the material may sometimes be needed. A light-
ponents should be located in areas that will pro-
weight material will not drop out of the buckets
vide protection from dust and from extreme as quickly as cement, for instance; therefore,
temperatures, and be readily accessible for visual the buckets must move more slowly to allow
observation and maintenance. Storage tanks and time for the material to discharge into the
mixing tanks should be inspected and cleaned chute.
212-8 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
to the disruptive action of freezing and thawi:Qg 3.4 - Evaluation and ....~!ll~ction
and of deicing chemicals. However, the use of en- 3.4.1 '='M~~;"'~;;~~ials are capable of function-
trained-air is recommended in concrete for ing as air-entraining admixtures; these include:
other reasons, also. Air entrainment favorably (1) salts of wood resins, (2) some synthetic
alters a number of the properties of freshly-mixed detergents, (3) salts of sulfonated lignin, (4) salts
concrete. Plasticity aQ~:W:Qrt£lQUHy,are improved, of petroleum acids, (5) salts of proteinaceous
enabling ~u'~ti;;;:"in water content. Uni!.or:::2!l materials, (6) fatty and resinous acids and their
of placement and of consolidation can be achieved salts, and (7) organic salts of sulfonated hydro-
more readily, thus reducing segregation. _Bl~~~l,~{S carbons. Some materials, such as hydrogen per-
also is reduced. In addition to improving the re- oxide and powdered aluminum metal, can be
sistance of hardened concrete to freezing and used to entrain gas bubbles in cementitious mix-
thawing and deicer scaling, air entrainment also tures but are not considered as acceptable air-
increases the resistance of concrete to sulfate entraining admixtures, since they do not neces-
action. 'Y~.i~r~!ght.J'1E2S::; of air-entrained concretiis sarily produce an air-void system which will
superior to that of concrete without air entrain- enhance resistance to freezing and thawing.
ment. Unit weight is reduced. Air entrainment, 3.4.2 - To achieve the desired improvement in
while impro;ing'b~th workability and durability, frost resistance, intentionally entrained air must
may reduce strength. Within the range of air con- have certain characteristics. Not only is the
tenTs-;~;;;;-;-fly'-'used, the decrease in strength total volume of air of importance, but more im-
usually is about proportional to the amount of portan tly th-e- srzEf.~~~~...~J_~.!El~.~!~£~_ .. <:l.L.!!2.~.a.-ir
air entrained. For most types of exposed con- voids must be such as to provide efficient pro-
crete a slight reduction in strength is far less sig- -tec'tlon to the cement paste. The air-void system
nificant than the improved resistance to frost ac- must be characterized by a large number of small
tion. The reduction in strength will rarely exceed voids, uniformly distributed throughout the ce-
15 percent in the case of compressive strength and ment paste.
10 percent in the case of flexural strength. These 3.4.3 - To assure that an air-entraining admix-
figures are for equal cement content and with the ture produces a desirable air-void system, it
sand and water content of the air-entrained con- should meet the requirements of ASTM C 260. 7
crete reduced to the extent permitted by the This specification sets limits on the effects which
increased workability of this type of mixture. any given air-entraining admixture under test
may exert on bleeding, time of setting, com-
pressive and flexural strength, resistance to freez-
3.3 - Applications ing and thawing, and length change on drying
of a hardened concrete mixture, in comparison
As stated in Section 3.2, the use of entrained
with a similar concrete mixture containing a
air is recommended in concrete for several reasons.
standard reference air-entraining admixture, such
Because of its greatly improved resistance to
as neutralized vinsol resin. The methods by
frost action, air-entrained concrete should be
which these effects may be determined are given
used wherever concrete is exposed to freezing in ASTM C 233.~o Extensive testing and exper-
and thawing, to the action of salts used for
ience have shown that concretes having total air
deicing, or to other potentially damaging en-
contents in the range of the recommended air
vironments. Its use is also desirable wherever contents shown in ACI 211.1-70~1 will have the
there is a need for watertightness. Air entrain-
proper size and distribution of air voids when
ment improves the workability of concrete. It is
the air-entraining admixture used meets the re-
particularly effective in lean mixtures, which quirements of ASTM C260. 7
otherwise may be harsh and difficult to work. It is
common practice to provide air entrainment in
various kinds of lightweight aggregate concrete, 3.5 - Control of purchase
including not only insulating and fill concrete, but Most of the commercial air-entraining admix-
also in structural lightweight concrete. Admix- tures available, sold under various trade names,
tures for cellular concrete are not included in this are in liquid form, although a few are powders,
guide since the subject is covered by ACI Com- flakes, or semisolids. The proprietary name and
mittee 523. the net quantity in pounds (kilograms) or gallons
There is no general agreement on the benefits (cubic decimeters) should be plainly indicated on
resulting from the use of an air-entraining admix- the package or containers in which the admix-
ture in the manufacture of concrete blockY·lu ture is delivered. The admixture should be uni-
However, satisfactory results using air-entrain- form within each batch and uniform between
ing admixtures have been reported in the manu- batches and between shipments. Acceptance test-
facture of cast stone and concrete pipe. ing should be as stated in Section 1.5.
212-10 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
To achieve the greatest uniformity in a con- true of lean concretes or those containing a small
crete mixture and in successive batches, it is rec- maximum size aggregate, Such concretes there-
ommended that air-entraining admixtures be fore may not have their strengths reduced; they
added to the mixture in the form of solutions may even be increased by the use of air entrain-
rather than solids. ment.
Generally, only small quantities of air-entrain-
3.8 - factors influencing amount of entrained air
ing admixtures are required to entrain the de-
sired amount of air. These are of the order of There are numer~us factors that 'can infl~~'ilC(::
0.05 percent of active ingredient by weight of the the amount of air entrained in concrete. The
cement. If the admixture is in the form of powder, amount of air-entraining admixture required to
flakes or semisolids, a proper solution must be obtain a given air content will vary widely de-
prepared prior to use, following the recommend a- pending on the particle shape a~rading O.Lihe ,~
ions of the manufacturer. "~gg~g1itgS.._.lt~~d. For example, concrete using
crushed fine aggregate may require up to twice as
If the manufacturer's recommended amounts of
much admixture as is needed when rounded nat-
an air-entraining admixture do not result in
ural sand is used. QIg£.n..LC,j!nJ)gEit~.~.s,,~,!?-,"jhe _~ggrg- .V---
the desired air content, it is necessary to adjust
g<.t~.~. may either increase or decrease the air-en-
the amount of admixture added. For any given
training admixture requirements depending on
set of conditions and materials, the amount of
the nature of the impurity. An _.Lll£I§.,!§~_9.LJ.be ~
air entrained is roughly proportional to the quan-
~~E,~12~~"~....~.~,~~.~.er will generally decrease the ef-
tity of agent used. However, in some cases a "ceil-
fectiveness of the air-entraining admixture.
ing" may be reached and it may be necessary
to change the type of air-entraining admixture As the cement content increases, the air-entrain-
or to achieve the desired result some other way ing potential of a glven"a'moun'f
of an admixture
(e.g., change the cement). will tend to diminish; an increase in cement fine-
ness will also result in a -d~"c~~~~~i~'th-~"~~~'~~t
v'Attention should be given to proper storage ~ir entrained. High-alkali cements generally
of air-entraining admixtures. The manufacturer's require smaller amounts of air-entraining admix-
storage recommendations should be followed. If tures to obtain a particular air content than do
they are not available, they should be requested low-alkali cements. Larger amounts of air-entrain-
from the manufacturer. Air-entraining admix- ing admixture are generally required in con-
tures are not usually damaged by freezing, but crete containing high-early-strength (Type III) 2~
the manufacturer's instructions should be fol- portland cement and portland-pozzolan cement
lowed regarding the effects of freezing on his pro- (Type IP) ,23
duct. After completion of tests, an admixture
stored at the point of manufacture for more than Increasing the amount of finely divided materi-
6 months prior to shipment, or an admixture in als in concrete by the use of fly ash or other
local storage in the hands of a vendor or con- pozzolans, carbon black, or bentonite usually
tractor for more than 6 months, should be decreases the amount of air entrained for a given
retested before use and rejectecf11it fails to con- amount of admixture. A given amount of an air-
form to any of the applicable requirements of entraining admixture generally produces slightly
ASTM C 260. 7 Further information is given in more air where calcium chloride is used as an
Chapter 2. accelerator. Similarly, the amount of air-entrain-
ing admixture required to produce a given air
content of concrete may be reduced one-third or
3.7 - Proportioning of _cor.!.ft~~ more when used with a water-reducing admix-
The proportioning of air-entrained concrete is ture. Various types of admixtures can influence
similar to that of non-air-entrained concrete. the air content and quality of the air-void system,
It is recommended that methods of proportion- and therefore, special care should be taken when
ing air-entrained concrete follow the procedures such admixtures are used in conjunction with
of ACI Committee 21Fl This procedure incor- air-entraining admixtures to assure that there is
porates the reduction in water and sand per- compatibility.
mitted by the improved workability of air- Air content generally increases with slump.
entrained concrete. Relatively wet mixtures may, however, have
a spacing factor that is larger, and therefore less
Air entrainment may reduce strength. However, desirable, than drier mixes. An increase in water-
when cement content and workability are main- cement ratio is likely to result in an increase in
tained constant, the reduction in strength is air content. Less air is entrained as the tempera-
partially or entirely offset by the resulting re- ture of the concrete increases.
ADMIXTURES FOR CONCRETE 212-11
The amount of air entrained varies with the metric method, ASTM C 173. 2R The most widely
type and condition of the mixer, the amount of usedisthepressure method, which however may
concrete being mixed, and the rate of mixing. The not be applicable to lightweight concretes. The
amount of air entrained by any given mixer will volumetric method is applicable to lightweight
decrease appreciably as the blades become worn, concretes. An adaptation of the volumetric method
or as the mixing action is impaired if hardened using the so-called Chace meter, in which a
mortar is allowed to accumulate in the drums and small sample of mortar from the concrete is
on the blades. If there is a significant departure used, is rapid and convenient, applicable to all
from the rated capacity of the mixer, there concretes, and useful to determine abrupt
may be decreases or increases in air content. changes in air content which may necessitate more
Adams and Kennedy 2 1 found for various mixers
0
accurate measurements.
and mixtures, in the laboratory, that air con- The above mentioned methods for determining
tent increased from a level of about 4 percent air content of freshly mixed concrete measure
to from 4 to 8 percent as the batch size was only air volume and not the air-void characteris-
increased from slightly under 40 percent to slight- tics. The air content, spacing factor, and other
ly over 100 percent of rated mixer capacity. The significant parameters of the air-void system in
amount of entrained air increases with mixing hardened concrete can only be determined micro-
time up to a point, beyond which it slowly scopically by methods such as the linear traverse
decreases. However, the air-void system, as char- modified point count procedures as described in
acterized by specific surface and spacing factor, ASTM C 457.~o Use of these methods in coordina-
is generally not harmed by prolonged agitation. tion with investigations of proportioning of con-
If more water is added to develop the desired crete for new projects provides greater assurance
slump, the air content should be checked since that concrete of satisfactory resistance to freez-
some adjustment may be required; addition of ing and thawing will be obtained. It has been
water without thorough or complete mixing may shown, however, that the air content of a con-
result in nonuniform distribution of air and water crete mixture is generally indicative of the ade-
within the batch. See the ACI 304 report for quacy of the air-void system when the air-entrain-
further details. 2G ing admixture used meets ASTM C 260}
The type and degree of consolidatiqp used in The properties of the concrete-making ma-
placing concrete can reduce the air content. For- terials, the proportioning of the concrete mixture,
tunately, indications are that the air loss as a and all aspects of mixing, handling, and placing
result of these manipulations consists of the should be maintained as constant as possible in
larger bubbles of entrapped air which contribute order that the air content will be uniform and
little if anything toward the beneficial influences
within the range specified for the work. This is
of entrained air.
important primarily because too much air detracts
unnecessarily from strength without a com-
3.9 - Control of conc.;.~~~. mensurate improvement in durability, whereas
To achieve the benefits of entrained air in a too little will fail to provide desired workability
consistent manner requires relatively close control and durability.
of the air content of the concrete. Tests for air
Proper inspection should insure that air-entrain-
content of freshly mixed concrete should be made
at regular intervals for routine control purposes ing admixtures conform to the appropriate speci-
during placing. Tests should also be made at any fica tions so far as can be determined in the
time there is reason to suspect a change in air field; that they arestored without contamination
content. or deterioration; th~t·they are ~~.c~~~.!~~ro?~!~0:ed
The significant air content is that present and that they are introduced into the concrete
in concrete-Triplace after consolidation .. Losses of
0
mixture as specified. Trouble has frequently
al'r:wllich occur due to handling and transportation occurred from failure to batch the admixture,
and to consolidation may not be reflected by either through operator error or equipment mal-
tests for air content of concrete taken at the mixer function. See Chapter 2 for further details. The
(see report of ACI Committee 309). Because of air content of the concrete should be checked and
this, air content often should be checked at the controlled during the course of the work in
point of discharge into the forms. accordance with the recommendations of ACI
V There are three standard ASTM methods for Committee 311 as reported in the ACI ManuaL oj
measuring the air content of fresh concrete: (1) Concrete Inspection. 80 Practices causing exces-
the gravimetricrn~!hod ASTM C 138;26 (2) the sive air loss should be corrected or compensating
pr~~~1:l£~~~~E.~d, ASTM C 231,27 and (3) the volu- additional air should be entrained initially.
212-12 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
air is specified, the air-entraining admixture The time at which the major early heat generated
should be added to the concrete mixture separate- by the hydration of the cement occurs may be
ly. Air-entraining admixtures may be used separ- changed (with retardation it occurs later; with
ately with all types of water:"reducing and set-con- acceleration it occurs earlier). This may modify
trolling admixtures. Air entrainment produced by slightly the temperature rise of the concrete
the water-reducing admixture should have an under job conditions.
acceptable effect on the concrete with respect to 5.4.2.7 Slump loss. Tests show that the
air-void characteristics as discussed in Chapter 3. slump loss of concrete containing these admix-
When lignosulfonates are used and air entrain- tures is usually slightly greater than for com-
ment is specified, the amount of air-entraining parable concrete without admixture. However,
admixture must be decreased. With salts of with equal water content, the higher slump ob-
hydroxylated carboxylic acids, the amount of tained by the use of these admixtures may
air-entraining admixture must also be reduced for allow a longer period between mixing and placing.
a given air content, although these materials do 5.4.3 Effects on hardened concrete
not normally entrain air when used alone. When 5.4.3.1 Strength. Types A and E admixtures
air entrainment is not desired or if the amount give increased concrete strength at all ages. Con-
of entrained air is excessive with admixtures cretes having equal cement contents, slump, and
containing lignosulfonates or other air producing air contents, which contain Types Band D ad-
materials, the air content of concrete may be mixtures and meet the setting time requirements
reduced by the use of an air-detraining admixture of ASTM C 494, will generally have compressive
such as tri-n-butyl phosphate, although any gross strengths at least equal to that of comparable
adjustment by this means may impair freezing- concrete without the admixture at early ages of
and-thawing resistance of the concrete by enlarge- about 16 or 18 to 48 hr. At 28 days, the com-
ment of the air voids, thereby producing an pressive strength may be increased from 15 to
undesirably high value of spacing factor at a 25 percent. At later ages the percentage strength
given air contenP6 increase is generally less. Type E admixture is
/ 5.4.2.4 Bleeding. Salts of hydroxylated car- formulated to be accelerating; therefore the
boxylic acids -cau~~an increase in the bleeding of strength increase occurs earlier. The strength in-
concrete. Lignosulfonates usually do not cause an crease with the water-reducing admixtures is
increase in bleeding, and commonly decrease greater than that expected from the reduction in
bleeding. Other classes of materials vary in their water-cement ratio; or, at the same water-cement
effect on bleeding. ratio, and cement content, concrete with the
5.4.2.5 Workability. Types A, D, and E ad- admixture is stronger than concrete without the
mixtures increase the slump of the concrete, if the admixture. Flexural strength is increased less than
water content of the mixture is held constant. At compressive strength.
the same slump, concrete containing water-reduc- 5.4.3.2 Shrinkage. There is much conflicting
ing admixtures usually has improved workability informa tion on the effect of these admixtures on
as judged by its placeability, less segregation, and the shrinkage of concrete. Some may increase or
improved response to vibration. When water-re- decrease shrinkage, depending on their chemical
ducing admixtures are used, a given change in composition and the characteristics of concreting
materials. Usually the difference is not great and
water content produces a greater change in slump
sometimes less than the testing errors. The
than for comparable concrete without the admix- method of test has a bearing on the results.
ture. The addition of a water-reducing admixture
5.4.3.3 Durability. The resistance of concrete
to mixed concrete at the job site to attempt to re- to freezing and thawing and to scaling is pri-
store lost workability (slump) is not recommended marily related to the characteristics of the air-
because of the absence of facilities for accurate void system as discussed in Chapter 3. Some
dosage and the improbability of achieving ade- improvement in resistance to freezing and thaw-
quately uniform distribution of the admixture ing beyond that due to entrained air results from
through the batch. water reduction and increased strength. A small
5.4.2.6 Heat of hydration and temperature increase in resistance to effects of aggressive
water or aggressive soils results from water re-
rise. Adiabatic temperature rise and heat of
dUction, decreased permeability, and increased
hydration of concrete are not reduced at the
strength.
same cement content when these classes of
5.4.3.4 Other properties. In general, modulus
admixtures are used. If the cement content of of elasticity and bond to reinforcing steel are im-
concrete is reduced, the heat liberated per unit proved and creep is decreased by these admix-
volume of concrete and the temperature rise are tures. This is considered to be due to water re-
reduced due to the reduction in cement content. duction and an increase in strength. An in-
dH::J6 . . MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
crease in abrasion resistance and a decrease in 5.5.3 Acceleration - Applications where the
permeability are also related to decrease in water acceleration of setting is important are dis-
content and an increase in strength. Some admix- cussed in Chapter 4.
tures may contain chlorides such as calcium
chloride. Consideration should be given to the po- 5.6 - Proportioning concrete mixtures
tential corrosive effect of such admixtures on em- Concrete mixtures containing admixtures which
bedded materials, particularly prestressed steel reduce water demand, entrain air, or otherwise
or aluminum (see Section 4.3.9), and to the lower cause a change in the yield of the mixture need
resistance of concrete containing chlorides to to be proportioned to take these factors into
the effects of sulfate soils or water. account. Procedures outlined in ACI 211.1-70 21
and ACI 211.2-69 37 should be followed. In general,
5.5 - Uses of water-reducing and set-controlling changes in water requirement, air content, or ce-
admixtures ment content may be compensated for by ap-
5.5.1 Water reduction - The following ap- propriate changes in fine aggregate content, keep-
plications of water reduction are important: ing the proportion of mortar to coarse aggregate
1. Economical proportioning of the concrete constant.
mixture, including the use of lower cement con-
tents for a given strength and lessening of 5.1 - Factors affecting performance
problems associated with aggregates that due The specific effect of water-reducing and set-
to poor gradation or other reasons cause high wa- controlling-retarding admixtures varies with the
ter requirement coml?~§i!tQll.gL.Eement, water-cement. r~.!io, tem-
2. Reduction of temperature rise in larger or per~t~r~. ofJh~~on-crete,'·ainbie·nt ... te~peratu~es,
massive concrete sections because of lower cement type ~f ad~ixture, amoul1:t <?~'<O\clriiJ~,iYi~Q§§d, a;d
content otb:etIactOfS~or-J 0 b~~cori9.iti9ns. .
3. Meeting requirements of job specifications Different sources and types of cement or dif-
such as maximum permissible water-cement ratio ferent lots of cement from the same source,
and early development of strength and modulus because of variations in chemical composition,
of elasticity, as in the production of prestressed or fineness, or both, may require different
concrete amounts of the admixture to obtain the desired
4. Improvement of the quality of fresh concrete results. The effectiveness of the admixture
as a result of improved workability, reduced seems to be related primarily to the amount of
water content for a given consistency, or increased tricalcium aluminate (C 3 A) and the alkali (Na20
slump at constant or reduced water content. This and K 20) content. 38 The sulfur trioxide (SOs)
is particularly desirable for concrete which is to content also may have a marked influence on
be placed in heavily reinforced sections, under wa- the effect of the admixture on the time of
ter, or by pumping. Increased rate of slump loss setting of the concrete. 39 -41 Low S03 may
may reduce this advantage produce greater or excessive retardation. Early
5.5.2 Retardation - The following applications stiffening has been observed in a few cases.
of retardation of setting are important: In general, the quantity of water-reducing ad-
mixture required to produce the desired results
1. Compensation for adverse ambient tempera- will vary less with changes in cement com-
ture conditions particularly in hot weather. Ex- position or other mixture conditions than is true
tensive use is made of retarding admixtures to for the set-controlling admixtures. These latter
permit proper placement and finishing and to types are intended to delay or accelerate the set
overcome damaging and accelerating effects of of the concrete for a predetermined period at a
high temperatures given temperature. Slight changes from this tem-
2. Control of setting of large structural units perature do not require a change in addition
to keep concrete workable throughout the entire rate, but if either the temperature of the con-
placing period. This is particularly important for crete or the ambient temperature varies more
the elimination of cold joints and discontinuities than 10 F (6 C) from that anticipated, a change
in large structural units. Also control of setting in addition rate is generally desirable to main-
may prevent cracking of concrete beams, bridge tain the desired retardation. The higher the
decks, and composite construction due to form temperature, the more admixture that will be
deflection or movement associated with placing required to produce a given degree of retardation
of adjacent units. Adjustment of the dosage as and the less required for a given degree of ac-
placement proceeds can permit various portions celeration.
of a unit, a large post-tensioned beam for ex- The effectiveness of the water-reducing admix-
ample, to attain a given level of early strength tures varies with the water-cement ratio of the
at approximately the same time mixture. Data show that increased slump can be
ADMIXTURES FOR CONCRETE 212-17
achieved with less increase in water content determine the effect of the admixture on the
when a water-reducing admixture is used than properties of the concrete under the conditions
would be required otherwise. 42 of use, particularly with respect to temperature.
The addition of these materials to the mixture The time of setting should be determined
in liquid form is highly desirable to obtain a in strict accordance with ASTM C 403,15 in order
more uniform distribution throughout the con- to insure reproducibility of results.
crete mass within the time allotted to adequately The specification limits given in ASTM C 494
and properly mix the concrete. Care should also take into account the variation of test data, which
be taken when using liquid admixtures to avoid is greater when comparing concretes than when
adding them directly to the cement or to dry, no comparison is required, as is the case of usual
absorptive aggregate. A fixed procedure for the specifications. 4G The lower levels required for
method and time of ba tching the admixture properties of the concretes with admixtures are
should be followed for each job. See Chapter 2 designed to insure equal performance between
for procedures to be followed in mixing and the concretes under test, recognizing the inescap-
batching admixtures. able statistical variation.
The time of addition of a retarding admixture
has a marked effect on the results obtained. 43 ,44 5.9 - Storage of admixtures
A delay of lJz to 2 min in adding the admixture Powdered admixtures generally have an in-
after all other materials are batched and mixing definite shelf life if stored dry and at suitable
has started will often result in greater increase temperatures. Liquid admixtures may freeze or
in slump and retardation than normally ex- precipitate at low temperatures. Freezing may
pected. permanently damage some liquid admixtures.
Other liquid admixtures may be frozen and
5.8 - Testing methods and specifications thawed without damage. The manufacturer's stor-
The testing of water-reducing and set-control- age directions should be followed.
ling admixtures should be conducted on con-
cretes prepared both with and without the ad- 5.10 - Quality control
mixture to be evaluated. The admixture should The most practical means of insuring quality
be added in the manner recommended by the would be based upon index tests which, although
manufacturer and in the amount necessary to not specific or definitive, can be used to control
comply with the appropriate requirements of the uniformity of the product. Suggested tests for this
job specifications. The tests should be made in ac- purpose are as follows:
cordance with ASTM C 4945 and the admixtures 1. Observation of physical nature
should meet the requirements of ASTM C 494. In 2. Determination of moisture content of solid
this evaluation, the concrete mixtures being com- products
pared are required to have slumps of 2% ± lJz in. 3. Determination of pH of standard solutions
(63 ± 12 mm), and their air contents must not 4. Determination of specific gravity or solids
content of liquid admixtures
differ more than 0.5 percent.
5. Analysis for specific ingredients such as per-
When an admixture is being evaluated for a centage chlorides, carbohydrates or other com-
given job the materials to be used in that job pounds of a special interest
should be used in the trial mixture program. The 6. Infrared or ultraviolet spectroscopy to identi-
trial mixture program should be designed to fy active constituents
6.1 - Types of finely divided material 6.1.2 Cementitious materials - The cementitious
6.1.1 Relatively chemically inert materials materials include natural cements, hydraulic
This class includes such materials as ground limes, slag cements (mixtures of blast-furnace
quartz, ground limestone, bentonite, hydrated slag and lime), and granulated iron blast-furnance
lime, and talc. slag.
212-18-
_______ ---0-- MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
6.1.3 Pozzolans - Pozzolan is defined in ASTM tures to reduce unit weight while maintain-
C 219 47 as "a siliceous or siliceous::l.l1.dqlll!J].inous ing workability.
YIla~eI'i~l, ... V!hi~h-jp____its~if--p~s-;~;~~s ~ttle .. O[Il?. Concrete is sometimes proportioned with finely
cemenfiholls value but will,. in finely divided divided mineral admixtures for the purpose of pro-
formandi~the presence of moisture,clieihicalfy ducing concrete that can be pumped through
react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary tem- small diameter lines. Such concrete must not
peratlJrestQjorrp . compounds possessingcemenr~ bleed readily and should remain homogeneous
ifiousproper!.i~~.'; ~ ~alll~ glass, ~~_ or plastic during its passage through the pump
tomaceous ~artl:g;, and some shales or clays, either and the conveying pipe or hose line. The use
-heat-treated or raw, are examples of pozzolanic of a sufficient quantity of suitable finely divided
materials. mineral admixture can increase the proportional
volume of the matrix even though the water con-
tent is reduced, thereby increasing the capacity
6.2 - Effect on properties of the concrete
of the concrete for plastic deformation and re-
6.2.1 Freshly mixed concrete - Where the ducing the rate and amount of bleeding. A dis-
available concrete aggregates are deficient in cussion of these relationships is given on pp.
the finer particle sizes, particularly material 1507-1508 of the 1963 reports and also by Powers. 50
passing the No. 200 sieve, the use of a finely The optimum proportion of a finely divided
divided mineral admixture can reduce bleeding mineral admixture to be used in a given con-
and segregation and increase the strength of crete will depend on several factors, including the
concrete by supplying those fines missing from grading and particle shape of the fine aggregate,
the aggregate. 3 When an appropriate proportion characteristics of the mineral admixture, and the
of a finely divided mineral admixture is used, effects that are to be produced. 49 Care should
no increase in water content of the concrete is be taken in selection of a finely divided mineral
required. A favorable particle shape and a satis- admixture to improve pumpability or workability
factory fineness of the pozzolan are necessary so that improvement in the properties of the
qualities if a low water content is to be achieved. fresh concrete is not secured at the cost of
For example, coarse pozzolan of poor particle reduced quality of the hardened concrete. 51
shape, such as volcanic glasses, may require an
6.2.2 Effect on strength - The effect of a min-
increase in water content of the concrete for
eral admixture on the strength of concrete
given slump, and may thereby contribute to
varies markedly with the properties of the
excessive bleeding and segregation of the fresh
particular admixture and with the character-
concrete. 48
istics of the concrete mixture in which it is used.
Addition of a finely divided mineral admixture For example, relatively chemically inert materials
to concrete mixtures not deficient in fines, partic- generally increase the strength of lean mixtures
ularly mixtures rich in portland cement, usually and decrease the strength of rich mixtures.
decreases workability for given water content. On the other hand, cementitious materials and
For that reason, the addition of finely divided pozzolans contribute to strength not only be-
mineral admixtures to such concrete without a cause of their physical character but also by
reduction in cement content often entails an reason of their chemical composition.
increase in the total water content of the concrete, For satisfactory results and for proper concrete
and may result in an increase in drying shrinkage proportioning it is important to know the use to
and absorptivity and a decrease in strength. which the concrete will be put, the probable
Finely divided mineral admixtures should not conditions at the time of placement, and the
be added to an existing concrete mixture without nature of the admixture proposed for use. For
accomodating the characteristics of the admix- example, when fly ash is used as part of the
ture itself and its effects.49 Fineness, water re- total cementitious materials, curing time to attain
quirement, specific gravity, effect on air entrain- equal strength with concrete containing an equal
ment, and concrete yield are some of the factors amount of portland cement alone should be
to be considered. In general, the higher the longer.'"i2 To obtain approximately equal com-
specific surface of the admixture, the smaller pressive strengths at early ages between 3 and
the proportion required to produce a given effect 28 days, concrete mixtures made with fly ash
on workability. Proportioning concrete with a must have a total weight of portland cement and
finely divided mineral admixture is discussed fly ash greater than the weight of the cement
below. used in the comparable concrete not containing
Finely divided mineral admixtures having a fly ash. The latter mixture will, however, con-
specific gravity less than that of normal-weight tain from % to 1 bag more cement per cubic yard
fine aggregate are sometimes used in lieu of of concrete":]·Gl (1 bag per cu yd = 94 Ib per cu
such fine aggregate in lightweight concrete mix- yd = 55.7 kg per m3).
ADMIXTURES FOR CONCRETE
6.2.3 Effect on sulfate resistance - Use of poz- been under investigation,72 and results to date are
zolanic admixtures with portland cement in con- inconclusive but not encouraging.
crete generally increases resistance to aggressive 6.2.6 Effect on freezing and thawing resistance
attack by seawater, sulfate bearing soil solutions, of concrete - Of the finely divided mineral ad-
and natural acid waters. 55-57 The relative im- mixtures, fly ash and other pozzolans have re-
provemen t is greater for concrete of low cement ceived the most attention regarding their effect
content. The use of a pozzolan with sulfate-re- on freezing and thawing resistance of concrete.
sisting portland cements may not increase sul- The effect of fly ash and other pozzolans on re-
fate resistance 58 ,59 and, if chemically active alum- sistance of concrete to freezing and thawing and to
inum compounds are present in the pozzolan, a the action of deicing chemicals during freezing
reduction in sulfate resistance of the concrete depends on the proportioning of the concrete, the
may result. 60 Dikeou61 reports greatly increased strength of the concrete, moisture condition of the
sulfa te resistance of concrete containing fly ash concrete, and adequacy of air entrainment at the
regardless of the type of cemen t used. The time of exposureY Concrete containing fly ash
effectiveness of fly ash in improving the sulfate displays the same durability characteristics as
resistance of concrete increases as the severity does concrete not containing fly ash provided that:
of exposure to sulfates is increased, (a) both mixtures are equally air-entrained and
6.2.4 Effect on temperature rise - At a given (b) both mixtures are equal in compressive
cement content, the use of chemically inert ma- strength. 68 -71
terials has little or no effect on the temperature Generally, the use of a finely divided mineral
rise of concrete in place. Although cementitious admixture requires a higher proportion of air-en-
admixtures and, in the presence of lime and training admixture to produce a given air con-
alkalies, pozzolans produce a heat of hydration tent than that required by a comparable concrete
that is less than that of portland cement, the not containing a finely divided mineral admixture.
temperature rise of concrete can be increased if
The proportion of air-entraining admixture re-
these admixtures are used in sufficient quanti- quired may vary considerably among different
ty.62 However, it is well established that in sources and types of finely divided mineral
mass concrete of very low cement content, the
admixtures.
temperature rise of concrete containing cementi-
tious or pozzolanic admixtures is generally less 6.2.7 Effect on permeability - Most work
than that of a comparable concrete contain- on permeability of concrete containing finely di-
ing portland cement as the only cementing ma- vided mineral admixtures has been accomplished
terial. with pozzolans. Certain pozzolans are more ef-
6.2.5 Effect on expansion caused by alkali- fective than others in reducing permeability of
silica reaction - It has been reported 63 ,64 concrete at early ages. However, under most
that almost any pozzolan when used in suf- conditions of service, the permeability of concrete
ficient quantity is capable of preventing exces- containing any pozzolan is markedly reduced at
sive expansion resulting from the alkali-silica later ages. Davis 73 concluded that in mass con-
reaction. However, the use of too small a propor- crete the moderate to high replacement of port-
tion of pozzolan may actually increase detrimental land cement by a suitable pozzolan results in a
effects of the alkali-silica reaction. 65 The following degree of watertightness not otherwise obtain-
percentages of replacement of cement by finely able. Other investigators 52 have reported that
divided mineral admixtures (by solid volume) proper use of fly ash as an admixture can reduce
have been reported 63 to afford protection against permeability to one-sixth to one-seventh that of
excessive expansion caused by this reaction: equivalent concrete containing no fly ash. Part
of the action of pozzolans in reducing permeability
a. Calcined shales: 19-29 percent
of concrete can be attributed to decreased segrega-
b. Volcanic glasses: 32-36 percent
tion and bleeding and to any reduction of water
c. Ground blast-furnace slag and fly ash: 39-45
requirement.
percent
The reaction between cement and sand-gravel
aggregate, which is widespread in the Great 6.3 - Application in construction
Plains area of the continental United States, ap- Finely divided mineral admixtures may be used
pears to be associated with the alkali-silica re- in virtually every type of concrete. These ma-
action. The evaluation of long-time performance terials are generally used for one or more of
of test pavements indicates that pozzolans can be the following purposes:
beneficial in reducing or eliminating map cracking a. To correct a deficiency in the concrete, for
and expansion resulting from this reaction. 66 example, to provide "fines" missing from the
The use of pozzolans to reduce expansion caused fine aggregate so as to avoid problems of work-
by alkali-carbonate rock reaction in concrete has ability and finishing;
212-20 . MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
b. To improve one or more qualities of the con- mixture may interact with hydration products
crete, such as to increase the sulfate resistance, of the portland cement to produce compounds
to reduce expansion due to alkali-silica reaction, having cementitious value. Some finely divided
to reduce permeability, or to decrease heat gen- mineral admixtures may reduce water require-
eration; and ment and also produce cementitious action.
c. Economy. The effect of the finely divided mineral ad-
These admixtures are used in mass concrete, mixture on other essential qualities of concrete
structural concrete, pavements, and other slabs should be evaluated. Some of these admixtures
on grade. The major emphasis has been on the may be helpful in reducing the heat of hydration,
following types of construction: dams, navigation providing resistance to aggressive chemicals, or
locks, canal linings, tunnels, sewage works, water- otherwise. Conversely, any detrimental side ef-
works, high-rise residential and commercial struc- fects should be considered. Uniformity of the ad-
tures, and residential concrete including side- mixture from lot to lot and within shipments
walks, driveways, and parking areas. On the may be a critical factor influencing choice among
other hand, little use of finely divided mineral alternative products inasmuch as appreciable vari-
admixtures is found in highway concrete, although tion in this respect will introduce problems in
many experimental pavements contain finely control of uniformity of the concrete.
divided mineral admixtures. For example, pozzo-
lans are not widely used in portland cement 6.5 - Control of purchasing and supply
concrete for pavement construction in the United When a finely divided mineral admixture in re-
States of America except in Alabama, where quired or permitted, the specifications for the
fly ash is specified regularly as a pozzolanic ad- work should include purchase specifications for
mixture. The state of Georgia now permits use such admixture. Recognized standard specifica-
of fly ash as an admixture for pavement con- tions include the following:
crete. 74, 75
a. Natural cement - ASTM C 1076 and Federal
Finely divided mineral admixtures are used
Specification SS-C-185a 77
extensively in several specialized construction and
b. Hydraulic lime - ASTM C 14F8
maintenance applications that involve the pump-
c. Slag cement - ASTM C 358 23 and Federal
ing of concrete, mortars, and grouts. These
Specification SS-C-218a79
applications include grouting of ducts for post-
d. Fly ash and raw or calcined natural poz-
tensioning tendons, oil well cementing, and pre-
zolan - ASTM C 618 10 and Federal Specification
placed-aggregate concrete construction.
SS-P-570b 12
6.4 - Evaluation and selection Access to the source of the finely divided
mineral admixture should be provided to the
The decision to use a finely divided mineral
purchaser for sampling purposes.
admixture from a specific source should be
based upon an objective determination of the
6.6 - Storage, handling, and batching
effect of alternative products upon the properties
and economy of concrete for proposed types Finely divided mineral admixtures must be
of construction. The earlier report of ACI Com- stored in weathertight buildings, bins, or silos
mittee 2123 provides helpful information in this to provide protection from dampness and con-
regard. Some finely divided mineral admixtures tamination and to minimize lumping and ware-
are available at reasonable cost only in certain house set. 80 Since the appearance (color and
geographical areas. The user should determine fineness) of finely divided mineral admixtures
which of the finely divided mineral admixtures is quite often very similar to that of portland
that may satisfy his needs is economically avail- cement, storage and handling equipment should
able at the job location. be clearly marked. If compartmented bins are
The cost of the concrete made with each used for storage of bulk hydraulic cement and
finely divided mineral admixture under consider- finely divided mineral admixture, precaution
ation should be established. Certain of these should be taken to assure that no leakage is pos-
admixtures may add appreciably to the cost of sible from one compartment to the other. Further-
the concrete by reason of increased water demand more, compartmented bins should be inspected
and consequent need for additional portland ce- frequently to make certain that no leaks develop.
ment to satisfy specification requirements on Finely divided mineral admixtures can be
water-cement ratio, strength, or other properties. handled by the same sort or types of equipment
On the other hand, some finely divided mineral used for conveying and transporting portland
admixtures are expected to reduce water re- cement. These include air conveyors, screw con-
quirement or to provide cementitious qualities veyors, bucket elevators, belts, and pneumatic
themselves. In the case of pozzolans, the ad- pumps. Some finely divided mineral admixtures,
ADMIXTURES FOR CONCRETE 212-21
such as fly ash, have a rounded particle shape be safely ignored. However, when finely divided
and consequently are extremely fluid when aer- mineral admixtures are used in significant pro-
ated. Because of this "flowability" of certain portions, as is customary with pozzolans and
admixtures the feed of material from bin to cementitious materials, their solid volume must
weigh batcher may not be satisfactorily con- be taken into account in proportioning calcula-
trolled by stopping and starting a transporting tions. Since finely divided mineral admixtures are
screw conveyor. In such cases it may be advisable usually as fine or finer than portland cement, they
to install a valve or feeder at the bin outlet to should usually be regarded as a part of the
prevent the flow of material around the flight cement paste matrix in determining the percent-
channel of the screw conveyor. The good operating ages of fine and coarse aggregate.
practices normally associated with cement han- The effect of the proposed admixture on
dling, such as the cleaning out of screws, the mixing water requirement should also be
pipelines, and elevator pits after each day's known. Some finely divided mineral admixtures
run, should be observed also with equipment cause a major increase in water requirement,
handling finely divided mineral admixtures. other admixtures of this type have little or no
Batching of finely divided mineral admixtures effect on water requirement, whereas certain
must be by weight and in accordance with the finely divided mineral admixtures typically re-
requirements of ACI 614. 81 When finely divided duce the water requirement of concrete in which
mineral admixtures are used in bulk, a weighing they are used. In general, relatively chemically
sequence of cement first and admixture second inert finely divided mineral admixtures have
is recommended. This procedure should be re- no direct effect on the required amount of
quired when cement and finely divided mineral portland cement in the concrete mixture other
admixtures are weighed cumulatively on the than the fact that they may increase or decrease
same scale beam. Automatically controlled batch- the total water requirement of the concrete,
ing with appropriate interlocks to prevent dupli- thereby making necessary an adjustment in
cation or omission is also desirable. the cement content. Cementitious admixtures and
Finely divided mineral admixtures should be in- pozzolans on the other hand not only affect the
troduced into the mixer with the cement and water requirement of the concrete and thereby
other components of the concrete mixture. In the cement content but, because of their proper-
this way, uniform quality and composition ties, they are often considered as a part of the
throughout the batch are assured. Finely divided cementing materia1. 83 They are usually used
mineral admixtures should not be charged into in the range 15 to 35 percent by weight of the
a wet mixer ahead of the other materials because total cementitious medium of the concrete, de-
of the tendency of the admixture to stick to the pending on the purpose for which the concrete
sides of the mixer and to the blades or fins. is to be employed and the specifications for
Likewise, finely divided mineral admixtures the work. 53
should not be introduced into the mixer along Relatively chemically inert finely divided min-
with the mixing water because of their tendency eral admixtures are sometimes used in concrete
to ball and lump under such conditions. If the to make up for a deficiency of fines in the fine
finely divided mineral admixture is introduced in- aggregate. In such an application, the admixture
to the mixer after the other concrete materials, is considered to be a part of the fine aggregate
and after those materials have received some fraction and its presence should have no effect
degree of mixing, it is doubtful that the admix- on the cement content unless the mixing water
ture will ever be uniformly distributed through- requirement is changed.
out the mass. This is especially so in transit- As is true also for concrete mixtures that
mixed concrete. do not contain an admixture, trial mixtures
should be prepared and tested to validate the
6.1 - Proportioning of the concrete calculated proportioning of concrete containing
Proportioning techniques involving the use of finely divided admixtures.
a finely divided mineral admixture are basically
not different from those used in proportioning 6.8 - Control of the concrete
concrete that does not include such an admixture. Concrete containing a mineral admixture should
Methods for selecting proportions for concrete be measured, mixed, and placed in accordance
mixtures are given in the work of ACI Com- with ACI 614. 81 In charging of the mixer, care
mittee 21l,21 Specific procedures for proportioning should be taken to avoid loss of the admixture,
mixtures containing fly ash have been developed since some materials of this type are of very high
by Lovewell and Washa 53 and by Cannon. 82 surface area and may be of low specific gravity
Some finely divided mineral admixtures are used so as to be especially likely to be blown away.
in such small quantities that their volume can Mixing time to achieve uniformity of composition
MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
of the concrete may differ from that of equiva- cylinders, made in accordance with ASTM C 318 8
lent concrete not containing the mineral admix- and ASTM C 39, provide an evaluation of the qual-
ture; the minimum mixing time required should ity and uniformity of the concrete as a material,
be determined by testing of the concrete for uni- but not a measure of the properties and uniform-
formity using procedures such as those described ity of the concrete in place in the. construction.
in Section 9 of ASTM C 94-69 84 and Section 10 Information on setting time and strength gain
of ACI 614. 81 of concrete in place or in precast units can be
Variation in physical or chemical properties secured by testing of specimens cured under
of the admixture, even though within the tolerance conditions simulating those affecting the work,
of usual specifications, may cause appreciable such as low ambient temperatures or steam
variation in properties of the concrete, such curing.
as change of water content for given consistency Adequate control of concrete, with or without
and of the requirement for air-entraining admix- a mineral admixture, requires a consistent pro-
ture for given air content. These variations com- gram of inspection, such as that described
monly are reflected in change of time of setting, in ACI 31I.89 Properly executed inspection with
early strength development, and color of the con- cooperation between the owner and his repre-
crete in place. sentatives and the contractor will give assurance
that the concrete will be more uniform and will
Such circumstances can be minimized by ap-
more consistently meet the requirements of
propriate testing of shipments of the admixture
before use of the successive lots in concrete. the work, and any problems that may arise will
For example, to accommodate a highly variable be less likely to proceed to a critical stage
fly ash, at a particular project, sampling of before they are rectified.
Concrete containing a finely divided admixture
each carload and testing for loss on ignition,
in such proportion as to substantially reduce ce-
fineness, and air entrainment in mortar was
ment content and increase water-cement ratio,
required. 8 " These data permitted estimation of
may show retarded setting and unusually slow
the proportion of air-entraining admixture that
development of strength at low ambient tem-
would be required to achieve the specified air
peratures unless the concrete-making materials
content of the concrete supplied to the work.
are heated and the concrete in place is protected
Control of color is of increasing significance from undue cooling, in accordance with stipula-
for concrete that will be exposed to public tions of the ACI 306 standard. 31 Such problems
view; contribution of a finely divided mineral ad- are less likely to be significant in mass concrete
mixture to such variation can be minimized by where retardation usually is tolerable and may be
using in given construction an admixture from one desirable, but in structural concrete and in pave-
source only and successive lots may be compared ments, floors, and slabs on grade requiring
against an approved standard. Procedures for such finishing in accordance with a rapid rate of
con trcil are discussed by Hyland. 86 construction, the circumstances may dictate a
The quality and uniformity of concrete con- reproportioning of the concrete mixture, use
taining a finely divided mineral admixture can of high-early-strength cement as the portland
be monitored by use of strength tests of con- cement component, or addition of an accelerating
crete delivered to the work. Procedures described chemical admixture, preferably with heating of
in ACI 21487 apply. Standard tests of control the concrete-making materials.
lease depends on many conditions, including clays may be used to reduce slurry weights and
composition of the cement and temperature, materials such as barite and iron filings used
water-cement ratio, fineness and particle shape to increase the weight.D2 Thickeners, such as
of aluminum powder, and the effectiveness of the natural gums, may be added to prevent settle-
treatment is controlled by the duration of mixing, ment of heavy constituents of the grout. Special
handling and placing operations relative to the applications may find other admixtures such as
speed of gas generation. The addition rate may accelerators and gas-forming materials as de-
vary from 0.005 to 0.02 percent by weight of ce- scribed in other sections to be suitable. Since some
ment under normal conditions although larger special cements, particularly those used for
quantities may be used to produce low strength cementing oil wells, may contain an agent
cellular concrete. Approximately twice as much or agents of the type described, tests should be
aluminum is required at 40 F (4 C) as at 70 F conducted to determine compatibility of any
(21 C) to produce the same amount of expansion. admixture with the cement to be used.
Because of the very small quantities of alumi-
num powder generally used (about 1 teaspoonful 7.2.3 Effect - Retarders may be used to
per bag of cement), and because it has a tendency keep a grout fluid at temperatures up to
to float on the mixing water, it is generally pre- 400 F (200 C) and pressures as high as 18,000 psi
mixed with fine sand, cement, or pozzolan, or (127 kgf/cm2) for one or more hours. Since this
incorporated in commercially available admix- is a highly specialized field requiring properties
tures having water-reducing, set-retarding effects. not encountered with ordinary concreting opera-
tions, tests must be made to determine the
7.1.3 Effect - The release of gas, when pro- addition rates of the admixtures required to
perly controlled, causes a slight expansion of develop the desired properties.
freshly mixed concrete. When such expansion is
restrained there will be an increase in bond to 7.3 - Expansion-producing admixtures
horizon tal reinforcing steel wi thou t excessive
7.3.1 Introduction - Admixtures, which dur-
reduction in strength. Too much gas producing
material may produce large voids seriously weak- ing the hydration period of the concrete expand
ening the matrix. The effect on strength depends themselves or react with other constituents of
to a considerable extent on the degree to the concrete to cause expansion, are used to
minimize the effects of drying shrinkage. They
which the tendency of the mixture to expand is
are used in both restrained and unrestrained
restrained. It is therefore important that confining concrete placement.
forms be tight and adequately closed. Gas form-
7.3.2 Materials - The most common admixture
ing agents will not overcome shrinkage after
for this purpose is finely divided or granulated
hardening caused by drying or carbonation. In iron, and chemicals to promote oxidation of the
cold weather it may be necessary to speed up iron. The use of admixtures for this purpose
the rate of gas generation by the addition of is generally limited to relatively small projects
alkaline materials such as sodium hydroxide, where varying degrees of expansion are desired.
hydrated lime, or trisodium phosphate. This may Expansive cements are used on large projects
be done to ensure sufficient gas generation before where a predetermined uniform degree of expan-
the mixture has set. sion is required. 93 For additional information re-
garding these cements refer to the report of ACI
Committee 223. 2
7.2 - Crouting admixtures
7.2.1 Introduction - Many admixtures used 7.3.3 Effect - The controlled expansion pro-
duced by those materials may be of about the
for specific purposes in concrete as well as ma-
same magnitude as the drying shrinkage ex-
terials to impart special properties in a grout have
pected at later ages or it may be greater. For
been suggested as grouting admixtures. Such
a given application, the extent of expansion and
grouts are used primarily in cementing oil wells
the time interval during which it takes place are
where high temperatures and pressures may be
very important and must be under control for
encountered and pumping distances are consider-
the most satisfactory results. For unrestrained
able.
concrete, the expansion must not take place be-
7.2.2 Materials - Retarders, as described in fore the concrete gains sufficient strength to be
Chapter 5, are useful in delaying set. Materials stressed in tension rather than disrupted by the
such as gels, clays, pregelatinized starch, and expanding forces. For restrained applications, the
methyl cellulose have been suggested to prevent concrete must be strong enough to withstand
the rapid loss of water from the grout.92 Bentonite the compressive stresses developed. It is
212-24 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
reported that restraint in only one direction is and dust. Bonding materials are particularly
required94 to achieve some degree of compres- adaptable for use in patching operations where
sion in the other two orthogonal directions. feathered edges are desired. A thin application
of grout or mortar containing the bonding admix-
ture develops a higher bond strength than a thick
7.4 - Bonding admixtures
application. When properly applied and cured,
7.4.1 Introduction - Admixtures specifically such a bond is often stronger than the materials
formulated for use in portland cement mixtures that are being joined.
to enhance bonding properties generally consist
of an organic polymer emulsion. 9 :;.101 Usually
they increase the air con ten t of the mixture in 7.5 - Coloring admixtures
which they are used. 7.5.1 Introduction - Pigments specifically pre-
7.4.2 Materials - Since the products of port- pared for use in concrete and mortar are
land cement hydration are alkaline in nature and available both as natural and synthetic ma-
contain calcium ions, the bonding emulsion must terials. They are formulated to produce adequate
be so formulated as to be stable under these color without materially affecting the desirable
environmental conditions. Some emulsion sys- physical properties of the mixture.
tems are unstable in acid environments, some 7.5.2 Materials - The pigments listed below
in alkaline environments, and some in the pre- may be used to obtain a variety of colors.
sence of calcium ions. An unstable emulsion will
coagulate in the mixture rendering it unsuitable
for use. In general, emulsions of synthetic ma- Shades of color Pigment
terials are more universally stable than those Grays to black Black iron oxide
made of natural rubbers. Mineral black
7.4.3 Function - When used as admixtures in Carbon black
quantities normally recommended by the manu- Blue Ultramarine blue
facturers, 5 to 20 percent by weight of the cement, Phthalocyanine blue
bonding materials cause the fresh concrete to be Bright red to deep red Red iron oxide
sticky. This is partially due to air-entrainment and
Brown Brown iron oxide
partially to the inherent nature of the admixture. Raw and burnt umber
Water is necessary to hydrate the portland ce-
Ivory, cream, or buff Yellow iron oxide
ment of the cement-polymer system but the poly-
mer component becomes effective only when the Green Chromium oxide
emulsion is broken through a drying out process. Phthalocyanine green
The polymer emulsion carries a considerable White Titanium dioxide
quantity of water into the mixture, the water be-
ing released to the cement during the hydration
process. At the same time, this release of water 7.5.3 Effect - The addition rate of any pigment
sets the emulsion. Hence, moist curing is not normally should not exceed 10 percent by weight
only unnecessary but undesirable since the emul- of the cemenU0 3 ,104 Natural pigments, usually
sion will not have an opportunity to dry and not ground as fine and often not as pure as syn-
develop the desired strength. thetic materials, generally do not produce as in-
The compressive strength of grouts, mor- tense a color per unit of addition.
tars, and concrete made with these materials Addition rates below 6 percent generally have
may be greater or less than that of non-admix-
little or no effect on the physical properties of the
tured mixtures of the same cement content which
fresh or hardened concrete. Larger quantities
are moist cured, depending on the material used. 102
However, the increase in bond and flexural may increase the water requirement of the mix-
strength far outweighs the possible disadvan- ture to such an extent that the strength and
tage of compressive-strength reduction. other properties such as abrasion resistance may
7.4.4 Limitations - Some types of polymers be adversely affected.
will soften in the presence of water, and these The addition of a nonmodified carbon black will
types should not be used in areas that will be increase considerably the rate of use of an air-
in contact with water. The ultimate result entraining admixture necessary to provide air con-
obtained with a bonding admixture is only as tent sufficient for proper resistance of the con-
good as the surface to which the mixture is crete to freezing and thawing,l°5 Most carbon
applied. The surface must be clean, sound, and blacks available for coloring concrete do, however,
free from foreign matter such as paint, grease, contain air-entraining materials in sufficient quan-
ADMIXTURES FOR CONCRETE 212-25
tity to offset the inhibiting effect of the carbon 7.8 - Dampproofing admixtures
black. 7.8.1 Introduction - Some concrete dams, re-
7.5.4 General requirements - Suitable color- taining walls, tanks, and other structures show
ing admixtures should meet the following re- evidence of leakage. Usually, such leakage is the
quirements: result of faulty production and placement of
1. Color fastness to sunlight concrete, or it is due to cracks in the structure.
2. Chemical stability in the presence of alka- When properly proportioned concrete mixtures
linity produced by the cement reaction are used and placed with high-class workmanship
3. Color stability when exposed to autoclaving under qualified inspection, the concrete in a
4. No adverse effects on the setting time or structure should be virtually impermeable, al-
strength development of the concrete though leakage may still occur through cracks.
Information regarding the properties of pig- The term "dampproofing" implies prevention
ments related to the first three items may be of water penetration of dry concrete, or stoppage
found by referring to Payne. 106 Some pigments of transmission of water through unsaturated
offered for coloring concrete are less effective concrete. However, admixtures have not been
than others. It is difficult to get strong blue or found to produce such effects; the term has
green colors. Efflorescence often causes condi- come to mean a reduction in rate of penetration
tions which are mistaken for fading. ASTM is of water into dry concrete, or in rate of trans-
currently developing specifications for pigments mISSIOn of water through unsaturated con-
for coloring concrete. crete from the damp side to the dryer side.
An admixture described as a dampproofer may
7.6 - Flocculating admixtures have some such beneficial effect on the proper-
The addition of certain chemical admixtures to ties of fresh concrete not directly indicated by
cement paste, mortar, or concrete, has the ability the name. For example, it may promote entrain-
to alter some of the properties of the freshly ment of air and thus may properly be con-
mixed material. Synthetic polyelectrolytes have sidered an air-entraining admixture. This section
been used as flocculating admixtures. The pub- deals with those aspects directly implied by the
lished reportsl07.l08 indicate that these ma- term dampproofing. This implies an effect on the
terials increase the bleeding rate, decrease the properties of hardened concrete, apart from what-
bleeding capacity, reduce flow, increase cohesive- ever effect the admixture might have on freshly
ness, and increase green strength. mixed concrete. This discussion therefore deals
with the possible effects of such agents on the
7.7 - Fungicidal, germicidal, and insecticidal ad- properties of hardened concrete.
mixtures
7.8.2 Materials - Admixtures for dampproof-
7.7.1 Introduction - Certain materials have ing include soaps, butyl stearate, and certain
been suggested as admixtures for concrete petroleum products. 114-119
or mortar to impart fungicidal, germicidal, and
1. The soaps comprise salts of fatty acids,
insecticidal properties. The primary purpose of
usually calcium or ammonium stearate or oleate.
these materials is to inhibit and control the
The soap content is usually 20 percent or
growth of bacteria and fungus on concrete floors
less the remaining being calcium chloride or
and walls. They may not always be completely
effective. lime. Total soap added should not exceed 0.2 per-
cent by weight or cement. Soaps cause entrain-
7.7.2 Types of materials - The materials that
ment of air during mixing.
have been found to be most effective are:
2. Butyl stearate has an action like soap in
Poly halogenated phenols l09 ,110 that it provides a water-repellent effect but
Dieldrin emulsion 111 does not entrain air. It is added as an emulsion
Copper compounds 112•113 with the stearate being 1 percent by weight of
7.7.3 Effect - Addition rates vary from 0.1 to the cement. Reports indicate better results
10 percent by weight of the cement depend- than from use of soap as a water repellent and
ing on the concentration and composition of the effect on the strength is negligible.
the chemical. The higher addition rates, above 3. Among petroleum products are mineral oils,
3 percent, may have an adverse effect on the asphalt emulsions, and certain cutback asphalts.
strength of the concrete. The effectiveness of Heavy mineral oil is effective in rendering con-
these materials, particularly the copper com- crete water repellent and in reducing its perme-
pounds, is reported to be of a temporary na- ability. It must be a fluid petroleum product
ture. This will probably vary with the type of having a viscosity of SAE 60, with no fatty
wear and cleaning methods employed. or vegetable oils. Oil added at rate of 5 percent
212-26 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
by weight of cement is only slightly detrimental men of concrete, under an externally maintained
to concrete strength and has proven to be hydraulic gradient. Admixtures of the kinds dis-
effective under pressure. cussed in Section 7.8 do not reduce the coefficient
4. There is a group of miscellaneous materials of permeability of the saturated concrete. How-
sometimes available on the market. All of these ever, mineral powders, properly proportioned, re-
are usually detrimental to concrete strength and duce the permeability of mixtures in which the
none are truly dampproofers. These include: cement content of the paste is relatively low.
Under conditions where this effect is obtained,
a. Barium sulfate and calcium and magnesium there is usually also a reduction in the amount
silicates of water per cubic yard, and thus a small
b. Finely divided silica and naphthalene reduction in porosity.
c. Colloidal silica and a fluosilicate The reduction of total water' content by means
d. Petroleum jelly and lime of a water-reducing admixture should reduce the
e. Cellulose materials and wax total porosity slightly, but there are no adequate
data to demonstrate that permeability is thereby
f. Silica and aluminum reduced materially.
g. Coal tar cut with benzene Accelerating admixtures such as calcium chlo-
h. Sodium silicate ride increase the average rate of hydration and
7.8.3 Effects - Dampproofing admixtures, by thereby reduce the length of time required for a
reducing penetration of the visible pores, may concrete mixture to attain a given fraction of its
retard penetration of rain into concrete block made ultimate degree of impermeability. However, any
of nonplastic mixtures. Test data show that they advantage attained this way is likely to be
reduce also the rate of penetration of moisture temporary since, if conditions are such that water
into the micropores of dry concrete, but there is being transmitted through the concrete, they
is no indication that there are comparable effects are also conducive to continued hydration of ce-
on the transmission of moisture through un- ment.
saturated concrete, except when the concrete
contains paste having relatively high porosity. 7.10 - Chemical admixtures to reduce alkali-
A paste of high porosity results from low cement aggregate expansion
content and correspondingly high water-cement
ratio, lack of curing, or from both factors. If the 7.10.1 Introduction - As early as 1950, reports
concrete has a sufficiently low porosity such as began to appear on admixtures to reduce
that obtained by producing a well-cured paste expansion caused by alkali-aggregate reaction.
having a water-cement ratio not over 0.6 by Since that time there has been relatively little
weight, dampproofing agents give no appreciable new information added in the form of meaning-
improvement. ful research or field practice.3
The Building Research Advisory Board120 re- 7.10.2 Materials - Two salts, lithium and
ported that in the opinion of the majority of 61 barium, and certain air-entraining and some
interrogated observers, dampproofing admixtures water-reducing, set-retarding admixtures have
are not" ... effective or acceptable in controlling all been reported to produce reductions in ex-
moisture migration through slabs-on-ground." It pansion of laboratory mortar specimens. Out-
also reported that a special advisory committee standing reductions have been obtained in such
to the Building Research Advisory Board specimens using 1 percent additions of the
reached the following conclusion on the basis of lithium salts and 2 to 7 percent additions by
data from tests on moisture transmission through weight of cement for certain barium salts. Salts
unsaturated concrete slabs: "The Committee does of proteinaceous materials and water-reducing,
not find adequate data to demonstrate the effect- set-retarding materials have shown moderate re-
iveness of any admixture to reduce the transmis- ductions in expansion. Data on the protein air-
sion of moisture through concrete slabs-on- entraining admixtures are based on the use of 0.2
ground in a manner sufficient to replace either percent by weight of cement.
a vapor barrier or granular base, or both, under
conditions where such protection would be The lithium salts are very expensive. Where
needed." barium salts are used, they must be in-
corporated in the powdered clinker rather than
7.9 - Permeability-reducing admixtures in the cement due to their lack of solubility.
7.9.1 Discussion - The term permeability usual- Some laboratory reports indicate the use of
ly refers to a coefficient giving the rate at which calcium chloride with the barium salts to counter-
water is transmitted through a saturated speci- act strength loss.
ADMIXTURES FOR CONCRETE 212-27
Air entrainment, regardless of the admixture tures are present. Two to three percent sodium
used, has been shown to lower slightly the expan- nitrite by weight of cement was found to be
sion. an efficient inhibitor under these conditions.
Sarapin127 found by storage tests that 2 percent
The use of pozzolans to reduce expansion
sodium nitrite was effective in preventing cor-
caused by alkali-aggregate reaction has been
rosion of steel in concrete containing calcium
widely studied and reported (see Chapter 6).
chloride.
7.10.3 Effects - Only very limited laboratory
Low solubility salts such as certain phos-
mortar bar test data are available; therefore
phates or fluosilicates and fluoaluminates are
no recommended practices are herein presented.
beneficial according to limited reports, Dos-
The above summarizes the information now avail-
age should be limited to 1 percent by weight
able. Obviously any user of these materials should
make additional tests before proceeding to prac- of cement.
tical field use. In the manufacture of certain concrete prod-
ucts containing steel, it might be desirable to
1.11 Corrosion - Inhibiting admixtures accelerate the rate of strength development by
7.11.1 Introduction - Many investigators have use of both a chemical accelerator and heat, the
studied the corrosion of iron and steel with latter usually in the form of steam at
particular reference to protective coatings. It atmospheric pressure. When calcium chloride is
has been found that concrete furnishes ample pro- used as the accelerator in this type of curing,
the rate of corrosion of the steel has been
tection to the steel embedded in it, except in
certain cases in which infiltrating or percolating found in laboratory studies to be accelerated.
waters find a way through the concrete, remov- However Arber and Vivian 128 found that cer-
ing or carbonating the calcium hydroxide. l2l ,122 tain com~ounds which contain an oxidizable ion,
such as stannous chloride, ferrous chloride, and
The problem of corrosion of reinforcing steel sodium thiosulfate, act as accelerators as does
in concrete has generally been limited to concrete calcium chloride, but also appear to cause less
exposed to saline or brackish waters (or those corrosion than the latter. Stannous chloride
containing deicing chemicals) or soils containing appeared to be the best of the products tried
chlorides from which chlorides can reach the and 2 percent of the salt by weight of cement
steel either by diffusion through the concrete was more effective than 1 percent, and as ef-
or by entrance through cracks, Probably because fective as greater amounts, both from the stand-
it was recognized that concrete itself was a point of acceleration and resistance to corrosion.
good protective coating, and because the work Stannous chloride oxidizes to stannic chloride
with paints indicated that inhibitors such as when in solution and may also oxidize in situ
chromates would not provide protection under where lean relatively permeable concrete fur-
conditions where chlorides could enter the con- nishes inadequate protection against access to
crete, there is little information in the technical oxygen. For effective use, the salt must be
literature pertaining to the use of corrosion- added to the concrete in the stannous form and
inhibiting admixtures in concrete. a dense concrete must be used.
7.11.2 Materials - The use of sodium benzoate 7.11.3 Effects - Warnings have been sounded
at a rate of 2 percent in the mixing water or a against the use of inhibitors. For example, the
10 percent benzoate-cement slurry painted on South African National Building Research In-
reinforcement, or both, are described as ef-
stitute 129 made the following statement, "Integral
fective. 123 ,124 Analysis showed that the sodium
Additives; Although certain inert and reactive
benzoate remained in the concrete after 5 years
materials have shown promise, their use cannot
exposure. It is also an accelerator of com-
be recommended at this stage, as insuf-
pressive strength.
ficient evidence of their effectiveness or possible
Calcium lignosulfonate has been found to disadvantages is available." Evans 130 stated: "A
reduce the rate of corrosion of steel in concrete beneficial effect from the inhibitor addition might
containing calcium chloride. 125 reasonably be expected if the steel surface is clean
Sodium nitrite has been investigated by Mosk- and chlorides absent, but under such conditions
vin and Aiekseyev 12G as an inhibitor of corrosion there is unlikely to be serious trouble even with-
of steel in autoclaved products, These authors sug- out added inhibitor. Where rust particles occur
gest that the high alkalinity, which is normally there is a risk that the rust, preventing the in-
present in concrete and which serves to passivate hibitor from reaching the metal below it, may
the steel, may be considerably reduced by auto- establish the combination of small anodes and
clave treatment especially when siliceous admix- large cathodes ... making matters worse."
212-28 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
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Agents," Public Roads, V. 32, No.3, Aug. 1962, pp. 64-73.
89. ACI Committee 311, "Recommended Practice for
71. Washa, G. W., and Withey, N. H., "Strength and COllCTete Inspection (ACI 311-64) ," American Concrete
Durability of Concrete Containing Chicago Fly Ash," Institute, Detroit, 1964, 9 pp.
ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 49, No.8, Apr, 1953,
90. Menzel, Carl A., "Some Factors Influencing the
pp. 701-712.
Strength of Concrete Containing Admixtures of Pow-
72. Newlon, Howard H., and Sherwood, W. Collen,
dered Aluminum," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 39,
"Methods for Reducing Expansion of Concrete Caused
by Alkali-Carbonate Rock Reaction," Highway Research No.3, Jan. 1943, pp. 165-184.
Record No. 45, 1964, pp. 134-150. Also, Swenson, KG., 91. Shideler, J. J., "The Use of Aluminum Powder to
and Gillott, J. E., "Alkali CaTbonate Rock Reaction," Produce Non-Settling Concrete," Report No. C-192, En-
pp.21-40. gineering Laboratories, U. S. Bureau of Reclamation,
73. Davis, R. E., "A Review of Pozzolanic Materials Sept. 1942.
and Their Use in Concretes," Symposium on Use of 92. Hansen, W. C., "Oil Well Cements," Proceedings,
Pozzolanic Materials in Mortars and Concretes, STP-99, Third International Symposium on the Chemistry of
American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadel- Cement, Cement and Concrete Association, London,
phia, 1949, pp. 3-15 (with 9 Teferences). 1952, pp. 598-632.
74. Hester, J. A., "Fly Ash in Roadway Construction," 93. Klein, Alexander, and Troxell, G. E., "Studies of
Proceedings, Fly Ash Utilization Symposium (Pitts- Calcium Sulfoaluminate Admixtures for Expansive Ce-
burgh, Mar. 1967), U. S. Bureau of Mines Information ments," Proceedings, ASTM, V. 58, 1958, pp. 986-1008.
Circular No. 8348, pp. 87-100. 94. Klein, Alexander; Karby, Tsevi; and Polivka, Mi-
75. "Admixtures fOT Highway Concrete," Annotated los, "Properties of an Expansive Cement for -Chemical
Bibliography, Highway Research Board, 1965, 175 pp. Prestressing," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 58, No.1,
76. "Standard Specification for Natural Cement," July 1961, pp. 59-82.
(ASTM C 10-64), 1969 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 95. Goeke, D. J., "Bonding -of Cementitious Ma-
9, American Society for Testing and Materials, Phil- terials," Concrete Construction, V. 3, No.5, May 1958,
adelphia, pp. 5-7. pp. 18-30.
77. "Cement, Natural, (For Use as a Blend with Port- 96. "'Rubber' Base Mortar Undergoing Test," Michi-
land Cement) ," Federal Specification SS-C-185 a, Gen- gan Road and Construction, V. 56, No. 15, Apr. 9, 1959,
eral Services Administration, Washington, D. C., Nov. p.9.
1960.
97. Cardone, S. M.; Brown, M. G.; and Hill, A. A.,
78. "Standard Specifications for Hydraulic Hydrated
"Latex-Modified MortaT in Restoration of Bridge Struc-
Lime for Structural Purposes," (ASTM C 141-67), 1969
tures," Bulletin No. 260, Highway Research Board, 1060,
Book of ASTM Standards, Part 9, American Society
pp. 1-13.
for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, pp. 149-154.
79. "Cement, Slag," Federal Specification SS-C-218a, 98. "Latex Mortars Show Promise in Pavement Re-
General Services Administration, Washington D.C., pairs," Public Works, V. 91, No. 10, Oct. 1960, pp. 123-
Nov. 1960. 126.
80. "Kentucky Fly Ash Plant Serves Lock and Dam 99. "Latex Modified Concrete for Resurfacing," Con-
Projects," Pit and Quarry, V. 52, No.5, Nov. 1959, pp. crete Construction, V. 6, No.4, Apr. 1961, pp. 98-101.
126-127. 100. "Latex Modified Portland Cement MOTtar Re-
81. ACI Committee 614 (Now 304), "Recommended news Bridge Deck," Engineering News-Record, V. 167,
Practice for Measuring, Mixing, and Placing Concrete No. 10, Sept, 7, 1961, p. 26.
(ACI 614-59), American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 101. "Improvements of Mortars by Emulsions of
1959, 31 pp. Polyvinyl Acetate," Translation No. 65-14, Corps of En-
82. Cannon, Robert W., "Proportioning Fly Ash Con- gineers, Oct. 1965.
crete Mixes for Strength and Economy," ACI JOUR- 102. Grenley, Dallas G., "A Study of the Effect of
NAL, Proceedings V. 65, No. 11, Nov. 1968, pp. 969-979. Certain Modified Mortars on the Compressive arid Flex-
83. Campbell, Louis, Jr., "Aggregates and Fly Ash ural Strength of Clay Masonry," International Con-
Concrete for Barkley Lock," Proceedings, ASCE, V. 87, ference on Masonry Structural Systems, Session 3, Nov.
COl, Mar. 1961, pp. 1-16. 1967.
ADMIXTURES FOR CONCRETE 212-31
103. Wilson, Raymond, "Tests of Colors for Portland 117. Dogra, R. N.: Uppal, 1. S.; and Kapur, B. P.,
Cement Mortars," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 23, "Water-Proofing Cement-Sand Mortar. Part 1 - The
1927, pp. 226-252. Integral Use of Soap," Indian Concrete Journal (Bom-
104. "Control of Efflorescence in Colored Concrete bay), V. 31, 1957, p. 56.
Products," Rock Products, V. 53, No.8, 1950, pp. 223- 118. Dogra, R. N., and Uppal, 1. S., "Water-Proofing
238. Cement-Sand Mortar. Part 2 - The Use of Sand Treated
with Soap," Indian Concrete Journal (Bombay), V. 31,
105. Taylor, Thomas G., "Effect of Carbon Black and 1957, p. 56.
Black Iron Oxide on Air Content and Durability of 119. Uppal, 1. S., and Bahadur, S. R., "Water-Proof-
Concrete," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 44, No, 8, ing Cement-Sand Mortar. Part 3 - Effect of Pretreat-
Apr. 1948, pp. 613-624. ment of Sand on Permeability of Cement Mortar and
106. Payne, H. F., Organic Coating Technology, V. 2, Concrete," Indian Concrete Journal (Bombay), V. 32,
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1961, 725 pp. 1958, p. 55.
107. Bruere, G. M., and McGowan, J. K., "Synthetic 120. "Effectiveness of Concrete Admixtures in Con-
Polyelectrolytes as Concrete Admixtures," Australian trolling the Transmission of Moisture Through Slabs-
Journal of Applied Science (Melbourne), V. 9, 1958, pp. on-Ground," Report No. 14, Building Research Advisory
127-140. Board (National Research Council Publication 596),
108. Vivian, H. E., "Some Chemical Additions and July 1958.
Admixtures in Cement Paste and Concrete," Proceed- 121, Cushman, A. S., and Gardener, H. A, The Cor-
ings, Fourth International Symposium on Chemistry rosion and Preservation of Iron and Steel, McGraw-
of Cement, Washington, D. C., 1960, V. 2, p. 909 (Na- Hill Book Company, New York, 1910, p. 11,
tional Bureau of Standards, Monograph 43, Sept. 1962). 122. Cushman, A. S., "The Preservation of Iron and
109. "Anti-Bacterial Cement Effective in 9-Year Test, Steel," Engineering (London), V. 87, 1909, p. 742.
Science Newsletter, V. 60, No.3, July 1951, p. 34. 123. Lewis, J. 1. M.; Mason, C. E.; and Brereton, D.,
110. Levowitz, L. D., "Anti-Bacterial Cement Gives "Sodium Benzoate in Concrete," Civil Engineering and
Longer Lasting Floors," Food Engineering, V. 24, June Public Works Review (London), V. 51, No. 602, Aug.
1952, pp. 57-60 and 134-135. 1956, pp. 881-882.
111, Gay, F. J., and Wetherly, A H., "The Termite 124. Dougill, G., British Patent 706,319.
Proofing of Concrete, Constructional Review (Sydney), 125. Kondo, Yasuo; Takeda, Akihiko; and Hideshima,
V. 32, No.9, Sept. 1959, p. 26. (For Summary see ACI Setsuji, "Effect of Admixtures on Electrolytic Corrosion
JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 56, No.9, Mar. 1960, p. 904). of Steel Bars in Reinforced Concrete," ACI JOURNAL,
Proceedings V. 56, No.4, Oct. 1959, pp. 299-312.
112. Young, R. S., anq Talbot, H. L., "Copper-Con-
126. Moskvin, V. M., and Alekseyev, S. N., "Methods
taining Cements Inhibiting Footborne Diseases," South
for Increasing the Resistance to Corrosion of Reinforce-
African Mining Engineering Journal (Johannesburg),
ment in Reinforced Concrete Structural Members,"
V. 56, 1945, pp. 475-477. (For -Summary see Building
Beton i Zhelezobeton (Moscow), V. 36, No. 12, 1958, pp.
Science Abstracts (Garston, England), V. 18, No. 1197,
21-23. (in Russian)
Aug. 1945.)
127. Sarapin, 1. G., "Corrosion of Wire Reinforce-
113. Robinson, R. F., and Austin, C. R., "Effect of ment in Concrete Containing Calcium Chloride," Pro-
Copper-Bearing Concrete on Molds," Industrial and En- myshlennoye Striutek'stva (Moscow), V. 36, No. 12,
gineering Chemistry, V. 43, 1951, pp. 2077-2032. 1958, pp. 21-23. (in Russian)
114. Dunagan, W. M., and Ernst, G. C., "A Study of 128. Arber, M. G., and Vivian, N. E., "Inhibition of
the Permeability of a Few Integrally Water-Proofed the Corrosion of Steel Embedded in Mortar," Aus-
Concretes," Proceedings, ASTM, V. 34, Part 1, 1934, tralian Journal of Applied Science (Melbourne), V. 12,
pp. 383-392. No. 12, 1961, pp. 339-347,
115. Walker, C. G., Discussion 'of "Proposed Specifica- 129. "Interim Recommendations by the National
tion for Cast Stone" by ACI Committee 704, ACI JOUR- Building Research Institute to Reduce the Corrosion
NAL, Proceedings V. 38, No.6, June 1942, pp. 316-1 to of Reinforcing Steel in Concrete," Transactions, South
316-8. (Gives test results on integral and surface water- African Institution of Civil Engineers (Johannesburg),
proofings. ) V. 7, No.8, Aug. 1957, pp. 248-250.
116. White, A H., and Bateman, J. H., "Soaps as 130. Evans, U. R., The Corrosion and Oxidation of
Integral Water-Proofings for Concrete," ACI Proceed- Metals: Scientific Principles and Practical Applications,
ings, V. 22, 1926, pp. 535-559. Edward Arnold Limited, London, 1960, p. 307.
This report was submitted to letter ballot of the committee which consists of 21 membersi of
whom 20 returned ballots and all voted affirmatively; one member of the committee is deceased.
For discussion see ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 69, No.3, Mar. 1972, pp. 189-190.
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and Com- ACI212.1R-63
mentaries are intended for guidance in designing, planning, executing,
or inspecting construction, and in preparing specifications. Reference From ACI JOURNAL, Nov. 1963
to these documents shall not be made in the Project Documents. If
items found in these documents are desired to be part of the Project
Documents, they should be incorporated directly into the Project
Documents.
BRUCE E FOSTER
Chairman
This third report of ACI Committee 212, Admixtures for Concrete, up-
dates the previous reports of 1944 and 1954. In this report admixtures are
classified in 15 groups according to type of materials constituting the ad-
mixtures, or to the characteristic effects of their use. Where an admixture
possesses properties identifiable with more than one group it is discussed with
the group that describes its most important effect on concrete. Types of
admixtures discussed are: (I) accelerating; (2) water-reducing and set-
controlling; (3) grouting; (4) air-entraining; (5) air-detraining; (6) gas-
forming; (7) expansion-producing; (8) finely divided mineral; (9) damp-
proofing and permeability-reducing; (10) bonding; (II) alkali-aggregate-
-
expansion-reducing; (12) corrosion-inhibiting; (13) fungicidal, germicidal.
and insecticidal; (14) flocculating; and (15) coloring. An extensive list of
references is incl uded.
Key words: accelerating admixture; ACI committee report; admixture;
air-detraining admixture; air-entraining admixture; alkali-aggregate re-
action; bonding admixture; chemical admixture; coloring admixture; con-
crete; corrosion-inhibiting admixture; damp-proofing admixture; expansion-
producing admixture; finely divided mineral admixture; flocculating admix-
ture; fungicidal admixture; gas-forming admixture; germicidal admixture;
grouting admixture; heat evolution; insecticidal admixture; permeability-re-
ducing admixture; set-controlling admixture; shrinkage; sulfate resistance;
water-reducing admixture.
212-33
212-34 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
PREFACE
This is the third report of Committee 212, on Admixtures for Concrete,
the first and second having appeared in 1944 1 and 1954/ respectively. In
general, the method of presentation is similar to that of the previous re-
ports and some of the sections are essentially unchanged from the last
edition. The recent more widespread use of admixtures and the avail-
ability of new information on their properties and applications are the
reasons for this revision.
The 1959 American Society for Testing and Materials Symposium on
the effect of water-reducing admixtures and set-retarding admixtures on
properties of concrete:; is an indication of the growing interest in this
particular group of admixtures, as is the estimate that they are now
employed in over 25,000,000 cu yd of concrete in the United States each
year. Accordingly, the brief mention of this group in the 1954 report has
been amplified in the present one.
The section on air-entraining admixtures has been revised to include
information on the air void characteristics of air-entrained concrete and
the use of air entrainment in structural lightweight aggregate concrete.
The sections on cementitious materials, pozzolanic materials, and on
theoretical considerations on the use of pozzolanic materials and mineral
powders as admixtures have been rewritten and combined. More de-
tailed information on fly ash has been added. New sections on coloring
admixtures; on fungicidal, germicidal, and insecticidal admixtures; on
bonding admixtures; on air-detraining admixtures; on corrosion-in-
hibiting admixtures; and on flocculating admixtures have been added.
The discussion of "damp-proofing" and permeability-reducing admix-
tures has been revised and shortened, while several sections have been
omitted.
One major section omitted from the current report is that on work-
ability agents. The effects on workability of the various admixtures are
discussed at appropriate locations throughout the report. The report in-
cludes a number of recommendations relating to the use of admixtures.
CONTENTS
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212-35
Economic aspects of the use of admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212-36
Classification of admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212-37
1. Accelerating admixtures .............................. 212-37
General
Calcium chloride
Use of accelerators in concrete products
2. Water-reducing admixtures and set-controlling admixtures . .. . 212-40
General
Use
Applications
3. Grouting admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212-43
4. Air-entraining admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' " ....... . 212-43
Effects of air entrainment
Air-entraining materials used as admixtures
Air-en training additions
Preparation of air-entrained concrete
Use of air-entraining admixtures in concrete products
Cellular concrete
Use of air-entraining admixtures in lightweight-aggregate concrete
5. Air~detraining admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212-48
6. Gas-forming admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212-48
Use of gas-forming admixtures to counteract settlement and bleeding
Use of gas-forming admixtures in concrete products
ADMIXTURES 212,-35
INTRODUCTION
An admixture is defined by the ASTM in the Standard Definitions of
Terms Relating to Concrete and Concrete Aggregates (C 125) * as: "A
mai'eri,al other than water, aggregates, and portland cement (including
air-entraining portland cement and portland blast-furnace slag cement)
that is used as an ingredient of concrete and is added to the batch
immediately before or during its mixing."
An admixture is used to modify the properties of the concrete in such
a way as to make it more sui,table for the work at hand. Use of a suit-
able admixture can impart certain desirable characteristics which can-
not be secured by other methods, or not as economically. In other in-
stances, the desired objectives may be achieved most economically by
changes in composition or proportions of the concrete mixture rather
than by the use of an admixture. Admixtures are no substitute for good
concreting practices. An admixture should be employed only after
appropriate evaluation of its effects, if necessary by use with the par-
ticular concrete and under conditions of use intended. Admixtures
should be required to conform with applicable ASTM or other relevant
specifications. In using any admixture, careful attention should be given
to the instructions provided by the manufacturer of the product.
Some of the more important purposes for which admixtures have been
used are:
1. Improvement of workability
2. Acceleration of the rate of strength development at early ages
3. Increase in strength
4. Retardation or acceleration of initial setting
5. Retardation or reduction of heat evolution
6. Modification in rate of, and capacity for, bleeding
7. Increase in durability or in the resistance to special conditions of ex-
posure including application of ice-removal salts
8. Control of alkali-aggregate expansion
9. Decrease in capillary flow of water
10. Decrease in the permeability to liquids
11. Production of cellular concrete
'See the most recent ASTM Standards. American Society for Testing and Materials,
Philadelphia, Pa.
212-36 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
CLASSIFICATION OF ADMIXTURES
In this report, admixtures are classified in 15 groups, according to
type of materials constituting the admixtures, or to the characteristic
effects of their use. Information to characterize each group is presented
along with brief statements of the general purposes 'and expected effects
of the use of materials of each group. The wide scope of ,the admixture
field, the continual entrance of new or modified materials into this field,
and the variations of effects with different concreting materials and
conditions, precludes a detailed listing of commercial admixtures and
their effects on concrete. The groups are listed in the Contents.
Commercial admixtures may contain materials that separately would
belong in two or more of these groups. For example, a water-reducing
admixture may be combined with an air-entraining admixture. Those
types of admixtures possessing properties identifiable with more than
one group are considered in the discussion following as belonging to
the group that describes their most prominent or important effect on
the concrete.
ACCELERATINC ADMIXTURES
Ceneral
Accelerating admixtures are added to concrete either (a) to increase
the rate of early strength development, (b) to shorten the time of set-
ting, or (c) for both purposes. The use of accelerators often permits
better scheduling of the work. The benefits of an increase in the rate
of early strength development may include: (1) earlier removal of
forms, (2) reduction of required period of curing and protection,
(3) earlier placement in service of a structure or a repair to a struc-
ture, (4) partial or complete compensation for the effects of low tem-
peratures on rate of strength development. The benefits of a reduced
time of setting may include: (1) early finishing of surfaces, (2) reduc-
tion of pressures on forms or of length of time during which forms are
subjected to hydraulic pressure, (3) more effective plugging of leaks
against hydraulic pressure.
Chemicals which accelerate the hardening of mixtures of portland
cement and water include some of the soluble chlorides, carbonates,
silic'ates, fluosilicates, and hydroxides," and also some organic compounds
such as triethanolamine:>' (i Calcium aluminate cements and finely-
ground hydrated portland cement have also been advocated.
Some of the soluble chlorides, particularly calcium chloride,7, 8, 9 and
to a much lesser extent triethanolamine have general applicability as
admixtures in concrete. Some of the other materi,als are suitable only
for use in the preparation of "quick set" cements.
Available information permits only brief discussion of accelerators
other than calcium chloride.
Triethanolamine is used in relatively small quantities, usually in com-
bination with other materials. The use of stannous chloride, ferrous
chloride, and sodium thiosulfate 1ti is mentioned in the section on cor-
rosion-inhi bi hng admixtures.
It has been reported that the time of setting of portland cement may
be shortened, through varying degrees, by the use of 5 to 20 percent by
212-38 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
(ACI 604-56) P Calcium chloride increases the rate of early heat devel-
opment and accelerates the set, but lowers the freezing point of the
water in concrete only to an insignificant extent. There are no known
materials that can be used to effectively lower the freezing point of
water in concrete.
Difficulty may sometimes be experienced if calcium chloride is pre-
mixed with other admixtures such as water-reducing or air-entraining
admixtures prior to addition to the concrete. Some combinations are
compatible and can be packaged together; the components of other com-
binations must be added separately. The manufacturer's recommenda-
tions should be followed.
Calcium chloride may be added either dry or in solution, but the use
in solution is greatly preferred to use in a solid form. When used in
solution, it is convenient to prepare the solution so that 1 quart contains
1 lb of calcium chloride. When preparing the solution, care must be
taken to insure proper mixing. Calcium chloride should be added to
water and not water to calcium chloride, since a coating may form
which is difficult to dissolve. Checks should be made on the specific
gravity of the solution to be certain that proper concentration is being
maintained.
Use of calcium chloride in a dry, lumpy form can result in pop-outs
in concrete surfaces. However, it has been successfully used after re-
moving lumps by means of a 1/4-in. sieve. When used dry, it may be
measured by volume or by weight. In using the dry material, care
must be taken to insure that dry material does not become caked during
storage. Storage conditions required for portland cement are adequate
for calci um chloride.
Use of accelerators in concrete products
Materials which accelerate hardening and promote early strength
development of concrete may prove advantageous in the manufacture
of a variety of concrete products. Early attainment of strength in a
building block, for example, reduces the curing period, compensates
in part for slow hardening in cold weather, and decreases the time re-
quired to produce a fully matured block. Similar advantages may be
obtained in the manufacture of other concrete products. During warm
weather, accelerators should be used judiciously so as not to produce
too rapid a set. Many plants employ only high temperature curing
during summer months, and a combination of high temperature curing
with an accelerator during the winter months.
GROUTING ADMIXTURES
Retarders are especially useful in cement-grout slurries, particularly
if grout holes are to be redrilled, or when grouting is prolonged, or in
cases where the grout must be pumped for a considerable distance, or
where hot water is encountered underground.
Neat cement grouts and cement grouts containing pozzolanic materials
are often used in cementing oil wells under conditions requiring that
the grout remain fluid for one or more hours at elevated temperatures
and pressures. In deep wells, temperatures may be up to 400 F and
pressures as high as 18,000 psi. Special oil-well cements either without
retarders or containing retarders introduced during the grinding oper-
ation are also available. Retarders may be added at the mixer to either
a normal cement or to one that already contains a retarder, providing
that in the latter case the effects of joint use of the retarding admixtures
have been established.
In the cementing of oil wells and in some other grouting operations,
admixtures are sometimes used to prevent the rapid loss of water from
the cement paste to the surrounding formation. Some of the materials~:;
suggested for this use are gels, clays, pregelatinized starch, and methyl
cellulose.
Materials~" such as bentonite clays, are used to reduce the weight of
the slurries, while other materials, such as barite and iron filings, are
used to increase the weight. Thickeners such as natural gums, may be
added to these slurries to prevent the settling of heavy constituents.
Many other admixtures, such as gas-forming admixtures, accelerators,
and others, are employed in grouting operations for special applications
and are described in other sections of the report.
AIR-ENTRAINING ADMIXTURES
Effects of air entrainment
The benefits of air entrainment have been described in many arti-
cles.~(;·27,28
Experience has demonstrated the superior durability of air-
212-44 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
The air content and the size distribution 'Of air voids produced in air-
entrained concrete are influenced by many factors,ao among the more
import'ant of which are the (1) nature and concentration of the air-en-
training admixture; (2) nature and proportions ofnhe constituents of
the concrete mixture; (3) type and duration of mixing employed; (4)
consistency; and (5) kind and degree of compaction applied in placing
the concrete.
The use of air entrainment does not vitiate the need for control of
the water-cement ratio. As the water-cement ratio is increased, the
average size of the air voids, the distance between the air voids, and the
freezable water c'Ontent of the cement paste increase under given c'Ondi-
tions, resulting in decreased resistance of the concrete to freezing and
thawing. Resistance of concrete to laboratory freezing and thawing
has not been found to be affected adversely by loss of air as a result
of vibration, provided that the concrete originally contained an adequate
void system. Presumably the same is true of frost resistance under
field conditions.
Air entrainment, while improving both workability and durability,
may reduce strength. Within the range of air c'Ontent normally used,
the decrease in strength usually is about proportional t'O the amount
of air entrained. For most types of exposed concrete a slight reduction
in strength is far less significant than the improved resistance to frost
acti'On. The reduction in strength will rarely exceed 15 percent in the
case of compressive strength and 10 percent in the case of flexural
strength. These figures are for equal cement content and with the sand
and water content of the air-entrained concrete reduced to the extent
permitted by the increased workability of this type of mixture.
The discussion above refers to the use of moderate amounts of en-
trained air, usually not more than 13 percept by volume of the mortar
fraction of the concrete. In some applications of concrete, particularly
in precast units, much greater quantities of entrained air are employed
ADMIXTURES 212-45
These methods afford means to determine the air content and character-
istics of the air-void system in concrete of structures.:HlII'Hltl) Use of these
methods in coordination with investigations of proportioning of concrete
for new projects provides greater assurance that concrete of satisfactory
resistance to freezing and thawing will be obtained.:l !
Use of air-entraining admixtures in concrete products
There is no general agreement on the benefits which may accrue from
the use of an air-entraining admixture in the manufacture of concrete
block.:1:i:ll i :1, With the usual manufacturing methods, the use of an air-
entraining admixture is considered by some to permit greater compac-
tion and hence denser block and to save wear on molds. Appearance of
the block may be improved, edge tear is reduced, and the block strip
cleanly with sharp edges and corners. Since there is some question
whether air is actually entrained in the very dry mixtufels used in block
manufacture, some believe that the benefits are not due to air entrain-
ment, but rather to a surface slickness resuHing from the particular
type of air-entraining admix,ture usually used. Others have credited the
use of air-entraining cement with benefits in block manufacture; while
still others use a type of air-entraining admixture which probably
would have no effect on the surface other than through the production
of entrained air. The change in surface texture resulting from use of an
air-entraining admixture, may be considered as an advantage or as a
disadvantage depending on the effect being sought by the architect.
Similarly, satisfactory results using air-entmining admixtures have
been reported in the manufacture of cast stone and concrete pipe. In
those processes employing concrete of plastic consistency, air is no
doubt entrained and such benefi,ts as reduction of bleeding, reduction of
segregation, reduction of permeability, greater res'istance to the effects
of freezing and thawing, and more exact reproduction of mold contours
are those that would be expected in conventional concrete. Where non-
plastic mixtures are used, the results are probably similar to those
obtained with concrete block.
In some installations of precast concrete units, such as cribbing and
curbing, there is considerable exposure to freezing and thawing 'action.
The use of adequately prepared and controlled air-entrained concrete is
the best way to improve resistance to freezing and thawing.
Mixtures made with lightweight aggregate and without entrained air
are generally harsh, hence air entrainment is particularly advantageous
in such concrete. Beneficial results are obtained by the addition of en-
trained air to both lean and rich mixtures containing any grading or
type of aggregate, including lightweight aggregate. The greatest im-
provement is obtained, however, in harsh mixtures deficient in fines.
For best results, it is usually desirable to add an air-entraining ad-
mixture at the concrete mixer, because different amounts are necessary
to produce the optimum resuHs in various products and with use of
differing methods of making the same product. The optimum amount
in any particular case must be determined by experiment. Care should
be exercised to avoid air contents so large that the strength of the
product is greatly reduced.
Cellular concrete
Cellular concretes are those in which air or gas bubbles are substituted
for all or part of the aggregate.: IS Concretes of this type are known as
gas, foam, or cellular concretes.:19 Cellul'ar concretes may be divided into
two general groups: gas concrete, and foam concrete. Both are produced
through the use of admix'tures. Gas concrete will be discussed in a later
section.
ADMIXTURES 212-47
times 'as much as that needed for frost resistance in ordinary concrete.
Such high air content reduces the water requirement of the concrete
greatly; these mixtures are more fluid in consistency than are conven-
tional concretes and they do not require vibration or agitation other
than screecling for placement. Although slump ordinarily is not meas-
ured, optimum placeability is obtained with concretes having slumps
between 5 and 8 in. Without entrained air, concretes containing vermicu-
lite or perlite aggregates are difficult to manipulate; also the water
content and unit weight are relatively high and the therm·al insulation
properties of the hardened concrete are not as favorable.
Due to the unfavorable shape and surface texture of the fine fraction
of most lightweight aggregates used for structural concrete, it is usually
desirable to use air-entraining admixtures to increase workabi'lity. With-
out entrained air such concrete is generally harsh, has a high bleeding
rate, and high water requirement. Concretes containing more than 6
bags of cement per cu yd do not always require air entrainment for
adequate workabil!ity, but in many instances even these concretes are
improved in pl1acing and finishing qualities.
Wherever exposure to' severe weather is a consideratian, the proportian
of air-entraining admixture should be fixed at the minimum required for
frost resistance. In other cases the amount should be adjusted as required
for warkability withaut excessive reduction of strength.
AIR-DETRAINING ADMIXTURES
There have been cases4~ where aggregates have released gas into, or
caused excessive air entrainment, in plastic concrete which made it nec-
essary to use an admixture able to dissipate the excess air or other gas.
AlsO', it is sometimes desirable to remove part of the entrained air from
a concrete mixture. Compaunds such as tributyl phasphate, dibutyl
phthalate, water-insoluble alcohols, and water-insoluble esters Oof car-
bonic and boric acids, as well as silicones, have been propased far this
purpase; however, tributyl phosphate is the most widely used material.
GAS-FORMING ADMIXTURES
Use of gas-forming admixtures to counteract settlement and bleeding
Settlement and bleeding in freshly mixed concrete are caused by
gravitational settling of the individual salid particles in the mixture,
sometimes accompanied by lass of water thraugh farms or intO' the
adjacent ar underlying sail. The extent of settlement and bleeding is de-
pendent an several factars 'and when excessive, 0'1' under certain con-
creting conditians, may result in undesirable characteristics of the
hardened cancrete or mortar. Accumulation af low quality matrices,
laitance layers, and vaids on the under side of forms, blockOout cavities,
reinforcing steel, or other embedded parts, or under machinery, may
prevent 001' reduce bond, watertightness, unifarmity, or strength af the
concrete ar martar. This necessitates, in same instances, costly clean-up
and grouting operations.
Aluminum pawder4~,44 when added to' mortar ar cancrete, reacts with
the hydraxides present in fresh cement paste to' praduce minute bubbles
of hydrogen gas thraughout the matrix. Other metals such as magnesium
and zinc also react with alkalies to farm hydragen, but anly aluminum
has received any extensive use as an admixture far cancrete. The rate
and extent of the reaction depends an the type and amount of aluminum
powder, fineness and camposition of the cement, temperature, mixture
proportians, and other factors. Usually, the unpolished pawder is pre-
ferred, though when a slower reactian is desired, the palished form may
be advantageaus. The amounts added are usually in the range of 0.005
to 0.02 percent by weight of cement, although larger amounts may be
used in the production of low-strength cellular concrete.
ADMIXTURES 212-49
EXPANSION-PRODUCING ADMIXTURES
Usually expansion-producing materials are incorporated in "expand-
ing" or "drying-shrinkage-compensating" cements, but since they may
also be used as admixtures, a brief description is considered appropriate
in this report.
Expansion-producing admixtures are materials which, during the
hydration period of the concrete, either expand themselves or react with
other constituents of the concrete with resulting expansion. The expan-
sion may be of about the same magnitude as the drying shrinkage
expected at later ages or it may be greater. For a given application,
the extent of expansion and the time interval during which it takes
place are very important and must be under control for the most satis-
factory results.
For unrestrained concrete, the expansion must not take place before
the concrete gains sufficient tensile strength io be stressed in tension
rather than disrupted by the expanding forces. For restrained appli-
cations, the concrete must be strong enough to withstand the compres-
sive stresses developed. It is reported that restraint in only one direction
is required 45 to achieve some degree of compression in the other two
orthogonal directions.
Properly timed expansion, of suitable amounts, might be employed in
machinery grouting, patching, production of concrete free from shrink-
age cracks, and production of self stressing, prestressed concrete. A num-
ber of expansive agents have been reported including the following:
1. Finely divided or granulated iron, and chemicals to promote oxida-
tion of the iron, are used to produce some expanding or shrinkage-com-
pensating mortars and concretes. The expansion is produced by the
increase in solid volume as the iron is converted to iron oxides and
takes place when air and moisture have access to the iron. Control of
the proportion of oxidizing catalyst is required to procure the desired
amount of oxidation and expansion; chlorides should not be added
separately as an accelerator to the mortar or concrete. While experience
has been varied, the use of mortar or concrete prepared at low water-
cement ratio, and well compacted and cured, has been found adequate
in many cases to prevent the continued oxidation and expansion which
would otherwise occur on subsequent rewetting of the mortar or con-
crete. Grouts containing higher proportions of these admixtures should
be employed only where confined, and the exposed surfaces should be
sealed or covered by a suitable paint, sand-cement mortar, or concrete.
The instructions of the manufacturer should be followed.
2. A sulfoaluminous cement for use with portland cement, made by
burning a mixture of gypsum, bauxite, and limestone 16 has been manu-
factured in France. It is used in amounts of 9 to 25 percent by weight
of the portland cement, and ground slag is also added, in amounts of
15 to 20 percent of the total. The time at which expansion takes place is
controlled by varying the quantity of slag and the fineness of both the
slag and the sulfoaluminous cement. Termination of expansion also
has been accomplished through withholding of water for further curing.
The slag is said to eventually combine with the excess calcium sulfate.
ADMIXTURES 212-51
BONDING ADMIXTURES
Bonding admixtures are water emulsions of any of several organic
materials that are mixed with portland cement or mortar grout for ap-
plication to an old concrete surface just prior to placing topping or
patching mortar or concrete, or are mixed with the topping or patching
ma terial. Their function is to increase the bond strength between the
old and new concrete or, through modification of the properties of the
new concrete, to reduce the bond stresses developed, or both. This pro-
cedure is used in patching of eroded or spalled concrete or to add rela-
tively thin layers of resurfacing. These materials have been found useful
also in the formulation of cement paints and for bonding of portland
cement plaster.
The commonly used bonding admixtures are made from natural rub-
ber, synthetic rubber, or any of a great number of organic polymers or
copolymers. The polymers include polyvinyl chloride, polyvinyl ace-
tate, acrylics, and butadiene-styrene copolymer.
Bonding admixtures fall into two general categories, namely, re-
emulsifiable types and non-re-emulsifiable types. The non-re-emulsifi-
able types are resistant to water and are therefore better suited to
exterior application and use in areas where moisture is prevalent.
Ability of a bonding admixture to cure and harden in contact with
moist concrete, and the retention of cured strength in the presence of
water, are important features to be considered in selection of materials
for this use.
These emulsions are generally added to the mixture in proportions
equivalent to 5 to 20 percent by weight of the cement, the actual quantity
used depending on the type of bonding mixture being prepared and
the job conditions. Bonding admixtures usually cause entrainment of
air and a sticky consistency in grout mixtures. They are effective only
on clean, sound surfaces since the strength of the bond is only as good
as the strength of the material to which it is attached.
FLOCCULATING ADMIXTURES
The addition to cement pastes, mortars, and concretes of certain syn-
thetic polyelectrolytes are reported to increase the bleeding rate and
decrease the bleeding capacity of cement pastes, to reduce flow of pastes
and mortars, and to increase the green strength and cohesiveness of
mortars.9'\,9G
COLORING ADMIXTURES
Pigments are often added to produce color in the finished concrete.
The requirements of suitable coloring admixtures include: (1) color
fastness when exposed to sunlight; (2) chemical stability in the presence
of alkalinity produced in the set cement; (3) no adverse effect on setting
time or strength development of the concrete; and (4) stability of color
in autoclaved concrete products during exposures to the conditions in
the autoclave. For information on color fastness, resistance to alkali, and
stability at elevated temperatures of various pigments reference may
be made to Payne. 9 '
Pigments frequently used are shown in Table 1.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The committee wishes to acknowledge its indebtedness to the authors of the
1954 ACI Committee Report which was prepared under the chairmanship of W. T.
Moran. The present chairman of Committee 212 wishes to acknowledge his in-
debtedness to the members of the present committee and particularly to Messrs.
Hansen, Mather, Mielenz, Powers, and Prior, who served as chairmen of the
subcommittees responsible for preparation of the material on the various classes
of admixtures, and as an editorial committee for the entire report.
REfERENCES
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3. Symposium on Effect of Water-Reducing Admixtures and Set-Retarding
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George L., "Effects of Added Materials on Some Properties of Hydrating Portland
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Apr. 1943, p. 281.
212-62 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
33. ACI Committee 613, "Recommended Practice for Selecting Proportions for
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34. ACI Committee 311 (611), ACI Manual of Concrete Inspection, American
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35. Kuenning, William H., and Carlson, C. C., "Effect of Variations in Curing
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36. Kennedy, Henry; and Brickett, Edward M., "The Application of Air-En-
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37. Farmer, H. G., "Air-Entraining Portland Cement in Concrete Block,"
Rock Products, V. 48, Jan. 1945, p. 209.
38. "Aerated Concrete," Part 1, Building Research Station Digest, No. 28, Mar.
1951; Part 2, Building Research Station Digest (Garston, England), No. 29,
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39. Valore, R. C., Jr., "Cellular Concretes," ACI JOUTINAL. Proceedings V 50:
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40. Dilnot, S., "Cellular Calcium Silicate Products," Rock Products, V. 55, Oct.
1952, p. 110.
41. Valore, R. C., Jr., and Green, W. C., "Air Replaces Sand in 'No Fines'
Concrete," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 47, No. 10, June 1951, pp. 833-848.
42. Macnaughton, M. F., and Herbich, John B., "Accidental Air in Concrete,"
ACI JOURNAL, Procee·dings V. 51, No.3, Nov. 1954, pp. 273-284.
43. Menzel, Carl A., "Some Factors Influencing the Strength of Concrete Con-
taining Admixtures of Powdered Aluminum," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 39,
No.3, Jan. 1943, PP. 165-184.
44. Shideler, J. J., "The Use of Aluminum Powder to Produce Non-Settling
Concrete," Report No. C-192, Engineering Laboratories, U. S. Bureau of Rec-
lamation, Sept. 1942.
45. Klein, Alexander; Karby, Tsevi; and Polivka, Milos, "Properties of an
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No.1, July 1961, pp. 59-82.
46. Lafuma, H., "Expansive Cements," Proceedings of the Third International
Symposium on the Chemistry of Cement, Cement and Concrete Association,
London, Sept. 1952, pp. 581-597.
47. Mikhailov, V. V., "New Developments in Self-Stressed Concrete," Pro-
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July 1957, pp. 25-1 to 25-12.
48. Mikhailov, V. V., "Stressing Cement and the Mechanism of Self-Stressing
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the Chemistry of Cement, Monograph 43, National Bureau of Standards, V. II,
1960, pp. 927-955.
49. Klein, Alexander, and Troxell, G. E., "Studies of Calcium Sulfoaluminate
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986-1008.
50. Slatanoff, V., and Djabaroff, N., "The Self-Stressing of Concretes by the
Hydration of Periclase," Revue des Materiaux de Construction (Paris), 1961,
pp.30-33. For summary see Building Science Abstracts, V. 35, No.2, Feb.
1962, p. 37.
51. Meissner, H. S., "Mineral Admixtures," Significance of Tests and Prop-
erties of Concrete and Conc1'ete Aggregates, STP 169, American Society for
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52. Powers, T. C., "The Bleeding of Portland Cement Paste, Mortar and Con-
crete Treated as a Special Case of Sedimentation," Bulletin No.2, Research Lab-
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53. Williams, G. M., "Admixtures and Workability of Concrete," ACI JOURNAL,
Proceedings V. 27, Feb. 1931, pp. 647-653.
54. Weymouth, C. A. G., "A Study of Fine Aggregates in Freshly Mixed Mor-
tars and Concretes," Proceedings, ASTM, V. 38, Part II, 1938, pp. 354-393.
55. Lovewell, C. E., and Wash a, George W., "Proportioning Concrete Mixtures
Using Fly Ash," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings, V. 54, No. 12, June 1958, pp. 1093-
1101 (with 5 references).
56. Symposium on Use of Pozzolanic Materials in Mortars and Concrete, STP
99, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 1949.
57. Polivka, Milos; and Brown, E. H., "Influence of Various Factors on Sulfate
Resistance of Concrete Containing Pozzolan," Proceedings, ASTM, V. 58, 1958,
pp. 1077-1099 (with 12 references).
58. Eitel, Wilhelm, "Recent Investigations of the System Lime-Alumina-Cal-
cium Sulfate-Water and its Importance in Building Research Problems," ACI
212-64 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 53, No.7, Jan. 1957, pp. 679-698 (with 22 references
annotated) .
59. Hanna, W. C., "Unfavorable Chemical Reactions of Aggregate in Concrete
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60. Meissner, H. S., "Cracking in Concrete Due to Expansive Reaction Be-
tween Aggregate and High-Alkali Cement as Evidenced in Parker Dam," ACI
JOURNAL, Procee·dings V. 37, No.5, Apr. 1941, pp. 549-568.
61. Kammer, H. A, and Carlson, R. W., "Investigation of Causes of Delayed
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V. 37, No.6, June 1941, pp. 665-672.
62. Tremper, Bailey, "Evidence in Washington of Deterioration of Concrete
Through Reactions Between Aggregates and High-Alkali Cements," ACI JOURNAL.
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63. Coombs, H. A., "Expansion of Concrete Due to Reaction Between Andesitic
Aggregate and Cement," American Journal of Science, V. 240, 1942, p. 288.
64. Blanks, R. F., "Notes on the Effect of Alkalies in Portland Cement on
the Durability of Concrete," Proceedings, ASTM, V. 43, 1943, pp. 199-208.
65. "Studies in Cement-Aggregate Reaction," Bulletins No. 1-20, Australian
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, 1947-1952.
66. Halstead, Woodrow J., et al., "The Alkali-Aggregate Reaction in Concrete,"
Research Report No. 18-C, Highway Research Board, 1958, 51 pp.
67. Lerch, William, et al., "Chemical Reactions of Aggregates in Concrete-
Identification of Deleteriously Reactive Aggregates and Recommended Practices
for their Use in Concrete, Special Report No. 31, Highway Research Board, 1958,
12 pp. (with 53 references).
68. Stanton, T. E., "Influence of Cement and Aggregate on Concrete Ex-
pansion," Engineering News-Record, V. 124, Feb. 1, 1940, p. 171.
69. Stanton, T. E., "Expansion of Concrete Through Reaction Between Cement
and Aggregate," Proceedings, ASCE, V. 66, 1940, p. 1781.
70. Woolf, D.O., "Reaction of Aggregate with Low Alkali Cement," Public
Roads, V. 27, Aug. 1952, p. 50.
71. "Method of Test for Effectiveness of Mineral Admixtures in Preventing
Excessive Expansion of Concrete Due to the Alkali-Aggregate Reaction," ASTM
C 441-62 T, ASTM Standards 1962 Supplement, American Society for Testing
and Materials, 1962, (with 4 references).
72. Mielenz, R C.; Witte, L. P.; and Glantz, O. J., "Effect of Calcination on
Natural Pozzolans," Symposium on Use of Pozzolanic Materials in Mortars and
Concrete, STP 99, ASTM, Philadelphia, 1949, pp. 43-92.
73. Dunagan, W. M., and Ernst, G. C., "A Study of the Permeability of a Few
Integrally Water-proofed Concretes," Proceedings, ASTM, V. 34, Part 1, 1934,
pp. 383-392.
74. Walker, C. G., Discussion of "Proposed Specification for Cast Stone,"
ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 38, No.6, June 1942, pp. 316-1 to 316-8. (Gives
test results on integral and surface wQterproofings.)
75. White, A. H., and Bateman, J. H., "Soaps as Integral Water-proofings for
Concrete," ACI Proceedings V. 22, 1926, pp. 535-559.
76. Dogra, R N.; Uppal, 1. S.; and Kapur, B. P., "Water-proofing Cement-Sand
Mortar. Part I-The Integral Use of Soap," Indian Concrete Journal (Bombay),
V. 31, 1957, p. 9.
77. Dogra, R N., and Uppal, 1. S., "Water-proofing Cement-Sand Mortar. Part
2 - The Use of Sand Treated with Soap," Indian Concrete Journal (Bombay),
V. 31, 1957, p. 56.
78. Uppal, 1. S., and Bahadur, S. R, "Water-proofing Cement-Sand Mortar.
Part 3 - Effect of Pretreatment of Sand on Permeability of Cement Mortar and
Concrete," Indian Concrete Jottrnal (Bombay), V. 32, 1958, p. 55.
79. "Effectiveness of Concrete Admixtures in Controlling the Transmission of
Moisture Through Slabs-an-Ground," Report No. 14, Building Research AdVIsory
Board (National Research Council Publication 596), July 1958.
80. McCoy, W. J., and Caldwell, A G., "New Approach to Inhibiting Alkali-
Aggregate Expansion," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings, V. 47, No.9, May 1951, pp.
693-708.
81. Hansen, W. C., "Inhibiting Alkali-Aggregate Reaction with Barium Salts,"
ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 56, No.9, Mar. 1960, pp. 881-883.
82. Cushman, A S., and Gardener, H. A, The Corrosion and Preservation of
Iron and Steel, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1910, p. 11.
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84. Lewis, J. 1. M.; Mason, C. E.; and Brereton, D., "Sodium Benzoate in Con-
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Aug. 1956, pp. 881-882.
ADMIXTURES 212-65
This report was submitted to letter ballot of the committee, which consists of 20 members; 16 mem-
bers returned their ballots, of whom 16 voted affirmatively and none negatively. Received by the
Institute Apr. 4, 1963. Title No. 60·64 is a part of copyrighted Journal of the American Concrete
Institute, Proceedings V. 60, No. 11, Nov. 1963; for discussion see pages 2053 through 2058.
A(;I 213R·79
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and
Commentaries are intended for guidance in designing, plan-
ning, executing, or inspecting construction, and in pre-
paring specifications. Reference to these documents shall
not be made in the Project Documents. If items found in
these documents are desired to be part of the Project
Documents, they should be incorporated directly into the
Project Documents.
Keywords: abrasion resistance; air-entrained concretes; air entrainment; bond (concrete to reinforcement); cement content;
coarse aggregates; compressive strength; concrete durability; creep properties; curing; deflection; fine aggregates; fire resis-
tance; fire tests; flexural strength; fly ash; freeze-thaw durability; fresh concretes; hardened concretes; lightweight aggregate
concretes; lightweight aggregates; lightweight concretes; mechanical properties; mix proportioning; modulus of elasticity;
physical properties; production methods; quality control; ready-mixed concrete; shear strength; shrinkage; splitting tensile
strength; structural design; tensile strength; thermal conductivity; thermal expansion; thermal properties; thermal trans-
mittance; water-cement ratio; workability.
Foreword than in any other medium. Many tures from customary practice.
ACI Committee 213 would like architects. engineers. and con- these have been detailed in this
to acknowledge the assistance of tractors recognize the inherent Guide.
the following members of ACI in economies and concomitant advan- Because structural lightweight
the preparation of the revision to tages offered by this material. as aggregate concrete is the newer
this Guide: Stanley G. Barton. evidenced by the many impres- material. engineering research •
William J. Wilhelm. Thomas A. sive lightweight concrete struc- laboratories and the lightweight
Holm. and Rudolph C. Valore. Jr. tures found today throughout the aggregate and concrete industries
world. Structural lightweight ag- have had to develop a large
Structural lightweight aggre- gregate concrete is structural con- amount of information on physical
gate concrete has come of age as crete in the strictest sense. and structural properties in a
an important and versatile mate- short time. It was necessary to
rial in modern construction. It has Since the development of struc- learn the qualities and behavior of
many and varied applications: tural lightweight concrete has the material while it was being
multistory building frames and been essentially parallel to the used. This has produced the un-
floors. curtain walls. shell roofs. earlier development of normal usual circumstance that data for
folded plates. bridges. prestressed weight concrete. considerable use such properties as creep. shrink-
or precast elements of all types. has been made of the large age. and modulus of elasticity are
and others. In many cases the ar- amount of information available frequently more accurately known
chitectural expression of form on normal weight concrete. How- for a structural concrete made
combined with functional design ever. when the unique character- with a given lightweight aggre-
can be achieved more readily in istics of lightweight aggregate gate than for concrete made with
structural lightweight concrete and concrete have required de par- a given normal weight aggregate.
This gUide supersedes the original committee report published in the Aug. 1967 ACI JOURNAL.
Copyright'" 1979, American Concrete Institute. All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any means, including the making
of copies by any photo process. or by any electronic or mechanical device, printed or written or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduction or for use
in any knowledge or retrieval system or device. unless permission in writing is obtained from the copyright proprietors.
213-1
213-2 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
ume following World War I, and which are still in Dallas, which was designed with a lightweight
being manufactured today. Commercial production of concrete frame and flat plate floors.
expanded slag began in 1928; and in 1948, the first Structural applications such as these stimulated
structural quality sintered shale lightweight aggre- more concentrated research into the properties of
gate was produced using a coal-bearing shale in east- lightweight concrete by several important national
ern Pennsylvania. and international organizations. Similarly construc-
tion of aggregate plants was accelerated, until today
One of the earliest uses of reinforced lightweight lightweight aggregates of structural quality are
concrete was in the construction of ships and barges available in most parts of the United States and
by the Emergency Fleet Building Corp. of World Canada and many other countries. Development of
War I.' Concrete of the required compressive knowledge and construction of major structures in
strength of 5000 psi (34.47 MPa) was obtained with a nearly all metropolitan areas of the United States
unit weight of 110 pef (1760 kg/mJ) or less, using ex- and Canada continued in the 1960's at an increasing
panded shale aggregate. The Park Plaza Hotel in St. tempo.
Louis and the Southwestern Bell Telephone Building At the end of 1978 there were approximately 39
in Kansas City, built during the 1920's are other ex- rotary kiln expanded shale plants, 4 sintering pro-
amples of early applications of reinforced lightweight cess expanded shale plants, 11 expanded blast fur-
concrete in buildings. In the early 1930's, the use of nace slag plants, and 1 pelletized or extruded fly ash
lightweight concrete for the upper roadway of the sintering plant in the United States and Canada.
San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge was a key to the
economical design of the bridge. During World War
II, history repeated itself with the construction of 1.3 - Eeonomy of stmetlllral lightweight eonerete
105 lightweight concrete ships,2 thereby conserving The use of lightweight aggregate concrete in a
steel plate for other essential uses. structure is usually predicated on a lower overall
1.2.2 Post World War II development - Consid- cost of the structure. While lightweight concrete
erable impetus was given to the development of may cost more per cu yd than normal weight con-
lightweight concrete shortly after World War II crete, the structure may cost less as a result of re-
when a National Housing Agency survey was con- duced dead weight and lower foundation costs. This
ducted on the potential of lightweight concrete for is the basic reason, in most cases, for using struc-
home construction. This led to an extensive study of tural lightweight concrete. Economy then depends
concretes made with lightweight aggregates. Spon- on attaining a proper balance among cost of concrete
sored by the Housing and Home Finance Agency/ per volume, unit weight, and structural properties.
parallel studies were conducted simultaneously in Normal weight concrete may be the least in cost per
the laboratories of the National Bureau of Stan- cu yd, but will be heavier, resulting in greater dead
dards 4 and the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation' to deter- loads, increased sizes in many sections, and there-
mine properties of concrete made with a broad fore may require more concrete and reinforcing
range of lightweight aggregate types. These studies, steel. Concrete in which the aggregate is entirely
and the earlier work by Richart and Jensen, 6 and lightweight will usually be the most expensive per
Washa and Wendt,1 and others, focused attention on cu yd, but will be the lightest, resulting in reduced
the structural potential of some lightweight aggre- dead loads, lower volume of concrete and reinforcing
gate concrete and initiated a renewed interest in steel, and lower handling and forming costs. Light-
lighter weight for building frames, bridge decks, and weight concrete in which natural sand is used for
precast products in the early 1950's. part or all of the fine aggregate will lie between the
two extremes of cost of concrete per cu yd and dead
The addition of four stories to an existing depart- weight.
ment store in Cleveland was made possible by the
reduced dead load of lightweight concrete without
1.4 - Lightweight aggregates - elassifieatiolills
necessity of foundation modification. Similarly, fol-
lowing the collapse of the original Tacoma Narrows There are many types of aggregates available
Bridge, it was replaced by another suspension struc- which are classed as lightweight, and their proper-
ture incorporating additional roadway lanes without ties cover wide ranges. To delineate those types
the necessity of replacing the original piers, due to which can be classed as structural, and which are
the use of structural lightweight concrete in the therefore pertinent to this Guide, reference is made
deck. to a concrete "spectrum," Fig. 1.4. This diagram in-
dicates the approximate 28-day, air-dry unit weight
During the 1950's many multistory structures range of three types of lightweight aggregate con-
were designed from the foundations up to take ad- cretes along with the use to which each type is gen-
vantage of reduced dead weight with lightweight erally associated. The indicated dividing weights of
concrete. Examples are the 42-story Prudential Life these types (and the end points of each bar for each
Building in Chicago, which incorporated lightweight of the aggregates) are approximate only and should
concrete floors, and the IS-story Statler Hilton Hotel not be considered precise.
213-4 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
Expanded Slog
Sintering Grote expanded
shale, cloy or flyash
Scorio
Pumice
Perlite
Vermicu lite
1.4.1 Low density concretes - These especially light 1.5 Definition of stneturalli Bighhweight aggregate
concretes are employed chiefly for insulation pur- concrete
poses. With low unit weights, seldom exceeding 50 For clarification of the intent of this Guide, the fol-
pef (800 kg/mJ), heat insulation values are high. lowing definition of structural lightweight aggregate
Compressive strengths are low, ranging from about concrete has been established:
100 to 1000 psi (.69 to 6.89 MPa). "Structural lightweight aggregate concretes
are defined as concretes having a 28-day com-
1.4.2 Structural concretes - Concretes with full pressive strength in excess of 2500 psi (17.24
structural efficiency contain aggregates which fall on MPa) and a 28-day, air-dry unit weight not ex-
the other end of the scale and which are generally ceeding 115 pcf (1850 kg/mJ)."
made with expanded shales, clays, slates, slags, and
It should be understood that this definition is not a
pelletized fly ash. Minimum compressive strength, specification. Job specifications may, at times, allow
by definition, is 2500 psi (17.24 MPa) (see Section unit weights up to 120 pcf (1900 kg/mJ). Although
1.5). Most structural lightweight aggregates are ca- structural concrete with an air-dry unit weight of 90
pable of producing concretes with compressive to 100 pcf (1450 to 1660 kg/mJ) is often used, most
strengths in excess of 5000 psi (34.47 MPa) and, with lightweight concrete structures weigh between 100
a number of these, concretes can be made with and 110 pcf (1600 to 1760 kg/mJ). The aggregate pro-
strengths considerably greater than 6000 psi (41.36 ducers in various localities should be contacted prior
MPa). Since the unit weights of structural light- to design for advice on the range of unit weights
weight aggregate concretes are considerably greater
available.
than those of low density concretes, insulation effi-
ciency is lower. However, thermal insulation values
for structural lightweight concrete are substantially
1.6 - Sanetorallightweight aggregates
better than for normal weight concrete.
1.6.1 Processed aggregates - This Guide presents a
1.4.3 Moderate strength concretes - The use of these summary of existing knowledge of elastic properties,
concretes requires a fair degree of compressive compressive and tensile strength, time-dependent
strength, and thus they fall about midway between properties, durability, fire resistance, and other
the structural and low density concretes. These are properties of structural lightweight aggregate con-
sometimes designated as "fill" concretes. Com- crete. It also recognizes that satisfactory field per-
pressive strengths are approximately 1000 to 2500 formance records are more important than results of
psi (6.89 to 17.24 MPa) and insulation values are in- laboratory studies. Laboratory data and field expe-
termediate. rience are available to satisfy these criteria mainly
STRUCTURAL LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE CONCRETE 213·5
with respect to processed aggregates meeting the cellular materials of mineral origm which (a) are
requirements of ASTM C3308a i.e., rotary kiln ex- suited to the production of structural lightweight
panded shales, clays, and slates; sintered shales, concrete as defined in Sections 1.5 and 2.2.3; (b) are
clays, and pelletized or extruded .fly ash; and ex- properly graded from 100 percent passing a desig-
panded slags. nated maximum size sieve; (c) have a dry, loose
1.6.2 Naturally occurring and unprocessed aggregates weight not exceeding 55 pef (880 kg/mJ); and (d)
- It is recognized that structural concrete may be comply with all other requirements of ASTM C330. Sa
made with other types of lightweight aggregates, for One or more of the following gradations are gener-
example, with naturally occurring scoria and pumice, ally available:
and with suitable cinders. Lack of detailed labora- • Structural coarse, 3f4 in. to No. 4 (19mm to 5mm)
tory and field information on structural properties or 112 in. to No. 4 (13mm to 5mm)
and applications of concrete made with these mate- 1
CD Medium coarse, 3/8 in. to No.8 (10 mm to 2 1z mm)
rials has precluded their inclusion in this Guide. If, 2.2.3 Structural lightweight aggregate concrete -
however, information is provided in specific cases to As previously defined (Section 1.5), such concrete: (a)
indicate properties and performance equivalent to has a minimum compressive strength at 28 days of
the types considered herein, the guidance provided 2500 psi (17.24 MPa); (b) has a corresponding air-dry
may be considered to apply. unit weight not exceeding 115 pef (1850 kg/mJ); and
1.6.3 Definition of terms - For simplicity, the term (c) consists entirely of lightweight aggregates or a
"shale," as used in many portions of this Guide, ap- combination of lightweight and normal weight aggre-
plies equally to aggregates processed from shales. gates.
clays, or slates. Further, the terms "structural light-
weight concrete" and "structural lightweight aggre- 2.3 - Intel!'nal st...ture of aggregates
gate concrete", used interchangeably in this Guide, In all cases the lightweight aggregates used in
should be interpreted as indicating structural con- structural concrete are light in weight due to the
crete containing structural lightweight aggregate. cellular structure of the individual aggregate par-
The term "all-lightweight" indicates concrete in ticles. This cellular structure within the particles is
which both the coarse and fine fractions are light- formed at high temperatures, generally 2000 F (1100
weight aggregates; the term "sand-lightweight" in- C) or higher, by one or more of the following pro-
dicates concrete with coarse lightweight aggregate cesses:
and in which all of the fine fraction is natural sand. (a) Formation of gases, due to reaction of heat on
In many instances only partial replacement of the certain constituents in the raw materials, coinciden-
lightweight fines with natural sand is employed, and tal with incipient fusion of the mineral, so that the
this will be so indicated in this Guide. gases are entrapped in a viscous, pyroplastic mass
causing bloating or expansion.
(b) Subjecting a softened or molten mass to inter-
Chapter 2 - StnetweaD lightweight aggregates mixing with controlled amounts of water or steam so
that a cellular structure is produced by entrapped
2.1- Seope steam and other gas and is retained on cooling of the
A knowledge of the characteristics of the light- mass.
weight aggregate used is of prime importance to the (c) Burning off of combustible materials in a matrix.
designer and user of structural lightweight concrete. The cells in the aggregate particle may vary from
In this chapter general information is given on the microscopic to macroscopic in size, and may be pre-
types of lightweight aggregates commonly used in dominently interconnected or discrete.
structural concrete, their method of production, and
their basic properties. 2.4 - Produedou of aggregates
2.2 - Definitions Raw materials used in commercial production of
structural lightweight aggregates are generally (a)
2.2.1 Fine lightweight aggregates - These size frac-
suitable natural deposits of shales. clays, or slates;
tions of aggregates are composed primarily of pro-
(b) by-products of other industries, such as iron blast
cessed or naturally occurring cellular materials of
furnace slags or fly ash from the burning of pow-
mineral origin which (a) are suited to the production
dered coal in thermoelectric power plants. The raw
of structural lightweight concrete as defined in Sec-
materials may require from little to extensive prepa-
tions 1.5 and 2.2.3; (b) are properly graded with 85 to
ration prior to treatment to produce expansion. In
100 percent passing the No.4 sieve [3/16 in. (5 mm)];
many cases crushing to suitable sizes is the only pre-
(c) have a dry. loose weight exceeding 70 pef (1120
requisite. In the cases of finely divided materials
kg/mJ); and (d) comply with all other requirements
such as silty and laminar clays, and fly ash, the raw
of ASTM C330. Sa
material may need to be agglomerated with water,
2.2.2 Coarse lightweight aggregates - The larger or possibly require addition of supplementary
size fractions of lightweight aggregates are com- binder, fuel, gas-forming or fluxing agents, prior to
posed primarily of processed or naturally occurring heating.
213-6 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
Several different methods are used to produce ash is mixed with moisture and fuel, and then pellet-
structural lightweight aggregates, and the aggre- ized or extruded before burning. The resultant
gates produced may vary widely in their character- product tends to be generally rounded or cylindrical
istics. No single description will apply fully to any in shape.
raw material or process. A generalized description 2.4.3 Expansion of slag - Three main processes are
follows for the several principal processes used. used in expanding molten blast furnace slag.
2.4.1 Rotary kiln process - Basically the rotary kiln 2.4.3.1 Machine process. The molten slag at a tem-
is a long, nearly horizontal cylinder lined with re- perature in excess of 2200 F (1200 Cl is rapidly agio
fractory materials. Raw material is introduced in a tated in a machine with a controlled amount of wa-
continuous stream at the upper end, and due to slow ter and subsequently cooled and crushed. The
rotation and slope of the kiln, it progresses to the cellular structure is formed primarily by entrapment
lower or burner end. The heat causes simultaneous of steam, and secondarily from gases evolved by re-
formation of gases and onset of a pyroplastic condi- action of minor constituents in the slag with the wa-
tion in the material. The viscosity of the softened ter vapor.
mass is sufficient to entrap the gases and to form an 2.4.3.2 Water jet process. The molten slag, at tem-
internal cellular structure. This structure is retained peratures in the range of 2200 to 2500 F (1200 to
on cooling as a vitrified hard material. 1400 el, is treated with a controlled amount of water
forced into the mass in jets under high pressure and
2.4.1.1 Crushed material. In one variation of the ro- is subsequently cooled and crushed. Expansive ac-
tary kiln process, the bloated material is discharged,
tion occurs as entrapped water turns to steam and
cooled, and then crushed and screened to required
causes formation of the cellular structure.
aggregate gradations. The resultant particles tend to
2.4.3.3 Pelletizing process. The molten slag at a tem-
be cubical or angular in shape and to have a varying
perature in excess of 2200 F (1200 C) is treated with
percentage of particles with a smooth shell.
limited amounts of water and distributed by a
2.4.1.2 Presized or "coated" material. In another var- vibrating, water cooled, carbon feeder to a rotating
iation, raw material is presized, by crushing and drum. Fins on the drum break the slag into small
screening or by pelletizing, before introduction into particles that solidify into rounded pellets as they
the kiln and the individual particles are bloated with are thrown through the air.
little or no agglomeration. The resultant particles
tend to have a smooth shell or coating over the cel-
lular interior. 2.5 - A~~rega'e properties
2.4.1.3 Combination material. Frequently there is a Each of the properties of lightweight aggregates
combination of the two procedures in which most of may have some bearing on the properties of the
the coarse aggregate will consist of uncrushed par- plastic and hardened concrete. It should be recog-
ticles, obtained by screening, and most of the fine nized, however, that properties of lightweight con-
particles are obtained by crushing the fired product. crete, in common with those of normal weight con-
2.4.2 Sintering process - In the sintering process, crete, are greatly influenced by the quality of the
raw materials are used which either contain carbo- cement paste. Specific properties of aggregates
naceous matter that serves as fuel or are mixed with which may affect the properties of the concrete are
fuel, such as finely ground coal or coke. as follows:
2.5.1 Particle shape and surface texture - Light-
2.4.2.1 Crushed material. In one variation of this pro- weight aggregates from different sources or pro-
cess an even layer of such a mixture, suitably pre- duced by different methods may differ considerably
moistened, is carried by a traveling grate under in particle shape and texture. Shape may be cubical
drying and ignition hoods and subsequent burners in and reasonably regular, essentially rounded, or an-
such a manner that burning, initiated at the surface, gular and irregular. Surface textures may range
continues through the full depth of the bed. Gases from relatively smooth with small exposed pores to
are formed causing expansive action, coincident with irregular with small to large exposed pores. Particle
the onset of pyroplasticity, so that the material is shape and surface texture of both fine and coarse ag-
sufficiently viscous to entrap the gas and thereby gregate influence proportioning of mixes in such fac-
create the cellular structure. The clinker formed is tors as workability, fine-to-coarse aggregate ratio,
then cooled, crushed, and screened to required ag- cement content, and water requirement. These ef-
gregate gradations. In some cases the cellular struc- fects are analogous to those obtained with normal
ture results from the burnout of carbonaceous mat- weight aggregates of such diverse particle shapes as
ter and loss of moisture, and fusion of fine particles exhibited by rounded gravel, crushed limestone or
of the original raw material. The finished product traprock, or manufactured sand.
tends to be generally sharp and angular with a ve- 2.5.2 Bulk specific gravity - Due to their cellular
sicular surface texture. structure, the specific gravity of lightweight aggre-
2.4.2.2 Pelletized material. In a second variation of gates is lower than that of normal weight aggre-
the sintering process, clay, pulverized shale or_,fly, gates. The bulk specific gravity of lightweight aggre-
STRUCTURAL LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE CONCRETE 213-7
gate also varies with particle size, being highest for 2.5.5.1 Strength ceiling. The concept of "strength
the fine particles and lowest for the coarse particles, ceiling" may be useful in indicating the maximum
with the magnitude of the differences depending on compressive strength attainable in concrete made
the processing methods. The practical range of bulk with a given aggregate using a reasonable quantity
specific gravities of coarse lightweight aggregates, of cement. A mix is near its strength ceiling when
corrected to the dry condition, is about 113 to 213 of similar mixes containing the same aggregates and
that for normal weight aggregates. For specific with higher cement contents have only slightly
gravities below this range the cement requirement higher strengths. It is the point of diminishing re-
may be uneconomically high to produce the required turns, beyond which an increase in cement content
strength, and above this range the weight may be does not produce a commensurate increase in
too high to meet ASTM requirements for light- strength. The strength ceiling for some lightweight
weight concrete. aggregates may be quite high, approaching that of
With present ASTM test methods, it may be diffi- high quality normal weight aggregates.
cult to accurately determine bulk specific gravity Strength ceiling is influenced predominantly by
and water absorption for some coarse lightweight the coarse aggregate. It has been found that the
aggregates and for many fine lightweight aggre- strength ceiling can be increased appreciably by re-
gates. ACI Committee 211,9a.9b however, uses the ducing the maximum size of the coarse aggregate for
concept of a "specific gravity factor" which serves in most lightweight aggregates. This effect is more ap-
lieu of the bulk specific gravity (see Section 3.4.3). parent for the weaker and more friable aggregates.
In one case, the strength attained in the laboratory
2.5.3 Unit weight - Unit weight of lightweight ag- for concrete containing 3f4 in. (19 mm) maximum size
gregate is significantly lower, due to the cellular of a specific lightweight aggregate was 5000 psi
structure, than that of normal weight aggregates. (34.47 MPa); for the same cement content [750 lb per
For the same gradation and particle shape, unit cu yd (450 kg /m 3)] the strength was increased to
weight of aggregate is essentially proportional to 6100 and 7600 psi (42.06 MPa and 52.4 MPa) when
specific gravity. However, aggregates of the same
the maximum size of the aggregate was reduced to
specific gravity may have markedly different unit 1/2 in. (13 mm) and 3/8 in. (10 mm), respectively.
weights, because of different percentages of voids in
Concrete unit weights were concurrently increased
the dry· loose , or dry-rodded volumes of aggregates by 3 and 5 pef (48 and 80 kg/m3).
of different particle shapes. The situation is analo-
gous to that of rounded gravel and crushed stone
which, for the same specific gravity and grading,
2.5.6 Moisture content and absorption - Light-
may differ by 10 pef (160 kg/m3) in the dry, rodded
weight aggregates, due to their cellular structure,
condition. Rounded and angular lightweight aggre-
are capable of absorbing more water than normal
gates of the same specific gravity may differ by 5
weight aggregates. Based on a 24 hr absorption test,
pef (80 kg/m3) or more in the dry, loose condition,
lightweight aggregates generally absorb from 5 to
but the same weight of either will occupy the same
20 percent by weight of dry aggregate, depending
volume in concrete. This should be considered in as-
on the pore structure of the aggregate. Normally,
sessing the concrete-making properties of different
however, under conditions of outdoor storage in
aggregates.
stockpiles, moisture content will usually not exceed
2.5.4 Maximum size - The maximum size grading two-thirds of the 24 hr absorption.
designations of lightweight aggregates generally By contrast, normal weight aggregates usually
available are 3f4 in. (19 mm), liz in. (13 mm), or 3/8 in. will absorb less than 2 percent of moisture. How-
(10 mm). Maximum size of aggregate influences such ever, the moisture content in a normal weight aggre-
factors as workability, ratio of fine to coarse aggre- gate stockpile may be as high as 5 to 10 percent or
gate, cement content, optimum air content, potential more. The important difference is that the moisture
strength ceiling, and drying shrinkage. When com- content in lightweight aggregates is largely ab-
parisons are made between lightweight concrete and sorbed into the interior of the particles whereas in
normal weight concrete with respect to such factors, normal weight aggregates it is largely surface mois-
the comparison should be made on the basis of the ture. These differences become important in mix
same maximum size. proportioning, batching and control as discussed in
Sections 3.4, 3.5, and 3.7.
2.5.5 Strength of lightweight aggregates - The Rate of absorption in lightweight aggregates is a
strength of aggregate particles varies with type and factor which also has a bearing on mix proportion-
source and is measurable only in a qualitative way. ing, handling, and control of concrete, and depends
Some particles may be strong and hard, and others on the aggregate particle surface pore character-
weak and friable. There is no reliable correlation be- istics plus other factors. It should be noted that the
tween aggregate strength and concrete strength and water which is internally absorbed in the aggregate
lack of particle strength may not preclude use of an is not immediately available to the cement as mixing
aggregate in structural concrete. water, as will be discussed in Section 3.2.3. Nearly
213-8 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
all moisture in the natural sand, on the other hand, lightweight concrete, to optimize these properties.
may be surface moisture which is available to the ce- Some properties are to a large extent inter-
ment. dependent and improvement in one property, such
as workability, may affect other properties such as
unit weight or strength. The final criterion to be
l:bapter :I - Prepertiellillg, lIIIIIixillg alld met is over-all performance in the structure as in-
III all dli IIg tended by the architect! engineer.
:1.1 -Seepe 3.2.1 Specified physical properties
Proportioning of structural lightweight concrete 3.2.1.1 Compressive strength. This property is also
mixtures is the determination of economical com- discussed in Section 4.3. The various types of light-
binations of the several constituents - portland ce- weight aggregates available will not all produce sim-
ment, aggregate, water, and usually admixtures - ilar compressive strengths for concretes of a given
in a way that the optimum combination of properties cement content and slump.
is developed in both the plastic and hardened state. Compressive strength of structural concrete is
A prerequisite to the selection of mixture propor- specified according to engineering requirements of a
tions is a knowledge of the properties of the con- structure, not according to the ability of one or an-
stituent materials. Generally these constituents are other of available aggregates used in concrete to
required to comply with the pertinent ASTM specifi- provide that strength. Normally, strengths specified
cation. will range from 3000 to 4000 psi (20.68 to 27.58 MPa)
Based on a knowledge of the properties of the con- and less frequently up to 6000 psi (41.36 MPa) or
stituents, and their interrelated effects on the con- higher. It should not be expected that the higher
crete, structural lightweight concrete can be propor- strength values can be attained consistently by con-
tioned and produced to have, within reasonable cretes made with every lightweight aggregate classi-
limits. the specific properties most suited to the fin- fied as "structural," although some are capable of
ished structure. producing very high strengths consistently.
It is within the scope of this chapter to discuss:
(a) Criteria on which concrete mixture proportions 3.2.1.2 Unit weight. From the load-resisting consid-
are based erations of structural members, reduced unit weight
(b) The materials which make up the concrete mix- of lightweight concrete can lead to improved econ-
ture omy of structures despite an increased unit cost of
(c) The methods by which these are proportioned. concrete.
The subjects of mixing, delivery, placing, finishing, Unit weight is therefore a most important consid-
and curing also will be discussed, particularly where eration in the proportioning of lightweight concrete
these procedures differ from those associated with mixtures. While this property depends primarily on
normal weight concrete. The chapter will conclude the unit weight or density of the lightweight or nor-
mal weight aggregates, it is also influenced by the
with a brief discussion on laboratory and field con-
cement, water and air contents, and to a small ex-
trol.
tent, by the proportions of coarse to fine aggregate.
3.2 - Mb proportioaiag eriteris Within somewhat greater limits the unit weight can
Chapter 4 indicates a broad range of values for be varied by adjusting proportions of lightweight
many physical properties of lightweight concrete. and normal weight aggregates. For instance, if the
Specific values depend on the properties of the par- cement content is increased to provide additional
ticular aggregates being used and on other condi- compressive strength, the unit weight of the con-
tions. In proportioning a lightweight concrete mix, crete will be increased only about 3 pcf (48 kg/m').
the engineer is concerned with obtaining predictable On the other hand, complete replacement of the
specific values of properties for a particular situa- lightweight fines with natural sand will increase the
tion. unit weight by 10 pcf (160 kg/m') or more at the
The specifications of the structural engineer, for same strength level. This should also be considered
lightweight concrete, usually require minimum per- in the over-all economy of structural lightweight con-
missible values for compressive strength, maximum crete.
values for slump, and both minimum and maximum If the concrete producer has available several dif-
values for air content. For lightweight concrete, a ferent sources of lightweight aggregate, optimum
limitation is always placed on the maximum value balance of cost, and performance of concrete may re-
for unit weight. quire detailed investigation. Only by comparing con-
Insofar as physical properties of the concrete are cretes of the same compressive strength and of the
concerned, the usual specification is limited to these same air-dry unit weight can the fundamental differ-
items. From a construction standpoint, such proper- ences of concretes made with different aggregates
ties of freshly mixed concrete as bleeding, work- be properly evaluated.
ability, and finish ability must also be considered. It In some areas, only a single source of lightweight
is possible in mix proportioning, especially with aggregate is available. In this case, the concrete pro-
STRUCTURAL LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE CONCRETE 213-9
ducer needs only to determine that weight level of also be sufficient to impart durability and other de-
concrete which satisfies the economy and specified sirable properties.
physical properties of the structure. 3.2.2.2 Finishability. With some lightweight aggre-
3.2.1.3 Modulus of elasticity. This property is dis- gates a properly proportioned, cohesive, lightweight
cussed in detail in Sections 4.6 and 5.3. Although concrete mixture with good workability will nor-
values for Ec are not always specified, information is mally be finish able. Other lightweight aggregates
usually available for concretes made with specific may be deficient in minus No. 30 (0.6 mm) sieve ma-
lightweight aggregates. terial. When this occurs, the finish ability can usu-
3.2.1.4 Slump. Slump should be the lowest value con- ally be improved by using a portion of natural sand,
sistent with the ability to satisfactorily place, consol- by increasing the cement content, or by using satis-
idate, and finish the concrete. (See Section 3.6.1 on factory mineral fines. If practical, sands with a low
finishing. ) fineness modulus, such as those used in masonry
3.2.1.5 Entrained air content. Air entrainment in mortars or finer, should be selected to supplement
lightweight concrete, as in normal weight concrete, such lightweight fines. With increased fineness, less
improves durability. Moreover in concretes made sand will be required to provide satisfactory finish-
with some lightweight aggregates, it is a particu- ability; thus the increase in weight of concrete will
larly effective means of improving workability of be smaller.
otherwise harsh mixtures. The mixing water re- 3.2.3 Water-cement ratio - With lightweight con-
quirement is then lowered while maintaining the crete, the water-cement ratio is not generally used,
same slump, thereby reducing bleeding and segrega- primarily due to uncertainty of calculating that por-
tion. tion of the total water in the mix which is applicable
Recommended ranges of total air contents for to the water-cement ratio. The water absorbed in
lightweight concrete are: the aggregate prior to mixing is not included as part
of the cement paste, and complication is introduced
Maximum size of Air content percent by absorption of some indeterminate part of the wa-
aggregate by volume ter added at the mixer. However, it is quite prob-
3/4 in. (19 mm) 4 to 8 able that this absorbed water is available for con-
3/8 in. (10 mm) 5 to 9 tinued hydration of the cement after normal curing
has ceased. The general practice with lightweight
At times there is a temptation to use a large pro- aggregates is to proportion the mix, and to assess
portion of natural sand in lightweight concrete to re- probable physical characteristics of the concrete, on
duce costs, and then to use a high air content to the basis of a given cement content at a given slump
meet weight requirements. Such a practice usually for particular aggregates.
becomes self-defeating because compressive strength
is thereby lowered 150 psi (1.03 MPa) or more for
each increment of one percent of air beyond the rec- 3.3 - Materials
ommended ranges. The cement content must then be Concrete is composed essentially of cement, aggre-
increased to meet strength requirements. Although gates and water. In some cases an admixture is
the percentages of entrained air required for work- added, generally for the purpose of entraining air,
ability and frost resistance reduce the unit weight of but occasionally for special reasons such as modi-
the concrete, it is not recommended that air con- fying setting time or reducing water content. When
tents be increased beyond the upper limits given ingredients vary, as in the case of aggregates from
above, simply to meet unit weight requirements. Ad- different sources, cements of different types, or by
justment of proportions of aggregates, principally by the use of admixtures, concrete properties may
limiting the normal weight aggregate constituent, is differ appreciably even though the cement content
the safest, and usually the more economical way to and slump are held constant. It is desirable, there-
meet specified unit weight requirements. fore, to make laboratory tests of all the ingredients,
3.2.2 Workability and finishability and to proportion concrete mixtures to meet specifi-
3.2.2.1 Workability. Workability is probably the cations and specific job requirements with the actual
most important property of freshly mixed light- combinations of materials that are economically
weight concrete. Without adequate workability it is available.
difficult, if not impossible, to attain all the other de- 3.3.1 Hydraulic cement - The cement should meet
sired properties of hardened concrete. The most sat- the requirements of ASTM C150 10a (portland cement)
isfactory method developed to evaluate this property or ASTM C595 10b (blended cements). Where close
is the slump test when used in conjunction with the control of air content is required, the use of air-en-
judgment of the technician. training agents rather than air-entraining cement is
The engineer should also keep in mind that light- preferable since the amount of entrained air depends
weight concrete with entrained air has an estab- on characteristics of the fine aggregates and on the
lished record of durability, and that the percentages mixing conditions. Section 4.4 discusses cement con-
of entrained air required for workability will usually tent and its influence on the properties of concrete.
213-10 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
3.3.2 Lightweight aggregates - Lightweight aggre- total of the volumes of cement, fine aggregate, net
gate should meet requirements of ASTM C330 8a for water, and entrained (or entrapped) air. This mortar
lightweight aggregates for structural concrete. Sur- volume must be sufficient to fill the voids in a vol-
faces of aggregate particles have pores varying in ume of dry, rodded coarse aggregate, plus sufficient
size from microscopic to those visible to the eye. additional volume to provide satisfactory work-
Water absorption and rate of absorption may vary ability. This recommended practice is set forth in
widely. These differing characteristics account for ACI 211.1-70,9b and it represents the most widely
the wide range in amounts of mixing water needed used method of proportioning for normal weight con-
to produce a concrete of a given consistency with crete mixtures. While the saturated surface-dry con-
different aggregates. This wide range in water re- dition is most fine and many coarse lightweight ag-
quirements is reflected in a corresponding range of gregates!J·!4 may be difficult to assess accurately,
cement contents necessary to produce a given the absolute volume method can be useful in select-
strength with aggregates from different sources. ing proportions for structural lightweight concretes
The inherent strength of different aggregates also with some lightweight aggregates.
has an important effect on the cement requirement, 3.4.2 Volumetric method - The volumetric method
particularly for higher strength concretes. The rec- is described with examples by ACI Committee 211,9b
ommendations of lightweight aggregate producers It consists essentially of making a trial mix using es-
generally provide the best estimate of the cement timated volumes of cement, coarse and fine aggre-
content and other mix proportions that should be gate, and sufficient added water to produce the re-
used as a starting point in trial batches for selecting quired slump. The resultant mix is observed for
mix proportions. workability and finish ability characteristics. Tests
3.3.3 Normal weight aggregates - Normal weight are made for slump, air content, and fresh unit
aggregates used in structural lightweight concrete weight. Calculations are made for yield (the total
should conform to the provisions of ASTM C33. 8b If batch weight divided by the plastic unit weight) and
finer sand is desired as a supplement, it should con- for actual quantities or weights of materials per unit
form to ASTM C144.8c volume (cu yd or m J) of concrete. Necessary adjust-
3.3.4 Admixtures - Admixtures should conform to ments are calculated and further trial mixes made
appropriate ASTM specifications, and excellent guid- until satisfactory proportions are attained. Prerequi-
ance for use of admixtures may be obtained from the site to the trial mixes is a knowledge of the dry-
ACI Committee 212 report, "Admixtures for Con- loose unit weights of aggregates, the moisture con-
crete".!! tents of the aggregates, an approximation of the op-
timum ratio of coarse and fine aggregates, and an
estimate of required cement content to give the
3.4 - Proportioning and adjusting mixes strength desired.
Proportions for concrete should be selected to 3.4.3 Specific gravity factor method - Trial mix
make the most economical use of available materials basis - The specific gravity factor method, trial mix
to produce concrete of the required physical proper- basis, is described with examples in ACI 211.2-69. A
ties. Basic relationships have been established which trial batch is prepared as in Section 3.4.2 and obser-
provide guides in approaching optimum combinations vations and tests made as mentioned. Displaced vol-
of materials, but final proportions should be estab- umes are calculated for the cement, air, and total
lished by laboratory trial mixes, which are then ad- water (added water plus absorbed water). The re-
justed to provide practical field batches. maining volume is then assigned to the coarse and
The principles and procedures for proportioning fine aggregates, assuming that the volume occupied
normal weight concrete, such as the absolute volume by each is proportional to its dry-loose unit weight.
method described below may be applied in many The specific gravity factor is calculated as the rela-
cases to lightweight concrete. With some aggre- tionship between the dry weight of the aggregate in
gates, these procedures are difficult to use, and the mix and the displaced volume it is assumed to
other methods have been developed. The local ag- occupy. The value so determined is not an actual
gregate producers should be consulted for the par- specific gravity but is only a factor. This factor may,
ticular recommended procedures. however, be used in subsequent calculations as
3.4.1 Absolute volume method - In utilizing the ab- though it were the apparent specific gravity, using
solute volume method, the volume of plastic concrete the principles of absolute volumes, so long as the
produced by any combination of materials is consid- moisture content and density of the aggregates re-
ered equal to the sum of the absolute volumes of ce- mains unchanged.
ment, aggregate, net water, and entrained air. Pro-
portioning by this method requires the
determination of water absorption and the bulk spe- 3.& - Mixing and delivery
cific gravity of the separate sizes of aggregates in a The fundamental principles of ASTM C94 8d apply
saturated surface-dry condition. The principle in- to structural light-weight concrete as they do to nor-
volved is that the "mortar" volume consists of the mal weight concrete. Also, it is recommended that
STRUCTURAL LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE CONCRETE 213-11
immediately prior to discharge, the mixer should be maintained throughout the construction. Proper fin-
rotated approximately ten revolutions at mixing ishing of lightweight concrete floors is described by
speed to minimize segregation. ACI Committee 302 17 and in the Expanded Shale,
In those cases involving aggregates with relatively Clay and Slate Institute's Information Sheet No. 7. 18
low water absorption, no special prewetting is re- 3.6.1.1 Slump. Slump is a most important factor in
quired prior to batching and mixing of the concrete. achieving a good floor surface with lightweight con-
Such aggregates are sometimes stocked in the kiln- crete and generally should be limited to a maximum
dry condition, and at other times they contain some of 4 in. (10 cm). A lower slump, of about 3 in. (8 cm),
amount of moisture. These aggregates may be han- imparts sufficient workability and also maintains
dled according to the procedures which have been cohesiveness and "body", thereby preventing the
established in the ready-mixed concrete industry. 15 lighter coarse particles from working up through the
In so treating these aggregates, it should be realized mortar to the surface. (This is the reverse of normal
that the water to be added at the batching plant weight concretes where segregation results in an ex-
should provide the required slump at the job; i.e., cess of mortar at the surface.) In addition to "sur-
the added water may give high slump at the plant face" segregation, a slump in excess of 4 in. (10 em)
but water absorption into the aggregate will provide will cause unnecessary finishing delays.
the specified slump at the building site. 3.6.1.2 Surface preparation. Surface preparation
In other cases, the absorptive nature of the light- prior to troweling is best accomplished with magne-
weight aggregate may require prewetting to as uni- sium or aluminum screeds and floats which minimize
form a moisture content as possible, or premixing surface tearing and pullouts. Vibrating screeds and
with water, prior to addition of the other ingredients "jitterbugs" (grate tamper or roller type) may be
of the concrete. The proportioned volume of the con- used to advantage in depressing coarse particles and
crete is then maintained and slump loss during developing a good mortar surface for troweling.
transport is minimized. 3.6.1.3 Good practice. A good finish on lightweight
concrete floors can be obtained as follows:
(a) Prevent segregation by:
3.6 - Placing 1. Providing a well-proportioned and cohesive mix
There is little or no difference in the techniques 2. Keeping the slump as low as possible
required for placing lightweight concrete from those 3. Avoiding over-vibration
utilized in properly placing normal weight concrete. (b) Time the finishing operations properly
ACI 304 16 discussed in detail proper and improper (c) Use magnesium, aluminum, or other satisfactory
methods of placing concrete. The most important finishing tools
consideration in handling and placing concrete is to (d) Perform all finishing operations after free surface
avoid separation of the coarse aggregate from the bleeding water has disappeared
mortar portion of the mixture. The basic principles (e) Cure the concrete properly
required to secure a good lightweight concrete job 3.6.2 Curing - On completion of the final finishing
are: operation, curing of the concrete should begin as
• A workable mix utilizing a minimum water con- soon as possible. Ultimate performance of the con-
tent crete will be influenced by the extent of curing pro-
• Equipment capable of expeditiously handling and vided. The two references 17 · 18 of Section 3.6.1 con-
placing this concrete tain excellent information on proper curing of
• Proper consolidation concrete floor slabs. The two methods of curing com-
• Good quality workmanship monly used in the field are (a) water curing (wet cov-
A well proportioned lightweight concrete mix can erings, ponding and sprinkling or soaking), and (b)
generally be placed, screeded, and floated with sub- moisture retention cure (polyethylene film, water-
stantially less effort than that required for normal proof paper, and spray-applied curing compound
weight concrete. Over-vibration or over-working is membranes). In construction practice, 7 days of cur-
often a principle cause of finishing problems in light- ing is generally considered adequate with a temper-
weight concrete. Such abnormal practice only serves ature in excess of 50 F (10 C).
to drive the heavier mortar away from the surface
where it is required for finishing, and to bring an ex- 3. '1 - fIn.ping strnctural lightweight COBDcrete
cess of the lighter coarse aggregate to the surface. 3.7.1 General considerations - The type of aggre-
"Floating" of coarse light-weight aggregate can also gate discussed generally have a surface texture that
occur in mixes in which the slump exceeds the rec- can vary from angular crushed to rounded coated. In
ommendations of Section 3.6.1.1. general, they have the following in common:
3.6.1 Finishing - Good floor surfaces are achieved • Made up of non-connected voids
with properly proportioned quality materials, skilled • Bulk saturated specific gravities of 1.10 to 1.60
supervision, and good workmanship. The quality of .. Top size of 3/4 in. (19 mm)
the job will be in direct proportion to the efforts ex- The ability of the lightweight aggregate to absorb
pended to assure that all of the above essentials are relatively large weights of water in 24 hr is the main
213-12 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
reason for the difficulty in pumping structural light- D. To facilitate pumping, adjustments in the stan-
weight. For this reason it is of primary importance dard mix proportion usually consists of some
to presoak or presaturate the lightweight aggregate slight reduction in the volume of coarse aggre-
before pumping. The presaturating can be accom- gate, with a corresponding increase in the vol-
plished by any of the following: ume of fine aggregate.
E. Cementitious content should be sufficient to ac-
A. ATMOSPHERIC: This can be accomplished by
commodate a 4 in. to 6 in. slump.
using a soaker hose or sprinkler system. A
F. Use a natural sand that is well graded with the
minimum of 24 hr should be allowed with 72 hr
fineness modulus preferably between 2.2 and
or more preferred. This is dependent on the
2.7. Consider the possible addition of a fine
rate of absorption of the aggregate so the sup-
sand if this F.M. is not available.
plier should be consulted. This can be done at
G. Use a properly combined coarse and fine aggre-
the aggregate plant or batch plant.
gate gradation by volume that will prevent the
B. THERMAL: Is accomplished by immersion of
paste from being squeezed through the voids
hot aggregate in water. Must be carefully con-
between aggregate particles. The gradation
trolled and can only be done at the aggregate
comparison should be made by volume rather
plant.
than by weight to account for differences in
C. VACUUM: Is accomplished by introducing dry
specific gravity of various particle sizes.
aggregate into a vessel from which the air can
be evacuated. The vessel is then filled with It should be noted that it may sometimes be advis-
water and returned to atmospheric pressure. able to plan on various mixture designs as the
This also is recommended for the aggregate height of a structure or distance from the pump to
plant only. (This method is covered by a pa- the point of discharge changes. Final evaluation of
tent.) the concrete should be made at discharge end of the
pumping system, as suggested by ACI 304. 16
Pre saturation minimizes the ability of the aggre- 3.7.3 Pump and pump system - After the above
gate to absorb water, therefore, minimizing the
items are discussed and implemented the most im-
slump loss during pumping. This additional moisture portant function has yet to be completed - pumping
also increases the loose density of the lightweight of the concrete. Listed below are some of the key
aggregate which in turn increases the density of the items pertinent to the pump and pumping system.
plastic concrete. This increased weight due to pre-
saturation will eventually be lost to the atmosphere A. Use the largest size line available, preferably a
in drying and provides for additional internal curing. minimum of 5 in.
3.7.2 Proportioning pump mixes - When consid- B. All lines should be clean, the same size, and
ering pumping of lightweight aggregate, it should be buttered with grout.
taken into account that some adjustments may be C. A void rapid reduction from the pump to line.
necessary to achieve the desired finished product. For example, 10 in. to 4 in. in 4 ft will not
The architect, engineer, and contractor should be fa- work as well as 10 in. to 6 in. in 8 ft, then 6 in.
miliar with any adjustments required before the de- to 4 in. in 4 ft.
cision is made as to the method of placement. The D. Reduce the operating pressure by:
ready mix producer and aggregate supplier should " Slowing down rate of placement.
be consulted so that the best possible pump mixture • Using as much steel line and as little rubber
can be determined. It is at this time the architect line as possible.
and engineer can decide if his project specifications • Limiting the number of bends.
will allow changes, if any, that may be needed to ac- • Making sure the lines are tightly joined and
commodate pumping. gasketed.
Assuming the project specifications will allow A field trial should be run using the pump and
pumping there are general rules that apply. These mix design intended for the project. Those present
are based on the use of lightweight coarse aggregate should include representatives of the contractor,
and natural sand fine aggregate. ready-mix producer, architect and engineer, pump-
ing service, testing agency and aggregate supplier.
A. Presaturate lightweight by any of the methods
In the pump trial, the height and length the concrete
given above.
is to be moved should be taken into account. Since
B. Maintain a 564 lb per cu yd minimum cement
most locations will not allow the concrete to be
content.
pumped as high as it would during the project, the
C. Use any admixtures that will aid in pumping.
following rules of thumb can be applied for the hori-
1. Air entrainment sufficient for 5 to 8 percent
zontal run with steel line.
air.
2. Water reducer. 1.0 ft vertical 4.0 ft horizontal
3. Fly ash or natural pozzolan. 1.0 ft rubber hose 2.0 ft of steel
4. Pumping aid. 1.0 ft 90 degree bend 3.0 ft of steel
STRUCTURAL LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE CONCRETE 213-13
3.1 - Laboratory and field eont..ol various properties are presented as the reasonable
Changes in absorbed moisture or density of light- conservative values to be expected in relationship to
weight aggregates (which result from variations in some fixed property such as compressive strength,
initial moisture content, gradation, or specific grav- unit weight, or in the case of fire resistance, slab
ity) and variations in entrained air content"b suggest thickness.
frequent checks of the fresh concrete at the job site References at the end of this chapter consist of
to assure consistent quality. Sampling should be in laboratory reports as well as papers, suggested
accordance with ASTM C172.8' Four simple tests are guides, specifications and standards. In addition, ref-
normally required: (a) standard slump test, ASTM erences that discuss particular structural lightweight
C143,8 f (b) unit weight of the fresh concrete, ASTM concrete structures are included to assist the reader
C567,8g (c) entrained air content, ASTM C173,8' and in comprehending the extensive use of structural
(d) compressive strength, ASTM C3l. 8i lightweight aggregate concrete.
At the job start, the plastic properties, unit
weight, air content, and slump, of the first batch or 4.3 - tollllllpressive strength
two should be determined to verify that the concrete Compressive strength levels required by the con-
conforms to the laboratory mix. Adjustments, if nec- struction industry for the usual design strengths of
essary, may then be made immediately. In general cast-in-place, precast or prestressed concrete can be
when variations in fresh unit weight exceed ±2 per- obtained economically with the structural light-
cent, an adjustment in batch weights may be re- weight aggregates in use today.12,21.26,21,31 Design
quired to restore the concrete properties specified. strengths of 3,000 to 5,000 psi (20.68 to 34.47 MPa)
The air content of lightweight concrete, should not are common. In precast and prestressing plants de-
vary more than ±l.5 percentage points from a spec- sign strengths of 5,000 psi (34.47 MPa) are usual.
ified value to avoid adverse effects on compressive All aggregates have strength ceilings and with
strength, workability, or durability, (see Section lightweight aggregates the strength ceiling gener-
3.2.1.5). ally can be increased at the same cement content
and slump by reducing the maximum size of the
coarse aggregate. For example with a particular
Chapter" - Physical and mechanical lightweight aggregate the ceiling might be 5,500 psi
properties of structural lightweight (37.92 MPa) with a 3f4 in. (19 mm) top size of coarse
aggregate concrete material. By reducing the top size to liz in. (12.5 mm)
or 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) the ceiling might be increased to
4.1- Seope 6,500 (44.81 MPa) or in excess of 7,000 psi (48.25
This chapter presents a summary of the proper- MPa).
ties of structural lightweight aggregate concrete. The compressive strength of lightweight aggre-
The information is based on many laboratory studies gate is usually related to cement content at a given
as well as a large number of existing structures slump rather than water-cement ratio. Water reduc-
that have provided satisfactory service over the ing or plasticizing admixtures are frequently used
years. 19 -49 ,52-69 with lightweight concrete mixtures to increase work-
The customary requirements for structural con- ability and facilitate placing and finishing.
crete are that the mix proportions should be based In some cases, compressive strength can be in-
on laboratory tests or on mixes with previous rec- creased with the partial replacement of lightweight
ords of performance indicating that the proposed fine aggregate with a good quality of natural
combinations of ingredients will perform as required. sand. 34 ,36 The aggregate producer should be con-
The data that are presented may be considered the sulted.
properties anticipated from properly designed mix-
tures of sound materials placed and cured in accor-
4.4 - Cellllllent Nntent
dance with recognized good practice.
The cement and water contents required for a par-
4.2 - Method of presenting data ticular strength and slump are not mechanical prop-
In the past, properties of lightweight concrete erties of concrete. Nevertheless, these factors have
have been compared with those of normal weight significant effects on the hardened concrete proper-
concrete, and usually the comparison has been with ties.
a single normal weight material. With several mil- With lightweight concrete, mix proportions are
lion cubic yards of structural lightweight concrete generally expressed in terms of cement content at a
being placed each year, a comparison of properties is particular slump rather than by the water-cement
usually no longer considered necessary. With the nu- ratio. Increasing the mixing water without increas-
merous structural lightweight aggregates available, ing the cement content will increase slump and also
it is as difficult to furnish absolute property values increase the effective water-cement ratio.
as it is for normal weight concretes made from The usual range of compressive strengths may be
countless aggregates. For this reason, the data on obtained with reasonable cement contents with the
213-14 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
lightweight aggregates being used for structural ap- With a particular lightweight aggregate, natural
plications today. Generally air entraining admixtures sand replacement will increase the unit weight at
are found advantageous. The following table which is the same compressive strength by about 5 to 10 pef
based on a number of tests of job concretes suggests (80 to 160 kg/mJ). With the same source of material
the range of cement contents for 28-day compressive the additional cement required will increase the
strengths for concretes with 3 to 4 in. of slump and weight of 5000 psi (34.47 MPa) concrete over 3000
5 to 7 percent air contents. psi (20.68 MPa) concrete approximately 3 to 6 pet (48
to 96 kg Im J ).
TULE ..... - A"Nxillllllate reladollSld, between
averaliCe NIIIIIIpl"etl8ive strengt.. and eellllllent (!Ooteot
".1 - Mod.... of eludeity
Cement content Ibs/cu yd (kg/m J ) The modulus of elasticity of concrete depends on
Compressive strength the relative amounts of paste and aggregate and the
psi (MPa) All-lightweight Sanded lightweight modulus of each constituent. 58 ,59 Sand and gravel
2500 (17.24) 400-510 (6,386-8,142) 400-510 (6,386-8,142) concrete has a higher E because the moduli of sand
3000 (20_68) 440-560 (7,O25-8,941) 420-560 (6,705-8,941) and gravel are greater than the moduli of structural
4000 (27.58) 530-660 (8,462-10,537) 490-660 (7,822-10,537) lightweight aggregates. Fig. 4.6 gives the range of
5000 (34.47) 630-750 (10,058-11,974) 600-750 (9,579-11,974) modulus of elasticity values for structural all-light-
6000 (41.37) 740-840 (11,814-13,410) 700-840 (11,175-13,410) weight concrete and for sand-lightweight concrete.
Generally the modulus of elasticity for structural
lightweight concrete is considered to vary between
Specified Notes: (1) For compressive strengths of 3000 psi liz to 3f4 that of sand and gravel concrete of the
(20_68 MPa) or less, in order to obtain proper qualities for
same strength. Variations in lightweight aggregate
finishing, cement contents may be higher than necessary
for the compressive strength. (2) For compressive gradation usually have little effect on modulus of
strengths in excess of 5000 psi (34.47 MPa), the aggregate elasticity if the relative volumes of cement paste and
producer should be consulted for specific recommenda- aggregate remain fairly constant.
tions. Type of cement, method of curing, types of admix- The formula for Ee = We 1.5 33VT' ( We 1.5 0.043VT')
tures, extent of mix controls, etc., all have a bearing on given in the ACI Code,80 may be ~sed for values cof
the cement content-compressive strength relationship. w between 90 and 155 pcf (1440 and 2480 kg/ml).
This table is offered merely as a guide, and the aggregate Further discussion of this formula is given in Section
producer should be consulted for more specific recommen- 5.3_ Concretes in service may comply with this for-
dations. mula only within ±15 to 20 percent. An accurate
".5 - Uolt welg..t evaluation of Ec may be obtained for a particular
concrete by laboratory test in accord with the meth-
Weight reduction for concrete of structural quality
is the primary advantage of lightweight concrete. ods of ASTM C469. 8j
Depending upon the source of material, structural
grade lightweight concrete can be obtained in a ".7 - Poissoo's ratio
weight range of 90 to 115 Ib/fV (1440 to 1840 kgl Tests 49 to determine Poisson's ratio of lightweight
m J ). concrete by resonance methods showed that it var-
Producers of structural lightweight aggregate ied only slightly with age, strength or aggregate
stock the material in various size fractions. Each used and that the values varied between 0.16 and
producer usually is able to furnish at least the stan- 0.25 with the average being 0.21. Tests to determine
dard sizes of coarse, intermediate and fine aggre- Poisson's ratio by the static method for lightweight
gate. ASTM limits the weight of the coarse fractions and sand-and-gravel concrete gave values that var-
. . . the first three . . . to 55 pef, (880 kg/mJ) and ied between 0.15 and 0.25 and averaged 0.20, Dy-
the sand or fine fraction to 70 pef (1120 kg/mJ) dry namic tests yielded only slightly higher values.
loose basis. Generally the coarse fractions weight While this property varies slightly with age, test
from 38 to 53 pef (608 to 848 kg/ml) with the larger conditions, concrete strength and aggregate used, a
top size being the lighter for a particular source of value of 0.20 may be usually assumed for practical
material. The sand size will generally range from 50 design purposes. An accurate evaluation may be ob-
to 68 pef (800 to 1088 kg/mJ). tained for a particular concrete by laboratory test
By combining two or more of these size fractions according to the methods of ASTM C469. 8j
or by replacing some or all of the fine fraction with a
good local normal weight sand weighing from 95 to
110 pef. (1520 to 1760 kg/mJ) a weight range of con- ".8 - {;reep
crete of 10 to 15 pef (160 to 240 kg/mJ) can be ob- Creep R5-89 is the increase in strain of concrete due
tained. The aggregate producer is the best source of to a sustained stress. Creep properties of concrete
information for the proper combinations to achieve a may be either beneficial or detrimental, depending
specific unit weight for a satisfactory structural on the structural conditions. Concentrations of
lightweight corrcrete. stress, either compressive or tensile, may be re-
STRUCTURAL LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE CONCRETE 213-15
duced by stress transfer through creep, or creep 4.8.3 Steam cured concrete - Several investigations
may lead to excessive long-time deflection, prestress have shown that creep may be significantly reduced
loss, or loss of camber. The effects of creep along by low pressure curing and very greatly reduced by
with those of drying shrinkage should be considered high pressure steam curing. Fig. 4.8.3 shows that
and, if necessary, taken into account in structural the reduction for low pressure steamed concrete
-designs. may be from 25 to 40 percent of the creep of similar
4.8.1 Factors influencing creep - Creep and drying concretes subjected only to moist curing. The reduc-
shrinkage are closely related phenomena that are af- tion for high pressure steamed concrete may be
fected by many factors, such as: type of aggregate, from 60 to 80 percent of the creep of similar con-
type of cement, gradation of aggregate, water con- cretes subjected only to moist curing. High pressure
tent of the mix, moisture content of aggregate at steam cured concrete has the lowest creep values
time of mix, amount of entrained air, age at initial and the lowest prestress loss due to creep and
loading, magnitude of applied stress, method of cur-
ing, size of specimen or structure, relative humidity
of surrounding air, and period of sustained loading. 0
4.8.2 Normally cured concrete - Fig. 4.8.2 shows '"c 1.6
250 Il-
~
.....
the range in values of specific creep (creep per psi of ~ 200 <1).....
sustained stress) for normally cured concrete, as <1)..... g Fig. 4.8.2
0
1.2 ><
measured in the laboratory (ASTM C512),8' when un- n.
<l>
-><
150 E
der constant loads sustained for a period of one <l> c 0.8
100
.....E
U ..... E
C E
year. These diagrams were prepared with the aid of L-
0.4 50
0
two common assumptions: (a) superposition of creep Q)
>- N 2.0
effects are valid (i.e., creep is proportional to stress <l> c
STEAM
within working stress ranges); and (b) shrinkage C ..... CURE 250 0
Il-
0 1.6
~ ~
strains, as measured on nonloaded specimens, may ..... 200 <1l.....
~ 0 Fig. 4.8.3
be directly separated from creep strains. The band 1.2 -;;
150
of creep properties for all-lightweight aggregate con- E
crete is wide for concrete having a low 28-day com- ."'.....c 0.8
100 .....E
E
E
pressive strength but it sharply decreases as com- 0.4 50
pressive strength increases. The band for sand-
lightweight concrete is narrower than that for the 1200
all-lightweight concrete for all 28-day compressive <1) 1000 <1)
g o
strengths. 31 Fig. 4.8.2 suggests that a very effective "
E
method of reducing creep of lightweight concrete is Q)
" 800 -€ Fig. 4.9.1
CJl -~
to use higher strength concrete. A strength increase 0 .....
600
E
E
.:£ C
from 3000 to 5000 psi (20.68 to 34.47 MPa) reduces C
L-
the creep of all-lightweight concrete from 20 to 40 .c
(f)
400
percent. L-
<.> 4.0 0 1200 1200
W
2.5 <l><1) STEAM
>-0 CURE 1000<1)
"' ....>.'", 3.0 2.0 'It
c
Q) -;; 1000
0
~·o ~ I
c ><
::1:';: >< 1.5 Q 0
"0 2.0 >< ..... 800 800 ~ Fig. 4.9.2
Fig. 4.6 0 '"0 <II 1.0 0
Il-
c .....
E
~w a. 1.0 ~ 600 600 E
..... 0.5
0
0 400 400
3 4 5 6 3 4 5 6
kg /cm 2
600 120 120
500 ?:
.- ... 100 100
.r:.
0;.- 400
0
11.
= 0
.D13 0
~ 200 40 4¢
III
c
cv 600
I- 4.
.r:.
0> +-
c 500 35 .... 0> 7
+-
::;, c
.- ... 3. 0
o~ 6 ~
Fig. 4.10.2
(i.o. 400
(/) 25
11.
::!; =(/) . .
+-.-
::;''0
0. 5 ::!;
900 O.OOS
c
700 ...
0
+- c
0.004
E
... (/)
E
0. 500 ~ 0.OQ3 E
Fig. 4.11(a) ...
cv ::!; ....cv0 E
::;,
300 0.002
Fig. 4.14.1
+-
a. E
::;, :=
a:: 100 ::J 0.001 0.001
.....0
900 1.0 1.0
III
::;, ---- 6 ...
III
0
::;, 700 +- 0.8
'0 III U
0 III 0
4 evIL
~ .;; 500 ~ "- 0.6
0.
3 +-'
Fig. 4. 11 (b) STEAM CURE ::!;
(/)~ ----
300 2 0 0.4 0,4 Fig. 4.14.2
MOIST k2
CD
100 0.2 0.2
3 4 5 6 3 4 5 6
Fig. 4.10.1 - Splitting tensile strength-moist cured Fig. 4.12 - Durability factors-freezing and thawing
concrete
Fig. 4.10.2 - Splitting tensile strength-air dried con- Fig. 4.13 - Bond strength-pullout tests
crete
Fig. 4.11(a) - Modulus of rupture-normally cured
concrete Fig. 4.14.1 - Ultimate strain
shrinkage, while moist cured concrete has the high- considered equal to that of equal compressive
est values. strength normal weight concrete.
4.10.2 Air dried concrete - The tensile strength of
4.1 - Drying shrinkage lightweight concretes which undergo drying is more
Drying shrinkage, is an important property that relevant in respect to behavior of concrete in struc-
affects extent of cracking, prestress loss, effective tures. During drying of the concrete, moisture loss
tensile strength, and warping. It should be recog- progresses at a slow rate into the interior of con-
nized that large-size concrete members, or those in crete members, resulting in the probable devel-
high ambient relative humidities, may undergo sub- opment of tensile stresses at the exterior faces and
stantially less shrinkage than that exhibited by small balancing compressive stresses in the still moist in-
laboratory specimens stored at 50 percent relative terior zones. Thus the tensile resistance to external
humidity. 81 loading of drying lightweight concrete will be re-
4.9.1 Normally cured concrete - Fig. 4.9.1 indicates duced from that indicated by continuously moist
wide ranges of shrinkage values after one year of cured concrete. 24.35. 75 Fig. 4.10.2 indicates this re-
drying for all-lightweight and sand-lightweight con- duced strength for concretes that have been moist
cretes. Noting the position within these ranges of cured 7 days followed by 21 days storage at 50 per-
the reference concrete, it appears that low-strength cent relative humidity (ASTM C330).8. The splitting
lightweight concrete generally has greater drying tensile strength of all-lightweight concrete varies
shrinkage than that of the reference concrete. At from approximately 70 to 100 percent that of the
higher strengths, however, some lightweight con- normal weight reference concrete when comparisons
cretes exhibit lower shrinkage. Partial or full re- are made at equal compressive strength.
placement of the lightweight fines by natural sand Replacement of the lightweight fines by sand gen-
usually reduces shrinkage for concretes made with erally increases the splitting tensile strength of
most lightweight aggregates.30.34.37 lightweight concrete subjected to drying.25.35.67 In
4.9.2 Atmospheric steam cured concrete - Fig. 4.9.2 some cases'5 this increase is nonlinear with respect
demonstrates the reduction of drying shrinkage ob- to the sand content so that with some aggregates
tained through steam curing.23.28.49 This reduction partial sand replacement is as beneficial as complete
may vary from 10 to 40 percent. The lower portion replacement.
of this range is not greatly different from that for Splitting tensile strength is of particular value for
the reference normal weight concrete. estimating the diagonal tension resistance of light-
weight concrete in structures. Tests 24 have shown
4.10 - Splitting tensile strength that the diagonal tension strengths of beams and
The splitting tensile strength 22 of concrete slabs correlate closely with this property of the con-
cylinders (ASTM C496)8m is a convenient relative crete.
measure of tensile strength. The test is performed
by application of diametrically opposite compressive 4.11 - Modullll§ of rapture
loads to a concrete cylinder laid on its side in the The modulus of rupture (ASTM C78)8" is also a
testing machine. Fracture or "splitting" occurs along
measure of the tensile strength of concrete. Fig. 4.11
the diametral plane. The splitting tensile strength is (a) and 4.11 (b) indicate ranges for normally cured
obtained by use of the following formula: and steam cured concretes, respectively. when
2P tested in the moist condition. Similar to the in-
13,770 P dications for splitting tensile strength, the modulus
rrDL rrDL of rupture of moist cured lightweight concrete21·24.75
where appears little different from that of normal weight
ret splitting tensile strength, psi or Pa concrete. A number of studies 24 .75 have indicated
P total applied load, lb or N that modulus of rupture tests of concretes under-
D,L diameter and length of cylinder, respec- going drying are extremely sensitive to the tran-
tively, in. or m sient moisture content, and under these conditions
may not furnish data that is satisfactorily reproduc-
ible.
4.10.1 Moist cured concrete - Fig. 4.10.1 indicates a
narrow range of this property for continuously moist
cured lightweight concretes. The splitting tensile 4.12 - Dal'ahility
strength of the normal weight reference concrete is Freezing and thawing durability and salt-scaling
nearly intermediate within these ranges. Replace- resistance of lightweight concrete are important fac-
ment of lightweight fine aggregate by sand has little tors, particularly in horizontally exposed concrete
or no effect on this property. It thus may be con- construction such as access ramps, exposed parking
cluded 24 • 35 that the tensile strength for continuously floors, or bridge decks. Generally, deterioration is
moist cured lightweight concretes is correlated not likely to occur in vertically exposed members
mainly with the compressive strength and may be such as exterior walls or exposed columns, except in
213-18 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
areas where these structures are continually ex- where bond is critical. Flexural bond of lightweight
posed to water. As in normal weight concretes, it concrete is no different than that of normal weight
has been demonstrated that air entrainment pro- concrete.
vides a high degree of protection to lightweight con-
4.14 - UBtisate strelllgtli faeton
cretes exposed to freezing and thawing and salt en-
vironments. 39. 74 4.14.1 Ultimate strain - Fig. 4.14.1 indicates a
Fig. 4.12 indicates the range of durability factors range of values for ultimate compressive strain for
(similar to that defined in ASTM C-666),8 p for all- all-lightweight concretes. These data were measured
lightweight concretes and for sand-lightweight con- on unreinforced specimens eccentrically loaded to
cretes. The durability factor is the percent of the dy- simulate the behavior of the compression side of a
namic modulus of elasticity retained after 300 cycles reinforced beam in flexure. I 9.20 The data indicated
of freezing and thawing. Some of the concretes for the normal weight reference concrete were ob-
shown in the Fig. 4.12 had relatively poor freeze- tained in the same manner. This diagram indicates
thaw resistance in the lower strength ranges. Gener- that the ultimate compressive strain of most light-
ally these concretes have high water-cement ratios, weight concretes (and of the reference normal
thus the quality of the cement paste is poor. The weight concrete) may be somewhat greater than the
same concretes had a much improved rating at value of 0.003, assumed for design purposes. Further
higher strengths (lower water-cement ratio). Many studies of the ultimate strain of structural light-
lightweight concretes, as shown, can perform equiva- weight concrete are under way.
lent to or better than normal weight concretes. Lim- 4.14.2 Stress block factors - Fig. 4.14.2 presents
ited salt-scaling tests have indicated similar satisfac- coefficients relating to an assumed curvilinear stress
tory performance. Natural sand provides for block at ultimate flexural load. 19 .20 These values
additional resistance at all strength levels. However, were obtained simultaneously with the ultimate
the difference in the resistance of air-entrained all- strains discussed in Section 4.14.l. The factor k1k3
lightweight and sand-lightweight concretes having represents the ratio of the average stress in the
compressive strengths higher than 5000 psi (34.47 stress block to the cylinder strength of the concrete,
MPa) is small. 36 and k2 is the ratio of the depth to the stress block
The use of water-saturated aggregates (approach- centroid and the depth to the neutral axis. For gen-
ing the 24 hr water absorption) at the time of mix- eral design purposes individual values of these
ing generally reduces freezing and thawing resis- coefficients may have little significance.
tance of lightweight concrete. Under some conditions 4.15 - Water absorptiolll of Nlllerete
air-entrainment will improve the durability of con-
Generally, lightweight concretes have considerably
crete made with these saturated aggregates. How-
higher water absorption values than do normal
ever, experience has shown that as such concretes
weight concretes. High absorption, however, does
are allowed to dry, durability improves considerably. not necessarily indicate that concretes will have poor
If freezing and thawing resistance is required in durability or high permeability. Various in-
lightweight concretes, and if it cannot undergo vestigations have failed to reveal any consistent
drying prior to freezing exposure, the moisture con- relationship between water absorption of concrete
tent of the aggregate should be minimized. and its durability.30 The durability of lightweight
concrete, as with normal weight concrete, is primar-
4.13 - .lIId strelllgtli (pllllloOOt tests. ily a function of the cement paste quality, amount of
air entrained in the cement paste, and the quality of
Field performance has indicated satisfactory be-
the aggregate itself. Permeability depends primarily
havior of lightweight concrete with respect to bond.
on the quality of the cement paste.
The bond strength of lightweight concrete to steel
reinforcement, as measured by pull-out strength of 4.16 - Alkali.aggregate R'eaedolll
reinforcing bars [ASTM C234 8q top bars, for 0.01 in. Laboratory studies s.21 concerning potential alkali-
(0.25 mm) slip] has usually been measured for all- aggregate reactivity of structural lightweight aggre-
lightweight concretes. 21.60 Fig. 4.13 indicates the gates have indicated little or no detrimental reaction
range in results for a somewhat limited number of between the alkalis in the concrete and silica in the
tests. These tests simulated the conditions of top aggregates. At least half of a typical shale, for ex-
reinforcing bars in beams and slabs. The bond of ample, is silica (a) but occurs as well crystallized sili-
bottom bars is generally higher in concrete. Further, cates and free quartz rather than the nearly
this test is made only on a single bar, whereas in ac- amorphous forms of silica such as (b) opal and chal-
tual structures the reinforcement consists of an as- cedony known to be reactive.
semblage. If slip should OCcur with one bar in this
assemblage, stress can be transferred to other bars. 4.11 - Dlersa. expalllsiolll
Considering the tensile strength of lightweight con- Only a few determinationss.42.so have been made of
crete, precaution should be exercised to investigate linear thermal expansion coefficients for structural
the length of reinforcement anchorage in those areas lightweight concrete. Approximate values are 4 to 6
STRUCTURAL LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE CONCRETE 213-19
~ 6
/ u
4.18.1 Thermal conductivity - The value of thermal
conductivity, k, is a specific property of a material
(rather than of a construction) and is a measure of
.....
:::)
Iii
:.: 5
(71)-1 "
/,
I' " 0.8 ~
ci
E
.....
I- 3:
the rate at which heat (energy) passes per- :;: I,'
pendicularly through a unit area of homogeneous
i=
u
6 4 /,
// 0.6
material of unit thickness for a temperature gradient z
1/
ou
of one degree: 1/
;;i 3
U.S. units, k = Btu/hr ft> (deg F/in.) /"- 0.4
~ /. .I:!I
(S.1. units, k = WI m· K) lJJ
:I: /.
I- 2
Thermal resistivity is the resistance per unit of
thickness and is equal to 1/ k. 0.2
Thermal conductivity has been determined for
0.1
concretes ranging in oven-dry density from less than
20 to over 200 pcf (320 to 3200 kg/mJ).* Conductivity
values are obtained according to ASTM C1778 , 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
DENSITY, (OVEN DRY), LB/CU FT
guarded hot plate on specimens in an oven-dry con-
dition. Fig. 4.18.1 - Relation of average thermal con-
When k values for concretes having a wide range ductivity, k, values of concrete in oven-dry condition
of densities are plotted against oven-dry density, to density
best-fitting curves show a general dependence of k
on density, as shown in Fig. 4.18.1, originally pub-
lished in 1956. '1 Also shown is the fact that different crete causes an increase in thermal conductivity. In
investigators have provided different relationships. Reference 72, a rule-of-thumb was stated that k in-
These differences are accounted for by differences in creases by 6 percent for each one percent increment
materials, particularly in aggregate mineralogical in free or evaporable moisture, by weight in relation
type and microstructure, and in gradation. Differ- to oven-dry density. k (corrected) =
ences in cement content, and matrix density and
pore structure also occur. Some differences in test k (oven-dry) x (1 + 6 (w_ - Wo))
methods and specimen sizes also existed. Wo
Valore 12 plotted over 400 published test results of
density against the logarithm of conductivity and where w_ and Wo are densities in moist and oven-dry
suggested the equation: conditions, respectively.
k = 0.5 eO.0 2w (k = 0.072 eOOOI25w)
Existing data in the ASHRAE Handbook of Funda- Data on the effect of moisture on k of lightweight
mentals 1977>J compares very closely with the sug- aggregate concretes are mostly of European origin
gested formula. An accurate k value for a given con- and have been summarized by Valore. '2
crete, based on testing by the method of ASTM 4.18.3 Equilibrium moisture content of concrete -
C177 is preferable to an estimated value, but for Concrete in a wall is not in an oven-dry condition; it
purposes of estimation, the formula provides a good is in an air-dry condition. Since k values shown are
base for estimating k for concrete in the oven-dry for oven-dry concrete, it is necessary to know the
condition and, in addition, may easily be revised for moisture content for concrete in equilibrium with its
air-dry conditions. normal environment in service and then apply a
4.18.2 Effect of moisture on thermal conductivity of moisture correction factor for estimating k under an-
concrete - It is generally acknowledged that in- ticipated service conditions. While relative humidity
creasing the free moisture content of hardened con- within masonry units in a wall will vary with type of
occupancy, geographical location, exposure, and with
the seasons, it may be assumed to be a constant reI-
_.L! ___ L ___ !..l!+ .... i>..t h:f\ _ ...... _ ............... T... ~co .fl1 ... f]"o,.. "lIC:OCllnu:~~
213-20 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
thermal expansion and the inherent fire stability of Ponel Thickness, in.
an aggregate already burned to over 2000 F (1100 345 6 7
5~~----~----.-----.-~~r----'
C).*
4.19.1 Heat transmission - Recent research on fire LlghtweiQht 1602 kg/ m3
endurance comparing lightweight aggregate concrete (100 pet)
with normal weight concrete all with Ie' = 4000 psi
4
(27.58 MPa)40 yielded the data shown in Fig. 4.19.1. Sond-Lightweight 1843 kg/m3
In these tests the lightweight aggregate concrete (115 pef)
would be classified as sand-lightweight.
4.19.2 Cover requirements - The thickness of con-
crete between reinforcing steel (or structural steel)
and the nearest fire-exposed surface is called
"cover." For simply supported slabs, beams and CQI-
umns, fire endurance is dependent largely on cover.
The cover requirements for lightweight concrete a~e
~
slightly lower than those for normal weight coo-
crete. I
Carbonate AQOregate
4.19.3 Strength retention - Abrams 4! reported that
carbonate aggregate concrete and lightweight con- Siliceous Aggregate
crete tested hot without prior loading retained about
75 percent of their original strengths (strengths
prior to heating) at 1200 F (649 C). The sanded light- oL-~ ____L-__ ~ ____- L____L -_ _ ~
weight concrete had strength characteristics at high 50 75 100 125 150 175
temperatures similar to carbonate concrete. Panel Thickness, mm
the structural engineer and for the construction in- fined as the product of modulus of elasticity and mo-
dustry, in general, were presented. ment of inertia (EI). Reduced stiffness can be ben-
This chapter of the Guide is intended to interpret eficial at times, and the use of lightweight concrete
the present ACI Code (318-77)80 requirements for should be considered in these cases instead of nor-
structural lightweight concrete. At the same time it mal weight concrete. In cases requiring improved
condenses many practical design aspects pertaining impact or dynamic response, where differential foun-
to lightweight concrete and provides the structural dation settlement may occur, and in certain types or
engineer with additional information on which to configurations of shell roofs, the property of reduced
base engineering judgment. stiffness may be desirable.
It is assumed that a structural engineer will ob-
tain information on the properties of concrete made S.4 - 'fe.He stl"ellllga"
with specific lightweight aggregate (or aggregates) Tensile strength of lightweight concrete, for equal
available for a given project. It is also assumed that compressive strength, is comparable to that of nor-
these aggregates will fall within the frame of refer- mal weight concrete when continuously moistcured
ence presented in this Guide, and that the specifica- specimens are tested. Although the mechanisms of
tions will be prepared so that only suitable struc- drying and the effects of moisture gradients are not
tural lightweight aggregates will be used. fully understood, it is generally recognized that air
drying reduces the tensile strength of lightweight
S.2 - Gellller.1 eo_tler.tloH concrete (see Section 4.10). For this reason test val-
Lightweight aggregate concrete has been shown ues for the diagonal tension resistance oflightweight
by test and performance (see Chapter 4) to behave concrete are generally lower, and hence shear design
structurally in much the same manner as normal formulas in the ACI Code are modified accordingly.
weight concrete, but at the same time to provide There are a few other instances where tensile
some improved concrete properties, notably reduced strength is important, for example, in allowable
weight and better insulation. For certain properties cracking stress for prestressed members and deter-
of concrete, the differences in performance are those mining when deflection calculations should be based
of degree. Now there is often more data available on on a cracked section instead of a homogeneous sec-
the engineering and design properties of structural tion.
lightweight concrete than oil normal weight con-
crete. The new editions of the ACI Code attempt to S.5 - Developllllllellllt lellllga..
modify structural designs in lightweight concrete to Basic development length factors of the ACI Code
achieve approximately the same load factors as for 318-77 80 reflect the lower tensile splitting strength of
normal weight concrete design. Generally those structural lightweight concrete. Provisions for modi-
properties that include tensile strength (see Section fication of development length for all-lightweight and
4.10) and modulus of elasticity (see Section 4.6) are sanded lightweight concretes are similar to the ten-
sufficiently different from those of normal weight sile strength sections of the Code. For a full explana-
concrete to require design modification. tion of use of modification factors see Section 5.8 of
this Guide.
S.3 - Modal. of elutieity
It has been shown that the modulus of elasticity of 5.6 - (;I'eep .lIIItI slBrillllluage
concrete is a function of unit weight and com- Values for creep and shrinkage show sufficient
pressive strength. The formula, E. = W!5 33VJ;' range for concretes made with both normal weight
(Ec = w!·s 0.043v'7;') presented in the 318-77 80 ACI and lightweight aggregates so that average, min-
Code. defines this relationship. Any design calcu- imum, or maximum values can be used only with
lations for lightweight concrete should be based on qualifying phrases.
the corresponding modulus of, for example, deflection Fig. 5.6.1 and 5.6.2 are a summary from NBS
calculations in flexural members, buckling effects in Monograph # 74, after a five-year study of high
long columns or slender beams, and elastic short- strength concretes highly stressed at early ages. It
ening in arches should be based on the Ec value of should be noted that the overlapping of data in-
lightweight concrete. Variations of the ACI formula dicates the "regular" normal weight aggregates do
for E. at the high strength used in prestressed con- not have the standard properties that lightweights
crete are covered in Section 5.12. Depending on how are often compared against. Designs that are based
criticaly the values for Ec will affect the nature of on creep properties or that recognize shrinkage per-
the design, the engineer should decide whether the formance fall into this category. Therefore, when
values determined by formula are sufficiently accu- these properties are included in design considera-
rate, or whether he should call for determination of tions, generalities given in the ACI Code and in
Ec values from tests on the specified concrete. other guides to design are subject to engineering
A lower Eo value for lightweight concrete means judgment, and specific data or performance of job
essentially that it is less stiff, since stiffness is de- materials are the preferred basis for design. Fur-
STRUCTURAL LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE CONCRETE 213·23
adequate.
Investigations into the difference in behavior of I
.20
.10
NORMAL-WEIGHT CONCRETE BAND
o
....:.M-..-n-Tn-nrr\ \ \ \ \ \ \\ \ \ \ \ \'\'\ \\ \ \\\\ \ \\\ \ \ \\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\. .05
o
J-----------------------------------------------------------------------------~ .30
~m\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\~\\\\\~: .20
TIME. YEARS
Fig. 5.6.2 - SampJe data showing results to date for ESCSI creep program
213-24 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
parative studies of lightweight and normal weight tablished for each desired compressive strength and
concrete show that the ratio of creep strain is the composition of concrete. The fc, values on which the
same for both lightweight and normal weight con- structural design is based should be incorporated in
crete. Comparative shrinkage values for concrete the concrete specifications for the job. Splitting cyl-
vary appreciably with variations in component mate- inder strength tests should also be required by the
rials, and may even be less for concrete made with a specification to insure that the design concretes, us-
high quality lightweight aggregate than for that ing the selected aggregate, satisfy the fe, require-
made with marginal normal weight aggregate (see ment. These tests should be performed in accor-
Section 4.9). In typical cases, however, the shrinkage dance with "Specifications For Lightweight
of lightweight concrete may be somewhat greater Aggregates For Structural Concrete" (ASTM C330).
than comparable normal weight concrete. The effect Once the fe, has been confirmed for the specific con-
of shrinkage on deflection arises from the restraint cretes to be used on the job, it is not necessary to
of shrinkage due to steel reinforcement. Tests have run additional splitting cylinder tests during con-
shown that for usual amounts of reinforcements, the struction for quality control purposes. The concrete's
effect of shrinkage on deflection is quite small re- compressive strength is an indication of the con-
gardless of type of concrete. Thus, the difference be- crete's splitting tensile strength, and therefore field
tween the shrinkage deflection of lightweight and tests of fe, need not be conducted.
normal weight members of comparable design must A second, generally conservative, approach in cal-
be quite small. Such an analysis of deflection due to culating the permissible shear may be used when
elastic strain, creep and shrinkage, leads to the same the engineer is unable or is hesitant to specify fer
factor given in Section 9.5.2.5 of ACI 318-7780 and it values. Reduction factors are available which may be
is recommended that this factor for obtaining long- used to determine the shear of lightweight or natu-
term deflections be used for both types of concrete. ral sand lightweight concrete as a fixed percentage
More refined approaches to estimating deflections of normal weight concrete shear. Research JS on the
are, in general, not warranted. splitting tensile strength of lightweight concrete
shows some improvement in tensile strength when
natural sand is used in place of the lightweight fine
S.I - SlIIear allld diagolllal telllSlolII aggregate. Two reduction factors have, therefore,
Lightweight concrete members, subject to shear been established: 75 percent of normal weight values
and diagonal tension, behave in fundamentally the for all lightweight aggregates; and 85 percent of nor-
same manner as normal weight concrete members. mal weight values for combinations of natural sand
In both cases, the shear and diagonal tension capac- fine aggregates and lightweight coarse aggregates.
ity of the concrete member is determined primarily Since reduction in dead weight leads to a sub-
on the tensile capacity of an unreinforced web. Since stantial reduction in total load on lightweight con-
most concrete in construction is subjected to air crete members, shear capacity, reduced to as much
drying, lightweight concrete will generally have as 75 percent that of normal weight con~rete, does
lower tensile strength than normal weight concrete not necessarily lead to an increase in web reinforce-
of equal compressive strength (see Section 4.10). ACI ment, or for that matter, a decrease in relative
318-7780 provides two alternate approaches by which structural efficiency.
the permissible shear capacity in a lightweight con-
crete member may be determined. The permissible
shear capacity may be determined by utilizing the S.9 - Strelllgtlll desAglII
splitting tensile strength fe, for the specific aggre- The strength design requirements in the ACI
gate to be used or by using a fixed percentage of a Code 80 for flexural computations and for combined
similar strength normal weight concrete. axial compression and bending apply to structural
Using the first approach to calculate the per- lightweight concrete. Where the code requires a dif-
missible shear, the value of fe,/6.7 is substituted for ferentiation due to the reduced modulus the equa-
V7;' in the provisions of Chapter 11 of the Code. A tions are suitably modified.
few lightweight aggregates develop high tensile For example, the code assumes the maximum com-
strength 24 • 35 so that the shear performance of con- pressive strain in the extreme fiber to be 0.003.
crete members using these aggregates is comparable Tests 19 . 2o have shown this to be a reasonably con-
to similar members of normal weight concrete. The servative assumption for both normal weight and
possible shear capacity for lightweight concrete lightweight concrete. In a similar manner, certain of
members, however, should never exceed that of the the basic coefficients, can be shown to apply to both
normal weight concrete of the same strength. lightweight and normal weight concrete. 20
Most structural lightweight aggregate producers The basic philosophy in the design for flexural ca-
have sufficient data available to realistically estimate pacity is that failure will occur by yielding of the
the range of fe, values which can be achieved using steel rather than by crushing of the concrete. The
all lightweight coarse and natural fine aggregates. A formulas have been prescribed to insure this type of
realistic value of f et for design purposes should be es- performance, and hence the properties of the con-
STRUCTURAL LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE CONCRETE 213-25
crete, once adequate strength is maintained, are not Prestressed lightweight concrete has been used
of major importance to ultimate safety of structures. extensively in roofs, walls, and floors of buildings.
Tests of lightweight concrete members to failure Particularly in flat plate construction, prestressed
have verified the ultimate strength design of the lightweight aggregate concrete has found extensive
members. 44 •54 use. For these uses, the reduced dead weight with
its lower structural, seismic and foundation loads,
5.10 - Working stress design the better thermal insulation and better fire resis-
While the Code has esse:ltially de-emphasized tance have usually been the determining factors in
what was originally titled working stress design, it the selection of prestressed lightweight concrete. 81
still includes this approach as an alternate design Several newer applications of the material appear
method. The difference in concretes caused by the promising. Many of these are based on its energy-ab-
differences in modulus are suitably accounted for. sorption properties and reduced modulus of elasti-
city, others on its thermal properties, and still oth-
5. II - «::O"IBilllns ers on its greatly reduced submerged weight.
The design of columns using structural lightweight Prestressed lightweight concrete has been used in
concrete is essentially the same as for normal weight composite action with normal weight concrete. Many
concrete. The reduced modulus should be used in the combinations have been tried and have proved suc-
code sections in which slenderness effects are consid- cessful structurally. These combinations are:
ered. .. Prestressed lightweight aggregate concrete joists
Extensive tests 85 . 86 comparing the time-dependent and beams with deck slab of normal weight concrete
behavior of structural lightweight and normal cast-in-place.
weight columns developed the following facts.
1. Instantaneous shortening caused by initial loading .. Prestressed lightweight aggregate concrete joists
can be accurately predicted by elastic theory. Such and beams with deck slab of lightweight aggregate
shortening of a lightweight concrete column will be concrete cast-in-place.
greater than that of a comparable normal weight col- .. Prestressed normal weight concrete beams with
umn due to the lower modulus of elasticity of light- cast-in-place lightweight aggregate concrete.
weight concrete.
2. Time-dependent shortenings of lightweight and .. In general, combinations 1 and 2 are most efficient
normal weight concretes may differ when small un- because of the relative moduli of elasticity. How-
reinforced specimens are compared. However, these ever, combination 3 has proved suitable in many
differences are minimized when large reinforced con- cases including bridge structures.
crete columns are tested; both increasing size and
5.12.2 Properties - When lightweight aggregate
longitudinal reinforcements reduce time-dependent
concrete is used with prestressing, it must possess
shortenings. Measured time-dependent shortenings
·two important properties; the aggregates must be of
were compared with those predicted by theory and
high quality, and the concrete mix must have high
satisfactory correlations were found.
strength. All the properties of lightweight aggregate
3. Measured ultimate strengths were compared with
concrete are affected to some extent by the moisture
theory and good correlations were found. Both con-
conditions of the concrete. The lightweight aggre-
crete type and previous loading had no effect on this
gates in general use are expanded shales, clays, and
correlation.
slates.
4. The lightweight concrete columns generally had
The following is a summary of the properties of
slightly greater ultimate strain capacity when they
prestressed lightweight concrete:
were unreinforced. When reinforced, the strain ca-
pacities were closely similar. Unit weight - The range is between 100 to 120 lb
per cu ft.
5.IZ - Prestressed Iiglit1,'eiglit Nllel'ete
applieadons Compressive Strength - Only high strength con-
crete can be used with prestressing. In general, the
5.12.1 Applications - In recent years prestressed
commercial range of strengths is between 4000 and
lightweight aggregate concrete has been widely used
6000 psi (27.58 and 41.36 MPa).
in both North America and Europe. The new mate-
rial has been found particularly useful in certain Modulus of Elasticity - An approximate formula for
building applications and, to some extent, in nearly evaluating the modulus of elasticity of lightweight
every application for which prestressed normal aggregate concrete in highstrength prestressed ap-
weight concrete has been employed. The most bene- plications can be achieved by a modification of the
ficial applications are those in which the unique formula listed in Section 8.5 of ACI 318-77_ 80
properties of prestressed lightweight aggregate con- The above formula relates K values to the
crete are fully utilized. It is selected not merely as a strength and unit weight of the concrete. In general,
lightweight substitute for prestressed normal weight the ACI formula for evaluating K tends to over-
concrete but as a new material in its own right. estimate K values at high concrete strengths.
213-26 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
When accurate values of Ec are required, it is bution of the lower coefficient of thermal expansion
suggested that either (1) a laboratory test or (2) the of the lightweight aggregate itself is a fundamental
following modified formula be used: design consideration in exposed members. The ex-
Ec = w/ 5 CVT' c pansion and contraction of exposed columns of tall
where C is a coefficient depending upon the strength buildings induces shearing forces and bending mo-
of the concrete and the other symbols are the same ments into floor frames that are connected to inte-
as those used in the ACI Code formula. 79 rior members that are subject to unchanging interior
C = 31 when Ie' 5000 psi (C = .040 when Ie' structural members. The architectural decision to lo-
34.47 MPa) cate glass window lines must of necessity take into
C = 29 when Ie' 6000 psi (C = .038 when Ie' account the conductivity and the expansion of
41.36 MPa) coefficients of the exposed concretes.
Combined loss 01 prestress - This is about 110 to • The lower modulus of expansion will develop
115 percent of the total losses for normal weight lower stress changes in members exposed to thermal
concrete when both are subjected to normal curing; strains.
124 percent of the total losses for normal weight A comparative thermal investigation 92 studying
concrete when both are subjected to steam curing. the shortening developed by the average temper-
Steam curing reduces the total prestress loss by ature of an exposed column restrained by the inte-
30 to 40 percent compared with normal curing. rior frame demonstrated the fact that the axial
Thermal insulation - The much greater thermal in- shortening effects were about 30 percent smaller for
sulation of lightweight aggregate concrete has a de- structural lightweight concrete and the stresses due
cided effect on prestressing applications, because of to restrained bowing were about 35 percent less
the following factors: with structural lightweight concrete. The analysis,
(a) Greater temperature differential in service be- conducted on a 20 story concrete frame, used the fol-
tween the side exposed to sun and the inside may lowing assumptions:
cause greater camber; Structural
(b) Better response to steam curing; Normal lightweight
(c) Greater suitability for winter concreting; weight concrete
(d) Better fire resistance.
Thermal conductivity 12.0 5.0
Dynamic, shock, vibration and seismic resistance -
Prestressed lightweight concrete appears at least as Coefficient of linear
good as normal weight concrete and might even be thermal expansion 5.5 x 10- 6 4.5 X 10- 6
better due to its greater resilience and lower Modulus of elasticity
modulus of elasticity. (4.0hi) 3.6 x 106 2.5 X 106
Cover Requirements - Permeability stress crack (27.58 MPa) (24,840 MPa) (17,250 MPa)
spacing and stress crack width of lightweight con-
crete are essentially the same as for normal weight
concrete and require no change to cover require-
ments over reinforcement. Where fire requirements For an exact structural analysis use physical prop-
dictate the cover requirements, the insulating effects erty data on local aggregates obtained from light-
developed by the lower density, as well as the fire weight and natural aggregate suppliers.
stability offered by a pre-burned aggregate may be Numerous practical examples demonstrating Iso-
used to considerable advantage. therms and average temperatures developed in both
lightweight and normal weight concrete exposed col-
umns are fully shown 91 including the practical con-
siderations of how the thermal inertia of structural
$.13 - nerllllllal deMg. Nulderadou lightweight concrete serves to minimize con-
In concrete elements exposed to environmental densation. With concrete frame buildings reaching
conditions, the choice of lightweight concrete will for higher heights the structural approach to con-
provide several distinct advantages over natural ag~ trolling the temperature movements require an
gregate concrete. 90.91.92 These physical properties exact understanding of the contribution of the supe-
covered in detail in Chapter 4 are: rior thermal response of structural lightweight con-
• The lower conductivity provides a thermal inertia crete.
that lengthens the time for exposed members to
reach any steady state temperature.
• Due to this resistance, the effective interior tem- $.14 - Seisllllllie deslgD
perature change will be smaller under transient tem- Structural lightweight concrete is particularly
perature conditions. This time lag will moderate the adaptable to seismic design and construction because
solar build-up and nightly cooling effects. of the significant reduction in dead weight. A large
• The lower coefficient of linear thermal expansion number of multistory buildings as well as bridge
that is developed in the concrete due to the contri- structures have effectively utilized lightweight con-
STRUCTURAL LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE CONCRETE 213-27
crete in areas subject to earthquakes principally load tests shall be the same as for normal weight
along the West Coast of the U.S. and in those concrete.
countries bordering the Pacific Ocean Rim. In general, most structural lightweight aggregate
The lateral or horizontal forces acting upon a suppliers have suggested specifications pertaining to
structure during earthquake motions are directly their material.
proportional to the inertia or weight of that struc-
ture. These lateral forces may be calculated by rec-
ognized formulas and are applied with the other load
factors. Cla.pter 6 - References
1. "Story of the Selma," Expanded Shale, Clay and Slate
Institute, Washington, D.C., 2nd Edition, June 1960, 11
5.15 - Speemeadons pp.
Lightweight concrete may be specified and propor-
2. Tuthill, L. H., "Concrete Operations in the Concrete
tioned on the basis of laboratory trial batches or on Ship Program," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 41, No.3,
field experience with the materials to be employed. Jan. 1945, pp. 137-180.
Most structural lightweight aggregate suppliers
3. "Lightweight Aggregate Concretes," Housing and
have mix proportioning information available for
Home Finance Agency, Washington, D.C. Aug. 1949 (out
their material, and many producers provide field of print, see References 4 and 5).
control and technical service to assure that the qual-
4. Kluge, R. W.; Sparks, M.M.; and Tuma, E. C., "Light-
ity of concrete specified will be used.
weight-Aggregate Concrete," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings
The average strength requirements for light- V. 45, No.9, May 1949, pp. 625-644.
weight concrete do not differ from those for normal
weight concretes for the same degree of field con- 5. Price, W. H., and Cordon, W. A., "Tests of Light-
weight-Aggregate Concrete Designed for Monolithic Con-
trol. struction," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 45, No.8, Apr.
It should be observed that 28-day compressive 1949, pp. 581-600.
strength tests are based on the methods of ASTM
6. Richart, F. E., and Jensen, V. P., "Construction and
C39 which requires that the test cylinders be contin-
Design Features of Haydite Concrete," ACI JOURNAL, Pro-
uously moist-cured. One reason for confusion on this ceedings V. 27, No.2, Oct. 1930, pp. 151-182.
point with lightweight concrete is that ASTM C330
7. Washa, G. W., and Wendt, K. F., "The Properties of
specifies that tests for the 28-day compressive
Lightweight Structural Concrete Made with Waylite Ag-
strength to determine the concrete-making proper- gregate:' ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 38, No.6, June
ties of a lightweight aggregate be done on test cylin- 1942, pp. 505-520.
ders that are air dried for the final 21 days at 50 B. "Concrete and Mineral Aggregates," 1978 Book of
percent relative humidity. Since there is some slight ASTM Standards, Part 14, American Society for Testing
improvement in apparent compressive strength and Materials, Philadelphia, 814 pp.
when the specimens are tested air-dried, the stan- a. C330, "Specifications for Lightweight Aggregates
dard test method leads to conservative test values. for Structural Concrete."
Cylinders continuously moist-cured should not be b. C33, "Specifications for Concrete Aggregates."
weighed and measured and used to determine the c. C144, "Specifications for Aggregate for Masonry
28-day density of the concrete. Mortar."
Lightweight aggregate concrete that, after curing, d. C94, "Specifications for Ready-Mixed Concrete."
will be exposed to freezing shall have a specified e. C172, "Method of Sampling Fresh Concrete."
f. C143, "Method of Slump for Portland Cement Con-
compressive strength Ie' of at least 3000 psi (20.68
crete."
MPa) and have entrained air in accordance with ACI g. C567. "Method of Test for Unit Weight of Struc-
318.77. 80 tural Lightweight Concrete."
Lightweight aggregate concrete that is intended h. C173. "Method of Test for Air Content of Freshly
to be watertight shall have a specified compressive Mixed Concrete by the Volumetric method."
strength Ie' of at least 3750 psi (25.84 MPa) for ex- i. C31, "Method of Making and Curing Concrete Test
posure to fresh water and 4000 psi (27.58 MPa) for Specimens in the Field."
exposure to sea water. j. C469, "Method of Test for Static Modulus of Elasti-
Lightweight aggregate concrete that will be ex- city and Poisson's Ratio of Concrete in Compression."
posed to injurious concentrations of sulfate-contain- k. C512, "Method of Test for Creep of Concrete in
ing solutions shall be made with sulfate-resisting ce- Compression."
I. C496, "Method of Test for Splitting Tensile
ment and have a specified compressive strength Ie'
Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Cylinders."
of at least 3750 psi (25.84 MPa). m. C78, "Method of Test for Flexural Strength of Con-
Splitting tensile strength tests shall not be used crete Using Simple Beam with Third-Point Loading.
as a basis for field acceptance of lightweight aggre- n. C666. "Method of Test for Resistance of Concrete to
gate concrete. Rapid Freezing and Thawing."
The analysis of the load-carrying capacity of a o. C234. "Method of Test for Comparing Concretes on
lightweight concrete structure either by cores or the Basis of the Bond Developed with Reinforcing Steel."
213-28 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
p. C39, "Method of Test for Compressive Strength of 23. Shideler, J. J., "Manufacture and use of Lightweight
Cylindrical Concrete Cylinders." Aggregates for Structural Concrete," Development De-
q. C177, "Thermal Conductivity of Materials by the partment Bulletin No. D40, Portland Cement Association,
Guarded Hot Plate," Part 18. Jan. 1961, pp. 3-14.
9a. ACI Committee 211, "Recommended Practice for Se- 24. Hanson, J. A., "Tensile Strength and Diagonal Ten-
lecting Proportions for Structural Lightweight Concrete sion Resistance of Structural Lightweight Concrete," ACI
(ACI 211.2-69) (Revised 1977)," American Concrete In- JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 58, No.1 July 1961, pp. 1-40.
stitute, Detroit, 1977, 19 pp. Also, PCA Development Department Bulletin No. D50.
9b. ACI Committee 211, "Recommended Practice for Se- 25. "Discussion of Reference 24," ACI JOURNAL, Pro-
lection Proportions for Normal Weight Concrete (ACI ceedings V. 59, No.3, Mar. 1962, pp. 803-810.
211.1-70)," American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1970, 16 26. Hanson, J. A., "Strength of Structural Lightweight
pp. Concrete Under Combined Stress," Journal, PCA Re-
lOa. "Specification for Portland Cement," (ASTM C150), search and Development Laboratories, V. 5., No.1, Jan.
1978 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 13, American Society 1963, pp. 39-46. Also, PCA Development Department Bul-
for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, pp. 143-149. letin No. D61.
lOb. "Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements," 27. Hanson, J. A., "Optimum Steam Curing Procedure in
(ASTM C595), 1978 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 14, Precasting Plants," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 50, No.
American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, I, Jan. 1963, pp. 75-100. Also, PCA Development Depart-
pp. 345-353. ment Bulletin No. D62.
11. ACI Committee 212, "Admixtures for Concrete," ACI 28. Hanson, J. A., "Prestress Loss as Affected by Type
JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 60, No. 11, Nov. 1963, pp. 1481- of Curing," Journal, Prestressed Concrete Institute, V. 9,
1524. No.2, Apr. 1964, pp. 69-93. Also, PCA Development De-
12. Lewis, D. W., "Lightweight Concrete Made with Ex- partment Bulletin No. D75.
panded Blast Furnace Slag," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings 29. Hognestad, E.; Elstner, R C.; and Hanson, J. A.,
V. 55, No.5, Nov. 1958, pp. 619-634. "Shear Strength of Reinforced Structural Lightweight Ag-
13. Landgren, R, "Determining the Water Absorption of gregate Concrete Slabs," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V.
Coarse Lightweight Aggregates for Concrete," Pro- 61, No.6, June 1964, pp. 643-656. Also, PCA Development
ceedings, ASTM, Philadelphia, V. 64, 1964, pp. 846-865. Department Bulletin No. D78.
Also, PCA Research Department Bulletin No. 179. 30. Hanson, J. A., "Replacement of Lightweight Aggre-
14. Landgren, R; Hanson, J. A.; and Pfeifer, D. W., "An gate Fines with Natural Sand in Structural Concrete,"
Improved Procedure for Proportioning Mixes of Structural ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 61, No.7, July 1974, pp.
Lightweight Concrete," Journal, PCA Research and Devel- 779-794. Als(J, PCA Development Department Bulletin No.
opment Laboratories, V. 7, No.2, May 1965, pp. 47-65. D80.
Also, PCA Research Department Bulletin No. 183. 31. Hanson, J. A., "Optimum Steam Curing Procedures
15. ACI Committee 301. "Specifications for Structural for Structural Lightweight Concrete," ACI JOURNAL, Pro-
Concrete for Buildings (ACI 301-66)," American Concrete ceedings V. 62, No.6, June 1965, pp. 661-672. Also PCA
Institute, Detroit 1966, 56 pp. Development Department Bulletin No. D92.
16. ACI Committee 304, "Recommended Practice for 32. Pfeifer, D. W., and Hanson, J. A., "Precast Concrete
Measuring, Mixing, Transporting, and Placing Concrete Wall Panels: Flexural Stiffness of Sandwich Panels," Sym-
(ACI 304-73)," American Concrete Institute, Detroit, !973, posium on Precast Concrete Wall Panels, SP-11, American
Concrete Institute, Detroit 1965, pp. 67-86. Also, PCA De-
40 pp.
velopment Department Bulletin No. D99.
17. ACI Committee 302, "Proposed Recommended Prac-
33. Brewer, H. W., "General Relation of Heat Flow Fac-
tice for Concrete Floor and Slab Construction," ACI JOUR-
tors to the Unit Weight of Concrete," Journal, PCA Re-
NAL, Proceedings V. 63, No.1, Jan. 1966, pp. 1-58.
search and Development Laboratories, V. 9, No.1, Jan.
18. "Floor Finishing," Lightweight Concrete Information 1967, pp. 48-60. Also, PCA Development Department Bul-
Sheet No.7, Expanded Shale, Clay and Slate Institute, letin No. D114.
Washington, D.C., Apr. 1966. 34. Pfeifer, D. W., and Hanson, J. A., "Sand Replace-
19. Hognestad, Eivind; Hanson, N. W.; and McHenry, ment in Structural Lightweight Concretes-Sintering Grate
Douglas, "Concrete Stress Distribution in Ultimate Aggregates," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 64, No.3,
Strength Design," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 52, No. Mar. 1967, pp. 121-127. Also, PCA Development Depart-
4, Dec. 1955, pp. 455-480. Also, PCA Development Depart- ment Bulletin No. D115_
ment Bulletin No. D6. 35. Pfeifer, D. W., "Sand Replacement in Structural
20. "Discussion of Reference 19," ACI JOURNAL, Pro- Lightweight Concrete - Splitting Tensile Strength," ACI
ceedings V. 52, No.6, Dec. 1956, pp. 1305-1330. Also, PCA JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 64, No.7, July 1967, pp. 384-392.
Development Department Bulletin No. D6A. 36. Pfeifer, D. W., "Sand Replacement in Structural
21. Shideler, J. J., "Lightweight-Aggregate Concrete for Lightweight Concrete - Freeze-Thaw Tests," Private
Structural Use," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 54, No.4, Communication.
Oct. 1957, pp. 299-328. Also, PCA Development Depart- 37. Pfeifer, D. W., "Sand Replacement in Structural
ment Bulletin No. D17. Lightweight Concrete - Creep and Shrinkage Studies,"
22. Hanson, J. A., "Shear Strength of Lightweight Rein- Private Communication.
forced Concrete Beams," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 55, 38_ Pfeifer, D. W., "Sand Replacement in Structural
No.3, Sept. 1958, pp. 387-404. Also, PCA Development Lightweight Concrete - Sintered Fly Ash Aggregates,"
Department Bulletin No. D22. Private Communication.
STRUCTURAL LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE CONCRETE 213-29
39. Klieger, P., and Hanson, J. A., "Freezing and Thaw· 54. Norby, G. M., and Venuti, W. J., "Fatigue and Static
ing Tests of Lightweight Aggregate Concrete," ACI JOUR- Tests of Steel Strand Prestressed Beams of Expanded
NAL, Proceedings V. 57, No. I, Jan. 1961, pp. 779-796. Shale Concrete and Conventional Concrete," ACI JOUR·
Also, PCA Research Department Bulletin No. 121. NAL, Proceedings V. 54, No.2, Aug. 1957, pp. 141-160.
40. Abrams, M. S., and Gustaferro, A. H., "Fire Endur- 55. Kluge, R. W., "Structural Lightweight-Aggregate
ance of Concrete Slabs as Influenced by Thickness, Aggre- Concrete," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 53, No.4, Oct.
gate Type, and Moisture," Journal, PCA Research and De· 1956, pp. 383-402.
velopment Laboratories, V. 10, No.2, May 1968, pp. 9-24. 56. Washa, G. W., "Properties of Lightweight Aggre-
41. Abrams, Melvin S., "Compressive Strength of Con· gates and Concretes," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 53,
crete at Temperatures to 1600o F," Temperature and Con· No.4, Oct. 1956, pp. 375-382.
crete, SP-25, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1971, 57. Chubbuck, E. R., "The Effect of Curing, Air Entrain-
pp. 33-58. ment, and Aggregate Characteristics on Creep and Shrink-
42. Monfore, G. E., and Lentz, A. E., "Physical Proper- age of Concrete," Kansas State College, Manhattan, June
ties of Concrete at Very Low Temperatures," Journal, 1954.
PCA Research and Development Laboratories, V. 4, No.2, 58. La Rue, H. A., "Modulus of Elasticity of Aggregates
May 1962, pp. 33-39. Also, PCA Research Department Bul- and Its Effect on Concrete," Proceedings, ASTM, V. 46,
letin No. 145. 1946, pp. 1298-1309.
43. Carlson, C. C., "Fire Resistance of Prestressed Con- 59. Pauw, A., "Static Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete
crete Beams. Study A - Influence of Thickness of Con· as Affected by Density," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 57.
crete Covering Over Prestressing Steel Strand," Research No. 12, Dec. 1960, pp. 679-688.
Department Bulletin, No. 147, Portland Cement Associa- 60. Baldwin, J. W., Jr., "Bond of Reinforcement in
tion, July 1962, pp. 1-36. Lightweight Aggregate Concrete," Private Commu-
44. Selvaggio, S. L., and Carlson, C. C., "Fire Resistance nication.
of Prestressed Concrete Beams. Study B. Influence of Ag- 61. Gray, W. H.; McLaughlin, J. F.; and Antrim, J. D.,
gregate and Load Intensity," Journal PCA Research and "Fatigue Properties of Lightweight Aggregate Concrete,"
Development Laboratories, V. 6, No. I, Jan. 1964, pp. 41- ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 58, No.8, Aug. 1961, pp.
64; and V. 6, May 1964, pp. 10-25. Also, PCA Research De- 149-162.
partment Bulletin No. 171. 62. Williams, H. A., "Fatigue Tests of Lightweight Ag-
45. "Fire Resistance of Expanded Shale, Clay and Slate gregate Concrete Beams," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V.
Structural Lightweight Concrete," Expanded Clay, Shale 39, No.5, Apr. 1943, pp. 441-448.
and Slate Institute, Washington, D.C., 1972. 63. Jones, T. R., Jr.; Hirsch, T. J.; and Stephenson,
46. Lentz, A. E., and Monfore, G. E., "Thermal Con- H. K., "The Physical Properties of Structural Quality
ductivity of Concrete at Very Low Temperatures," Journal Lightweight Aggregate Concrete," Texas Transportation
PCA Research and Development Laboratories, V. 7, No.2, Institute, Texas A and M College System, Aug. 1959, 46
May 1965, pp. 39-46. Also, PCA Research Department Bul- pp. •
Jetin No. 182. 64. Jones, T. R., Jr., and Hirsh, T. J., "Creep and
47. Cruz, C. R., "Elastic Properties of Concrete at High Shrinkage in Lightweight Concrete," Proceedings, Highway
Temperatures," Journal, PCA Research and Development Research Board, V. 38, 1959, pp. 74-89.
Laboratories, V. 8, No. I, Jan. 1966, pp. 37-45. Also, PCA 65. Hirsch, T. J., "Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete Af-
Research Department Bulletin No. 191. fected by Elastic Moduli of Cement Paste Matrix and Ag-
48. "Fire Resistance of Post-Tensioned Structures," Pre- gregate," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 59, No.3, Mar.
stressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, 1973, 21 pp. 1962, pp. 427-452.
49. Reichard, T. W., "Creep and Drying Shrinkage of 66. Ledbetter, W. B., "Correlation Studies of Fundamen-
Lightweight and Normal-Weight Concretes," Monograph tal Aggregate Properties with Freeze-Thaw Durability of
74, National Bureau of Standards, United States Depart- Structural Lightweight Concrete," Texas Transportation
ment of Commerce, Mar. 4, 1965, pp. 1-30 (Available from Institute, Texas A and M University, Aug. 1965.
Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing 67. Ivey, D. L., and Buth, E., "Splitting Tension Test on
Office, Washington, D.C.) Structural Lightweight Concrete," ASTM Journal of Mate-
50. Petersen, P. H., "Burned Shale and Expanded Slag rials, V. I, No.4, Dec. 1966, pp. 859-871.
Concretes With and Without Air-Entraining Admixture," 68. Ledbetter, W. B., and Thompson, J. N., "A Tech-
ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 45, No. I, Oct. 1948, pp. nique for Evaluation of Tensile and Volume Change Char-
165-176 acteristics of Structural Lightweight Concrete," Pro-
51. Rowley, F. R., and Algren, A. R., "Thermal Con- ceedings, ASTM, V. 65, 1965, pp. 712-728.
ductivity of Building Materials," Bulletin No. 12, Engineer- 69. Ledbetter. W. B.; Perry E. S.; Houston, J. T.; and
ing Experiment Station, University of Minnesota, Min- Thompson, J. N., "Critical Mechanical Properties of Struc-
neapolis, 1947, 134 pp. tural Lightweight Concrete and Their Effects on Pave-
52. Davis, R. E.; Troxell, G. E.; McCall, D.O.; and ment Design," Highway Research Record 112, Highway
McCann, R. A., "Tests of Prestressed Expanded·Shale Research Board, 1966, pp. 25-45.
Concrete Beams Subjected to Short-Time and Sustained 70. Bonnell, D. R. G., and Harper, F. C., "The Thermal
Loads," Cement and Concrete, STP 205, American Society Expansion of Concrete," National Building Studies Techni-
for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 1958, pp. 107-134. cal Paper No.7, Department of Scientific and Industrial
53. Best, C. H., and Polivka, M., "Creep of Lightweight Research, Building Research Station, London, 1951.
Concrete," Magazine of Concrete Research (London), V. 11, 71. Valore, R. C., Jr., "Insulating Concretes," ACI JOUR-
No. 33, Nov. 1959, pp. 129-134. NAL, Proceedings V. 53, No.5, Nov. 1956, pp. 509-532.
213-30 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
72_ Valore, R C., Jr., "Calculation of "u" Values of Hol- 84. Pfeifer, Donald W., "Reinforced Lightweight Con-
low Concrete Masonry" unpublished report to the Ex- crete columns," Proceedings, ASCE, V. 95, ST1, Jan. 1969,
panded Shale Institute. Houston Mid-Year Meeting, Apr. pp.57-82.
1978. 85. Holm, Thomas A., and Pistrang, Joseph, "Time-De-
73. Handbook of Fundamentals, American Society of pendent Load Transfer in Reinforced Lightweight Con-
Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, crete Columns," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 63, No. 11,
New York, 1977. Nov. 1966, pp. 1231-1246.
74. "Bridge Deck Survey," Expanded Shale, Clay and 86. Washa, G. W., and Fluck, P. G., "Effect on Com-
Slate Institute, Washington, D.C., Sept. 1960, 23 pp. pressive Reinforcement on the Plastic Flow of Reinforced
75. Grieb, W. E., and Werner, G., "Comparison of Split- Concrete Beams," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 49, No.2,
ting Tensile Strength of Concrete with Flexural and Com- Oct. 1952, pp. 89-108.
pressive Strengths," Proceedings, ASTM, V. 62, 1962, pp. 87. Ward, M. A.; Jessop, E. L.; and Neville, A. M.,
972-995. "Some Factors in Creep of Lightweight Aggregate Con-
76. "Freeze-Thaw Durability of Structural Lightweight crete," Proceedings, RILEM Symposium on Testing and
Concrete," Expanded Shale, Clay and Slate Institute, Design Methods of Lightweight Aggregate concrete (Buda-
Washington, D.C., 1972. pest, 1967), Kuitura, Budapest, 1967, pp. 745-760.
77. "Thermal Insulation of Various Walls," Expanded 88. Kruml, F., "Short and Long Term Deformation of
Clay, Shale and Slate Institute, Washington, D.C., 1972. Structural Lightweight Aggregate Concrete," Proceedings,
78. Campbell-Allen, D., and Thorne, C. P., "The Thermal First International Congress on Lightweight Concrete
Conductivity of Concrete," Magazine of Concrete Research (London, May 1968), RILEM, Paris, 1968.
(London), V. 15, No. 43, Mar. 1963, pp. 39-48. 89. Holm, T. A., "Thermal Stresses Due to Unequal
79. Fintel, Mark, Handbook of Concrete Engineering, Coefficients of Concrete and Reinforcing Steel," Civil Engi-
Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1974, p. 153. neering - ASCE, V. 35, No.2, Feb. 1965, pp. 63-65.
80. ACI Committee 318, "Building Code Requirements 90. Fintel, Mark, and Khan, Fazlur R, "Effects of Col-
for Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318-77)," American Concrete lumn Exposure in Tall Structures -" "Temperature Varia-
Institute, Detroit, 1977, 102 pp. tions and Their Effects," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 62,
81. ACI Committee 318, "Commentary on Building Code No. 12, Dec. 1965, pp. 1533-1556; "Analysis for Length
Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318-77)," Changes of Exposed Columns," Proceedings V. 63, No.8,
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1977, 132 pp. Aug. 1966, pp. 843-864; "Design Considerations and Field
82. "Report of the FIP Commission on Prestressed Observations of Buildings," Proceedings V. 65, No.2, Feb.
Lightweight Concrete," Journal, Prestressed Concrete In- 1968, pp. 99-110.
stitute, V. 12, No.3, June 1967, pp. 68-93. 91. Fintel, Mark, "Thermal Investigation," Unpublished
83. Schuman, L., and Tucker, J., Jr., "A Portable Appa- Communication, Portland Cement Association.
ratus for Determining the Relative Wear Resistance of
This report was submitted to letter ballot of the committee which
Concrete Floors," Journal of Research, National Bureau of consisted of 25 members; 21 members returned affirmative bal-
Standards, V. 23, Nov. 1939, pp. 549-570. lots, 4 ballots were not returned.
Discussion of this report appeared in Concrete International: Design & Construction, V. 1, No.8,
Aug. 1979, p. 66.
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and Com-
mentaries are intended for guidance in designing, planning, executing,
or inspecting construction, and in preparing specifications. Reference ANSI/ACI 214-77
to these documents shall not be made in the Project Documents. If
items found in these documents are desired to be part of the Project
Documents, they should be incorporated directly into the Project
Documents.
ACI Standard
Recommended Practice for Evaluation of
Strength Test Results of Concrete (A.CI 214 .. 77)*
Statistical procedures provide valuable tools for assessing results of strength tests,
and such an approach is also of value in refining design criteria and specifications.
The report discusses briefly the numerous variations that occur in the strength of
concrete and presents statistical procedures which are useful in interpreting these
variations.
Keywords: coefficient of variation; compression tests; compressive strength; concrete construction;
concretes; cylinders; evaluation; quality control; sa mpling; standard deviation; statistical analysis;
variations.
CONTENTS
Chapter 1-lntroduction .................................................. 214-2
Chapter 2-Variations in strength ......................................... 214-2
-
2.l-General 2.3-Testing methods
2.2-Properties of concrete
Chapter 3-Analysis of strength data 214-3
3.l-Notation 3.4-Strength variations
3.2-General 3.5-Standards of control
3.3-Statistical functions
Chapter 4-Criteria 214-7
4.l-General 4.4-Quality control charts
4.2-Criteria for strength 4.5-Tests and specimens required
requirements 4.6-Rejection of doubtful specimens
4.3-Additional information
Chapter 5-References ................................................. 214-14
214-1
214-2 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
CHAPTER I-INTRODUCTION
The purposes of strength tests of concrete are ture. To be meaningful, conclusions on strength of
to determine compliance with a strength specifica- concrete must be derived from a pattern of tests
tion and to measure the variability of concrete. from which the characteristics of the concrete can
Concrete, being a hardened mass of heterogeneous be estimated with reasonable accuracy. Insuf-
materials, is subject to the influence of numerous ficient tests will result in unreliable conclusions.
variables. Characteristics of each of the ingredi- Statistical procedures provide tools of consider-
ents of concrete, depending on their variability, able value in evaluating results of strength tests
may cause variations in strength of concrete. and information derived from such procedures is
Variations may also be introduced by practices also of value in refining design criteria and speci-
used in proportioning, mixing, transporting, plac- fications. This report briefly discusses variations
ing, and curing. In addition to the variations which that occur in the strength of concrete, and presents
exist in concrete itself, test strength variations will statistical procedures that are useful in the inter-
also be introduced by the fabrication, testing, and pretation of these variations with respect to re-
treatment of test specimens. Variations in the quired criteria and specifications. For these sta-
strength of concrete must be accepted, but con- tistical procedures to be valid, the data must be
crete of adequate quality can be produced with derived from samples obtained by means of a
confidence if proper control is maintained, test random sampling plan designed to reduce the
results are properly interpreted, and their limi- possibility that choice will be exercised by the
tations are considered. sampler. "Random sampling" means that each
Proper control is achieved by the use of satis- possible sample has an equal chance of being
factory materials, correct batching and mixing of selected. To insure this condition, the choice must
these materials, correct batching and mixing of be made by some objective mechanism such as
sired quality, and good practices in transporting, a table of random numbers. If sample batches are
placing, curing, and testing. Although the com- selected by the sampler on the basis of his own
plex nature of concrete precludes complete judgment, biases are likely to be introduced that
homogeneity, excessive variation of concrete will invalidate results analyzed by the procedures
strength signifies inadequate concrete controL presented here. Reference 1 contains a discussion
Improvement in control may permit a reduction of random sampling and a useful short table of
in the cost of concrete since the average strength random numbers.
can be brought closer to specification require- Additional information on the meaning and use
ments. of this recommended practice is given in Realism
Strength is not necessarily the most critical fac- in the Application of ACI Standard 214-65. 2 This
tor in proportioning concrete mixes since other volume is a compilation of information on ACI
factors, such as durability, may impose lower 214-65 that was presented at a symposium held
water-cement ratios than are required to meet at Buffalo, N. Y, in 1971. In addition to the papers
strength requirements. In such cases, strength from the symposium, it includes reprints of some
will of necessity be in excess of structural de- pertinent papers that were published earlier in
mands. Nevertheless, strength tests are valuable the ACI JOURNAL, and of discussion that resulted
in such circumstances since, with established from them. Although the information given was
mix proportions, variations in strength are indi- based on ACI 214-65, most of it is still relevant.
cative of variations in other properties. An additional source of material on evaluation of
Test specimens indicate the potential rather strength tests is ACI Bibliography No.2, published
than the actual strength of the concrete in a struc- in 1960. 3
'TABLE 2.I-PRINCIPAL SOURCES OF mixtures used, since each will contribute to varia-
STRENGTH VARIATION tions in the concrete strength. The temperature of
Variations in the properties Discrepancies in testing fresh concrete influences the amount of water
of concrete methods needed to achieve the proper consistency and con-
sequently contributes to strength variation. Con-
Changes in water-cement Improper sampling struction practices may cause variations in
ratio: procedures strength due to inadequate mixing, poor com-
Poor control of water paction, delays, and improper curing. Not all of
Excessive variation of
moisture in aggregate these are reflected in specimens fabricated and
Retempering stored under standard conditions.
Variations in water require- Variations due to fabrica-
ment: tion techniques The use of admixtures adds another factor since
Aggregate grading, ab- Handling and curing of each admixture adds another variable to concrete.
sorption, particle shape newly made cylinders The batching of accelerators, retarders, pozzolans,
Cement and admixture Poor quality molds and air-entraining agents must be carefully con-
properties trolled.
Air content
Delivery time and
temperature 2.3-Testing methods
Variations in characteristics Changes in curing: Concrete tests mayor may not include all the
and proportions of ingre- Temperature variation variations in strength of concrete in place de-
dients: Variable moisture pending on what variables have been introduced
Aggregates Delays in bringing cylin- after test specimens were made. On the other
Cement ders to the laboratory
Pozzolans hand, discrepancies in sampling, fabrication cur-
Admixtures ing, and testing of specimens may cause indica-
tions of variations in strength which do not exist
Variations in transporting, i Poor testing procedures:
placing, and compaction in the concrete in the structure. The project is
Cylinder capping
II
kgf/cm2
169 183 197 211 225 239 253 267 281 295 309 323
x-
I
'5
I
95.45 %
k- -- ------ -- -2 ()- - - ----- - - --::+<- -- -- ------ -2()- -- --- -- - -->-1
1 I 1
I 1 68.27% I
r=----()------T-----()-----~
(/)
f- 1 1
(/)
W
f- 10 I 1 ' I 1
"-
o 1 I 0 I
()=462psi (32.5kgf/cm2)
~
1 I I V= 13.2% 1
w
CD
I 1 0 I 1
~
::J
I 01 0 0 I 1
Z
I 01 0 0 0 I 1
1
0 0 0 0 10 1
o o o o 1
1
o o o o o
1
o o o o o 01
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH PS I
area under the curve of the frequency distribu- TABLE 3.4.I-FACTORS FOR COMPUTING WITHIN-
tion of strength data, such as that shown in Fig. TEST STANDARD DEVIATlON*
3.3 (a). The best estimate of cr, based on a finite Number of
amount of data, is obtained by Eq. (3-2), or by specimens d2 1/d2
its algebraic equivalent, Eq. (3-2a). The latter
equation is preferable for computation purposes, 2 1.128 0.8865
because it is not only simpler and more adaptable 3 1.693 0.5907
4 2.059 0.4857
to desk calculators, but it avoids the possibility of 2.326 0.4299
5
trouble due to rounding errors. 6 2.534 0.3946
7 2.704 0.3698
()' = {[ (Xl - X)2 + (X2 - X)2 + ... 8 2.847 0.3512
0.3367
+ (Xu - X)2]/n - 1}% (3-2)
9
10
2.970
3.078 0.3249
• / ~X.2 _ (~Xi) ~
V ' n (3-2a)
crete are required to establish reliable values for
a= n-1 R. The within-test standard deviation and coef-
ficient of variation can be conveniently computed
3.3.3 Coefficient of variation, V""":The standard
as follows:
deviation expressed as a percentage of the aver~
age strength is called the coefficient of variation: 1-
01 = d R (3-4)
2
a
V= = X 100 (3-3) V1 = a1 X 100 (3-5)
X X
where
3.3.4 Range, R-Range is the statistic found by
= within-test standard deviation
subtracting the lowest of a group of numbers from
1/d 2 a constant depending on the number of
the highest one in the group. The within-test
cylinders averaged to produce a test
range is found by subtracting the lowest of the (Table 3.4.1)
group of cylinder strengths averaged to produce
average range within groups of com-
a test from the highest of the group. The within-
panion cylinders
test range is useful in computing the within-test
standard deviation discussed in the following sec-
V1 = within-test coefficient of variation
tion. X = average strength
3.4.2 Batch-ta-batch variations-These variations
reflect differences in strength which can be at-
3.4-Strength variations
tributed to variations in
As mentioned previously, variations in results (a) Characteristics and properties of the in-
of strength tests can be traced to two different gredients
sources: (a) variations in testing methods and (b) Batching, mixing, and sampling
(b) properties of the concrete mixture and in- (c) Testing that has not been detected from
gredients. It is possible by analysis of variance companion cylinders since these tend to be treated
to compute the variations attributable to each more alike than cylinders tested at different times
source.
3.4.1 Within-test variation - The variation in
strength of concrete within a single test is found
by computing the variation of a group of cylinders
fabricated from a sample of concrete taken from
a given batch. It is reasonable to assume that a
test sample of concrete is homogeneous and any
variation between companion cylinders fabricated
from a given sample is caused by fabricating,
curing, and testing variations.
A single batch of concrete, however, provides
insufficient data for statistical analysis and com-
Fig. 3.4.2(al-Approximate division of the area under
panion cylinders from at least ten batches of con- the normal frequency distribution curve
214-6 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
kgf/cm2
98.4 84.4 70.3 56.2 42.2 28.1 14.1 o
50
60
70
---_::::::.
....
J!! 80
i....
-CIt
II:
CD
U
90
.... 95
CD
Q.. 96
97
98
99
1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 o
Compressive strength-psi below average
Fig. 3.4.2(cJ-Cumulative distribution curves for different standard deviations
STRENGTH TEST EVALUATION 214-7
Within-test variation
CHAPTER 4-CRITERIA
4.1-General ever, to specify a mmlmum strength since there
The strength of control cylinders is generally is always the possibility of even lower strengths,
the only tangible evidence of the quality of con- even when control is good. It is also recognized
crete used in constructing a structure. Because of that the cylinders may not accurately represent
the possible disparity between the strength of the concrete in each portion of the structure. Fac-
test cylinders and the load-carrying capacity of a tors of safety are provided in design equations
structure it is unwise to place any reliance on which allow for de v i a t ion s from specified
inadequate strength data. strengths without jeopardizing the safety of the
structure. These have been evolved on the basis
The number of tests lower than the desired of construction practices, design procedures, and
strength is more important in computing the load- quality control techniques used by the construc-
carrying capacity of concrete structures than the tion industry. It should also be remembered that
average strength obtained. It is impractical, how- for a given mean strength, if a small percentage
214-8 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
'-
~1.45
lower than specified
... .~
£
0 14.1
kgf/cm2
70.0
1000.----.;.-r----:;:..r--r--T::..--.;..r::..--....:..; 70.0
..<::
g, 1.40 ; - - - - + - - - - - / g.
~ ~
(II
1;;
"0
I . 35 -c 800t-----+-+---,A-----t7L---+-~'___l56.2
Q)
C1l
~
.~ 1.30+----+-- ·0
C1l
5l-
~~o600r_--+-~-+_~-~~r__+---~ 42.2 OlE
1» '...
:; 1.25
c;, ~~ ~0>
~ I. 20 +----1-J'-I-~_¥_-~~+__- ~"
+-b
~
g' +- 400r_-----,1t----.'--+_-r--~----+-__:7'''''_l28.1
~::> 1.15 ~
(II
CT
-c
.:: 1.10 ~
o ·3 2oot----++-t-7L---b----r---+-----i 14.1
o cr
& 1.05
-
~
o
(II
(II
C1l
O~--~--~--~--~----~
o 200 400 600 800 1000
0
5 10 15 20 25 U
Coefficient of variation, percent
)(
W Standard deviation, psi
Fig. 4.1 (aI-Ratio of required average strength fer to Fig. 4.1 (bl-Excess of required average strength to 'cr
specified strength fe' for various coefficients of variation specified strength fa' for various standard deviations and
and chances of falling below specified strength chances of falling below specified strength
of the test results fall below the design strength, sidered to have been complied with if the tests
a corresponding large percentage of the test re- represent either a group of 30 consecutive batches
sults will be greater than the design strength of the same class of concrete or the statistical
with an equally large probability of being located average for two groups totalling 30 or more
in a critical area. The consequences of a localized batches. "Similar" conditions will be difficult to
zone of low-strength concrete in a structure de- define and can be best documented by collecting
pend on many factors; included are the probability several groups of 30 or more tests. In general,
of early overload, the location and magnitude of changes in materials and procedures will have a
the low-quality zone in the structural unit, the de- larger effect on the average strength level than
gree of reliance placed on strength in design, the on the standard deviation or coefficient of varia-
initial cause of the low strength, and the conse- tion. S i g n i f i can t changes generally include
quences, economic and otherwise, of structural changes in type and brand of portland cement, ad-
failure. mixtures, source of aggregates, mix proportions,
The final criterion which allows for a certain batching, mixing, delivery, or testing. The data
probability of tests falling below fo' used in design should represent concrete produced to meet a
is a designer's decision based on his intimate specified strength close to that specified for the
knowledge of the conditions that are likely to proposed work, since the standard deviation may
prevail. "Building Code Requirements for Rein- vary as the average strength varies. The required
forced Concrete (ACI 318-71) ," provides guide- average strength fer for any design can be com-
lines in this regard, as do other building codes and puted from Eq. (4-1) or (4-1a) , (Table 3.4.2), or
specifications. approximated from Fig. 4.1 (a) or 4.1 (b), depend-
To satisfy strength performance requirements ing on whether the coefficient of variation or
expressed in this fashion the average strength of standard deviation is used.
concrete must be in excess of fe', the design fa'
strength. The amount of excess strength depends fcr = (1 - tV)
(4-1)
on the expected variability of test results as
expressed by a coefficient of variation or standard fer = fo' + ta ( 4-1a)
deviation, and on the allowable proportion of low where
tests. fer = required average strength
Strength data for determining the standard fe' = design strength specified
deviation or coefficient of variation should rep- t a constant depending upon the proportion
resent a group of at least 30 consecutive tests made of tests that may fall below fe' (Table 4.1)
on concrete produced under conditions similar to V forecast value of the coefficient of varia-
those to be expected on the project. The require- tion expressed as a fraction
ment for 30 consecutive strength tests will be con- forecast value of the standard deviation
STRENGTH TEST EVALUATION 214-9
kgf/cm2
141 169 197 225 253 281 309 337 366 394
20
(j)
Vi 15
~
<t-
o
+-
c
Q) 10
U
L
Q)
0..
Fig. 4.1 (c)-Normal frequency curves for coefficients of variation of 10, IS, and 20 percent
4.2.4 Criterion No. 4-A certain probability that tests should not normally fall. These values are
a random individual strength test will be less than based on the premise that the concrete is pro-
a certain percentage of ft portioned to produce an average strength equal
As an example consider a probability of 1 in to fer. The values in Column 2 are theoretically
100 that a strength test will be less than 85 per- correct only for concrete with a coefficient of
cent of an fc' of 4000 psi (281 kgf/cm2). variation of 15 percent. Those in Columns 3 and
Standard deviation method 4 apply to any known standard deviation. In
Using Eq. (4-1a) and Table 4.1 and a standard either case the probability of their being exceeded
deviation of 750 (53 kgf/cm 2 ), we have when the concrete is properly controlled is only
fc, 0.85 fc' ta+ about 0.02. Thus, failure to meet the tabulated
= 0.85 (4000) +
2.33 (750) limits in a larger proportion of cases than that
= 5145 psi (361 kgf/cm2) stated may be an indication that the current
As a result the concrete mixture should be pro- average strength is less than fer or that () or V has
portioned for an average strength of not less than increased. This could be caused by lower strength
5145 psi (361 kgf/cm 2 ). or poorer control than expected, or both. The
Coefficient of variation method possibility should not be overlooked that the low
Using Eq. (4-1) and Table 4.1 and a coefficient tests may be caused by errors in sampling or test-
of variation of 15 percent, we have ing rather than deficiency in the concrete itself.
In any case, corrective action is warranted.
0.85f/ Column 5 shows the probability that the average
fer =
1- tV of any given number of consecutive tests will fail
0.85 (4000) to equal or exceed fe' if the concrete is propor-
1 - 2.33 (0.15) tioned to produce an average strength equal to
5230 psi (368 kgf/cm2) fel" It can be seen that increasing the number of
tests to be averaged increases the likelihood that
Using this approach, the concrete mixture fe' will be exceeded since variations tend to bal-
should be proportioned for an average strength of ance out with an increased number of tests in a
not less than 5230 psi (368 kgf/ cm 2 ) • set. For enforcement purposes, it is appropriate
and logical to select the number of consecutive
4.3-Additional information tests to be averaged in such a way that the ac-
Table 4.3 presents additional information. The ceptance level is equal to ft This would mean an
values in the body of the table in Columns 2, 3, average of three consecutive tests for concrete in
and 4 are the strength levels below which in- which one out of ten tests would be permitted to
dividual tests or averages of different numbers of be lower than f/. It should, however, be remem-
214-12 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
bered that, according to the statistical theory as- While these do not contain all the features of
sumed in the derivation of the values, such fail- formal control charts they should prove useful to
ures may be expected by chance alone one time the engineer, architect, and plant superintendent.
in 50, even if the concrete is controlled exactly
as anticipated and is overdesigned to yield an (a) A chart in which the results of all strength
average strength equal to fer- tests are plotted as received. The line for the re-
Most specifications for concrete strength require quired average strength is established as indicated
that a test be comprised of two or three specimens by Eq. (4-1a) or Table 4.3 and the specified design
from the same sample of concrete. The specimens strength.
are necessary to obtain a reliable average for a (b) Moving average for compressive strength
given sample and to provide range data R for
where the average is plotted for the previous five
determining within-sample variations.
sets of two companion cylinders for each day or
shift, and the specified strength in this case is
4.4-Quality control charts
the lower limit. This chart is valuable in indicat-
Quality control charts have been used by manu- ing trends and will show the influence of seasonal
facturing industries for many years as an aid in changes, changes in materials, etc. The number
reducing variability and increasing efficiency in of tests averaged to plot moving averages with
production. Methods are well established for the an appropriate lower limit can be varied to suit
setting up of such charts and are outlined in con-
each job.
venient form in the ASTM Manual on Quality
Control of Materials. 4 Based on the pattern of (c) Moving average for range where the
previous results and limits established therefrom, average range of the previous ten groups of com-
trends become apparent as soon as new results are panion cylinders is plotted each day or shift. The
plotted. Points which fall outside the calculated maximum average range allowable for good lab-
limits indicate that something has affected the oratory control is also plotted. Maximum average
control of the process. Such charts are recom- range is determined as discussed in Section 4.5.
mended wherever concrete is in continuous pro-
duction over considerable periods. Fig. 4.4 shows Charts (a), (b), and (c) for 46
Three simplified charts prepared specifically tests. To be fully effective charts should be main-
for concrete control are illustrated in Fig. 4.4. tained throughout the entire job.
:E
- _.L
~3000+---~----~~~~~----~~--~--~~~+-~~----+210
~
v;
. /
Specified strength, fc _J o
(l)
~ ======~================================================================9
a. Movi ng average for strength
~ Each point, average strength
u 4000 of five previous test groups
Required average strength, f cr -'
_____ _ ______ L
3000 210
Moving average for range
~ 300 21
(l)
0> ----------------------~
C
o Average range for two cylinders : .0564 fer"" Each point average of
a:: 100 Average ra nge tor three cylinders = 0846 fer ten previous ranges 7
o 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48
Sample numbers
Fig. 4A--Quality control charts for concrete.
STRENGTH TEST EVALUATION 214-13
4.5-Tests and specimens required for good control (Table 3.5), and the estimate of
For any particular job, a sufficient number of the corresponding average range will be:
tests should be made to insure accurate represen- Rm = (0.05 X 1.128) fer = 0.05640fer
tation of the variations of the concrete. Concrete for groups of two companion cylinders
tests can be made either on the basis of time'
elapsed or cubic yardage placed and conditions Rm = (0.05 X 1.693) fer = 0.08465fer
on each job will determine the most practical for groups of three companion cylinders.
method of obtaining the number of tests needed. A cylinder of concrete 6 in. in diameter and 12
A test is defined as the average strength of all in. high which has been moist cured for 28 days
specimens of the same age fabricated from a at 21 C is generally considered a standard speci-
sample taken from a single batch of concrete. men for strength and control of concrete if the
A project where all concrete operations are coarse aggregate does not exceed 2 in. in nominal
supervised by one engineer provides an excellent size. Many times, particularly in the early stages
opportunity for control and for accurate estimates of a job, it becomes necessary to estimate the
of reliability with a minimum of tests. Once op- strength of concrete being produced before the
erations are progressing smoothly tests taken each 28-day strength results are available. Concrete
day or shift, depending on the volume of concrete cylinders from the same batch should be made
produced, are sufficient to obtain data which re- and tested at 7 days, or at earlier ages utilizing
flect the variations in the concrete of the struc- accelerated test procedures. The 28-day strength
ture. In general, it is advisable to make a sufficient can be estimated by extrapolating early test data.
number of tests so that each different type of con-
The strength of concrete at later ages, particu-
crete placed during anyone day will be repre-
larly where a pozzolan or cement of slow strength
sented by at least one test which is an average
gain is used, is more realistic than the standard
of two standard 6 x 12 in. cylinders tested at the
28-day strength. Some structures will not be
required age.' Single specimens taken from two
loaded until concrete has been allowed to mature
different batches each day will provide more re-
for longer periods and advantage can be taken of
liable information on overall variations, but it is
strength gain after 28 days. Some concretes have
usually desirable to make companion snecimens
been found to produce at 28 days less than 50
from the same sample to obtain a check on the
percent of their ultimate strength. If design is
within-test variation.
based on strength at later ages, it becomes neces-
The number of specimens required by the en-
sary to correlate these strengths with standard
gineer (architect) should be based on established
28-day cylinders since it is not practicable to use
standards but may be reduced as the reliabilities
later age specimens for concrete acceptance. If
of the producer, the laboratory, and the contrac-
possible, the correlation should be established by
tor are established.
laboratory tests before construction starts. If mix-
The laboratory has the responsibility of making
ing plants are located in one place for long enough
accurate tests, and concrete will be penalized un-
periods, it is advisable to establish this correlation
necessarily if tests show greater variations or
for reference even though later age concrete is
lower average strength levels than actually exist.
not immediately involved.
Since the range between companion specimens
from the same sample can be assumed to be the Curing concrete test specimens at the construc-
responsibility of the laboratory, a control chart tion site and under job conditions is sometimes
for ranges (Fig. 4.4) should be maintained by the recommended since this is considered more rep-
laboratory as a check on the uniformity of its resentative of the curing applied to the structure.
operations. It should be noted that these ranges These special tests should not be confused with,
will not reveal day to day differences in test- nor replace, standard control tests. Tests of job-
ing, curing, and capping procedures or testing cured specimens may be highly desirable and are
procedures which affect strength levels over long necessary when determining the time of form
periods. The range between companion cylinders removal, particularly in cold weather, and when
depends on the number of specimens in the group establishing the strength of steam-cured concrete
and the within-test variation. This relationship is pipe, block, and structural members.
expressed by the following equation [see Eq. (3-4) The potential strength and variability of con-
and (3-5)] crete can be established by standard 6 x 12 in.
(4-2) cylinders made and cured under standard condi-
tions. Strength specimens of concrete made or
where Rm is the average range in Control Chart cured under other than standard conditions pro-
(c) of Fig. 4.4. The within-test coefficient of vide additional information but should be analyzed
variation VI should not be greater than 5 percent and reported separately.
214-14 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
CHAPTER 5-REFERENCES
1. Natrella, M. G., "Experimental Statistics," Hand- Concrete for Structures in Current Practice," RRL Re-
book No. 91, U. S. Department of Standards, National port No. LR 300, Road Research Laboratory, Craw-
Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C., 1963, pp. 1-4 thorne, Berkshire, 1970, 22 pp.
to 1-6. 7. Murdock, C. J., "The Control of Concrete Quality,"
2. Realism in the Application of ACT Standard 214-65, Proceedings, Institution of Civil Engineers (London),
SP-37, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1973, V. 2, Part I, July 1953, pp. 426-453.
215 pp. 8. Erntroy, H. C., "The Variation of Works Test
3. "Evaluation of Strength Tests of Concrete," ACI Cubes," Research Report No. 10, Cement and Concrete
Bibliography No.2, American Concrete Institute, De- Association, London, Nov. 1960, 28 pp.
troit, 1960, 13 pp.
4. ASTM Manual on Quality Control of Materials, 9. Rusch, H., "Statistical Quality Control of Concrete,"
STP 15-C, American Society for Testing and Materials, Materialpriifung (Dusseldorf), V. 6, No. 11, Nov. 1964,
Philadelphia, Jan. 1951, 127 pp. pp. 387-394.
5. Neville, A. M., "The Relation Between Standard 10. "Tentative Recommended Practice for Conduct-
Deviation and Mean Strength of Concrete Test Cubes," ing an Interlaboratory Test Program to Determine the
Magazine .of Concrete Research (London), V. 11, No. Precision of Test Methods for Construction Materials,"
32, July 1959, pp. 75-84. (ASTM C 802-74T), 1975 Annual Book of ASTM Stand-
6. Metcalf, J. B., "The Specification of Concrete ards, Part 13, American Society for Testing and Ma-
Strength, Part II, The Distribution of Strength of terials, Philadelphia, pp. 414-443.
ACI 215R-74
From ACI JOURNAL, March 1974
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and Com-
mentaries are intended for guidance in designing, planning, executing,
or inspecting construction, and in preparing specifications. Reference
to these documents shall not be made in the Project Documents. If
items found in these documents are desired to be part of the Project
Documents, they should be incorporated directly into the Project
Documents.
This report presents information that is intended to aid the practicing engineer con-
fronted with consideration of repeated loading on concrete structures. Investigations
of the fatigue properties of component materials-concrete, reinforcing bars, welded
reinforcing mats, and prestressing tendons-are reviewed. Application of this infor-
mation to predicting the fatigue life of beams and pavements is discussed.
CONTENTS
..
Chapter i-Introduction ............... . . .. 215-2
1.1-0bjective and scope 1.2-Definitions
Notation . 215-20
References 215-21
Appendix 215-24
'Chairman of ACI Committee 215 at the time that preparation by any photo process, or by any electronic or mechanical device.
of this report was begun. printed or written or oral, or recording for sound or visual
Copyright (fJ 1974, American Concrete Institute. reproduction or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system
All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use or device, unless pennission in \vriting is obtained from the
in any form' or by any means, including the making of copies copyright proprietors.
215-1
215-2 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
In recent years, considerable interest has de- of experimental investigations reported in tech-
veloped in the fatigue strength of concrete mem- nical literature or from unpublished data made
bers. There are several reasons for this interest. available to the committee. The principal aim has
First, the widespread adoption of ultimate strength been to summarize information on factors in-
design procedures and the use of higher strength fluencing fatigue strength that are of concern to
materials require that structural concrete mem- practicing engineers.
bers perform satisfactorily under high stress Chapter 3 considers the application of informa-
levels. Hence there is concern about the effects of tion on concrete and reinforcing materials to
repeated loads on, for example, crane beams and beams and pavements. Provisions suitable for
bridge slabs. inclusion in a building code are recommended.
Second, new or different uses are being made
An Appendix to this report contains extracts
of concrete members or systems, such as pre-
from current specifications that are concerned
stressed concrete railroad ties and continuously
with fatigue.
reinforced concrete pavements. These uses of con-
crete demand a high performance product with
1.2-Definitions
an assured fatigue strength.
Third, there is new recognition of the effects It is important to carefully distinguish between
of repeated loading on a member, even if repeated static, dynamic, fatigue, and impact loadings. Tru-
loading does not cause a fatigue failure. Repeated ly static loading, or sustained loading, remains
loading may lead to inclined cracking in pre- constant with time. Nevertheless, a load which
stressed beams at lower than expected loads, or increases slowly is often called static loading; the
repeated loading may cause cracking in compon- maximum load capacity under such conditions is
ent materials of a member that alters the static referred to as static strength.
load carrying characteristics. Dynamic loading varies with time in any arbi--
trary manner. Fatigue and impact loadings are
1.1-0bjective and scope special cases of dynamic loading. A fatigue load-
This report is intended to provide information ing consists of a sequence of load repetitions that
that will serve as a guide for design of concrete may cause a fatigue failure in about 100 or more
structures subjected to fatigue loading. cycles.
However, this report does not contain the type Very high level repeated loadings due to earth-
of detailed design procedures sometimes found in quakes or other catastrophic events may cause
guides. failures in less than 100 cycles. These failures are
Chapter 2 presents information on the fatigue sometimes referred to as low-cycle fatigue; how-
strength of concrete and reinforcing materials. ever, this report does not specifically deal with
This information has been obtained from reviews these types of loadings.
~ ---......
=bln(085cm)
t:.
-;;;
and failure in some cases.
0.8 000 t:. (.\ t:J. (;
-- M M 6 LM
Canada,27.:>s Europe,~!l-:H and J apan.~;'-3n In most of ing from -0.10 to 0.43 of the tensile yield strength
these investigations, the relationship between of the bars.
stress range, 5" and fatigue life, N, was deter- Although only about one-third of the total num-
mined by a series of repeated load tests on bars ber of Sr-N curves reported in the indicated ref-
which were either embedded in concrete or tested erences are shown in Fig. 6, they include the
in air. highest and lowest fatigue strength. The varying
There is contradiction in the technical litera- characteristics of these curves suggest that there
ture as to whether a bar has the same fatigue are many variables in addition to stress range that
strength when tested in air or embedded in a influence the fatigue strength of deformed rein-
concrete beam. In an investigation:lI of hot-rolled forcing bars.
cold-twisted bars, it was found that bars embedded Most of the curves in Fig. 6 show a transition
in beams had a greater fatigue strength than from a steeper to a flatter slope in the vicinity
when tested in air. However, in another investi- of one million cycles, indicating that reinforcing
gation,~!l the opposite conclusion was reached.
bars exhibit a practical fatigue limit. Fatigue
More recent studies"R,:\~ indicate that there should strengths associated with the steeper or flatter
be little difference in the fatigue strength of bars part of the Sr- N curves will be referred to as be-
in air and embedded bars if the height and shape ing in the finite life or long life region, respective-
of the transverse lugs are adequate to provide ly. Because of the lack of sufficient data in the
good bond between the steel and concrete. long life region, it is noted that many of the Sr-N
The influence of friction between a reinforcing curves in this region are conjectural.
bar and concrete in the vicinity of a crack has also The fatigue strength of the steel in reinforcing
been considered.:;~ In laboratory tests, an increase bars depends upon chemical composition, micro-
in temperature is frequently observed at the lo- structure, inclusions, and other variables. 40 How-
cation where the fatigue failure occurs. However, ever, it has been shown2(i,~R that the fatigue
rates of loading up to several thousand cycles strength of reinforcing bars may be only one-half
per minute and temperatures up to several hun- of the fatigue strength of coupons machined from
dred degrees C are normally not considered to samples of the bars. In addition, reinforcing bar
have a significant effect on fatigue strength.10 In specifications are based on physical characteris-
a statistical analysisl! of an investigation of rein- tics. Consequently, the variables related to the
forcing bars?i differences in fatigue strength due steel composition are of limited concern to prac-
to rates of loading of 250 and 500 cycles per min- ticing structural engineers. The variables related
ute were not significant. to the physical characteristics and use of the re-
It is therefore believed that most of the data inforcing bars are of greater concern. The main
reported in investigations in North America and variables that have been considered in the tech-
abroad is directly comparable, even though it may nical literature are:
have been obtained under quite different testing 1. Minimum stress
conditions.
2. Bar size and type of beam
A number of 5,-N curves obtained from tests on
3. Geometry of deformations
concrete beams containing straight deformed bars
made in North America!S,21,21-~B are shown in Fig. 4. Yield and tensile strength
6. These curves are for bars varying in size from 5. Bending
#5 to #11, with minimum stress levels rang- 6. Welding
80 5624
Each of these is discussed in the following sec-
tions.
60 4218 2.2.2 Minimum stress-In several investiga-
Stress Stress
Range
tions,'S.21.~!!
it has been reported that the fatigue
Range
Sr I ksi Sr, kg /sq em strength of reinforcing bars is relatively insensi-
40 2812
tive to the minimum stress level. However, in
two recent investigations,2G,28 it was concluded
20 1406 that minimum stress level does influence fatigue
strength to the extent approximately indicated by
a modified Goodman diagram with a straight line
04-~----------~----------J
0.1 1.0 10,0 envelope. This indicates that fatigue strength de-
Cycles to Failure,N,millions creases with increasing minimum stress level in
proportion to the ratio of the change in the mini-
Fig 6-Stress range-fatigue life curves for reinforcing mum stress level to the tensile strength of the
bars reinforcing bars.
FATIGUE LOADING DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 215-7
2.2.3 Bar size and type of beam-These two fac- was not significant. This investigation included
tors are related because bars embedded in con- bars of 5 different sizes-#5, 6, 8, 10, and 11-
crete beams have a stress gradient across the bar. made by a major United States manufacturer.
In design, it is only the stress at the midfibers These bars were embedded in rectangular or T-
of the bar that is generally considered. Large bars shaped concrete beams having effective depths
in shallow beams or slabs may have a significantly of 6, 10, or 18 in. (15.2, 25.4, or 45.7 cm). In this
higher stress at the extreme rather than the mid- investigation, the fatigue life of #8, Grade 60
fibers of the bar. bars subjected to a stress range of 36 ksi (2530
kgfjcm") imposed on a minimum stress of 6 ksi
The effect of bar size is examined in Table 1
(422 kgfjcm~) was 400,000 cycles. Under identical
using data from three investigations.n.n,Bu Since
stress conditions, the fatigue life of the #5, 6, 10,
#8 bars or their equivalent were tested in each
and 11 bars were found to be 1.22, 1.30, 0.76, and
of these investigations, the fatigue strength of
0.85 times the life of the #3 bars, respectively.
other bar sizes was expressed as a ratio relative
This trend is the same as that for the data shown
to the fatigue strength of the #8 bars. For
in Table 1. The irregular variation was attributed
each comparison, the bars were made by the same
to differences in surface geometry.
manufacturer, and they also were tested at the
2.2.4 Geometry of deformations-Deformations
same minimum stress level. The fatigue strength
on reinforcing bars provide the means of ob-
is the stress range causing failure at 2 million or
taining good bond between the steel and the con-
more cycles.
crete. However, these same deformations produce
stress concentrations at their base, or at points
TABLE I-EFFECT OF BAR SIZE
where a deformation~o.~1."~ intersects another de-
Fntigue strength relative to formation or a longitudinal rib. These points of
Tests Grade fatigue strength of No.8 bars
reported of stress concentrations are where the fatigue frac-
in bar
NO.5 I NO.6 No.8 No. 10 tures are observed to initiate.
40 1.06 - 1.00 0.99 Any evaluation of the influence of the shape
Reference 28 60 1.08 - 1.00 0.96 of the deformations on fatigue properties of the
75 1.20 - 1.00 0.95 bar must recognize that the rolling technique and
the cutting of the rolls necessarily requires spe-
40 1.11 - 1.00 -
cific limitations and variations in the pattern.
40 1.05 - 1.00 -
Reference 32 This applies to the height of the deformations,
60 1.05 - 1.00 -
the slopes on the walls of the deformations, and
75 1.10 - 1.00 -
also to the fillets at the base of the deformations.
40 - 1.12 1.00 - An analytical study'~ has shown that stress
Reference 3G 60 - 1.04 1.00 - concentration of an external notch on an axially
60 - 1.10 1.00 - loaded bar may be appreciable. This study indi-
cated that the width, height, angle of rise, and
The tests reported in R.eference 32 were on bars base radius of a protruding deformation affect the
subjected to axial tension. Therefore, there was no magnitude of the stress concentration. It would
effect of strain gradient in this data, yet the fa- appear that many reinforcing bar lugs may have
tigue strength of the #5 bars was about 8 per- stress concentration factors of 1.5 to 2.0.
cent greater than that of the #8 bars. Tests on bars having a base radius varying
Tests in R.eference 28 were on bars in concrete from about 0.1 to 10 times the height of the de-
formation have been reported.~,,·~n,~R,:l(; These tests
beams. The strain gradients in these beams re-
indicate that when the base radius is increased
sulted in stresses at the extreme fibers for the
from 0.1 to about 1 to 2 times the height of the
different size bars that were about the same.
Still, an effect of bar size was found that was of deformation, fatigue strength is increased ap-
about the same order of magnitude. preciably. An increase in base radius beyond 1 to
2 times the height of the deformation does not
In the tests in Reference 36 the strain gradient show much effect on fatigue strength. However,
was greater across the #8 bars than the #6 Japanese tests: l (; have shown that lugs with radii
bars. Therefore, part of the difference in fatigue larger than 2 to 5 times the height of the deforma-
strength should be attributed to the higher stress tion have reduced bond capacity.
at the extreme fibers of the #8 bars. However, Tests have indicated:III,:\U\!1 that decreasing the
the differences, compared to the other test re- angle of inclination of the sides of the deforma-
sults, are about the same. tions with respect to the longitudinal axis in-
In another investigation~(dl where both bar size creases the fatigue strength of a reinforcing bar.
and type of beam were controlled variables, the This increase occurs for bars with lugs having
former was found to be significant and the latter abrupt changes in slope at their bases. It has been
215-8 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
J1
40 fatigue strength.
N = 2 million
2.2.5 Yield and tensile strength-In three in-
Sr i
ks 20 cycles vestigations,:.!!·:!7.28 the fatigue strength of differ-
O~~~~~ll-~~
ent grades!! of bars made by the same North
Grode 4060 75 4060 75 4075 4075 American manufacturer were compared. The re-
Smln o If Y 03f o Ify o 3f Y sults of these comparisons, all of which are in
Y
Manufacturer A A B B
the long life region of fatigue life, are shown by
a) Data fraro Reference 21 • No.8 Bars the bar graphs in Fig. 7. It was concluded in Ref-
s,
kSI
::lul
Grode
o
40 60 75
N = 2 million
cycles
erences 21 and 28 that the fatigue strength of the
bars was relatively insensitive to their yield or
tensile strength. References 21 and 28 include
157 and 72 tests, respectively. Reference 27, which
includes 19 tests, indicated that fatigue strength
Smin 025fy
may be predicted for grade of steel as a function
of the stress range.
b) Data from Reference 27,No. 5 Bars
In another investigation~I;·!! on bars made by a
major United States manufacturer, the fatigue
life of Grade 40, Grade 60, and Grade 75 #8 bars,
N=5million
cycles subjected to a stress range of 36 ksi (2530 kgf/
cm~) imposed on a minimum stress of 6 ksi (422
Grade 40 60 75 4060 75 406075 406075 kgf/cm2), varied linearly in the ratio of 0.69 to
SmlO Olfy 04fy o Ify o Ify 1.00 to 1.31, respectively. The ratio of 1.0 cor-
Size No8 No 8 No 5 No 10
responds to a fatigue life of 400,000 cycles, and is
c) Data from Reference 28 therefore in the finite life region.
Fig. 7-Effect of grade of bar Axial tension fatigue tests"2 on unembedded re-
inforcing bars made in Germany were carried out
noted!:! that the base radius should be determined on four groups of bars having yield strengths of
in a plane through the longitudinal axis of the 49, 53, 64, and 88 ksi (3445, 3726, 4499, and 6186
bar, since this is the direction of the applied kgf/cm2). All of the bars were rolled through the
stress. The base radius determined in this plane same stand for elimination of variation in the
will be substantially larger than a base radius deformed surfaces. When tested with a minimum
determined in a plane perpendicular to a sharply stress level of 8.5 ksi (598 kgf/cm2), the stress
inclined lug. ranges causing failure in two million cycles were
In two experimental investigations,~:!·:l! it was determined to be 28, 28, 28, and 31 ksi (1968, 1968,
found that the condition of the rolls, whether 1968, and 2179 kgf/cm2), respectively.
new or worn, had little effect on fatigue strength. In a Japanese investigation,:l(; bars of the same
However, a conflicting opinion has been expressed size and made by the same manufacturer but
in Reference 32. with yield strengths of 50, 57, and 70 ksi (3515,
Tests:;:': also show a substantial effect on the 4007, and 4921 kgf/cm 2 ) were tested. The stress
fatigue resistance of reinforcing bars due to brand range causing failure in two million cycles was
marks. The brand marks cover the identification between 30 and 31.5 ksi (2109 and 2214 kgf/cm 2 )
of the bar as to size, type of steel (billet, rail, or for all three groups of bars.
axle), mill that rolled the steel, and yield strength 2.2.6 Bending-The effect of bends on fatigue
(Grade 40, 60, or 75) .4! The stress concentration strength of bars has been considered in two in-
at a bar mark is similar to that caused by bar vestigations.~!,2') In the North American investiga-
deformations. tion,:.!! fatigue tests were carried out on both
It has also been demonstrated:.!! that the fatigue straight and bent #8 deformed bars embedded in
strength of a reinforcing bar may be influenced concrete beams. The bends were through an angle
by the orientation of the longitudinal ribs. In of 45 deg around a pin of 6 in. (15.2 cm) diameter.
that study, an increased fatigue life was obtained The fatigue strength of the bent bars was a little
when the longitudinal ribs were oriented in a more than 50 percent below the fatigue strength
horizontal position rather than a vertical position. of the straight bars. In one test, a bent bar em-
This phenomenon is apparently associated with bedded in a reinforced concrete beam failed in
the location at which the fatigue crack initiates. fatigue after sustaining 900,000 cycles of a stress
In other words, if there is a particular location range of 18 ksi (1265 kgf/cm 2 ) imposed on a
on the surface of a bar which is more critical minimum stress of 5.9 ksi (415 kgf/ cm2). In an-
for fatigue than other locations, then the position- other test, application of 1,025,000 cycles produced
FATIGUE LOADING DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 215-9
60~~-----------.-----------'
60 4218
4216
Slress Slress
Range Range
Sr' ksi Sr,kg/sq em 40 2812
Stress
2612 Range Stress
Sr ,ksi Range
S, ' kg/sq em
20 Reference 1406
1406
(45)
(49)
- - - - - Cross Weld
(48) - - - Between Welds
0U--J----------~----------~ O~====r=~~r=~____~
0.1 1.0 10.0 0.02 0.1 0.5 1.0 5.0
Cycles to Failure,N, millions Cycles to Failure,N,millions
Fig. a-Effect of tack welding stirrups to Grade 60 bars Fig. 9-Median S,.-N curves for .welded reinforcing mats
a failure when the stress range and minimum experience from abroad lG and the relatively poor
stress were 16.4 ksi and 19.1 ksi (1153 and 1343 performance of smooth wire fabric in continuously
kgf/cm~), respectively. reinforced concrete pavements.4n.17.18 In some
Tests~!1 have also been reported from Germany cases, pavements reinforced with this fabric per-
on both plain and deformed hot-rolled bars bent formed adequately in service for 3 to 5 years.
through an angle of 45 deg. However, these bars Then several wide cracks occurred, necessitating
were bent around a pin having a diameter of extensive repairs. While most of this cracking was
10 in. (25.4 cm). Compared to tests on straight caused by inadequate detailing of splices, field
bars, the fatigue strength of the plain bars was studies in Connecticut" have revealed failures at
reduced 29 percent by the bend, while the fatigue the welds in a significant number of instances.
strength of the deformed bars was reduced 48 Any assessment of welded wire fabric or bar
percent. mats based primarily on their performance in
2.2.7 Welding-In an investigation 21 using Grade pavements is unrealistic. In any given length of
40 and Grade 60 reinforcement with the same de- pavement, wide variations are possible in the
formation pattern, it was found that the fatigue stress spectrum for the reinforcement. The av-
strength of bars with stirrups attached by tack erage stress level in the reinforcement is strongly
welding was about one-third less than bars with dependent on the pavement's age, its thermal and
stirrups attached by wire ties. The results of the moisture history, and the longitudinal restraint
tests on the Grade 60 reinforcement are shown offered by the subgrade. The stress range in the
in Fig. 8. For both grades of steel, the fatigue reinforcement caused by the traffic depends on
strength of the bars with tack welding was about the support offered by the sub grade as well as
20 ksi (1406 kgf/cm 2) at 5 million cycles. All of the magnitude of the loading.
the fatigue cracks were initiated at the weld loca- Several recent investigations have examined the
tions.
fatigue characteristics of fabric and bar mats in
Investigationsl!I.22 have also been carried out to air.4G.1S .. I!) For smooth wire fabric 4 i)A!) the disturb-
evaluate the behavior of butt-welded reinforcing ance due to the welded intersection dominated
bars in reinforced concrete beams. In tests con~ over all other influences, so that failures were
ducted at a minimum stress level of 2 ksi tension, confined to the heat affected zone of the weld. For
the least stress range that produced a fatigue bar mats, the disturbance due to the welded in-
failure was 24 ksi. It was observed that minimum tersection dominated only if the stress concentra-
stress level in the butt-welded joint was not a tion caused by the intersection was greater than
significant factor affecting the fatigue strength of the concentration caused by the deformation. The
the beams. available evidence does not indicate that these
effects are additive.
2.3--Welded wire fabric and bar mats*
Results for "cross-weld" tests conducted in air
Welded wire fabric may consist of smooth or are summarized in Fig. 9. In the German investi-
deformed wires while bar mats usually consist of gation l" 15 tests were made on a smooth wire
deformed bars. Often fabric and bar mats are not fabric consisting of 0.236 in. (6 mm) diameter
used in structures subject to significant repeated wires welded to 0.315 in. (8 mm) diameter wires.
loads because of concern that the welded inter-
sections will create significant stress concentra-
tions. This feeling has been heightened by *Dr. Neil M. Hawkins prepared this section of the report.
215-10 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
circle in Fig. 11 is the result of a limited series kgf/cm2) so that the section may contain a crack
of tests on 0.25 in. (6.3 mm) diameter wires of as wide as 0.005 in. (0.125 mm). It can be seen
United States manufacture.'n These tests showed that although the characteristics of wires vary
a fatigue strength at 4 X 10'; cycles in excess of widely, all could probably be justified for use
30 ksi (2100 kgf/cm~). The squares are results with a limiting stress of 12Y17 psi.
for tests on 4 and 5 mm diameter wires per- In Czechoslovakia, tests on plain wires of 3, 4.5,
formed by the Shinko Wire Company. and 7 mm (0.076, 0.114, and 0.127 in.) diameter
Also shown in Fig. 11 are likely ranges in stress have shown that within 5 percent, the fatigue
for bonded beams designed in accordance with characteristics of these wires were independent
the ACI Code. The lower value is about the maxi- of the wire diameter.
mum possible when the tensile stress in the pre-
The effects of ribbing and indentations on fa-
compressed zone is limited to 6YV psi (1.6Y it'
tigue characteristics have been studied in Great
kgf/cm~), so that the section is uncracked. The
Britain,';~ Germany,'''' Russia,';!) and JapanYo These
upper value is about the maximum possible when
tests have shown that the characteristics de-
the tensile stress is limited to 12Yl' psi (3.18V~e
pend on the height of the rib, its slope and,
most of all, the sharpness of the radii at the base
of the rib. With a 0.3 mm (0.012 in.) rib height,
1.0
a 45 deg slope, and no radius at the base of the
Reference Legend Diameter
in. (em) rib, the theoretical stress concentration factor was
0.9 (67) 7/16 (1.11) 2.0, and there was a 57 percent reduction in the
(68) 1/2 (1.27)
(69) 1/2 (1.27) fatigue strength.G~ This reduction decreased with
a decreasing stress concentration factor until for
Smox
t;:-
OB
boring wires rub together under this alternating 1.0 ....-----------------"71 1.0
load.
Bars-Bars of United States manufacture con- 0.8
0.8 N,
form to the requirements of the PCI Post-Tension-
ing Committee. oG Although fatigue tests on such
bars have been made* most published informa-
0.6
tion is for European bars less than 0.7 in. (1.8 cm)
Smin
in diameter. Bars manufactured in the United
fpu
States range between % and 1% in. (1.9 and 3.5 0.4
cm) in diameter. Tests on bars ranging between
1 and 1% in. (2.5 and 3.5 cm) in diameter have
shown that the fatigue limits of these bars are in 0.2
excess of 0.1 times the tensile strength of the bar
for 1 X lOll cycles of loading at a minimum stress
of 0.6 times the tensile strength. As with other ~------------~o
post-tensioning systems, the characteristics of
the anchorage and not the prestressing system Fig. 14-Strength envelopes for strand tested in United
States
control the fatigue characteristics of the unbond-
ed tendon. and 0.9, and they were developed from data with
German and Russian tests 50 have shown that minimum stress levels of 0.4, 0.5, and 0.6 times
the fatigue characteristics for their bars, expressed the static tensile strength. For the desired mini-
as a percentage of their ultimate tensile strength, mum stress and probability level, vertical inter-
are similar to those of their strand. Tests in cepts within Fig. 14 define permissible stress
Russia on bars with tensile strengths of about ranges for failure for strands tested in the United
150 ksi (10,540 kgf/cm 2) have shown the fatigue States at 5 X 10\ 1 X 10\ 5 X 10\ 2 X 10", 1 X 105 ,
characteristics to be independent of bar size for and 5 X lor cycles.
bar diameters ranging between 0.4 and 0.7 in. 2.4.4 Steel treatment-While all United States
(1.0 and 1.8 cm). In Great Britain tests 70 have prestressing steels are stress-relieved, some of
been made on bonded and unbonded beams post- those manufactured abroad are not. Czechoslo-
tensioned with 1f2 in. (1.25 cm) diameter bars vakian and Russian testsG~ have shown that stress-
anchored by nuts on tapered threads. There relieving increases the fatigue limit significantly.
were no fatigue failures of either the bar or the For applications external to a member, the pre-
anchorage for 2 X 106 cycles of a loading for stressing steel is sometimes protected by hot dip
which the stress range in the bonded bar was galvanizing. Galvanizing can result in hydrogen
about 12 ksi (844 kgf/cm2) at a minimum stress embrittlement7:l and therefore its use in struc-
equal to at least 60 percent of the bar's static tures where fatigue is a consideration is not rec-
strength. ommended. For wires and strand, galvanizing
2.4.3 Statistical considerations-Reliable design reduces the ultimate and yield strength signifi-
information requires the collection of the test cantl y 7:l and therefore also reduces the fatigue
data in such a manner that statistical methods limit. For bars, galvanizing does not alter the
can be used to define the properties of the ma- static properties, but it does reduce the fatigue
terial and to investigate the effects of differing limit.
parameters. 71 . 72 At least six and preferably 12
2.4.5 Anchorage type-For unbonded construc-
tests are necessary at each stress level to establish
tion, stress changes in the prestressing steel are
fatigue strengths for survivals ranging from 90
transmitted directly to the anchorage. Although
to 10 percent. To establish the finite-life part of
most anchorages can develop the static strength
the S-N diagram for a constant minimum stress,
of the prestressing steel, they are unlikely to de-
tests should be made at a minimum of three stress
velop its fatigue strength. Further, bending at an
levels, one near the static strength, one near the
anchorage can cause higher local stresses than
fatigue limit, and one in between. Special tech-
those calculated from the tensile pull in the pre-
niques are needed to establish the fatigue limit.
stressing steel. Bending is likely where the pre-
The overall scatter of fatigue data is of para- stressing steel is connected to the member at a
mount importance in defining the quality of the few locations only throughout its length or where
prestressing steel. For United States strand, a there is angularity of the prestressing steel at the
modified Goodman diagram has been developed anchorage. Fatigue characteristics based on tests
by Hilmes and Ekberg GR for three discrete proba-
bility levels. As shown in Fig. 14, these levels
correspond to survival probabilities of 0.1, 0.5, 'Personal communication from E. Schechter, Stressteel Corp.,
Wilkes-Barre, Pa.
215-14 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
Mark
IT
Series3 B5
ITB7 B8 T5
U 11 l] ~ D U
T7A T7B T7C E8 Button
Heads Conical
Wire 0.276
Diameter,in. 0.250 0.197 0.276 0.315 0,197 0.276 0.276 0.276 0.315 0.276 0,276 0.250
Radius z R
- 0.25 0.29 0.28 0.49 0.89 - - - -
Diameter
° °
20
(LOWer Limit of Wire Test Results
f ange
17.9 lange
(Belgian and Japanese) 15.0
Sr 12.5 lRange 12.5 T 13.0
11.8 f
fpu 10 10.0
percent 7.5 6.4
~6.'
6.2
~5.8 ~4.4 ~5.7 ~5.7 T
~2.7
of single wire or strand anchorages are likely to for the button head. The characteristics of a but-
overestimate the strength of multi-wire or multi- ton head are influenced by the wire cutoff meth-
strand anchorages. od, the type of heading equipment, the geometric
Tests on single wire anchorages have been con- characteristics of the head, the properties of the
ducted in the United States,Hi Great Britain,* seating block, and the type of wire. Successive
Japan and Switzerland.S!1 The types of anchorages improvements have led to button heads showing
tested and the results are shown in Fig. 15. In no failures even after 10 7 cycles of a stress range
each case the ratio of the minimum stress to the equal to 0.13 times the tensile strength at an
nominal tensile strength of the wire was about average of 0.6 times this strength. British tests on
0.6. The broken line indicates the fatigue charac- 0.276 in. (0.7 cm) diameter button-headed wires
teristics of the wire used in the Japanese tests, have shown that defects in the button head have
as estimated from the results of rotating beam little effect on the fatigue strength. For a wire
tests. It corresponds also to the fatigue character- with an ultimate tensile strength of 244 ksi (17,-
istics of the weakest wire in Fig. 11. 150 kgf/cm~) tested at an average stress of 0.6
times that strength, the stress range for 2 X 10(;
All anchorages shown in Fig. 15 developed the
full strength of the wire for static loading. How- cycles dropped from 0.15 times the tensile strength
ever, most resulted in a fatigue strength for the for a defect free head to a minimum of 0.12 times
tendon of less than 50 percent of the fatigue that strength for a diagonal split in the head. In
strength of the wire. The exceptions are the coni- contrast, a soft steel seating block for a defect
cal anchorages for the Swiss, British, and Ameri- free head resulted in a marked decrease in the
can wires. If failures did not occur due to the fatigue life. The life dropped to 2 X 10" cycles for
fatigue loading, the static strength was not im- a stress range of 0.15 times the tensile strength,
paired. In the case of the American wire, five and the failure was due to fretting between the
specimens out of seven took more than 10 7 cycles tendon and the soft steel.
of the stress range shown without failure. The The Japanese investigation showed that, to a
lowest life was 3.5 X lOr. cycles for a specimen limited extent, the strength increased as the
which failed at the button head fillets. ratio of the radius at the base of the head to the
wire diameter increased. In these tests the fatigue
For the Swiss and British wires, ranges are
shown on the bar charts in Fig. 15 to indicate the
'Test reports supplied by A. H. Stubbs, Western Concrete
variation in results for different characteristics Structures, Inc., Los Angeles, Calif.
FATIGUE LOADING DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 215-15
20 I . ~I\I
t.:::> :::> I JAPANESE TESTS (74)
BAR ANCHORAGE TYPE +NUT ON 0.95 in. OR
DIA. Thread Grip 24mm OJ BAR
Wedge
(cm) Nut
16 ..... ~ +
in .
I (2.54
COlJPI. Nut
«It (])
Its-
-
' ..~ A IY8 (2.86) 0 III IZI
11/4 (3.18) V
1~8 l:l. l:l. 8
12 -
(350
-
Stress C 0- IZt-
Range ,Percent ~o A- bo-
Tensile +
Strength
8 ... + VV 0 0+ -
II .......I!I.. + ts-lr-
«It ".
.... V-
'" '" ....
···· ..... +.IIIIl ....+........... ::
4 .... -
o I I I
4
I I I
4
2 4
Cycles to Failure
Fig. 16-Fatigue data for bar anchorages
crack usually developed where the shoulder for the tensile strength of the strand. For 1fz in. (1.27
the head and the wire met. Clearly, the reduced cm), seven-wire strand anchored by 5% x 2 in.
fatigue capacity of the anchorage is due to the (14 x 5 cm) cast steel anchors,: failures have not
stress concentration caused by the change in sec- occurred within 0.5 X 10(; cycles of loadings vary-
tion. The conically shaped anchorage forces the ing between 0.6 and 0.65, and between 0.56 and
fatigue crack to develop at a section 50 to 80 per- 0.64 times the tensile strength of the strand. Ten
cent larger in diameter than the wire. tests* on Stressteel S-H 1fz in. (1.27 cm) Mono-
Results for the fatigue tests conducted in the strand wedges have shown that for a 10 or 7 deg
United States* and Japan71 on anchorages for angle, this system can take without failure at
bars are shown in Fig. 16. Arrows indicate speci- least 5 X 10" cycles of a load varying between 0.6
mens for which failures did not occur. The dotted and 0.66 times the strength of a 270 ksi (18,980
line is a lower bound to the test results. The ratio kgf/cm:.!) seven-wire strand. For a load varying
of the minimum stress to the tensile strength of between 0.5 and 0.7 times the strength of the
the bar was about 0.6 for all tests. It is apparent strand, failures occurred in the grips when one
that the stress range was insensitive to bar di- wire of the strand ruptured. Average fatigue lives
ameter or country of origin, and that all anchor- were 57,100 and 54,700 cycles for 10 and 7 deg
ages comply with the requirements of Section wedge angles. Results of foreign tests on proprie-
7.2 of Reference 56. The reduction in the fatigue tary anchorages for strand and multiple wire ten-
strength of the system for cut threads with coup- dons are shown in Fig. 17. The sources of the data
lers is less than for cut threads with nuts, and are indicated on the legend accompanying that
the reduction for both these systems is markedly figure. For all tests the minimum stress was
more than for bars with grip nuts or wedges. about 0.56 of the tensile strength of the tendon.
In the American tests on grip nuts and wedges, From a comparison of Fig. 17 and 13 it is apparent
a stress range of 0.1 times the tensile strength at that anchorages for strand result in a fatigue
a minimum stress of about 0.6 times that strength strength of about 70 percent of the potential
did not cause failure even after 3 X 10~ cycles of strength of the strand. The strength with a rope
loading. socket is only about 50 percent of the strength of
Tests on single strand anchorages have been the strand. For multiple wire anchorages it is ap-
reported by several organizations. *·-r.t For 1fz in.
(1.27 cm) seven-wire strand anchored in 87 and
89 C. C. L. spiral unitsi' cast in small concrete *Personal communication from E. Schechter. stressteel Corp.,
Wilkes-Barre. Pa.
blocks, failure did not occur within 1 X 10~ cycles ';'Test reports supplied by L. Gerber. The Prescon Corp.,
Corpus Christi, Tex.
:~Tcst reports supplied by K. B. Bondy, Atlas Prestressing Corp.,
of a loading varying between 0.6 and 0.65 times Panorama City, Calif,
215-16 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
2. The stress range in straight deformed rein- half of v" to zero as the minimum stress is in-
forcement that may be imposed on minimum creased to v".
stress levels up to 40 percent of the yield strength Where the nominal shear stress under service
shall not exceed 20,000 psi (1406 kgf/cm 2 ), or one- loads exceeds the values of Va specified in Section
half of that amount in bent bars or bars to which 11.4 of the ACI Code, and the shear stress due to
auxiliary reinforcement has been tack welded. the repetitive live load plus impact exceeds 25
Concrete is not believed to exhibit a fatigue en- percent of the total nominal shear stress, it is
durance limit. The first criterion gives a conserva- further recommended that the shear carried by
tive prediction of fatigue strength at a fatigue the concrete VI' be taken as zero for calculations
life of 10 million cycles. Deformed bar reinforce- of the required area of shear reinforcement. This
ment does exhibit a fatigue limit. However, the recommendation will reduce the risk of a shear
second criterion is a conservative lower bound of fatigue failure at bends in stirrup reinforcement.
all available test results on bars. 3.1.2 Prestressed members-In this discussion,
H the calculated fatigue stresses are higher prestressed members are restricted to concrete
than values indicated permissible by Criteria 1 beams reinforced with strand, wires, or bars that
or 2, the design should not necessarily be rejected. are prestressed to at least 40 percent of the tensile
In these cases, evidence based on information in strength of the reinforcement. This reinforcement
Sections 2.1 and 2.2 and elsewhere may provide is presumed to meet the requirements of ASTM
a basis for allowing higher stresses. A 416-64,(;1 A 421-65,GO and A 322-64a,sl respectively.
Whereas the determination of critical flexural
Since most of the information included in Sec-
stresses in non prestressed members is relatively
tion 2.2 is based on fatigue tests of bars embedded
straightforward, the determination of critical
in concrete beams, it is believed to be directly
flexural stresses in the concrete and tendons of
applicable to design. However, except for stress
prestressed members is quite complex. The reason
range, most of the variables which designers can
is that flexural cracking must have occurred be-
readily control-bar size, type of beam, minimum
fore fatigue of reinforcement can be critical.
stress, bar orientation, and grade of bar-do not
Hence an analysis which considers cracking must
have a large effect on fatigue strength. Other
be employed.
variables related to manufacturing and fabrica-
tion-deformation geometry, bending, and tack Stress computations should be made using the
welding-are much more significant. basic assumptions given in Section 18.3 of the ACI
Code,":) although this procedure is quite tedious.
One factor not considered in Section 2.2 is that A simplified method of analysis has been pre-
a structure is a composite of many members, each sented,s2.s:1 but the results may be too conservative
of which generally contain many reinforcing ele- to be useful. Other design alternatives have also
ments. As the results of the AASHO Road Test 20 been pres en ted. s-l.8G,sn
indicated, fatigue fracture of one or more reinforc- As far as the fatigue strength of the concrete
ing elements does not necessarily result in failure is concerned, the first criterion previously given
of the structure. Rather there is evidence of dis- in Section 3.1.1 is applicable. The Committee rec-
tress due to increased deflections and wide cracks ommends that the following criteria be used for
and hence there is opportunity to repair and the prestressed reinforcement:
strengthen the structure. 3. The stress range in prestressed reinforcement
Recent unpublished research results at the Uni- that may be imposed on minimum stress levels up
versity of Washington* indicate that special at- to 60 percent of the tensile strength shall not
tention should be given to the shear fatigue exceed the following:
strength of beams subjected to high nominal Strand and bars 0.10 tVII
shearing stresses. Inclined cracking is a prere- Wires 0.12 tv/(
quisite for a shear fatigue failure. However, it is Again, it may be possible to justify higher values
known that web shear cracks will form under of stress range by appropriate use of the data in
repetitive loads at appreciably lower stresses than Section 2.3 and elsewhere. S!; Also, results of recent
those assumed for static loading conditions. research is indicate that if the nominal tensile
stress in the precompressed tensile zone does not
For highly repetitive 10ading,SO it is recom-
exceed 6V fe', it may be assumed that fatigue of
mended that the range in nominal shear stress that
the prestressing reinforcement is not critical.
is assumed to cause inclined cracking under a
In prestressed members containing unbonded
zero to maximum loading be taken as one-half the
reinforcement, special attention shall be given to
value of nominal shear stress carried by the con-
the possibility of fatigue in the anchorages or
crete, v,, specified in Section 11.4 of the ACI
Code.":l For other loadings, the range in nominal
shear stress shall be linearly reduced from one- *Personal communication from Dr. Neil M. Hawkins, University
of Washington, Seattle, Wash.
FATIGUE LOADING DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 215-19
was found that the observed life of test beams fication of the Westergaard theory, and the
could be substantially less than that expected AASHO method is based on the results of a com-
from S-N curves of the tendons alone. Differences prehensive field study at the AASHO Road Test.
were attributed to the difficulty of accurately For airports, the U. S. Corps of Engineers pro-
determining stress in a tendon in a beam, and cedure is based on pavement performance and
also to the local effects in the vicinity of a crack. full-scale test track studies. 9D
The need for statistical considerations in evalu- The following is a brief description of some of
ating fatigue life of prestressed beams has also the factors which affect the service life of con-
been cited. m .ss Other information on the flexural crete pavements.
fatigue behavior of large membersSO-!l1 and bridges 1. Traffic-The volume and axle weights of the
in the AASHO Road Tesr)~ is available. expected traffic must be predicted. For highways,
Regarding the shear fatigue strength of pre- these are predicted from highway department
stressed concrete members, the discussion in Sec- truck weight studies, and for airports they are
tion 3.1.1 for non prestressed members is also based on aircraft manufacturers' data on the
applicable to prestressed members. The mode of loads and configurations of existing and projected
shear fatigue failure has been documented in fu ture aircraft.
recent research,78,n~ which demonstrated that pre- 2. Environment-Nonuniform stress gradients
stressed beams have a remarkably high shear are created in pavement slabs because of re-
fatigue strength under very severe loading condi- straint to slab movement induced by changes in
tions. temperature and moisture conditions. Tempera-
ture and moisture gradients also affect the per-
formance of the slabs because they change the
3.2-Pavements *
shape of the slabs and hence alter the degree of
Portland cement concrete pavements for air- sub grade support.100-I02
ports and highways are subjected to repetitive 3. Boundary conditions-The stress state in the
loadings caused by traffic and cyclic environ- pavement is affected by subgrade friction, the
mental conditions. Although the resulting stresses type and efficiency of load transfer at joints, and
may eventually cause cracking, localized distress the position of loads with respect to the joints
does not necessarily terminate the pavement's and pavement edges.
useful life. Pavements normally are serviceable
4. Support conditions-Several phenomena may
as long as load transfer across cracks and joints
affect the underlying subgrade, and reduce the
is effective, and the sub grade continues to support
support which it provides to the concrete slab.
the slabs without excessive deflection. It is there- These include loss of material by pumping, densi-
fore necessary to design pavements to resist the fication, and displacement of the sub grade, as
expected repetitive traffic and environmental
well as soil volume changes due to moisture
stresses for the predetermined service life.
changes and frost.
Currently three types of concrete pavements In the following section, the PCA, AASHO, and
are used in the United States: (a) plain pave- Corps of Engineers methods are briefly reviewed.
ments, with frequent joints and no reinforcement Other design methods are not specific in their
(with and without dowels); (b) reinforced con- evaluation of repeated loads. It is expected that
crete pavements, consisting of long slabs with the PCA, AASHO, and Corps of Engineers ap-
distributed reinforcing and doweled joints;D±.DG and proaches will continue to be the basic models for
(c) continuously reinforced pavements (CRCP), design. Refinements in design methods are ex-
consisting of very long slabs with more reinforce-
ment than a reinforced concrete pavement and
no transverse joints. oB ·Mr. Craig A. Ballinger was the chairman of the subcommittee
that prepared this section of the report.
215-20 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
pected as more sophisticated analysis and com- ment is affected by cracking, joint faulting, etc.,
puter techniques are developed. t03 only to the extent that it affects rider comfort.
3.2.1 PCA design method-The PCA design pro- The serviceability index scale is linear from 5.0
cedure for highways is based on an extension of down to 0.0. New pavements generally have an
the Westergaard theorylill which permits stress index between 4.2 and 4.6, and pavements are
computations for multiple wheeled vehicles and ready for resurfacing when the index drops to a
relates support, axle load, and slab thickness to value of 2.0 or 2.5 depending on the facility.
the stress created in the concrete. Only the heavy To apply this design method, all levels of axle
axle loads which stress the concrete to greater loading are converted to equivalent 18 kip (8160
than 50 percent of its modulus of rupture are kg) single axle loads, by using a table of equiva-
considered; i.e., the effects of passenger cars and lency factors derived from the Road Test. As an
light trucks are not considered significant. The example, the effect of one passage of an 18 kip
criteria for the fatigue life of the pavement is the axle load equates to 5000 repetitions of a 2 kip
appearance of the first structural crack in the (907 kg) axle load. The thickness of the required
slab. pavement is determined directly by using a nomo-
graph relating the thickness to the predicted
The basic tool of the designer using this method number of equivalent axle loads to reach the
is a set of flexural design stress charts for high- minimum serviceability, the underlying sub grade
way vehicles and for aircraft. The charts are the support, and the allowable working stress in the
result of analysis of exact wheel configurations concrete.
involving influence charts 10 ,) or computer pro- 3.2.3 Corps of Engineers method-For this de-
grams. ton Computed stresses are normalized by sign procedure 9n load stresses are computed for
dividing by the design flexural strength of the the aircraft that are expected to use the pave-
concrete, and compared against a "standard" ment. Design charts indicate required pavement
S-N curve to determine the allowable number of thicknesses for specific aircraft depending on con-
repetitions of load at each level. A percent dam- crete flexural strength, sub grade support and air-
age is obtained by dividing the predicted number craft gear loads. The thickness so determined is
of loads by the number indicated to cause failure. for a fixed amount of traffic-5000 coverages of
These values are then accumulated in accordance the design aircraft. The term "coverage" is used
with the Miner hypothesis, to determine whether to convert the number of traffic operations to the
the design life is satisfactory. The PCA method number of full stress repetitions; i.e., a coverage
for airport pavement design 107 is similar to the occurs when each point of the pavement surface
highway design method. has been SUbjected to one maximum stress by the
3.2.2 AASHO design method-The philosophy operating aircraft. An equation to convert op-
associated with the AASHO design procedure is erations to coverages considers the wheel con-
different than that of the PCA method, in that figuration and transverse wander width of the
failure is considered to occur when pavement has aircraft passes on taxiways and runways. To
deteriorated to a minimum tolerance level of recognize levels of traffic other than the fixed
serviceability. lOR Serviceability is a unique con- 5000 coverage level, the following increases in
cept which is directly related to the pleasantness pavement thickness are specified; an increase of
of ride experienced by the driver traveling over 5 percent for 10,000 coverages and up to 12 per-
the roadway. The serviceability index of a pave- cent for 30,000 coverages.
NOTATION
f/ = compressive strength of concrete Tc! J without taking into account the varia-
ultimate strength of prestressing steel tion in stress conditions caused by geometrical
fr modulus of rupture of concrete discontinuities
n,· number of cycles applied at a particular stress S"'''' = the stress having the highest algebraic value
condition in the stress cycle, tensile stress being con-
N = fatigue life, i.e., number of cycles at which sidered positive and compressive stress neg-
50 percent of a group of specimens would ative
be expected to have failed, or the number of S", i" the stress having the lowest algebraic value
cycles causing failure in a given specimen in the stress cycle, tensile stress being con-
= number of cycles which will cause fatigue sidered positive and compressive stress nega-
failure at the same stress condition as nr tive
p probability of failure Sr = stress range, i.e., the algebraic difference be-
S the stress calculated on the net section by tween the maximum and minimum stress in
simple theory such as S = PIA, Mcll, or one cycle, Sma;)' - Stllill
FATIGUE LOADING DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 215-21
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215-22 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
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37. Kokubu, Masatane; Tada, Yoshiaki; Tachibana, Armatures de Precontrainte," Proceedings, RILEM
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Concrete Beams Reinforced with Deformed Bars," Unbonded Tendons," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V.
Transactions, Japan Society of Civil Engineers (To- 66, No.2, Feb. 1969, p. 85.
kyo), No. 122, Oct. 1965, pp. 43-50. (in Japanese with 55. ACI Committee 301, "Specifications for Struc-
English Summary) tural Concrete for Buildings (ACI 301-72)," American
39. Kokubu, Masatane, and Okamura, Hajime, "Fa- Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1972, 36 pp.
tigue Behavior of High Strength Deformed Bars in 56. PCI Committee on Post-Tensioning, "Tentative
Reinforced Concrete Bridges," First International Specification for Post-Tensioning Materials," Journal,
Symposium on Concrete Bridge Design, SP-23, Ameri- Prestressed Concrete Institute, V. 16, No.1, Jan.-Feb.
can Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1969, pp. 301-316. 1971, pp. 14-20.
40. Forrest, P. G., Fatigue of Metals, Pergamon 57. "Tentative Specifications for testing of prestress-
Press, Elmsford, New York, 1962. ing steel according to DIN 4227 for their acceptance,
41. Helgason, Th., and Hanson, J. M., "Investiga- manufacturing and supervision (Vorl1iufige Richtlin-
tion of Design Factors Affecting Fatigue Strength of ien fUr die Prufung bei Zulassung, Herstellung und
Reinforcing Bars-Statistical Analysis," Abeles Sym- Dberwachung von Spannst1ihlen fur Spannbeton nach
posium on Fatigue of Concrete, SP-41, American Con- DIN 4227)," Department of Transportation, Federal
crete Institute, Detroit, 1974, pp. 107-138. Republic of Germany, Dec. 1965.
42. Derecho, A. T., and Munse, W. H., "Stress Con- 58. "Design and Engineering Code for Prestressed
centration at External Notches in Members Subjected Concrete Railway Bridges," Japanese National Rail-
to Axial Loadings," Bulletin No. 494, Engineering Ex- way.
periment Station, University of Illinois, Urbana, Jan. 59. Baus, R., and Brenneisen, A., "The Fatigue
1968, 51 pp. Strength of Prestressing Steel," Steel for Prestressing,
43. Hanson, John M., and Helgason, Thorsteinn, FIP Symposium (Madrid, June 1968), Cement and
Discussion of "Fatigue Strength of Hot-Rolled De- Concrete Association, London, 1969, pp. 95-117.
FATIGUE LOADING DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 215-23
60. "Standard Specifications for Uncoated Stress- 75. Mamada, K; Naito, K; and Mogami, T., "Tests
Relieved Wire for Prestressed Concrete," (A 421-65), on Anchorages for VSL Tendons," Prestressed Con-
1972 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Part 4, Ameri- crete (Japan), V. 13, No.4, Aug. 1971, pp. 42-48.
can Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 76. Leonhardt, Fritz, Prestressed Concrete-Design
pp. 449-451. and Constniction, translated by V. Amerongen, 2nd
61. Ball, C. G., "Tensile Properties of Fatigue-Cycled Edition, Wilhelm Ernst and Sons, Berlin, 1964, pp.
USS High-Tensile-Strength, Stress-Relieved, Button- 136-141.
Anchoring-Quality 0.250-in. Diameter Wire," Report, 77. Seki, M.; Yamamoto, S.; Shimbo, E.; and Toyo-
Project No. 57.019-901 (11), Applied Research Labora- kawa, T., "Pulsating Tension Fatigue Strength of PC
tory, U. S. Steel Corporation, Mar. 1963, 18 pp. Also, Steel Strand," Journal, Japan Society for Materials
Part II, Western Concrete Structures, Technical Re- Science (Kyoto), V. 18, No. 190, July 1969, pp. 12-16.
port No.6, "Investigation of Button-Head Efficiency," 78. Hanson, John M.; Hulsbos, Cornie L.; and Van
July 1968. Horn, David A., "Fatigue Tests of Prestressed Con-
62. Bennett, E. W., and Boga, R. K, "Some Fatigue crete I-Beams," Proceedings, ASCE, V. 96, STU, Nov.
Tests of Large Diameter Deformed Hard Drawn Wire," 1970, pp. 2443-2464.
Civil Engineering and Public Works Review (Lon- 79. Shah, Surendra P., and McGarry, Fred J.,
don), V. 62, No. 726, Jan. 1967, pp. 59-61. "Griffith Fracture Criteria and Concrete," Proceed-
63. Iwasaki, 1., and Asanuma, H., "Quality Tests of ings, ASCE, V. 97, EM6, Dec. 1971, pp. 1663-1676.
Deformed Prestressing Wires for Prestressed Concrete 80. Chang, Tien S., and Kesler, Clyde E., "Fatigue
Railroad Ties," Report No.7, Japanese National Rail- Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Beams," ACI JOUR-
ways Research Laboratories, 1969, p. 346. Also, Struc- NAL, Proceedings V. 55, No.2, Aug. 1958, pp. 245-254.
tural Research Laboratory Report No. 42, Technical 81. "Standard Specification for Hot-Rolled Alloy
Research Institute for Railroads, Feb. 1969, 20 pp. Steel Bars," (A 322-64a), 1972 Annual Book of ASTM
64. "Standard Specifications for Uncoated Seven- Standards. Part 3, American Society for Testing and
Wire Stress-Relieved Strand for Prestressed Concrete," Materials, Philadelphia, pp. 300-301.
(A 416-64), 1967 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 4, 82. Ekberg, C. E. Jr.; Walther, R. E.; and Slutter,
American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadel- R. G., "Fatigue Resistance of Prestressed Concrete
phia, pp. 598-600. Beams in Bending," Proceedings, ASCE, V. 83, ST4,
July 1957, pp. 1304-1 to 1304-17.
65. Lane, R. E., and Ekberg, C. E. Jr., "Repeated
83. Hilmes, J. B., and Ekberg, C. E., "Statistical
Load Tests on 7-Wire Prestressing Strands," Progress
Analysis of the Fatigue Characteristics of Underrein-
Report No. 223.21, Fritz Engineering Laboratory, Le-
forced Prestressed Concrete Flexural Members,"
high University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 1959.
Iowa Engineering Experiment Station, Iowa State
66. Fisher, J. W., and Viest, 1. M., "Fatigue Tests University, Ames, 1965.
of Bridge Materials of the AASHO Road Test," Spe- 84. Abeles, Paul W.; Barton, Furman W.; and Brown,
cial Report No. 66, Highway Research Board, Wash- Earl 1. II, "Fatigue Behavior of Prestressed Concrete
ington, D. C., 1961, pp. 132-147. Bridge Beams," First Inte7-national Symposilim on
67. Warner, R. F., and Hulsbos, C. L., "Probable Concrete Bridge Design, SP-23, American Concrete In-
Fatigue Life of Prestressed Concrete Beams," Journal, stitute, Detroit, 1969, pp. 579-599.
Prestressed Concrete Institute, V. 11, No.2, Apr. 1963, 85. Abeles, Paul W., and Brown, Earl 1. II, "Ex-
pp. 16-39. pected Fatigue Life of Prestressed Concrete Highway
68. Hilmes, J. B., and Ekberg, C. E. Jr., "Statistical Bridges as Related to the Expected Load Spectrum,"
Analysis of the Fatigue Characteristics of Under-Re- Second International Symposium on Concrete Bridge
inforced Prestressed Concrete Flexural Members," Design, SP-26, American Concrete Institute, Detroit,
Iowa Engineering Experiment Station, Iowa State 1971, pp. 962-1010.
University, Ames, 1965. 86. Abeles, Paul W.; Brown, E. I. II; and Hu, C. H.,
69. Tide, R. H. R., and Van Horn, D. A., "A Statis- "Fatigue Resistance of Under-Reinforced Prestressed
tical Study of the Static and Fatigue Properties of Beams Subjected to Different Stress Ranges, Miner's
High Strength Prestressing Strand," Report No. 309.2, Hypothesis," Abeles Symposium on Fatigue of Con-
Fritz Engineering Laboratory, Lehigh University, crete, SP-41, American Concrete Institute, Detroit,
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 1966. 1974, pp. 279-300.
70. Eastwood, W., and Rao, R. M., "Fatigue Tests on 87. Tachau, Herman, Discussion of "Fatigue Tests
Lee-McCall Prestressed Concrete Beams," Civil Engi- of Prestressed Concrete I-Beams" by John M. Hanson,
neering and Public Works Review (London), V. 52, Cornie L. Hulsbos, and David A. Van Horn, Proceed-
No. 613, July 1957, pp. 786-787. ings, ASCE, V. 97, ST9, Sept. 1971, pp. 2429-2431.
88. Venuti, William .r., "A Statistical Approach to
71. 1958 Tentative Guide for Fatigue Testing and
the Analysis of Fatigue Failure of Prestressed Con-
the Statistical Analysis of Fatigue Data, STP-91A, 2nd crete Beams," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 62, No.
Edition, American Society for Testing and Materials,
11, Nov. 1965, pp. 1375-1394.
Philadelphia, 1963. 89. Magura, Donald C., and Hognestad, Eivind,
72. Brenneisen, A., and Baus, R., "Statistics and "Tests of Partially Prestressed Concrete Girders,"
Probabilities," Steel for Prestressing, FIP Symposium Proceedings, ASCE, V. 92, ST1, Feb. 1966, pp. 327-350.
(Madrid, June 1968), Cement and Concrete Associa- 90. Rosli, Alfred, and Kowalczyk, Ryszard, "Fatigue
tion, London, 1969, pp. 119-138. Tests and Load Test to Failure of a Prestressed Con-
73. Moore, D. G.; Klodt, D. T.; and Hensen, R. J., crete Bridge," Proceedings, 4th Congress of the FIP
"Protection of Steel in Prestressed Concrete Bridges," (Rome-N aples, 1962), Federation Internationale de la
NCHRP Report No. 90, Highway Research Board, Precontrainte, Paris, V. 1, pp. 136-140, (Published by
Washington, D. C., 1970, 86 pp. Cement and Concrete Association, London, 1963).
74. Research Group for Steel for Prestressed Con- 91. Abeles, Paul W., "Some New Developments in
crete, "Tests of Prestressing Steel," Prestressed Con- Prestressed Concrete," Stnictliral Engineer (London),
crete (Japan), V. 3, No.3, June 1961, pp. 46-53. V. 29, No. 10, Oct. 1951, pp. 259-278.
215-24 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
92. Fisher, J. W., and Vi est, 1. M., "Behavior of 101. Thomlinson, J., "Temperature Variations and
AASHO Road Test Bridge Structures Under Repeated Consequent Stresses Produced by Daily and Seasonal
Overstress," Special Report No. 73, Highway Research Temperature Cycles in Concrete Slabs," Concrete and
Board, Washington, D.C., 1962, pp. 19-51. Constructional Engineering (London), V. 35, June-
93. Hanson, John M., and Hulsbos, C. L., "Fatigue July 1940.
Tests of Two Prestressed Concrete I-Beams with In- lO2. Nagataki, Shigeyoshi, "Shrinkage and Shrink-
clined Cracks," Highway Research Record, Highway age Restraints in Concrete Pavements," Proceedings,
Research Board, No. 103, 1965, pp. 14-30. ASCE, V. 96, ST7, July 1970, pp. 1333-1358.
94. Fordyce, Phil, and Yrjanson, W. A., "Modern 103. Hudson, W. Ronald, and Matlock, Hudson,
Design of Concrete Pavements," Proceedings, ASCE, "Analysis of Discontinuous Orthotropic Pavement
V. 95, TE3, Aug. 1969, p. 407. Slabs Subjected to Combined Loads," Highway Re-
95. ACI Committee 325, "Recommended Practice for search Record, Highway Research Board, No. 131,
Design of Concrete Pavements (ACI 325-58)," Ameri- 1966, pp. 1-48.
can Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1958, 36 pp. 104. "State of the Art: Rigid Pavement Design, Re-
96. ACI Committee 325, "A Design Procedure for search on Skid Resistance, Pavement Condition Evalu-
Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavements for ation," Special Report No. 95, Highway Research
Highways," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 69, No.6, Board, Washington, D. C., 1968, 68 pp.
June 1972, pp. 309-319. 105. Pickett, Gerald, and Ray, G. K., "Influence
97. "Thickness Design for Concrete Pavements," Charts for Concrete Pavements," Transactions, ASCE,
Publication No. IS010P, Portland Cement Association, V. 116, 1951, pp. 49-73.
Skokie, 1966, 32 pp.
98. "AASHO Interim Guide for the Design of Pave- 106. Packard, R. G., "Computer Program for Air-
ment Structures," American Association of State High- port Pavement Design," Portland Cement Associa-
way Officials, Washington, D. C., 1972. tion, Skokie, 1967.
99. Hutchinson, R. L., "Basis for Rigid Pavement 107. "Design of Concrete Airport Pavements," Pub-
Design for Military Airfields," Miscellaneous Paper lication No. EB050P, Portland Cement Association,
No. 5-7, U. S. Army Corps of Engineers Ohio Division Skokie, 1972, 48 pp.
Laboratory, Cincinnati, May 1966, 74 pp. 108. "The AASHO Road Test-Report No.5, Pave-
100. Yoder, E. J., Principles of Pavement Design, ment Research," Special Report No. 61E, Highway
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1959, 569 pp. Research Board, Washington, D. C., 1962, 352 pp.
APPENDIX-SUMMARY OF SPECIFICATIONS
RELATING TO FATIGUE*
A.1-Manual of Recommended Practice, Ameri- is the effective prestress. Maximum stress and range
can Railway Engineering Association; Chapter 8 of stress shall depend upon magnitude of live loads
-Concrete Structures and Foundations; Part 17- or overloads that may be repeated. Range of stress
Prestressed Concrete Structures; Section G- under service load will usually be small unless con-
Repetitive Loads; Reapproved with revisions, 1969 crete is cracked. Cracking will be permitted only un-
der temporary overload.
A.l.l. Geneml Devices for splicing steel may contain strain con-
centrations that lower fatigue strength. Consideration
The ultimate strength of concrete or steel subjected shall be given to fatigue whenever splices are used.
to repetitive loading may be less than static strength
because of fatigue. Fatigue failure may occur in con-
crete, prestressing steel, anchorages, splices or bond.
A.l.4. Anchorages
If steel is fully bonded, no difficulty should be ex-
A.l.2. Concrete pected in anchorage or end bearing as the result of
repetitive loads. If unbonded steel subjected to re-
Fatigue strength of concrete in both tension and
peated service loads or overloads transmitted directly
compression shall be considered to depend on the
to the anchorage is used, fatigue strength of the an-
magnitude of stress, range of stress variation, and the
chorage shall be given special consideration.
number of loading cycles. Since high stresses and
stress ranges are common, fatigue shall be considered
when repetition of loading cycles of greater than de- A.l.5. Bond
sign load may occur.
Failure of bond under repetitive loading shall be
Fatigue failure is unlikely if the allowable stresses
considered unlikely unless there is a significant num-
(after full prestress losses, of 0.4 fo' compression and
ber of repetitions of overload.
zero flexural tension) are not exceeded. If a large
number of overloads is anticipated, a reduction in the
safety factor may occur. A.l.6. Shear and Diagonal Tension
Web reinforcement shall be provided as specified
A.l.3. Prestressing Steel (provisions that essentially require sufficient web
Fatigue strength of prestressing steel shall be con- steel to force an ultimate flexural failure).
sidered to depend upon magnitude and range of stress
and the number of cycles of loading. Minimum stress "'Dr. William J. Venuti prepared this section of the report.
FATIGUE LOADING DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 215-25
A.1.7. Design Conditions reversals occur. When the concrete is under repeated
compressive stress at the same location, such as oc-
Fatigue should not result in a reduction of strength cur in hammer driven reinforced concrete piles, the
if the following conditions are observed: range of compressive stress shall be preferably limited
(a) Flexural compressive concrete stress shall not to values less than 0.75 f/ for less than one thousand
exceed 0.4 fo' under either design load, or an overload cycles of loading and limited to values less than 0.5
that may be repeated many times, where fo' is the f,! for two thousand cycles of loading or more.
compressive strength of concrete at 28 days. (b) Reinforcement
(b) Tension shall not be permitted in concrete at
The range of stress in straight reinforcement caused
critical cross section under either design load or over-
by a single passage of the live load plus impact at
loads that may be repeated a number of times.
working load level, shall be limited to 20,000 psi. In
(c) Prestressing steel shall be bonded.
bent bars the fatigue limit of the bend is considerably
(d) Web reinforcement shall be provided as spec-
reduced. Bends in primary reinforcement shall be
ified (provisions that essentially require sufficient
avoided at sections having a high range of stress.
web steel to force an ultimate flexural failure).
When these conditions cannot be followed, fatigue
strength of all elements comprising the prestressed A.4-Japanese National Railway Design an~ En-
members shall be considered. gineering Code for Prestressed Concrete Railway
Bridges
A.2-Building Code Requirements for Reinforced This code requires that both prestressing cables and
Concrete (ACI 318-71) anchorages be able to withstand one million cycles
of a stress ranging between 0.6 times the guaranteed
Chapter l8-Prestressed Concrete. tensile strength of the cable and a stress 14.2 ksi
higher.
18.10-Repetitive loads
18.10.1-In unbonded construction subject to A.5-The West German Code for Prestressed Con-
repetitive loads, special attention shall be given to the crete (DIN 4227)
possibility of fatigue in the anchorages or couplers.
18.10.2-The possibility of inclined diagonal ten- This code requires manufacturers to specify the
sion cracks forming under repetitive loading at ap- characteristics of their steel with reference to a Good-
preciably smaller stresses than under static loading man diagram for values of the maximum stresses
shall be taken into account in the design. ranging between the service load stress and the 0.2
18.20-Post-tensioning anchorages and couplers percent offset stress.
18.20.3-Anchor fittings for unbonded tendons
shall be capable of transferring to the concrete a load A.6-The West German Code for Reinforced Con-
equal to the capacity of the tendon under both static crete (DIN 1045, 1972)
and cyclic loading conditions.
This code requires the manufacturer to prove the
suitability of a particular reinforcing steel prior to
A.3-Strength and Serviceability Criteria, Rein- its use in structures subjected to repeated loads. In
forced Concrete Bridge Members (Ultimate De- addition the range of loading is limited to 1400 kgUcm 2
sign); U. S. Department of Transportation, Federal (20,000 psi) for BSt 22/34 G (f" = 31,000 psi) and to
Highway Administration, October 1969; Section 1800 kgflcm2 (25,000 psi) for BSt 42/50 (f" = 60,000
2.B-Serviceability at working loads psi). The latter value is reduced to 1400 kgf!cm~ (20,-
000 psi) at bends. For welded reinforcing mats the
2.B.2 Fatigue considerations
stress range is limited to 800 kp/cm 2 (11,000 psi).
(a) Concrete
The range of compressive stress in the concrete
caused by a single passage of live load plus impact and This report was submitted to letter ballot of the committee which
consists of 15 members; 14 members returned their ballots. Bal-
centrifugal force, at working load level, shall be lim- loting was by sections ond all sections received at least II affirma-
ited to 0.5 fo' at points of contraflexure (concrete road- tive votes; with a few "not voting" responses on indiVidual sections,
way slab excluded), and at sections where stress a nd one nega t ive vote on Section 2.1.
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and Com·
mentaries are intended for guidance in designing, planning, executing, ACI 221R-61
or inspecting construction, and in preparing specifications. Reference
to these documents shall not be made in the Project Documents. If From ACI JOURNAL, Nov. 1961
items found in these documents are desired to be part of the Project
Documents, they should be incorporated directly into the Project
Documents.
E. W. BAUMAN L. C. PORTER
T. G. CLENDENNING R. W. SPENCER
C. E. GOLSON LEWIS H. TUTHILL
JOSEPH E. GRAY I. L. TYLER
W R. JOHNSON STANTON WALKER
D. O. WOOLF
Presents available information on aggregates in four categories. (I) Eval-
uation of aggregate properties in terms of their influence on the properties
of concrete. (2) Methods of determining aggregate properties and the
limitations of these methods. (3) Features of aggregate preparation and
handling which have a bearing on concrete quality and uniformity. (4) Selec-
tion of aggregate.
The report is limited to sand, gravel, crushed stone, and air-cooled blast-
furnace slag aggregate. Lightweight aggregate and special heavy aggre-
gate are not covered.
CONTENTS
Introduction ............................................ " 221-1
Properties of Concrete Influenced by Aggregate Properties. . .. 221-2
Methods of Determining Aggregate Properties and
their Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 221-5
Features of Processing and Handling which have a bearing
on Concrete Quality and Uniformity .................... " 221-11
Selecting Aggregates ...................................... 221-14
References 221-17
INTRODUCTION
221- 1
221-2 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
·Definitions of blast-furnace slag, coarse aggregate, crushed gravel, crushed stone, fine
aggregate, gravel, and sand are given in "Standard Definitions of Terms Relating to Concrete
and Concrete Aggregates." ASTM C 125-58. Air-cooled slag is the product that results when
molten slag is deposited in pits or banks for solidification under atmospheric conditions. It
may then be further cooled by the application of water.
t A description of handling procedures is contained in (ACI 614-59), Reference 78.
SELECTION AND USE OF AGGREGATES 221-3
ability and tensile strength, above which the particle will fail if critically
saturated.J For fine-grained materials with low permeability the critical
size may be in the range of normal aggregate sizes. For coarse-grained
materials or materials with the capillary system interrupted by numer-
ous macropores, the critical size might be so large so as to be of no
consequence even though the absorption might be high. If potentially
vulnerable aggregates are dry when used and are subjected to periodic
drying in service, they may ne\"er become critically saturated. In this
connection the paramount importance of an air-entrained paste in con-
crete exposed to frost action should be fully recognized.
When tl1eaggregate contains only a few par~icles of unfavorable pore
cha~acteristic"s~'{ree2Ing freqLlently.prociuces,"lnsfead" of "general dis~
lritegration;"thf;"" ph";;;~~~;;'~n"known as "p~p-outs" in which . co~rse
aggregate particles near the surface push off the surface layer of mortar
when they expa:~cCi~aving holes in the surface. Chert parti~les of 10~
speCific" gravity, limestone containing clay, and shaly~aterials areweli
known--16i"lflisbehavior. ..
2. Resistance to wetting and drying - The influence of aggregate on
durability of concrete subjected to wetting and drying is also controlled
by pore structure of the aggregate. Although this problem is not nearly
as serious as the problem of freezing and thawing, the differentiai
swelling accompanying moisture gain of a material with a large amount
of capillary absorption may be sufficient to cause failure of the sur-
rounding paste. Th~_ amount of stress developed is proportionaLtQ the
modulu"~ of elastici~yortheaggr~J{ate. ~Q_me._c.9:;;es p()p~outs may occur.
3. Resistance to heating and cooling - Heating and cooling induce
stresses in any material. If the temperature range is great enough,
damage will result. For aggregates commonly used and for temperature
changes ordinarily encountered, this is not a critical factor in concrete.
However, in addition to this over-all effect, there has been theoretical
speculation, and some laboratory evidence and fieICrobservationsha~e
be·enlriteq:JE~t~<:l"JQji:ipport· it,4-s that large differencesbetweerilhe
values-farO-paste and aggregate of the thermal coefficient of expansion
oY"thermal diffusivity should produce significant stresses in concrete
when subjected to normal' temperature change. There is no general
agreement that a problem exists here. In interpreting laboratory tests
and field observations, it is difficult to isolate thermal effects from
others such as moisture changes. Although the usual practice is not
to restrict the expansion coefficient of aggregate for normal temperature
exposure, aggregates with coefficients which are extremely high or
low may require investigation before use in certain types of structures.
4. Abrasion resistance - Abrasion resistance is another property for
which a high-quality well-cured paste is paramount. However, the hard-
ness of the aggregate is an important factor and abrasion resistant floors
and other concrete surfaces cannot be expected when soft aggregates
are used.
5. Alkali-aggregate reaction expansion - Deterioration resulting from
the alkali-aggregate reaction is recognized as a serious problem in cer-
tain geographic areas, principally in the southern and western parts
of the United States. It may occur elsewhere in areas where the effect
is concealed by the results of frost action. Reaction between alkalies
in t?e cement, . . and certaill ..sili£€ous consti tuenfs-"ins6meaggregate.s,
prod~ce, harITlfulexpil.D$ion,On the other hand, evidence of reaction
-fi-ase"been
observed in concretes in which no damage has occurred. The
problem can be prevented by the use of a low-alkali cement or by the
addition to the mixture of an adequate amount of a suitable pozzolan.
The user confronted with the problem is referred to the extensive liter-
ature on the subject. n
221-4 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
Strength
PerhClP::;th~secondmost . irnPortarltproperty of concrete, and the . OIle
!~r.~~"i~"~ ..values are ino~"tf~equel1tlY.spe"cifi.ed, is strength. TheL!~ieD
of "strengths usually conslde~ed.are compresslve.a l1 d. flexural. Strengtli
depends largely on the strength of the cement paste, and on the bond
bet~een the paste and aggregilte. The strength of the ag~regate. also
afiec"is the stren.gth ()f the~oncrete, butT~r"m"any""aggregates the'differ-
ences are. ~eiativ:ely ?~all asco~p~~ed to . those resllltirlgfrom differ-
ences"in-s'fren"g'fh o{th~"~e~~;tpa~ies"T~~hi~h {hey are used. Consid-
erafiol1 of factors affecting the strength of the paste is beyond the scope
of this report. T~.(Qgnd>between. the I?aste an?a~gregatet:nds to set
an upper limit on the strength' of conc,ret~thaf c~n be obtained with
a-"gi~~;;"~et'of materials, particulaiIy in: the case orflexural strength.
B'ondT~lnflUeficedby die surface texture and cleanness of the aggregate.
A~;u~gh:te~"f~red~surface""norrn?n'ybol'idsbetter than a smooth sllr-
face:-"C"oatingswhich adhere to the aggregate during mixing may inter-
-[ere with bond. Many coatings have no deleterious effect. Those which
are removed during mixing have the effect of augmenting the fines in
the aggregates. Those which remain on the aggregate particle surface
after mixing and placing have no particular effect unless they are of
such a nature so as to interfere with bond or are of a chemical com-
position which will produce a deleterious re(,l.ction with alkalies in
cement.:l4 Clayey coatmgs will normally interfere with bond, while
non adherent dust coatings increase the water demand as a consequence
of the increase in fines.: l :'
While angular particles and those having rough, vesicular surfaces
have a higher water requirement than rounded material, nevertheless
crushed and uncrushed aggregates generally give substantially the
same compressive strengths for a given cement factor. SOrrle(aggr~gates,
which are otherwise suitable, have a higher than normal wa~; 'require-
ment~ecause of uTlI~vorable grading characteristics' or the presence of
a""iarge p~oportion of flat or elongated particles. With such materials
ifis"riecessary touseahigher than nor~~i~em~nt factor to avoid an
excessively hIgh water-cement ratio and as a result, insufficient strength.
Water requirement may also be increased by nonadherent coatings and
by poor abrasion resistance of the aggregate in that both increase the
<t~tx._..?_~.!iE~_s"iJ?tl1e, mix{Or.
There is experimental evidence:lu to show that at a fixed water-cement
ratio strength decreases slightly as maximum size of aggregate increases
particularly for sizes larger than 1% in. However, for the same cement
content, this apparent advantage of the smaller size may not be shown
because of the offsetting effects of the increased quantity of mixing
water required.
Shrinkage
Th~"_ClmQllI1t of shrinkage Q~curring during ciryingof concr~te is de-
pendell!oll.tl1e" shrin~<:liS"epotential of both the cement p'asfe-aniriig"gre"-
SELECTION AND USE OF AGGREGATES 221-5
Economy
~_QI1QmY,..9J,,~Q!!.(:.rE!t~is influenced by the quantity of cement necessary
toproduce required st~~'ngtIl'orother properties, by theavailaoihtyor
proxil11itY~~~l1it~ble material, and by the amount of processingr~qui~~<i
to produce suitable aggregate. Although well;shaped aggregates whether
argular or rounded, graded within the limits of generally accepted speci-
fications, will produce concretes of comparable quality at a given ce-
ment factor, it is pointed out in the report of ACI Committee 613 1 " that
~ggreg~.t.~§}:lav~!lg characteristics which produce .abnormally hig}:l
water. reqlJJr.~m~J)J~i,ji~~Is'· nec~s·sarY'-To~m6ease·-iJle·ce-ment·contenCto
maint·.;r;; a fixed water-cement' ratio. ,.
The information presented in this section is summarized in Table 1.
monly employed for specification purposes; others are not used for this
purpose either because they require specialized equipment and tech-
niques or because there is no general agreement on proper specification
limits for the properties measured. Most emphasis here will be put on
the specification tests. The others, while important for research, are
not available to most concrete users.
Beneficiation
"Beneficiation" is a term used in the mining industry to describe the
improvement in quality of a material by the removal of unwanted frac-
tions. Success of a process depends on significant differences in the phys-
ical properties of desirable and undesirable constituents, such as hard-
ness, density, and elasticity. The method to be employed, therefore, if any
will be practicable, depends on the nature of the individual deposit.
Processes which have been used with variable amounts of success
include the following.
1. Crushing-Crushing may be used to reduce the quantities of soft
and friable particles in coarse aggregates. Certain impact crushers
are particularly adaptable to "selective" crushing. The degraded ma-
terial is eliminated either by screening or by classification. The costs
of installation and operation are likely to be high and there is always
loss of sound material, which is frequently excessive; and removal
of the degraded fractions may be difficult or expensive. On the other
hand, in the case of many deposits, selective crushing is the only process
available to make the material suitable for use.
2. Specific gravity separation-In many deposits, the deleterious
fractions are of significantly lower specific gravity than the better
quality parent material. Advantage is taken of this characteristic in
several beneficiation processes.
SELECTION AND USE OF AGGREGATES 221·13
Handling of aggregates
Much can be done in the handling of aggregates to increase the
likelihood of good performance. Conversely, basically good material
may yield inferior results due to abuse in handling. Procedures for
maintaining uniformity of gradation and moisture content are dis-
cussed in Section II of "Recommended Practice for Measuring, Mix-
ing, and Placing Concrete (ACI 614-59) ."78 Fig. 1 from that report is
reproduced here and the principal recommendations which pertain
to aggregates are given in abbreviated form.
1. Segregation in coarse aggregate is minimized when it is separated into
appropriate individual size fractions to be batched separately.
2. Undersize smaller than the designated minimum size in each fraction
should be held to a practical minimum, always less than the amount per-
mitted by the specifications, and should be uniform in amount, particularly
in the smaller sizes.
3. Stockpiles should be built in horizontal or gently sloping layers. Conical
stockpiles or any unloading procedure involving the dumping of aggregates
down sloping sides of piles should be avoided.
4. Trucks and bulldozers should be kept off stockpiles as they cause
breakage and contamination.
5. Effective measures should be taken to insure accurate separation of
sizes within specification limits as the aggregate is deposited in the batch
plant. This can be accomplished by finish screening or by careful attention
to stockpiling practices such as providing adequate separation between
stockpiles and operating cranes to avoid swinging buckets of one aggregate
over another.
6. Storage bins should have the smallest practicable horizontal cross sec-
tion; the bottoms should slope at an angle not less than 50 deg from the
horizontal toward a center outlet; and they should be filled by material
falling vertically over the outlet.
7. Two sizes of sand cannot be blended satisfactorily by placing them
alternately in stockpiles, cars, or trucks. Blending, if required to improve
grading, should be done by feeding the different sizes into a common stream
from regulating feeders onto the belt or loader. Where two or more sizes
of sand are employed, it is preferable to batch them separately.
8. Wind should not be permitted to segregate dry sand.
9. To the extent practicable, wet sand should be drained until it reaches
a uniform moisture content. Generally a satisfactory and uniform stable
condition will be reached in about 48 hr or less.
~~ i1i:::'·=~il
PREFERABLE OBJECTIONABLE
Crane or other means of placing motenal Methods which permit the aggregate
,n pile In units nol larger Ihan a truck to roll down the slope as It IS added
load which remain where placed and to the pile, or permil hauling equipment
do nol run down slopes to operate over the same level
repeatedly.
.·Undarm
about
center
CORRECT
Chimney surrounding material falling
from end of conveyor belt to prevent
wind from separating fine and coarse
matenals Openings prOVided as
required to discharge materials at
various elevatIOns on the pile.
which do not slake when wetted and dried, whose surface texture is
relatively rough with little or no unfavorable capillary absorption
and which contain no minerals that interfere with cement hydration
or react with cement hydration products to produce excessive expan-
sion. Other properties are not so easily specified; for instance, thermal
conductivity should be high if the chief concern is getting the heat
out of the interior of a dam, and low in a building wall where insu-
lating value is important.
The ideal aggregate is seldom available. The problem is to decide
the level of performance that is required in a given situation and de-
termine the degree to which it is economically attainable. It is neces-
sary to appraise the available aggregates. All tests have limitations
which make them not completely reliable; therefore, the service rec-
ord, if available and properly interpreted, becomes a valuable source
of information.
Since the causes of deterioration of concrete are many and even
experts are often in disagreement in a given instance, there is a great
risk of wrongfully condemning an aggregate on the basis of its pres-
ence in defective concrete. Records must be dependable and the evi-
dence of a recurring nature before rejection is made. However, pop-
outs provide a dependable criterion of identifying an undesirable com-
ponent in an aggregate. A structure completely sound after 10 years
or more representative service can be assumed to constitute an "en-
dorsement" of all materials used in it, including the aggregates. There
is the possibility, however, that potentially reactive aggregates may
have a satisfactory service record if they have been used only with
low-alkali cements. Furthermore, it is important to check that the
quality of the material currently available from the source is at least
equal to that used in the structure of good record. Where deteriora-
tion is associated with a minor constitutent, beneficiation may make a
previously undesirable aggregate usable. Close visual observation is an
all-important aid to good judgment. Where the service of a petrogra-
pher is available, the appraisal of an aggregate's service record can
be made on a much more scientific basis. The petrographic examina-
tion provides information on a wide variety of properties and fre-
quently makes it possible to compare samples from a newly developed
aggregate source with others of known service record.
In selecting an aggregate it is economical to require only those prop-
erties pertinent to its use in a particular project. As a general guide
the following criteria are suggested.
a. Regardless of use, the grading of the aggregate should be uniform
throughout its period of use and should conform to some reasonable
grading requirements. Excellent concrete can be made with aggre-
gates differing quite widely in grading characteristics so long as they
remain within the tolerances of usual specifications, for example,
ASTM C 33. Actually, good concrete can be made with some aggre-
gates outside these limits, including those showing discontinuous grad-
ings, if enough care is taken in proportioning concrete mixtures45 to
determine optimum proportions. However, unless the job is large
enough to justify the experimentation needed to establish effective
mix proportions, or the grading of the particular aggregate is known
to produce satisfactory concrete, aggregates meeting standard grad-
ing specifications should be used. In any case, it is important that
once the grading is established, it should be maintained constant with-
in rather close tolerances. Otherwise effective job control is im-
possible.
If after establishing optimum proportions for fine aggregate, coarse
aggregate, and cement, the fineness of the sand or the percentage of
undersize in the coarse aggregate increase, the water requirement for
SELECTION AND USE OF AGGREGATES 221-17
REFERENCES
1. ASTM Committee C 9, "Symposium on Mineral Aggregates," Special
Technicat Publication No. 83, American Society for Testing Materials, Philadel-
phia, 1948, 233 pp.
2. ASTM Committee C 9, "Significance of Tests and Properties of Concrete
and Concrete Aggregates," Speciat Technical PubHcation No. 169, American
Society for Testing Materials, Philadelphia, 1956.
3. Powers, T. C., "Basic Considerations Pertaining to Freezing and Thawing
Tests," Proceedings, ASTM, V. 55, 1955.
4. DeReus, M. E., and Willis, T. F., "Thermal Volume Change and Elasticity
of Aggregate and their Effect on Concrete," Proceedings, ASTM, V. 39, 1939, p. 919.
5. Callan, Edwin J., "Thermal Expansion of Aggregates and Concrete Dura-
bility, ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 48, No.6, Feb. 1952, pp. 485-504.
6. Pearson, J. C., "A Concrete Failure Attributed to Aggregate of Low Ther-
mal Coefficient," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 38, No.1, Sept. 1941, pp. 29-36.
(Discussion June 1942).
7. Parsons, Willard H., and Johnson, Walter A., "Factors Affecting the Ther-
mal Expansion of Concrete Aggregate Materials," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings
V. 40, No.4, Apr. 1944, pp. 457-468.
8. Weiner, Albert, "Study of the Influence of Thermal Properties on the
Durability of Concrete," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 43, No.9, May 1947, pp.
997-1008.
9. Lerch, William, "Chemical Reaction," Speciat Technical Publication No.
169, American Society for Testing Materials, Philadelphia, 1956, p. 334.
221-18 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
33. ACI Committee 505, "Specification for the Design and Construction of
Reinforced Concrete Chimneys (ACI 505-54) ," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 51,
No.1, Sept. 1954, pp. 1-48.
34. Mather, Bryant, "Shape, Surface Texture, and Coatings (Concrete Aggre-
gates)," Special Technical Publication No. 169, American Society for Testing
Materials, Philadelphia, 1955, pp. 284-296 (108 references).
35. Lang, F. C., "Deleterious Substances," Special TechnicaL Publication No.
228, American Society for Testing Materials, Philadelphia, 1943, p. 38.
36. Walker, Stanton, and Bloem, Delmar L., "Effects of Aggregate Size on
Properties of Concrete," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 56, No.3, Sept. 1960, pp.
283-298.
37. Carlson, Roy W., "Drying Shrinking of Large Concrete Members," ACI
JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 33, No.3, Jan.-Feb. 1937, p. 332.
38. Pickett, Gerald, "Effect of Aggregate on Shrinkage of Concrete and
Hypothesis Concerning Shrinkage," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 52, No.5, Jan.
1956, pp. 581-590.
39. Walker, Stanton; Bloem, D. L.; and Mullen, W. G., "Effect of Temperature
Changes on Concrete as Influenced by Aggregate," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings
V. 48, No.8, Apr. 1952. pp. 661-680.
40. Mitchell, L. J., "Thermal Expansion Tests of Aggregates, Neat Cements
and Concretes," Proceedings, ASTM, V. 53, 1953, p. 963.
41. "Boulder Canyon Final Reports. Part VII, Cement and Concrete Investi·
gation, Bulletin 1 Thermal Properties of Concrete." U. S. Bureau of Reclamation.
42. LaRue, H. A., "Modulus of Elasticity of Aggregates and its Effects on
Concrete," Proceedings, ASTM, V. 46, 1946, p. 1298.
43. Schupe, J. W., and Lounsbury, R. W., "Polishing Characteristics of Mineral
Aggregates," Proceedings, First International Skid Prevention Conference, Vir-
ginia Council of Highway Investigation and Research, Charlottesville, Aug. 1959.
44. Maclean, D. J., and Shergold, F. A., "The Polishing of Roadstones in Rela-
tion to Their Selection for Use in Road Surfacings," Proceedings, First Inter-
national Skid Prevention Conference, Virginia Council of Highway Investigation
and Researcb, Charlottesville, Aug. 1959.
45. ACI Committee 613, "Recommended Practice for Selecting Proportions for
Concrete (ACI 613-54)," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 51, No.1, Sept. 1954, pp.
49-64.
46. Newman, A. J., Teychenne, D. C., "A Classification of Natural Sands and
its use in Concrete Mix Design," Proceedings, Symposium on Mix Design and
Quality Control of Concrete, 1954, Cement and Concrete Association, London.
47. Foster, B. E., "Report on Cooperative Freezing-and Thawing Tests of
Concrete," N AS-NRC Publication 677, Highway Research Board Special Report
47, 1959, p. 57.
48. Truds<f>, Erik, "Experiments on Concrete Bars-Freezing and Thawing
Tests," Progress Report K2, Danish National Institute of Building Research, Com-
mittee on Alkali Reactors in Concrete, Copenhagen, 1958, p. 39.
49. Woolf, D.O., "Toughness, Hardness, Abrasion Strength, and Elastic Prop-
erties," Special Technical Publication No. 169, American Society for Testing
Materials, Philadelphia, 1956.
50. Swenson, E. G., "Reactive Aggregate Undetected by ASTM Tests," ASTM
Bulletin, No. 226, Dec. 1957, pp. 48-51.
51. "Standard and Tentative Methods of Sampling and Testing Highway
Materials Recommended by Second Conference of State Highway Testing Engi-
neers and Chemists," Bulletin No. 949, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Oct. 10,
1921.
52. Duvall, W. I.; Obert, Leonard; and Windes, S. L., "Standardized Tests for
Determining the Physical Properties of Mine Rock," Report of Investigations
3891, U. S. Bureau of Mines, Aug. 1946.
221-20 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
53. Woolf, D.O., "Methods for the Determination of Soft Pieces in Aggregate,"
Proceedings, ASTM, V. 47, 1947, p. 967.
54. Woolf, D.O., "Results of Physical Tests of Road-Building Aggregate,"
Bureau of Public Roads, 1953.
55. Report of Committee I-Roadway and Ballast, Bulletin, American Railway
Engineering Association, V. 59, No. 507, Feb. 1953, pp. 1145-1148.
56. Koenitzer, L. H., "Elastic and Thermal Properties of Concrete as Affected
by Similar Properties of the Aggregate," Proceedings, ASTM, V. 36, Part II, 1936
p. 393.
77. Rockwood, Nathan C., "Production and Manufacture of Fine and Coarse
Aggregates," Special Technical Publication 83, American Society for Testing
Materials, Philadelphia, 1948, pp. 38-116.
78. ACI Committee 614, "Recommended Practice for Measuring, Mixing and
Placing Concrete (ACI 614-59) ," American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1959, 31
pp.
ADDITIONAL. REFERENCES
79. Slate, F. 0., "Comprehensive Bibliography of Cement and Concrete, 1925-
1947," Section H, "Aggregates," Joint Highway Research Project, Engineering
Experiment Station, Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana, 1947.
80. "Bibliography No. 20 on Durability of Concrete: Physical Aspects," High-
way Research Board, Washington, D. C., 1957.
8l. "Bibliography No. 23 on Mineral Aggregates," Highway Research Board,
Washington, D. C., 1958.
82. "Blast Furnace Slag as Concrete Aggregate," Report of ACI Committee
201, Aggregate Specifications, ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings, V. 27, No.2, Oct. 1930.
pp. 183-219.
83. Huntington, C. S., "Removal of Shale and Soft Stone from Gravel," Rock
Products, V. 35, No. 22, 1932.
84. Hubbard, Fred, "Studies on Relation Between Characteristics of Blast-
Furnace Slag and Other Coarse Aggregates and the Properties of Resultant Con-
cretes," Proceedings, ASTM, V. 36, Part I, 1936, pp. 297-326.
85. Runner, D. G., "Preparation and Properties of Blast Furnace Slag," Roads
and Streets, Mar. 1938.
86. Williams, Gordon L., "The Effect of Belt Transportation on Concrete
Aggregate Grading," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 38, No.4, Feb. 1942, pp. 329-332.
87. Hubbard, Fred, and Williams, H. T., "Strength of Concrete as Related to
the Abrasion of the Blast Furnace Slag Used as Coarse Aggregates," Proceedings,
ASTM, V. 43, 1943, pp. 1088-1094.
88. Shaw, Edmund, Sand Settling and Devices for Settling and Classifying
Sand, Tradepress Publishing Corp., Chicago, 1943, 78 pp.
89. Banning, L. H., and Lamb, F. D., "Vibrating Screen Surface for Removal
of Flat and Elongated Pieces from Crushed Stone," U.S. Bureau of Mines Report
Investigation 1944, No. 3781, Engineering Index 1944, pp. 249.
90. Rockwood, Nathan C., Screening Fine Materials, Maclean-Hunter Publish-
ing Corp., Chicago, 1946, 56 pp.
9l. Warner, I., "Retaining Fines in Concrete Sand," Rock Products, V. 49, No.
1, 1946.
92. Rockwood, Nathan C., "Solving the Problem of Little Gravel, Much Clay,"
Rock Products, V. 51, Feb. 1948.
93. Knight, B. H., and R. G., Road Aggregates, Their Uses and Testing.
Edward Arnold and Co., London, 1948.
94. Industrial Minerals and Rocks, Chapter 12, "Crushed Stone" by A T. Gold-
beck, and Chapter 41, "Sand and Gravel" by Bror Nordberg, American Institute
of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, New York, 1949, pp. 245-293 and 844-892.
95. Lenhart, W. B., "Producing Aggregates for Buggs Island Dam Project,"
Rock Products, V. 52, Sept. 1949.
96. Josephson, G. W.; Siller, F., Jr.; and Runner, D. G., "Iron Blast-Furnace
Slag, Production, Processing, Properties, and Uses," Bureau of Mines Bulletin
479, U.S. Department of the Interior, 1949.
97. Bateman, John H., Materials of Construction, Chapter 2, "Mineral Aggre-
gates," Pitman Publishing Corp., New York, 1950, pp. 23-65.
98. Hill, J. Rutledge, "Prospecting for Sand and Gravel," Circular No. 40,
National Sand and Gravel Association, Mar. 1950.
99. Lenhart, W. B., "Aggregates from Mine Waste," Rock Products, V. 53,
May 1950.
100. Moore, R. Woodward, "Geophysical Methods of Subsurface Exploration
Applied to the Location and Evaluation of Sand and Gravel Deposits," Circular
No. 37, National Sand and Gravel Association, Mar. 1950.
1Ol. Nordberg, Bror, "Aggregates for Whitney Dam in Texas," Rock Products
V. 53, Jan. 1950.
221-22 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
102. Shiely, J. L., Jr., "Prospecting for Sand and Gravel and Evaluation of De-
posits," Circular No. 38, National Sand and Gravel Association, Mar. 1950.
103. Nurse, R. W. and Midgley, H. G., "The Mineralogy of Blast Furnace Slag,"
Silicates Industriels, V. 16, No.7, 1951, pp. 211-217.
104. Materials Laboratory Procedures Mamwl. U. S. Department of the Interior,
Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, 1951.
105. Lenhart, W. B., "Producing Sand and Gravel for Pine Flat Dam," Rock
Products, V. 55, Feb. 1952.
106. Moore, R. W., "Geophysical Methods of Subsurface Exploration Applied
to Materials Surveys," Bulletin 62, Highway Research Board, 1952.
107. "Operating Problems of the Sand and Gravel Industry," Circular No. 52.
National Sand and Gravel Association, Apr. 1952.
108. Blanks, R. F., "How Aggregates Should Be Prepared and Handled to En-
sure Good Concrete," Roads and Engineering Construction, V. 91, No.4, Apr.
1953, p. 142.
109. "Heavy-Media Treatment of Gravel," Circular No. 55, National Sand and
Gravel Association, Mar. 1953.
110. Nicholson, J. A., "Selecting and Handling Aggregates," Rock Products.
V. 56, Mar. 1953, p. 163.
111. Withey, M. 0., and Washa, G. W., Materials of Construction, Chapter
XIII, "Concrete Aggregates," John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1954, pp.
XIII-1-26.
112. Blanks, R. F. and Kennedy, H. L., The Technology of Cement and Con-
crete, V. 1, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1955.
113. Concrete Manual, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, U. S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, D.C., 6th Edition, 1955, 491 pp.
114. Troxell, G. E., and Davis, Harmer E., Composition and Properties of Con-
crete, Chapter 3, "Aggregates," McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1956,
pp. 33-63.
115. Pit and Quarry Handbook of the Nonmetallic Minerals Industries, Pit and
Quarry Publications, Inc., Chicago, 1957, 772 pp.
This report was submitted to letter ballot of the committee which consisted of 13 members; 12 mem-
bers returned their ballots, all of whom voted affirmatively,
Received by the Institute Feb. 6, 1961. Title No. 58·24 is a part of copyrighted Journal of the American
Concrete Institute, Proceedings V. 58, No.5, Nov. 1961; for discussion see pages 893 through 895.
ANSI/ACI 223-77
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and Com-
mentaries are intended for guidance in designing, planning, executing,
or inspecting construction, and in preparing specifications. Reference
to these documents shall not be made in the Project Documents. If
items found in these documents are desired to be part of the Project
Documents, they should be incorporated directly into the Project
Documents.
ACI Standard
Keywords: admixtures; aggregates; calcium aluminates; concrete construction; concrete finishing (fresh concrel'e);
..
concretes; consistency; curing; drying shrirkage; ectringite; expansive cement concretes; expansive cement Type K;
expa nsive cement Type M; expa nsive cement Type S; expansive cements; form work (construction); gypsum; hyd ra·
tion; joints (junctions); mix proportioning; placing; restraints; shrinkage compensating cements; shrinkage compen-
sating concretes; structural design; tests.
CONTENTS
Chapter 1-lntroduction 223'2
1. I-Background 1.3-Scope and limits
1.2-Purpose of shrinkage- l.4-Definitions
compensating concrete 1.5-General considerations
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
are induced. On subsequent drying, the shrinkage with an amount of calcium sulfate above the usual
so produced, instead of causing a tensile stress to amount found in portland cement.
develop which might result in cracking, merely 5. Shrinkage-compensating cement-An expan-
relieves the compressive stress caused by the sive cement so proportioned that when combined
initial expansion. with suitable amounts of aggregate and water
forms a shrinkage-compensating concrete or mor-
1.3-Scope and limits tar.
This recommended practice is directed mainly
6. Shrinkage-compensating concrete - An ex-
toward the use of shrinkage-compensating con-
pansive cement concrete which when properly re-
crete in structures, precast concrete products,
strained by reinforcement or other means will ex-
slabs, both on grade and structural, and pave-
pand an amount equal to or slightly greater than
ments. Recommendations are included for propor-
the anticipated drying shrinkage. Because of the
tioning, mixing, placing, finishing, curing, and
restraint, compressive stresses will be induced in
testing based on data presented in the committee's
the concrete during expansion. Subsequent drying
previous report and on the experience of pro-
shrinkage will reduce these stresses but ideally, a
ducers, consultants, and contractors.
residual compression will remain in the concrete
The recommendations herein are not applicable thereby eliminating shrinkage cracking.
to self-stressing expansive cement concretes which
7. Ettringite (3CaO· AbO:,· 3CaS0.I• 32H 2 0) -
are proportioned to produce a prestressed struc-
The phase formed during the hydration of ex-
ture for load-bearing purposes. Procedures for
pansive cements which is the source of the ex-
proportioning, handling, and curing of self-stress-
pansive force. It is comparable to the natural
ing concretes are often radically different from
mineral of the same name. This high sulfate, cal-
shrinkage-compensating concretes. The fact that
cium sulfoaluminate is also formed by sulfate at-
shrinkage-compensating concretes may attain
tack on mortar and concrete and was designated
certain levels of prestress before, or contain a
as "cement bacillus" in older literature.
small residual prestress after drying shrinkage is
only incidental to their primary purpose in com- Further explanation and definitions can be ob-
pensating for normal drying shrinkage. tained by reference to the previous ACI Commit-
tee 223 report.l
1.4--Definitions
1.S-General considerations
The definitions of terms used in this recom-
The same basic materials and methods necessary
mended practice pertaining to shrinkage-compen-
to produce high quality portland cement concrete
sating concrete are:
are required to produce satisfactory results in the
1. Expansive cement (general)-A cement which use of shrinkage-compensating concrete. Since the
when mixed with water forms a paste that, after performance of the cement in minimizing cracking
setting, tends to increase in volume to a signifi- in concrete depends in large measure on early
cantly greater degree than portland cement paste; expansion, additional care and control must be
used to compensate for volume decrease due to exercised during the mixing, placing, and early
shrinkage or to induce tensile stress in reinforce- curing. In some instances special procedures are
ment (post-tensioning). necessary to insure adequate hydration at the
2. Expansive cement Type K-A mixture of proper time. Similarly, the structural design ml}.st
portland cement, anhydrous tetra calcium trialu- be such as to insure adequate expansion to offset
min ate sulfate (ClAsS) ,* calcium sulfate (CaSOI) subsequent drying shrinkage. Details of the essen-
and lime (CaO). The CIA~S is a constituent of a tial requirements necessary for successful applica-
separately burned clinker that is interground tion are dealt with in the following chapters.
with portland cement or alternately, it may be The physical characteristics of the cured shrink-
formed simultaneously with the portland cement age-compensating concrete are usually of the same
clinker compounds during the burning process. order as for other types of concrete. The dura-
bility of shrinkage-compensating concretes should
3. Expansive cement Type M-Interground or
be judged on the same basis as portland cement
blended mixtures of portland cement, calcium
concretes.
aluminate cement, and calcium sulfate suitably
proportioned. t
'Where C= CaO. A = Aba". and S= SO".
4. Expansive cement Type S-A type of port- tThe Type M expansive cement produced in the United States
is not to be confused with the stressing cement (SC) produced in
land cement containing a large computed tri- the SOVIet Umon also from portland cement. calcium aluminate
cement. and gypsum. The. SC product is so proportioned that
calcium aluminate (C~lA) content and interground qUick settmg . .fast hardemng, and high early strength are ob-
taIned and, therefore, IS not used In conventional concrete.
223-4 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
CHAPTER 2-MATERIAlS
2.1-Shrinkage-compensating cements calcium sulfate and the rate at which they form
ettringite. As with other types of portland ce-
2.1.1 Types - The three different shrinkage-
ments, the compressive strength is principally due
compensating cements described in ASTM C 845 19
to the hydration of the calcium silicates.
are designated as Type K, Type S, and Type M.
The expansion of each of these cements when 2.1.3 Cement proportioning-Shrinkage-compen-
mixed with sufficient water is due principally to sating cements are manufactured to produce the
the formation of ettringite. proper amount of expansion without adversely
affecting the concrete quality and retaining the
2.1.2 Composition-Approximately 90 percent of
normal range of concrete shrinkage. An important
shrinkage-compensating cements consist of the
requirement is the selection of material propor-
constituents of conventional portland cement, with
tions so that the CaO, SOH, and especially the
added sources of aluminate and calcium sulfate.
AhO:], become available for ettringite formation
For this reason, the oxide analysis on mill test
during the appropriate period after the mix water
reports does not differ substantially from portland
is added. Determination of these proportions is
cements described in ASTM C 150 except for the
based on the results of laboratory tests such as
larger amounts of sulfate (typically 4 to 7 percent
outlined in Section 2.1.8 conducted under standard
total SO:\) and usually, but not always, a higher
conditions similar to those used for other portland
percentage of aluminate (typically 5 to 9 percent
cements.
total AhO:I). The free lime (CaO) content may
also be somewhat higher.
2.1.4 Hydration process-Two basic factors es-
sential to the development of expansion are the
The three types of expansive cements differ
appropriate amount of soluble sulfates and the
from each other in the form of the aluminate com-
availability of sufficient water for hydration. Et-
pounds from which the expansive ettringite is
tringite begins to form almost immediately when
developed, as shown in Table 2.1.2. The reactive
the water is introduced, and its formation is ac-
aluminate needed for the formation of ettringite
celerated by the mixing. To be effective, however,
in Type K cement is c,A;;S, in Type M ce- a major part of the ettringite must form after
ment is CA and C 12A 7 , and in Type S cement is attainment of a certain degree of strength; other-
CBA. wise the expansive force will dissipate in defor-
The kind of aluminate used influences the rate mation of the plastic or semi plastic concrete. For
and amount of ettringite formation at early ages this reason, mixing more than required to insure
and thus the expansion. Total potential expansion a uniform mixture is detrimental since the ettrin-
is governed by the amount of aluminates and gite formed during the prolonged agitation will
reduce the amount available later for expansion.
Ettringite formation continues during and after
TABLE 2.1.2-TYPES OF SHRINKAGE-COMPENSATING
hardening, with proper curing, until either the
CEMENTS AND THEIR CONSTITUENTS
SO~ or Al 2 0 B is exhausted.
2.1.5 Heat of hydration-The heat of hydration
Reactive aluminates or temperature rise of a shrinkage-compensating
available for ettringite
Expansive Principal formation cement depends on the characteristics and type of
cement constituents (C:IA . 3CS . H:;:,) the portland cement portion. In general, the heat
of hydration falls within the range of the par-
(a) Portland cement
(b) Calcium sulfate ticular portland cement used.
TypeK (c) Portland-like C4A,S 2.1.6 Fineness-The surface area of shrinkage-
cement containing compensating cement as determined by air per-
C,A:S meability (Blaine) is not directly comparable to
Ca) Portland cement the surface area of portland cements. Shrinkage-
(b) Calcium sulfate compensating cement contains significantly more
Type M (c) Calcium- CA and C,2A7 calcium sulfate than portland cement. Since the
aluminate cement
(CA and C, 2A7 ) calcium sulfate grinds more readily than clinker
it contributes a greater part of the total Blain~
(a) Portland cement value obtained.
Type S high in C:A C:A
Cb) Calcium sulfate . The specific surface of a shrinkage-compensat-
mg cement has a major influence on the expansion
SHRINKAGE-COMPENSATING CONCRETES 223-5
Further details on the use and influence of crete bars. Shrinkage-compensating concretes of
admixtures are given in Chapter 4. relatively high unit water content may develop
some tensile stress instead of remaining in com-
pression as shown.
2.5-Concrete
2.5.4 Creep-Data available on the creep char-
2.5.1 Strength-The tensile, flexural, and com- acteristics of shrinkage-compensating concretes
pressive strength development of shrinkage-com- indicate that their creep coefficients are within
pensating concretes after expansion has been com- the same range as those of portland cement con-
pleted is similar to that of portland cement cretes of comparable quality.
concretes under both moist and steam curing con-
ditions. 2.5.5 Poisson's ratio - There has been no ob-
served difference between Poisson's ratio in
The water requirement of some shrinkage-com-
shrinkage-compensating concrete and portland
pensating concretes is greater than that of port-
cement concrete.
land cement concrete for a given consistency.
Compressive strengths, however, are at least com- 2.5.6 Coefficient of thermal expansion-Tests
parable to portland cement concretes manufac- have shown that the coefficient of thermal ex-
tured from the same clinker and having the iden- pansion of shrinkage-compensating concretes is
tical cement content and aggregate proportions. consistent with that of corresponding portland ce-
As with portland cement concretes, the lower men t concretes.
the water-cement ratio, the greater the compres-
sive strength of shrinkage-compensating concretes. 2.5.7 Durability-When properly designed and
adequately cured, shrinkage-compensating con-
2.5.2 Modulus of elasticity - The modulus of cretes made with Type K, Type S, or Type M
elasticity of shrinkage-compensating concretes is cement are comparably resistant to freezing and
generally comparable to that of portland cement thawing, and deicer scaling and abrasion as port-
concretes. land cement concretes of the same water-cement
2.5.3 Volume change-After expansion, the dry- ratio. The effect of air content and aggregates are
ing-shrinkage characteristics of a shrinkage-com- essentially the same. Recommendations of ACI
pensating concrete are similar to those of portland Committee 2012 that the concrete should achieve
cement concrete. Also, the drying shrinkage is 4000 psi (26 MPa) compressive strength prior to
affected by the same factors, such as water con- exposure to freeze-thaw conditions, and be at least
tent of the concrete mix, type of aggregate used, 6 weeks old before being subjected to ice removal
cement content, etc. The water content influences chemicals, should be followed.
both the expansion during curing and subsequent
contraction due to drying shrinkage. Fig. 2.5.3 The type of shrinkage-compensating cement and
illustrates the typical length change history of particularly the composition of the portland ce-
shrinkage-compensating and portland cement con- ment portion can have a significant effect on the
durability of the concrete to sulfate exposure.
Shrinkage-compensating cement made with a Type
I portland cement may be undersulfated with r"':;-
0.20
:-------Drying-------l1l"1Iooi1 spect to the aluminate available and ther~dore
c:
o susceptible to further expansion and pos~;;~ble dis-
'in
c:
c ruption after hardening when exposeo to an ex-
<
Cl.
C
Q)
x
Q)
ternal source of additional sulfates. run the other
~ Q) 0.10 hand, shrinkage-compensating cern' ents made with
Q) z:
should be determined in the same manner and tensively in trial mixes. Details of procedures and
using the same ASTM methods as for hardened equipment are given in "Proposed Method of Test
portJand cement concretes. for Restrained Expansion of Shrinkage-Compen-
It is recommended that the amount of expan- sating Concrete"t8 published by ASTM. While
sion, which is as important as strength in the several other methods have been used, particularly
performance of shrinkage-compensating concrete, to determine field expansions, they should be cor-
be determined by measuring the length change related with expansions determined by this
of restrained 3 x 3 x 10 in. (76 x 76 x 254 mm) method in the laboratory at the age when
concrete prisms. This method has been used ex- measured.
trant corners, at least one #4 bar approximately Fig. 3.2.2-Re-entrant corners (pits, trenches, floor lay-
3 ft (1 m) long intersecting the diagonal from the out, truck dock, etc.)
223-8 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
3.3-Structural design procedures mate load analysis, the previous state of prestress
3.3.1 Structural design-To provide proper safety does not influence the capacity of the section. In
factors, the design should be based on the structural members, however, where it is antici-
strength design provisions of ACI 318. 3 This pro- pated that there will be high concrete expansion
cedure will avoid the necessity of consideration of combined with loading at an early age, it is desir-
the amount of stress in the reinforcement caused able to check that the net steel stresses caused by
by the expansion of the concrete since in the ulti- the expansion and loading conditions do not ex-
ceed permissible values.
The magnitude of concrete stresses induced by
tension in the reinforcement may be determined
I as follows:
150
I
,
I
Consider a reinforced concrete member which
10 expands an amount Ee.
,,
I
"
' If the areas of concrete and steel are Ac and As)
o~Percentage of ,
[/, reinforcement " respectively, then
---, ' Tensile force in steel = EcEsAs
'Vi
I
,,"
N
E
Compressive force in concrete = EcE"As
Cl. 100 0\0' u
en
en tR/
(:);'
.:;:::
en
.
S tress In concrete = Ec
EsA •
~ = Eo P E"
~ ..x
(i) ~
Cl) en
.~
en
~ where p = As! Ae
en (i)
~ 5 Cl) This relationship is shown graphically in Fig.
Cl. >
E 'Vi 3.3.1 where Es is taken as 29 X lOG psi (200 GPa).
o en
u ~
.2? E
Cl. As an example, a concrete member containing
~ 50 0
0.15 percent steel which expands 0.10 percent has
u u
c:
(3 I
Cl)
an induced compressive stress of 43.5 psi (300
~
I I
, I
u
c: KPa) , whereas a member which only expands
0
0.02 percent but contains 2 percent steel has a
", I
I I ,
, , U
compressive stress of 116 psi (800 KPa) (provid-
0-~Fi-~:
L~t ____ ~:1 ~
I I
FIBER 2!'4 BARS X 3W
FORM EACH SIDE OF COLUMN
BOND BREAKER
ON ALL CONTACT
SURFACES
[-
Fig. 3.4.1 a-Circular box-out for deep footing Fig. 3.4.ld-Wrapped column with stress bars
FIBER
FORM
~/3
--.
Load supporting concrete
~=:==::=:1:-r h ----- foundation wall.
(See note No_ 3 for ::;uggested
block foundation wall condition.)
Fig. 3.4.1 b-Circular box-out for deep footing Fig. 3.4.1 e-Slab perimeter not tied to wall
223-10 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
r-------.-------1 ~~h/3
h ~i> <
-r h
~----L---_~~ i
(I) Top edge at ioint finished flush (no Tooled edge). (2) Steel does not (I) Notes for Fiq. 3.4.2a apply. (2) Smooth dowels are greased or
pass through joint. (3) Joint must be free to open due to assumed tem- wrapped to prevent bond. (3) Dowels must be placed and maintained
perature contraction of siab. (4) Leave sufficient space "In ioint for ex- parallel to top surface and perpendicular to joint surface. (4) Leave suf-
pansion if not provided elsewhere. ficient space in joint for expansion jf not provided elsewhere.
t ~i
WALL
·BARS A-A
3.4.5 Details - Suggested details of isolation Fig. 3.4.2e-lntegral footing for partition walls
joints, construction joints, door openings and wall
footings for use with shrinkage-compensating con- checked to insure that the expansive force does
crete are shown in Fig. 3.4.1a-3.4.lf and 3.4.2a- not produce any undesirable movement.
3.4.2e. Additional details using the same basic
principles should be developed by the designer as 3.6-Formwork
required.
Although the major proportion of the shrinkage-
compensating concrete expansion takes place
3.5-Connections while it is still in the forms, no additional strength-
Connections between prefabricated shrinkage- ening of the form work has been found necessary
compensating concrete members or cast-in-place with properly reinforced members or slabs. Gen-
members are designed in the same manner as for erally, formwork is sufficently flexible to accom-
portland cement concretes. The design should be modate the expansion of the concrete.
223-12 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
discussed in Section 4.3. It should be noted that lowing maximum slumps at point of placement
water added to any concrete mixture beyond that are recommended:
required in the initial design will result in re- Type of construction Slump
duced strengths. (in. cm)
Reinforced foundation walls and
4.2-Admixtures footings 5 (13)
4.2.1 Air-entraining admixtures-Air-entraining Plain footings, caissons, and
admixtures which comply with ASTM C 260 7 may substructure walls 4 (10)
be used for the same purpose with shrinkage- Slabs, beams, reinforced walls 6 (15)
compensating concretes as with other types of Building columns 6 (15)
portland cement concretes. Generally, the same Pavements 4 (10)
amount of a given air-entraining admixture will Heavy mass construction 4 (10)
produce a comparable percentage of entrained air, With ready-mixed concrete operations, the de-
all other conditions being equal. livery time of concrete between the batch plant
4.2.2 Water-reducing, retarding, and water-re- and placement may be as short as 20 min or as
ducing retarding admixtUTes-Some ASTM C 494 long as 11/2 hr. Ettringite will begin to form dur-
Types A, B, and D admixtures are not compatible ing this period in some shrinkage-compensating
with certain shrinkage-compensating cements. It cement concretes resulting in a premature stiff-
is recommended that such admixtures be tested ening and slump loss of 2 to 3 in. (50-80 mm).
before acceptance, using the particular cement and It is, therefore, essential that sufficient slump
other materials selected for the job. Special atten- within maximum allowable water limits be pro-
tion should be given to their effect on slump, re- vided at the batch plant to insure the specified or
strained expansion, and drying shrinkage since desired slump is obtained at the job site. The
it has been found that the use of certain retard- importance of taking this slump loss into account
ing, water-reducing, or water-reducing and re- in selecting proportions for these types of shrink-
tarding admixtures with some shrinkage-compen- age-compensating cement concretes cannot be
sating cements have resulted in excessive slump overemphasized. It becomes even more important
loss, a substantial loss of expansion, and excessive during hot weather when concrete temperatures
drying shrinkage. Generally, admixtures which are relatively high and reactions are accelerated.
are acceptable may be used in the normal dosage While normal delivery time of ready-mixed port-
recommended for Type I or Type II portland ce- land cement concrete under adverse hot weather
ment concretes under moderate temperature con- conditions results in a significant slump loss, some
ditions. During hot weather, larger than normal shrinkage-compensating cement concretes develop
dosages of acceptable ASTM C 4948 retarding an even greater slump loss under the same hot
Types Band D have on occasion been used suc- weather conditions.
cessfully to delay initial setting time of some Slump loss controls in hot weather which are
shrinkage-com pens a ting concretes. successful for portland cement concretes are
4.2.3 Accelerators-Calcium chloride is generally equally effective for shrinkage-compensating ce-
not recommended for use in expansive cement ment concretes. Stricter enforcement is recom-
concrete due to its effect in reducing expansion mended, however, when expansive cements are
and increasing subsequent drying shrinkage. Some used because of the possible greater slump loss.
expansive cement producers, however, permit its Recommended controls include cooling the con-
use under certain conditions but limit the content crete, reducing the speed of the truck mixer drum
to 1 percent by weight of cement. It is recom- to a minimum during travel and waiting time at
mended that the cement producer be consulted be- the job site and efficient truck scheduling so as
fore calcium chloride is used in shrinkage-com- to reduce the period between mixing and delivery
pensating concrete. If used, calcium chloride or to an absolute minimum. When job locations re-
ASTM C 4948 Types C and E admixtures should quire extended travel time, dry batched truck
be added in solution in accordance with accepted delivery with job site mixing is effective so long
practice for Types I and II cement concretes. as the cement is charged on top of the aggregates
without turning the drum.
4.3-Consistency For a more complete discussion of hot weather
concreting, reference should be made to ACI 305.
Good results can be obtained using slumps at Attention is particularly directed to Chapters 1,
time of placement within the maximum range 2, and 3 which deal with hot weather control of
specified by ACI 211.14 for the work involved concretes properties, production, and delivery.
when concrete temperatures do not exceed 75 F The objectives are to identify hot weather prob-
(24 C). At higher concrete temperatures, the fol- lems and recommend concreting practices which
223-14 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
will alleviate adverse effects likely to be ex- 5. Determine the slump and record as placement
perienced. slump. Experience has shown this slump loss cor-
relates with that expected for a 30-40 min delivery
4.4-Mix proportioning procedures time. If this slump does not meet the required
placement specification limits, discard and repeat
Trial mixes using job materials should be made
the procedure with an appropriate water adjust-
in the laboratory at the approximate concrete
temperatures anticipated in the field. The follow- ment. *
6. Cast compressive strength and expansion
ing procedures have been successful in develop-
specimens and determine the plastic properties-
ing satisfactory batching plant and job control
unit weight, air content, temperature, etc.
programs under differing conditions:
Procedure B
4.4.1-When the time between addition of mix
1. Prepare the batch using ASTM C 192 10 pro-
water and placement is not more than 15 min
cedures for the specified slump.
such as precast or job-site mixing, the total mix-
2. Mix in accordance with ASTM C 192 10 (3
ing water required will be comparable to that
min mix, 3 min rest and 2 min remix) and con-
of a Type I or Type II portland cement concrete
firm the slump.
for the specified slump. Trial batches to develop
3. Stop the mixer and cover the batch with
satisfactory aggregate proportions, cement content,
wet burlap for 20 min.
and the water requirement should follow the
4. Remix 2 min adding water to produce the
recommendations set forth in Section 4.1. The mix-
specified placement slump. The total water (initial
ing procedure in ASTM C 192 10 should be used.
plus the remix water), is that required at the
4.4.2-When the water is added at the batch
batching plant to give the proper job-site slump
plant and where delivery will require normal
after a 30-40 min delivery time.
travel time (30-40 min) in a truck mixer whether
5. Cast strength and expansion specimens and
truck or central-mixed, or when expected con-
determine the plastic properties-unit weight, air
crete temperature will exceed approximately 75 F
content, temperature, etc.
(24 C), some slump loss can be expected and must
be compensated for by a relatively high initial 4.4.3-Whenever possible, trial mixes should be
slump to produce the slump required at the job made to insure satisfactory and economical results.
site. Under such conditions, both of the following If a trial batch is not made, either of the follow-
procedures for trial batch tests have been used ing approximations have often given satisfactory
successfully: results when time and concrete temperature con-
Procedure A ditions are the same as in Section 4.4.2:
1. Prepare the batch using ASTM C 192 10 pro- (a) Add approximately 10 percent to the water
cedures but add 10 percent additional water over requirement for the same mix as if a Type I or
that normally used for Type I cement. Type II cement were used and proportioned under
2. Mix initially in accordance with ASTM ACI 211 standards. 4 •5
C 192 (3 min mix followed by 3 min rest and 2 (b) Use a water-reducing admixture recom-
min remix). mended by the cement manufacturer known to be
3. Determine the slump and record as initial compatible with the shrinkage-compensating ce-
slump. ment used, and maintain the same amount of mix
4. Continue mixing for 15 min. wa ter as if no admixture were used.
compensating concretes have also been used with- at the time of placement not exceed 90 F (35 C)
out difficulty in the manufacture of pipe in precast and the mixing time for shrinkage-compensating
operations and in paving machines. concrete at temperatures above 85 F (30 C) be
The same placing recommendations as for port- limited to 1 hr. For shrinkage-compensating con-
land cement concretes are equally important for crete below 85 F (30 C) , the mixing time should be
shrinkage-compensating con c ret e. In addition, a maximum of 11/2 hr.
however, the characteristics of shrinkage-compen-
sating concrete require that certain precautions be 5.2-Finishing
followed to insure adequate expansions and sat- The cohesiveness or "fat" inherent in expansive
isfactory results. cements provides excellent finishing qualities. Its
1. Where the plastic concrete will be in contact behavior is similar to air-entrained concrete in-
with an absorptive material such as dry soil or cluding the same stickiness, but this usually pre-
previously placed dry concrete, the base or sub- sents no problems. Similarly, there is little or no
grade should be thoroughly wetted. Sprinkling bleeding even though a relatively high slump may
lightly is not sufficient. Recommended practice is be used. Due to lack of bleed water, however, there
to soak the base the evening before placement is a tendency for finishers to start too soon. On the
and sprinkle ahead of the placement as necessary. other hand, in warm weather, shrinkage-compen-
It is also good practice to wet the forms and rein- sating concrete will typically set faster than Type
forcement for structural concrete, particularly in I or Type II portland cement concretes and fin-
hot weather. ishing may start somewhat sooner than normal.
2. In hot, dry, and windy placing conditions, all For these reasons, finishing may require greater
concretes tend to lose moisture unevenly and may manpower for a shorter period than would be
develop plastic shrinkage cracks. Experience has typical for the usual concrete finishing operations
shown that with shrinkage-compensating concrete, under similar conditions.
plastic shrinkage cracking is more prevalent be- In general, satisfactory results will be obtained
cause of water required for the early formation of when the recommendations of ACI 304,11 Section
ettringite. Finishing difficulties may be increased 10.3, are followed, together with the more detailed
because of nonuniform moisture loss between top recommendations of ACI 302, Chapter 7.
and bottom surfaces during the drying period,
particularly when the concrete is placed directly 5.3-Curing
over a vapor barrier. Where a vapor barrier is re- Shrinkage-compensating concrete, as with all
quired, it is recommended that it be covered with
portland cement concrete, requires continuous cur-
a minimum of 3 in. of sand, thoroughly wetted,
ing at moderate temperatures for several days
before placing shrinkage-compensating concrete. after final finishing operations to prevent early
This practice results in more even moisture loss drying shrinkage and to develop strength, dur-
of the shrinkage-compensating concrete, less plas- ability, and other desired properties. Any de-
tic shrinkage cracking, and protection of the vapor
ficiencies in the method of curing may also reduce
barrier during placement.
the amount of initial expansion which is needed
3. Care must be taken to maintain the reinforce- to offset later drying shrinkage. The usually ac-
ment in its proper position during placement and cepted methods of curing are satisfactory for
consolidation to assure that it provides the re- shrinkage-compensating concrete; however, those
quired restraint. At the same time, the concrete that provide additional moisture to the concrete
should be properly consolidated to insure good such as ponding, continuous sprinkling, and wet
bond with the steel. coverings are preferred to insure adequate water
4. Special precautions should be taken to avoid for ettringite formation and expansion. Other
placing delays at the job site when using ready met hod s such as moisture-proof covers and
mixed concrete. A substantial increase in mixing sprayed-on membranes have been successfully
time over that assumed when selecting mix pro- utilized, provided that coverage is complete so that
portions increases the slump loss and any water it prevents loss of moisture from the entire con-
added to maintain consistency not only decreases crete surface. Curing of shrinkage-compensating
the strength but may also reduce the expansion concrete should be continued for a minimum of
to unacceptable levels. 7 days.
5. Concrete temperature and time in the mixer Curing of concrete flatwork should commence
(from intermingling of cement and damp aggre- immediately after final finishing. It may be neces-
gate) are important factors because of their effect sary to fog spray or cover the surface of the con-
on expansion. It is recommended that the tem- crete temporarily if other methods of curing are
perature of the shrinkage-compensating concrete delayed, especially in hot, dry, or windy weather.
223-16 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
If a liquid curing membrane is used, it is recom- receive additional curing by one of the accepted
mended that it be applied in two directions, at a methods. In hot weather, soaker hoses or water
coverage rate suggested by the manufacturer, im- sprays should be used to supplement the protection
mediately following the final finishing as it of the in-place formwork. If the forms must be
progresses. To accomplish this, power spray equip- removed prior to 7 days, one of the other accepted
ment capable of covering large areas more rapidly methods of curing should then be employed for
should be used rather than small, portable spray the balance of the curing period.
tanks. Shrinkage-compensating concrete should be pro-
For architectural or structural concrete, the tected during the initial curing period against ex-
normally accepted practice of curing with the tremes of temperatures during either cold or hot
formwork in place is adequate for shrinkage-com- weather periods. The methods recommended are
pensating concrete. All uncovered ;surfaces should those described in ACI 305 9 and ACI 306. 12
SELECTED REFERENCES
1. ACI Committee 223, "Expansive Cement Concretes ciety for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Part 14,
-Present State of Knowledge," ACI JOURNAL, Proceed- pp. 127-135.
ings V. 67, No.8, Aug. 1970, pp. 583-610. 11. ACI Committee 304, "Recommended Practice for
2. ACI Committee 201, "Durability of Concrete in Measuring, Mixing, Transporting, and Placing Concrete
Service," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 59, No. 12, Dec. (ACI 304-73)," American Concrete Institute, Detroit,
1962, pp. 1771-1820. 1973, 40 pp.
3. ACI Committee 318," Building Code Requirements 12. ACI Committee 306, "Recommended Practice for
for Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318-71)." American Con- Cold Weather Concreting (ACI 306-66) (Reaffirmed
crete Institute, Detroit, 1971, 78 pp. 1972)," American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1966,25 pp.
4. ACI Committee 211, "Recommended Practice for 13. Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures, lIth
Selecting Proportions for Normal and Heavy Weight Edition, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 1968, pp.
Concrete (ACI 211.1-74)," American Concrete Institute, 19-21.
Detroit, 1974, 19 pp. 14. Mehta, P. K., and Polivka, Milos, "Sulfate Resist-
5. ACI Committee 211, "Recommended Practice for ance of Expansive Cement Concretes," Durability of
Selecting Proportions for Structural Lightweight Con- Concrete, SP-47, American Concrete Institute, Detroit,
crete (ACI 211.2-69)," American Concrete Institute, De- 1975, pp. 367-379.
troit, 1969, 20 pp. 15. ACI Committee 302, "Recommended Practice for
6. ACI Committee 213, "Guide for Structural Light- Concrete Floor and Slab Construction (ACI 302-69),"
weight Aggregate Concrete," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1969, 30 pp.
V. 64, No.8, Aug. 1967, pp. 433-469. 16. ACI Committee 224, "Control of Cracking in Con-
7. "Standard Specification for Air-Entraining Admix- crete Structures," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 69, No.
tures for Concrete," (ASTM C 260-74), 1975 Annual 12, Dec. 1972, pp. 723-728.
Book of ASTM Standards, American Society for Testing 17. "Standard Method of Test for Restrained Expan-
and Materials, Philadelphia, Part 14, pp. 182-185. sion of Expansive Cement Mortar," (ASTM C 806-75),
8. "Standard Specification for Chemical Admixtures 1975 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, American So-
for Concrete," (ASTM C 494-71), 1975 Annual Book of ciety for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Part 13,
ASTM Standards, American Society for Testing and pp. 444-449.
Materials, Philadelphia, Part 14, pp. 297-304. 18. "Proposed Method of Test for Restrained Expan-
9. ACI Committee 305, "Recommended Practice for sion of Shrinkage-Compensating Concrete," 1975 Annual
Hot Weather Concreting (ACI 305-72)," American Con- Book of ASTM Standards, American Society for Test-
crete Institute, Detroit, 1972, 15 pp. ing and Materials, Philadelphia, Part 14, pp. 667-671.
10. "Standard Method of Making and Curing Concrete 19. "Tentative Standard Specification for Expansive
Test Specimens in the Laboratory," (ASTM C 192-69), Hydraulic Cement," (ASTM C 845-76T), American So-
1975 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, American So- ciety for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia.
8. Bibliography on "Applications of Lossier Expanding Cement," 47. Budnikov, P. p" and Ch'en, Tsu-Ling, "Swelling Alumma
(Range 1948-1962), Hydro Electric Power Commission of Ontario, Cements Based on Chinese Bauxite," (In Russian) Tr. Mosk,
Canada, 3 pp., 1962. Khim.-Tekhnol. Inst., No. 36, pp. 135-143, 1961. Abstract in
9. "Expanding Cement Prestresses Concrete," Engineering Chemical Abstracts, V. 58, p. 3192, 1963.
News-Record, V. 171, No. 13, Sept. 26, 1963, pp. 41-42. 48. Budnikov, P. P. and Kosyreva, Z. S., "Expa,nding Portlan~
10. "Expanding Cement Prevents Roof Cracks," Engineering Cement without Formation of Calcium Alummate Sulfate,
News-Record, V. 172, No.3, Jan. 16, 1964, p. 32. Issledovaniya po Prikladnoi Khimi, Akademiya Nauk S.S.S.R.,
11. "Expanding Cements," (Range 1944-1950), Cement and Otdelenie Khimicheskikh Nauk (Moscow), pp. 249-258, 1955.
Concrete Association, Great Britain, Library Record, Ch. 15 Abstract in Mineral Processing, V, 6, No.1, Jan. 1965.
(9/50), 4 pp. 49. Budnikov, P. P .. and Kosyreva, Z. S., "Research Works on
12. "Expansive Cement Opens Era of New Concretes," Chemical Expanding Cement," Transactions, Chemical Technological In-
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Detroit, 1973, pp. 379-414. 293. Seeber, K. E.; Bartlett, D. L.; Kesler, C. E., "Interim Re-
port-Phase I, Behavior of Shrinkage-Compensating Concretes
265. Picha, F., "Expanding Building Materials," Sb. GeoL Ved. Suitable for Use in Bridge Decks T&A.M. Report No. 372, Uni-
TechnoL Geochemie, 1962, No.1, pp. 31-73. Abstract in Chemical. versity of Illinois, July 1973, 61 pp.
Abstracts, V. 59, 1963, p. 305.
294. Sheikin, Ao E., and Yakub, T. Y., "Non-Contraction Port-
266. Pinkerton, J. W., and Williams, J. V., Jr., "Expansive Ce- land Cement." Gosstroizdat (Moscow), 1966. (in Russian).
ment Concrete Paving-Taxiways," Klein Symposium on Expan-
sive Cement Concretes, SP-38, American Concrete Institute, De- 295. Simms, .I. F., "Concrete Design with Expansive Cement,"
troit, 1973, pp. 290-297. Journal, American Institute of Architects, Oct. 1966, pp. 81-82,
267. Pirtz, D., "Creep Characteristics of Expansive Cement 296. Simms, J. F., "Expansive Cements for Crack-Resistant
Concrete," Proceedings, Conference on Expansive Cement Con- Concrete," Civil EngineeTing-ASCE, June 1966, pp. 46-47.
crete, University of California, Berkeley, June 1972. 297. Skramtayev, B. G., and Moskvin, V. M., "Formation and
268. Polivka, M., "Expansive Cement-Material Properties," Effect Conditions of Calciumsulfoaluminate (cement bacillus),"
Engineering Conference-New Materials in Concrete Construc- Bulletin, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Technical Division,
tion, University of Illinois, Chicago, 1971. 1937.
269. Polivka, M., "Factors Influencing Expansion of Expansive 298. Slatanov, V., and Dyabarov, No, "Self-Stressing of Con-
Cement Concretes," Klein Symposium on Expansive Cement Con- crete Produced by MgO Periclase Hydration," Revue Des
g~~~~6. SP-38, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1973, pp. Materiaux (Paris), No. 544, Jan. 1961, pp. 30-33. (in French,
with English summary) .
270. Polivka, M., "Resistance of Self-Stressed Concrete to 299. Slate, F. 0., and Matheus, R. E., "Volume Changes on
Freezing and Thawing," Report to Stress Structures, Inc., 1971. Setting and Curing of Cement Paste and Concrete from Zero
271. Polivka, M., "Self-Stressing Concrete," Klein Symposium to Seven Days," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 64, No.1, Jan.
on Expansive Cement Concretes SP-38 American Concrete In- 1967, pp. 34-39.
stitute, Detroit, 1973, pp. 483-487.' ' 300. Smith, E. Co; Ross, A. D.; Mautner, K. W., et aI., "Ce-
272. Polivka, M., and Bertero, V. V., "Factors Affecting Prop- ments with Controlled Expansion and Their Applications to
eTties of Expansive Celnent Concretes," Proceedings, Interna- Prestressed Concrete." Structural Enqineer (London) V. 25, No.
0
tIonal Conference on the Structure of Concrete, London, 1965. 3/4, pp. 142-151, 1947. Abstract in Building Science Abstracts,
PublIshed by the Cement and Concrete Association, London, V. 20, Abstract No. 1542, 1947. Discussion of the original paper
1968, pp. 479-492. by Lossier, Building Science Abstracts, V. 19, Abstract No. 305,
273. Polivka, M., and Klein, A., "Bond Strength Characteristics 1946.
of Grouts Containing an Expansive Component" RILEM Bul- 301. Spellman, D. L., "Living Pavements," California Highways
letin (Paris), No. 13, Dec. 1961, pp. 24-28. ' and Public Works, Sept.-Oct., 1963, pp. 51-54.
274. Polivka, M.; Mehta, P. K.; and Baker, J. A., Jr., "Freeze- 302. Tanaka, T., and Watanabe, Y. (Assignors to Onoda Ce-
Thaw ,Durability of Shrinkage-Compensating Cement Concretes," ment Co.), "Expansive Cement," Japanese Patent No. 7843, Sept.
Durabtl,ty of Concrete, SP-47, American Concrete Institute, 8, 1956. Abstract in Mineral Processing, V. 6, No.1, Jan. 1965.
Detroit, 1975, pp. 79-87. 303. Tanaka, T., and Watanabe, Y., "Expansive Cements,"
275. Polivka, M" and Willson, C., "Properties of Shrinkage- Scmcnto Gijutsu Nenpo (Tokyo), v. 8, 1954, pp. 192-202. Abstract
Compensating Concretes," Klein Symposium on E,rpansive Ce- in Ceramic A bstracts, Oct. 1958, p. 260.
ment Concretes, SP-38, American Concrete Institute, Detroit,
1973, pp. 227-237. 30·1. Tanaka, T., and Watanabe, Y., "Laboratory Preparation
of Expansive Cements," Semen to Gijutsu Nenpo (Tokyo), V. 9,
276. Price, R. E., "Expansive Cement-Applications and Field 1955, pp. 108-117. (in Japanese). Abstract in Mineral PTocessing,
PrOblems," Engineering Conference-New Materials in Concrete V. 6, No.1, Jan. 1965.
Construction, University of Illinois, Chicago, 1971.
305. Tanaka, T., and Watanabe. Y., "Studies on the Expansive
277. Price, R. E., "Expansive Cement Concrete-Field Prac- Cement, (1)," Journal of Research of the Onoda Cement Co.,
tice~Mixing, Placing, Finishing and Curing," Conference on Ex-
Tokyo, Japan, V. 5, No. 18, 1953, pp. 23:1-241.
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306. Timms, A. G., "Self-Stressing Concrete, Blakeslee puts in
278, Ragozine, T. A., and Akhmedov, M. A., "The Phase Com- Pavement Test Slab at Harnden, Conn.," Modern Concrete, V. 27,
pOSItIon of Aluminum Ferrates (III) Formed in the Presence No.5, Sept. 1963, pp. 54-56, 58, 64.
of CalCIUm Sulfate," Uzbeksk. Khim. Zhurn., V. 6, No.4, 1962, 307. Tso, S., "Testing and Analysis of Self-Stressed Concrete
pp. 30-37. (m Russian). Abstract in Chemical Abstracts V 58 Elements." Department of Civil Engineering, University of Cali-
1963, p. 7419. ' . , fornia, Berkeley, Graduate Student Research Report No. 23,
. 279. Rai, M;; and Chopra, S. K., "An Investigation on Expand- SESM Div., 1961.
mg Cements, Proceedmgs, 48th Session of Indian Science Con- 308. Tsukinari, M., et aI., "Observation of Continuous Rein-
gress (1961). forced Concrete Pavements," Techni.cal Report oj Civil Engi-
280. Rai, M., and Chopra, S. K., "Non-Shrinkage and Low- neering, V. 9, No.2, 1967-1972, Tokyo. (in Japanese).
Expanding Cement," Journal, Scientific and Industrial Research, 309. Verbeck, G. J., "Mechanics of Shrinkage and Shrinkage-
V. 21D, No.7, pp. 235-238, July 1962. Abstract in Engineering Compensating Cements." Presented at Fall Meeting of the Gen-
Index, 1962.
eral Technical Committee, PCA, Vancouver, B. C., Sept. 1968.
281. Rice, E. K., "Means and Method of Testing Expansive
Concrete," U. S. Patent No. 3,779,085, Dec. 18, 1973, 5 pp. 310. Vulkov, V. V.; Velinov, 1. A.; Yaney, Y. D.; and Kolyov-
ski, "Rapid Hardening and Expansive Cements Obtained on the
282. Richards, C. W., and Helmuth, R. A., "Expansive Cement Basis of Alunite Quartzities," Compte:; Rendus de l' Academic
Concrete-Micromechanical Models for Free and Restrained Ex- Bu!garc des SCiences, NO.4 and 9, 1973.
pansion," Technical Report No. 191, Department of Civil Engi-
neermg, Stanford UmversIty, Jan. 1975, 36 pp. (National Techni- 311. Wesche, K., "Basic Conditions for the Use of Expanding
cal Information Service, Report No. PB-242 302/8WX). Cement," Zement-Kalk-Gips (Wiesbaden), V. 8, No.4, April 1955,
283. Rinaldi, G., "Observations Derived from Testing an Actual pp. 118-128. (in German with English summary).
Arch Model Built of Expansive Cement Concrete" Giornale del 312. Winkler, K., and Schenker, F., "Producing Hydrated Port-
Genio Civile (Rome), V. 88, No.1, Jan. 1950, pp. '12-22. Abstract land Cement. Mortar, Concrete, and other Hydraulic Binding
in ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 47, Jan. 1951, p. 406. Materials ·with a Permanent Increase of Their Volulne," British
284. Rinaldi, G., "Test on an Expansive Concrete Beam" Patent No. 625,738, July 13, 1949. Abstract in Ceramic Abstracts,
Gwrnale del Gcnio Civile (Rome), V. 87, No.3, Mar. 1949, p. Sept. 1, 1950, p. 176.
109; No. 7 and 8, July-Aug. 1949, pp. 385-389. Abstract in ACI 313. Yanbe, K., et aI., "Investigative Research on the Design
JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 46, Feb. 1950, p. 481. Method of Prestressed Concrete Pavement," Technical Note No.
285. Robson, T. D., High-Alumina Cements and Concretes, John 51, Port and Harbour Research Institute, Ministry of Transport,
WIley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1962, 263 pp. Tokyo, 1968-6. (in Japanese).
286. Rockwood, N. C., "Rocky's Notes, A Nonshrinking or Ex- 314. Yano, N., and Hurui, S., "Construction of Concrete Tank
pansive Portland Cement Concrete," Rock Products, V. 66, No. Using CSA." Concrete Journal (Tokyo), V. 10, No.7, July 1972,
12, Dec. 1963, pp. 16, 21. pp. 16-23. (in Japanese) .
287. Rosen, .I., "Expansive Cement," Progressive Architecture 315. Zorzi, S., "Expansive Cements," It Cemento Armato
May 1969. ' (Milan), V. 43, 1946, pp. 131-132. Abstract in Mineral Processing,
288. Rubin, E. H., "A Testing Agency's Experience with Ex- V. 6, No.1, Jan. 1965.
panSIve Cements," Klein S)}mposium on Expansive Cement Con- 316. Zuk, William. "Prefabricated Sandwich Panel for Bridge
~~~:~~i. SP-38, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1973, pp. Decks," TRB Special Report No. 148, Transportation Research
Board, 1974.
289. Russell, H. G., "Design of Shrinkage-Compensating Con- 317. "A Guide for Testinl(, Handling, and Placing Chemcomp
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SP-38, Amencan Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1973, pp. 193-226. Los Angeles, California. '
ACI 439.2R-77
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and Com- From ACI JOURNAL, Oct. 1977
mentaries are intended for guidance in designing, planning, executing,
or inspecting construction, and in preparing specifications. Reference
to these documents shall not be made in the Project Documents. If
items found in these documents are desired to be part of the Project
Documents, they should be incorporated directly into the Project
Documents.
JOHN F. McDERMOTT*
Secretary
CONTENTS
General 439-2
Conclusion 439-12
439·1
439-2 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
#10 8 i
#11 7
1311 60 60,000 90,000 #3. #4, #5, #6 . 9 #3, #4, #5 i
4d
~
(414) (621) #7, #8 8 #6 5d
#9, #10, #11, #14, #7, #8 6d
#18 7 #9, #10, #11 . .. ... 8d
• #14, #18t .' 10d(90 deg)
...
Rail, A 616-76 3-11 50 50,000 80,000 #3, #7 6 #3 through #8 6d
(345) (552) #4, #5, #6 7 . #9, #10 8d
I #8, #9, #10, #11 5, #11 8d (90 deg)
3-11 60 60,000 90,000 #3, #4, #5, #6 6, #3 through #8 6d
(414) (621) #7 5: #9, #10 8d
#8, #9, #10, #11 ... 4% #11 8d (90 deg)
:
Axle, A 617-76 3-11 40 40,000 70.000 #3, #7 11 #3, #4, #5 4d
(276) (483) #4, #5, #6 12 #6 and larger 5d
#8 10 i
#9 9
#10 8
#11 7 .
3-11 60 60,000 90,000 #3, #4, #5, #6, #7 . 8· #3, #4, #5 4d
(414) (621) #8, #9, #10, #11 7 #6 5d
I #7, #8 6d
#9, #10, #11 8d
Low alloy, A 706-76 3-11, 60 60,000 80,000j: #3, #4, #5, #6, 14 I
#3, #4, #5 3d
14, 18 minimum (552) #7, #8, #9, #10, #6, #7, #8 4d
(414) #11 12 ! #9, #10, #11 6d
78,000 #14, #18 10 I
#14, #18 8d
maximum !
(538) i
with generally accepted theoretical equations. specimen) as specified by ASTM have resulted in
However, ASTM specifications have different defi- reinforCing steels that have generally experienced
nitions for yield strength that result in more prac- only a very minor number of fractures in fabrica-
tical controls on production. It has been shown for tion or in situ in concrete structures, even struc-
reinforcing bars* that, with the ASTM controls, tures subject to earthquakes. However, it is im-
as-produced reinforcing steel with a specified portant in any inelastic analysis to realize that the
yield strength of 60 ksi (414 MPa) or less generally "useful" ductility is limited to the strain corre-
exhibits a stress equal to or greater than the sponding to the greatest stress on the engineering
specified yield strength at a strain not exceeding stress-strain curve, which may be less than half
0.35 percent. For designs assuming yield strengths the ultimate ductility. Ductility is not an important
greater than 60 ksi (414 MPa) , special arrange- parameter in members subjected primarily to
ments must be made with the producer and/or compression, but can be critical in flexural mem-
fabricator to insure that the steel with the desired bers or columns with significant bending, as in a
yield characteristics will be available. Alter- structure subjected to an earthquake, only if the
natively, the commonly used design formulas could percentage of reinforcing steel is very low so that
be altered to reflect (1) a yield strength corre- there is a possibility of steel rupture before con-
sponding to the strain defined for ASTM accept- crete crushing. Rupture of longitudinal steel has
ance tests and (2) possibly the "helpful" effect of generally been precluded in bending members by
any concrete creep that occurs before the struc- using steels with ductilities as defined by ASTM
ture experiences the maximum design loadings_
Ductility
*Wiss, Janney, Elstner and Associates, "Final Report on Bar
The tensile-test ductility requirements (after- Tests for the Committee of Concrete Reinforcing Bar
ducers-American Iron and Steel Institute." unpublished
Pro-
tests
failure measurement of the elongation of a tensile summarized in a private communication. Northbrook. IlL.
30. 1970.
Apr.
439-4 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
ASTM
specification Chemical restrictions Special properties
A 615-76a 0.05 percent maximum phosphorus Supplement Sl for bent #14 and #18 bars
One tensile retest allowed when:
(a) Yield value of original sample less than
1000 psi (6.9 MPa) below specification mini-
mum, or
(b) Tensile value of original sample less than
1 2000 psi (13.8 MPa) below specification mini-
mum, or
/
(c) Elongation percentage of original sample
' is less than 2 percent points below specification
minimum.
/
A 616-76 Bars to be rolled from standard section
Tee rails only
Bar mark to include rail symbol
A 617-76 Bars to be rolled from carbon steel
Axles for cars and locomotive tenders in stan-
dard journal sizes.
Bar mark to include A
A 706-76 Check analysis One tensile retest allowed when:
variation (a) Yield value of original sample less than
Carbon 0.30 percent maximum + 0.03 percent 1000 psi (6.9 MPa) below specification mini-
Manganese 1.50 percent maximum + 0.05 percent mum, or
Phosphorus 0.035 percent maximum + 0.008 percent (b) Tensile value of original sample less
Sulfur 0.045 percent maximum + 0.008 percent than 2000 psi (13.8 MPa) below specification
Silicon 0.50 percent maximum + 0.05 percent minimum, or
Carbon equivalent not to exceed 0.55 (c) Elongation percentage of original sample
is less than 2 percent points below specification
%Mn %Cu %Ni %Cr minimum.
CE = %C + -6- + 4(} + 20 + 10 -
%Mo %V
50-10
and by imposing lower limits on steel percentage, specification for such a material. At the present
such as given in Section 10.5 of ACI 318-71. Duc- time ASTM has a task group studying the possi-
tility is obviously important in members sub- bility of a Grade 80 specification. See Reference 5
jected to membrane tension, as may be the case in for a further discussion of Grade 80 reinforcing
some structural components, such as shearwalls, bars. Tables 2 and 3 summarize the mechanical
that may be subjected to seismic loadings. and/or chemical restrictions or special properties
of the ASTM specifications.
Special properties not defined by ASTM
ASTM specifications for steel reinforcement do Availability
not include restrictions regarding fatigue or im- Reinforcing bars rolled to the ASTM A 615
pact properties or properties at high strain rates. specification are the most commonly specified and
In practice, reinforcing steel has generally not consequently available throughout the country.
been subject to fatigue or impact failures. No Most of the major producers roll reinforcing bars
practical methods for testing impact properties of in such a manner as to make a 60 ft (18.3 m) length
reinforcing steel have been devised; Charpy tests the "stock" or standard length available without
on machined specimens do not really reflect im- special order. Lengths longer than 60 ft-O in. (18.3
pact properties of a deformed bar or wire. High m) normally require special arrangement with the
strain rates result in higher yield strengths and, supplier. Producers may require large quantities of
to a lesser extent, higher tensile strengths. Duc- special or overlength material, usually heat lots,
tility generally is not sensitive to strain rate. 1- 4 in order to roll lengths over 60 ft-O in. (18.3 m).
Although ACI 318-71 allows for the use of rein- Stock material in 20 ft-O in., 30 ft-O in., and 40 ft-
forcing steel with specified minimum yields in o in. (6.1 m, 9.1 m, 12.2 m) lengths is normally
excess of 60,000 psi (414 MPa) up to 80,000 psi available, usually in the smaller bar sizes (#3-
(552 MPa) , there is no current ASTM standard #6).
STEEL REINFORCEMENT PROPERTIES/AVAILABILITY 439-5
Rail and axle steel (ASTM A 616 and A 617) is weldability, hence the specific chemical composi-
not generally available except in a few areas of tion requirements and calculation of the carbon
the country. The majority of construction uses bil- equivalent.
let steel (ASTM A 615) . However, if there is a necessity for welding
Reinforcing steel is generally furnished shop ASTM A 615 material, the provisions of the
fabricated (sheared, bent, bundled, and tagged for American Welding Society "Reinforcing Steel
identification) from an organization that contracts Welding Code" (AWS DI2.1-75) must be followed.
to furnish the reinforcing bars. The "fabricator" The welding procedures defined in A WS DI2.1-75
usually prepares the placing drawings from the require the calculation of the carbon equivalent as
structural drawings. The reinforcing bars are fab- in the ASTM A 706 specification. The carbon
ricated from the information developed on the equivalent calculation requires that the chemistry
placing drawings. Fabricators obtain the stock of the bars to be welded be known either from
length material directly from a rolling mill. Fab- information provided by the producer or by testing
ricating shops are located throughout the country. a sample.
Reinforcing bars with special chemical or physi- Welding of material furnished under ASTM
cal properties may be developed for particular ap- A 706 must also follow the procedures outlined in
plications such as nuclear power plants and an- AWS DI2.1-75, depending on the actual carbon
chor bolts for transmission towers. Such materials equivalent value. Proper heat and electrodes
with special chemistry or properties require large must be used to achieve acceptable welds. The
quantity orders. prohibition against "tack" welding is also valid
At the present time Grade 40 and Grade 60 when utilizing ASTM A 706 material.
material is equally available. The economies that
are available by designing and using Grade 60 Material testing
material, as provided in ACI 318-71, are reducing ASTM specifications require that the yield
the demand for Grade 40 material. This reduction, strength, tensile strength, and elongation of a rep-
however, is long term. There has been a noticeable resentative sample of each heat of material rolled
reduction in the usage of some of the large size per size be determined. A bend test is also re-
bars in Grade 40. ASTM A 615-72 did not include quired. Depending on the results of the tests the
#14 and #18 bar sizes in Grade 40; additionally material is considered acceptable or unacceptable.
ASTM A 615-74a, A 615-75, and A615-76a no The test methods and procedures used are out-
longer include Grade 75 material in any bar sizes. lined in ASTM A 370.
In general, ASTM A 615 Grades 40 and 60 in ASTM A 615 reinforcing bar specifications re-
lengths up to 60 ft-O in. (18.3 m) in bar sizes #3 quire full section (as rolled) specimens to be
through # 11 are readily available in all parts of tested for sizes #3-#11 Grade 40, and #3-#10
the country. This statement regarding availability Grade 60 with the option to use reduced section
appears to contradict Footnote a of Table 2 in tensile test specimens on Grade 60 #11, #14, and
ASTM A 615 which states that bar sizes #7 # 18 bars. In the reduced section test the speci-
through # 11 in Grade 40 may not readily be avail- men is machined down to a diameter less than
able throughout the country. This footnote was the as-rolled condition. While the reduced section
intended to reflect the possible impact of the tests yield more consistent results than the full
general shortage of steel products that existed in section tests, full section testing is often defined
1974 and early 1975. Currently that general in a project specification in order to have more
shortage si tua tion is not present. Grade 60 # 14 and realistic test results. Many major producers test
# 18 bars are generally available but are not sizes all reinforcing bars using full sections. However,
usually kept in a fabricator's inventory. reduced section testing may be done when access
Since ASTM A 706 was initially issued in 1975, to the testing equipment required to test the large
the demand and consequently the availability for diameter bars to the full tensile (ultimate)
this material has not been clearly defined. Even strength is not available. ASTM A 706 requires
though the material, by specification, is defined for tests to be made on full section (as-rolled) speci-
all bar sizes it appears that the primary applica- mens only. No allowance is made for reduced sec-
tion will be in structures where ductility /weld- tion testing.
ability are primary concerns, particularly in the Until recently the test requirements of ASTM
larger bar sizes. A 615 were considered to be sufficient. However,
with the advent of nuclear power plants and the
Welding
associated special design and quality control/
ASTM A 615 does not include weldability as assurance requirements, additional test criteria
part of the specification. ASTM A 706 does include have been established for reinforcing bars to be
439-6 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
Standard hooks (and bends) ACI 315-74 (ACI 318-71. Section 7.1)
Bend diametert t
Bar size
Standard bend Ties and stirrups
3,4,5 6d 4d
6, 7, 8 6d ••
9, 10, 11 8d
14 and 18 IOd
utilized on quality related portions of nuclear or more. Consequently, Regulatory Guide 1.15 re-
projects. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission is- quires tension tests at a maximum frequency of
sued guidelines to be followed in the design, con- 50 tons (45.4 t) per heat per size.
struction, and operation of nuclear power plants. Regulatory Guide 1.15 does not deal with re-
One of these, Regulatory Guide 1.15, deals with the quirements for additional bend tests nor does it
testing of reinforcing bars to be used in nuclear outline any failure/retest criteria. ANSI N45.2.5
safety related portions of power plants. The Regu- includes the 50 ton (45.4 t) test requirement but
latory Guide concern with respect to testing is that is equally silent on the bend and retest question.
ASTM A 615 permits the tensile test specimens to "Code for Concrete Reactor Vessels and Contain-
be either of full bar diameter or a reduced di- ments (ACI 359-74)" also includes the 50 ton (45.4
ameter. Comparison of test data obtained with t) test requirement, and to some degree attempts
both full bar diameter and reduced diameter to define the failure/retest situation. Unfortun-
specimens indicates that the tensile and yield ately the criteria that has been developed is not
strengths of the full diameter bars may be lower compatible with the current ASTM specification in
than the values that are obtained using reduced that a retest and subsequent acceptance is possible
diameter specimens. The variations are generally under ACI 359-74 but will be rejectable under
greater in bar sizes # 14 and # 18; thus the ASTM A 615-76a.
evaluation of the design margin of safety in the As an example of this conflict ACI 359-74 does
structure may not be conservative if it is based not define a lower limit for test result failures as
upon test results obtained from reduced diameter does ASTM A 615-76a. For example, the yield test
specimens, hence the Regulatory Guide require- result for a particular Grade 60 material is 58,500
ment of full section testing only. psi (404 MPa) . The two retests required under ACI
Regulatory Guide 1.15 also states that the test 359-74 are 61,500 psi (454 MPa) and 61,000 (421
frequency of ASTM, essentially one test per heat MPa) which qualifies the material for use on a
per size, is not adequate considering that heats nuclear power plant project. Under the provisions
of steel from the various manufacturers may range of ASTM A 615-76a the material would not even be
from less than 50 tons (45.4 t) to 250 tons (226.8 t) subject to retest since the initial value was more
STEEL REINFORCEMENT PROPERTIES/AVAILABILITY 439-7
than 1000 psi (6.9 MPa) below the minimum yield, A 617 specifications. Fabrication is defined as
and therefore rejected without any retest. follows:
The 50 ton (45.4 t) test requirement had been "Fabricated Deformed Steel Bar Mats for Con-
in terpreted by the owner/engineer/builder as a crete Reinforcement" (ASTM A 184-74)-De-
test to be done by the user either during fabri- formed bar mats are two layers of bars which
cation or after delivery of the material to the are assembled at right angles to each other by
site, hence the term "user tests." This practice clipping or welding. Material: ASTM A 615,
has created problems in terms of test result A 616, A 617 reinforcing bars. The specification
variances between manufacturer and user. The outlines the requirements of welding and clipping,
lack of standard acceptance/rejection criteria did the testing of the welds or clips, tolerances, mark-
not help the resolution of the areas of concern. To ing, and inspection.
help with the resolution of this problem, arrange- Section 3.5.4 of ACI 318-71 restricts the USe of
ments may be made with producers of reinforcing deformed bar mats to the clipped type. However,
bars to test the material to meet the requirements the 1975 Supplement to this section deletes this
of Regulatory Guide 1.15 and ACI 359-74. This exception.
prequalifies the material, thereby eliminating "Welded Steel Plain Bar or Rod Mats for Con~
some of the questions. crete Reinforcement" (ASTM A 704-74)-Material
ACI 318-71 has also added further restrictions to be used is defined as ASTM A 615. The mats
to the ASTM reinforcing bar specifications. The consist of two layers of bars which are assembled
1975 Supplement to ACI 318-71 (Section 3.5.1) by welding at right angles to each other. The size
includes a requirement relating to the bend testing of the plain rod or bar is % in. (15.9 mm) maxi-
of reinforcing bars. In essence this section requires mum and 7/32 in. (5.6 mm) minimum nominal
the bend test, in some instances, to be made around diameter. In contrast to ASTM A 184, assembly is
a smaller pin than is required by ASTM A 615. limited to welding only. As in ASTM A 184 the
Table 4 defines ASTM, AASHTO, and ACI 318-71 specification defines weld testing, tolerances,
(1976 Supplement) test bend diameter require- marking, and inspection.
ments. The U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, the It should be pointed out that ASTM A 184-74
American Association of State Highway and (deformed bars) and ASTM A 704-74 (plain bars)
Transportation Officials, "Code ReqUirements for both replace ASTM A 184-65, which covered both
Nuclear Safety Related Concrete Structures (ACI plain and deformed bars. ACI 318-71 lists ASTM
349-76) ," and a proposed revision to ACI 359-74 A 184-65 but has not yet included ASTM A 704-74.
require the tighter bend tests. It should also be noted that there is a difference
Bar bends used in practice generally are those in the weld shear strength requirements between
established by "Manual of Standard Practice for ASTM A 185 and ASTM A 704. ASTM A 185 re-
Detailing Reinforced Concrete Structures (ACI quires minimum average weld shear value in
315-74)" as shown in Table 4. These dimensions pounds of 35,000 times nominal area of larger
are the finished bend diameter. Pin sizes used by wire. ASTM A 704 requires only 25,000 times the
fabricators to obtain these finished bar dimensions nominal area of the larger value.
are generally somewhat smaller than the bend Bar mats are most advantageously used when
diameter to allow for "springback." there is significant repetition; consequently bar
mats may not be readily available throughout the
Most major building projects are designed using
country. As with spirals, many of the reinforcing
ACI 318-71. Many producers can provide the more
bar fabricating shops do not normally produce bar
severe bending requirements of that specification.
mats.
SpeCial uses
NON PRESTRESSED WIRE
Spirals-Spirals for column reinforcement may
be manufactured from material produced to ASTM Material properties
A 615-76a specification for plain round and de-
Wire for concrete reinforcement is available as
formed reinforcing bars. Spirals may also be made
smooth wire (ASTM A 82) or deformed wire
from cold drawn wire, ASTM A 82-76. The fabri-
(ASTM A 496) with the properties given in
cation of spirals and the accompanying spacing
Table 5.
devices is generally done by reinforcing bar fab-
ricators. However, all fabricators do not produce
Availability
spirals. Cons<?quently lead times may run as long
as 8 to 10 weeks during times of peak demand. The smooth wire (ASTM A 82), often used for
Bar mats-Bar mats utilize deformed and plain spirals or welded wire fabric, is generally available
reinforcing bars covered by ASTM A 615, A 616, or throughout the United States and Canada in wire
439-8 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
TABLE 5-MATERIAL PROPERTIES OF forcement" (ASTM A 497) for fabric made from
SMOOTH AND DEFORMED WIRE deformed wire. These two specifications define the
Smooth Deformed minimum weld shear strength; tension, bend, and
(ASTM (ASTM weld shear test methods and apparatus; widths,
Property A 82-76) A 496-72) permissible variations, packaging, and identifica-
Minimum yield strength, 70,000 75,000 tion requirements. Table 6 summarizes the mini-
psi (MPa) (455) (51'7) mum properties of steel wires in welded wire
Minimum tensile strength, 80,000 85,000 fabric.
psi (MPa) (550) (586) Since the yield strength is measured at 0.005
Bend tests:
strain, ACI 318-71 allows the use of the material
W7 and smaller 1d only as though it had a specified yield of 60,000
Larger than W7 2d psi (414 MPa) , unless welded wire fabric is speci-
D6 and smaller 2d fied and furnished with yield strength measured at
Larger than D6 4d 0.0035 strain.
The nomenclature used to describe the type and
size of welded wire fabric, sometimes mistakenly
TABLE 6-MINIMUM PROPERTIES OF STEEL WIRES referred to as mesh, is presently in a period of
IN WELDED WIRE FABRIC
transition from the old designation to the new.
Yield Tensile Weld shear Previously fabric was referred to by using the
strength, * strength, strength,t
Wire size psi (MPa) psi (MPa)
longitudinal and transverse wire spacing and the
Ib (kg£)
respective wire gage as: 6 x 6-4 x 4 or 6-6 4/4
Welded smooth wire fabric which denoted wire spacings at 6 in. (152 mm)
W1.2 and over I 65,000 75,000 34,000 A," each way using 4 gage wire each way.
(448) (517) (24.61 Aw) The new designations show spacing of longi-
Welded deformed wire fabric tudinal and transverse wires in the same manner.
70,000 80,000 20,000 Aw The gage has been replaced by an identification
D31 through D4 I (483) (552) (14.06 Aw) W or D for smooth or deformed wire and the
'The yield strength is determined at a strain of 0.005. l'.rea (-'l_h~.~t:_t;cl!h~g~.Cl.. l.'gl;lil1:.~__!.r:ch as 4 x 4-W5 x
"l"Ay; =nomInal area of larger wire in sq in. (sq mm). This
reqUirement applIes If. as IS .generally recommended, the ratio W5 indicates longitudinal and transverse wire
?f the area of the smaller WIre to the area of the larger wire
IS at least 0.40 for smooth WIre or 0.35 for deformed wire. spacing at 4 in. (102 mm) with smooth wire hav-
ing a cross-sectional area of 0.050 in. 2 (32.3 mm 2 )
sizes from WO.5 [0.080 in. (2.03 mm) diameter] for both the longitudinal and transverse wire.
through W31 [0.628 in. (15.95 mm) diameter]. Wire Currently both ways of identifying fabric styles
sizes smaller than W1.2 for welded wire fabric are in use, and will continue to be until the
are always galvanized. Smooth wire used in the transition to the new method has been completed.
manufacture of welded wire fabric for concrete Specifiers of fabric for specific design require-
reinforcement is generally limited to a minimum ments generally use the new designation while
size of W1.2 [0.124 in. (3.51 mm) diameter]. some specifiers and users of the common lighter
Spirals fabricated from cold drawn wire are building fabric styles still use the old designation.
subject to the same availability and lead time re-
Availability
quirements as spirals using ASTM A 615 plain ma-
terial. As noted in the previous sections on non pre-
Deformed wire (ASTM A 496) most commonly stressed wire, welded wire fabric for concrete
used in the manufacture of deformed welded wire reinforcement is generally available with mini-
fabric is normally available in wire sizes D4 mum wire sizes of W1.2 for smooth fabric and D4
through D31. Although some deformed welded for deformed fabric.
wire fabric uses D3 wire, ACI 318-71 limits the
Minimum quantity requirements
minimum deformed wire size to D4.
Welded wire fabric becomes more efficient and
economical as the amount of repetition in rein-
WELDED WIRE FABRIC
forcement increases. Economy is governed by the
manufacturing process and by the industry prac-
Material properties
tice of carrying certain common welded wire fabric
Welded wire fabric, the material and the manu- item in stock or inventory.
facture of, is covered by "Welded Steel Wire Fab-
ric for Concrete Reinforcement" (ASTM A 185) Stock items
for fabric made from smooth wire and "Welded Certain items of welded smooth wire fabric are
Deformed Steel Wire Fabric for Concrete Rein- carried in stock either at the producing mills or
STEEL REINFORCEMENT PROPERTIES/AVAILABILITY 439-9
warehousing points. While practice varies some- 2. The second most important factor is control-
what with different manufacturers and localities, ling the number of different wire sizes required.
the items listed in Table 7 are usually available. A change in transverse wire spacings is relatively
Typical roll widths and lengths are given in easy. Vary the transverse wire spacings and use a
Table 8. . minimum number of transverse wire sizes to ob-
tain the required transverse steel areas.
Nonstock items Welded wire fabric may also be used as stirrup
It is often desirable to order welded wire fabric and tie reinforcement in beams and columns. This
sheets or rolls specifically produced to meet the practice is more prevalent in European countries
reinforcing requirements and dimensions for in- than in the United States. There is special equip-
dividual projects. ment available to fabricate fabric into many stir-
The minimum quantity requirements for non- rup and tie configurations. Obviously, significant
stock items are governed by the manufacturing duplication is necessary to effectively utilize fabric
process requirements. in this application.
Quantity requirements vary with different pro-
ducers but the following examples illustrate the PRESTRESSED REINFORCEMENT
general requirements:
1. Longitudinal spacing, wire size, and fabric Introduction
width changes require 10 ton (9.07 t) to 20 ton
Prestressing steel is an active reinforcement. Up
(18.14 t) quantities per item.
to now this report has dealt with passive reinforc-
2. Transverse wire spacing and size, side and
end overhangs, and length changes require 2 ton
TABLE 8-TYPICAL ROLL WIDTHS AND LENGTHS
(1.81 t) to 5 ton (4.54 t) quantities per item. OF WELDED SMOOTH WIRE FABRIC
3. The average item weight for the total quan- 60 in. x 150 ft-O in.
United States
tity ordered for each nonstock item should be (1524 mm x 45.7 m)
except West Coast
approximately 15 tons (13.61 t).
For non stock welded wire fabric items the fol- United States- 84 in. x 150 ft-O in.
West Coast (2134 mm x 45.7 m)
lowing guidelines will lead to the greatest pro-
duction economies: 84 x 200 ft-O in.
1. The most important factor affecting economy (2134 mm x 61.0 m)
is to minimize the number of different longitudinal
Canada 60 in. x 200 ft-O in.
wire spacings in any group of items. The number (1524 mm x 61.0 m)
of spacings required can be reduced by varying
longitudinal-wire sizes to obtain the required steel 72 in. x 200 ft-O in.
areas per foot of width. (1829 mm x 61.0 m)
439-10 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
All sizes:
Grade 270 229,500 270,000 3.5
Grade 250 212,500 250,000 3.5
I
'Sizes not commonly furnished in Type BA wire.
tMinimum yield measured at 1 percent extension under load except as noted below under
low relaxation properties. (Minimum yield/tensile is 80 percent for ASTM A 421 and 85 percent
for ASTM A 416.)
POO,OOO psi == 689 MPa.
ing system. The term "active" describes the pre- stressing steel. The performance of the anchor
stressing system constantly applying a force to the system and its effect on the prestressing steel may
structural element regardless of the external loads affect the performance of the post-tensioning sys-
on that element. Because the magnitude of force tem to a greater degree than variables in the pre-
which the prestressing system delivers to the stressing steel. The prestressing steel may be
structural element is of a prime importance, the bonded to the surrounding concrete after the pre-
mechanism of transferring that force from the stressing force is applied by injecting grout into
prestressing steel to the structural element is a the void, or it may be left unbonded and coated
major consideration. The transfer mechanism se- with a corrosion inhibitor.
lected for any prestressing technique will have a
direct bearing on material property requirements. Material properties
Pretensioned prestress reinforcement requires
that the force first be introduced in the prestress- Reinforcemen t for prestressed concrete may
ing steel and maintained while concrete is placed consist of high strength wire as defined by "Un-
around the prestressing steel and cured. At this coated Stress-Relieved Wire for Prestressed Con-
time the force is then transferred to the surround- crete" (ASTM A 421-76), strand as defined by
ing concrete which is bonded to the prestressing "Uncoated Seven-Wire Stress-Relieved Strand for
steel. Special material properties may be required Prestressed Concrete" (ASTM A 416-74), or bar
for the bond transfer mechanism, usually this is as defined by "Uncoated High-Strength Steel Bar
accomplished by using seven-wire strand. 'for Prestressing Concrete" (ASTM A 722-75).
Prestressing steel for post-tensioned members Wire produced under ASTM A 421 varies in
includes a wider spectrum of materials, i.e., wire, minimum ultimate tensile strength depending on
bar, or strand are used interchangeably in post- wire size. It may be used in applications that re-
tensioning members, depending upon the econom- quire cold-end deformations for anchorage, Type
ics of the prestressing steel, the anchor system, BA (Button Anchorage) and for application that
and the considerations for the member being pre- require wedge anchorage of the ends, Type WA
stressed. In post-tensioning systems, the force is (Wedge Anchorage) with no cold-end deformation.
transferred from the prestressing steel through The specification also provides under Supplement
some mechanical device to an anchor, and then I for low relaxation wire and relaxation testing
usually through a bearing plate to the member for the product.
to be prestressed. There is a wide variety of Strand for prestressed application is seven-wire
mechanisms used to transfer the force from the type consisting of one center wire and six helically
prestressing steel. The most commonly used ones placed outer wires with a uniform pitch of not less
in this country are wedge grips, threaded connec- than 12 nor more than 16 times the nominal strand
tors, or upset ends (button heads) on the pre- diameter. Material furnished under ASTM A 416
STEEL REINFORCEMENT PROPERTIES/AVAILABILITY 439-11
Coupling require-
Mechanical coupling ments when
deformation acts
as threads
is available in two grades, 250 and 270, with mini- Note for low relaxation wire and strand
mum ultimate strengths of 250,000 psi (1724 MPa)
1. Relaxation loss after 1000 hr not more than
and 270,000 psi (1861 MPa), respectively, based
2.5 percent when initially loaded to 70 percent of
on nominal area of the strand. Low relaxation
specified minimum tensile strength or not more
strand is also available under Supplement 1.
than 3.5 percent when loaded to 80 percent of
Table 9 defines the properties of prestressing specified minimum tensile strength at 68 F (20 C).
wire and strand (ASTM A 421 and A 416) .
2. For low relaxation wire or strand, minimum
Material such as high strength alloy steel bars
yield measured at 1 percent extension under load
may also be used as a prestressing reinforcement.
ACI 318-71 requires in Section 3.5.10 that such bars
be proof-stressed to 85 percent of minimum guar-
TABLE II-SIZES OF PRESTRESSING STRAND
anteed tensile strength. Following proof-stressing AVAILABLE IASTM A416)
the bars should be subject to stress-relieving heat
treatment to produce the following properties de- Nominal diameter Grade 250 Grade 270
termined by full section tests.
% in. (0.250 in., A NA
Yield strength (0.2 percent offset) 0.85 fp1t
6.35 mm)
Elongation at .rupture
in 20 diameters 4 percent 5/16 in. (0.313 in., A NA
7.9 mm)
Reduction in area at rupture 20 percent
3/8 in. (0.375 in., A A
where 9.5 mm)
fpu = ultimate strength of prestressing steel.
7/16 in. (0.438 in., A A
In late 1975, ASTM approved ASTM A 722-75. 11.1 mm)
This specification is briefly summarized in Table
10. It is anticipated that the current ACI 318-71 1f2 in. (0.500 in., A A
12.7 mm)
requirements on bars used in prestressing applica-
tions will be deleted and the provisions of ASTM (0.600 in. A A
A 722-75 will be included in the ACI Bujlding 15.2 mm)
Code. A-Available; NA-Not available
439-12 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
shall not be less than 90 percent of specified A 416-74 Uncoated S eve n - Wi r e Stress-Relieved
minimum tensile strength_ Strand for Prestressed Concrete
A 421-76 Uncoated Stress-Relieved Wire for Pre-
Availability stressed Concrete
A 496-72 Deformed Steel Wire for Concrete Rein-
Prestressing strand (ASTM A 416) is generally forcement
available throughout the country in the sizes noted
A 497-72 Welded Deformed Steel Wire Fabric for
in Table lL Prestressing wire or bar are generally Concrete Reinforcement
available as part of prestressing systems which in-
A 615-76a Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel Bars for
clude complete tendons and anchorage devices_ Concrete Reinforcement
A 616-76 Rail-Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for
CONCLUSION Concrete Reinforcement
This report has identified the properties and A 617-76 Axle-Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for
discussed the availability of the different types and Concrete Reinforcement
sizes of steel reinforcement for concrete structures_ A 704-74 Welded Steel Plain Bar or Rod Mats for
The properties described are those specified for Concrete Reinforcement
the as-delivered products, and the designer should A 706-76 Low-Alloy Steel Deformed Bars for Con-
note and make appropriate arrangements where crete Reinforcement
particular design specifications are more restric- A 722-75 Uncoated High-Strength Steel Bar for Pre-
tive than the ASTM specifications. stressing Concrete
5. Associated Reinforcing Bar Producers-Concrete
Reinforcing Steel Institute, 180 North LaSalle St., Room
SOURCES
2110, Chicago, Ill. 60601: Reinforcing Bar Testing, 1974
Standards and specifications 6. Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute, 180 North
LaSalle St., Room 2110, Chicago, Ill. 60601: Manual of
1. American Association of State Highway and Trans-
Standard Practice, 22nd Edition, 1976 First Printing
portation Officials, 444 N. Capitol Street N.W., Suite 225,
Washington, D. C. 20045 7. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (U. S. Atomic En-
Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, ergy Commission), Washington, D. C. 20555: Regulatory
Eleventh Edition, 1973 Interim Specification Guide 1.15, Testing of Reinforcing Bars for Category I
Bridges, 1976 Concrete Structures
Designation M-31-77I, Deformed and Plain Billet 8. Wire Reinforcement Institute, Inc., 7900 Westpark
Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement Dr., McLean, Virginia 22101: Welded Wire Fabric-
2. American Concrete Institute, P. O. Box 19150, Red- Manual of Standard Practice, 1972
ford Station, Detroit, Mich. 482]9 9. American Welding Society, Inc., 2501 N.W. 7th St.,
Miami, Florida 33125: Reinforcing Steels Welding Code
ACI315-74 Manual of Standard Practice for Detailing
(AWS D12.1-75)
Reinforced Concrete Structures
ACI 318-74 Building Code Requirements for Rein- References
forced Concrete (including 1976 Supple-
ment) 1. Cowell, W. L., "Dynamic Tests of Concrete Rein-
forcing Steels, Technical Report No. R394, U. S. Naval
ACI349-76 Code Requirements for Nuclear Safety Civil Engineering Laboratory, Port Hueneme, 1965, 34
Related Concrete Structures pp. (Available as AD 622 544, National Technical Infor-
ACI359-74 Code for Concrete Reactor Vessels and mation Services).
Containments Section III, Division 2 of 2. "Design of Structures to Resist the Effects of
the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Atomic Weapons-Strength of Materials and Structural
Code Elements," Manual No. EM 1110-345-414, U. S. Army
Corps of Engineers, 1957, 64 pp.
3. American National Standards Institute, Inc., 1430
Broadway, New York, New York 10018: Supplementary 3. Seiss, C. P., "Behavior of High Strength Deformed
Quality Assurance Requirements for Installation, Inspec- Reinforcing Bars Under Rapid Loading," Department of
tion and Testing of Structural Concrete and Structural Civil Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, 1962.
Steel During the Construction Phase of Nuclear Power 4. Crum, Ralph G., "Tensile Impact Tests for Concrete
Plants (ANSI N45.2.5-1974) Reinforcing Steels," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 56,
4. American Society for Testing and Materials, 1916 No.1, July 1959, pp. 59-61.
Race St., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19103 5. Rice, Paul F., and Gustafson, David P., "Grade 80
A 82-76 Cold-Drawn Steel Wire for Concrete Rein- Reinforcing Bars and ACI 318-71," ACI JOURNAL, Pro-
forcement ceedings V. 73, No.4, April 1976, pp. 199-206.
6. McDermott, John F., "Reinforcing Steel," Rein-
A 184-74 Fabricated Deformed Steel Bar Mats for
forced Concrete Engineering, Boris Bresler, ed., John
Concrete Reinforcement
Wiley and Sons, New York, 1974, pp. 42-64.
A 185-73 Welded Steel Wire Fabric for Concrete
Reinforcement
A 370-76 Standard Methods and Definitions for Me- This report was submitted to letter ballot of the committee. which
consists of 16 members: 15 members returned their ballots all of
chanical Testing of Steel Products whom voted affirmatively.
INDEX
S-l
Nomenclature--Cement and concrete technology, 116-1 Slump, cont'd.
Nondestructive testing-In-service inspection of mass con- -Selecting proportions for no-slump concrete, 211-41
crete, 207-65 Spalling-Durability, 201-39
No-slump concrete--Selecting proportions, 211-41 Statistics-Procedure for evaluating strength test results,
214-1
Pavement-Durability, 201-39 Steel reinforcement-Properties and availability, 439-29
Permeability-Admixture for reducing, 212-33 Strength
Placing-Shrinkage-compensating cement concrete, 223-1 -Admixture effect, 212-33
Pozzolan -Mix proportioning, 211-1
-Admixture, 212-1 -Text, 214-1
-Mass concrete, 207-1 Sulfate exposure--Mix proportioning, 211-1
Prestressing steel-Properties and availability, 439-29
Temperature
Quality control -Cracking of massive concrete affected by, 207-39
-Durability, 201-39 -Mass concrete, 207-1
-Strength test, 214-1 Tensile strength-Splitting-Lightweight concrete, 213-1
Terminology-Glossary-Cement and concrete, 116-1
Radiation shielding-Heavyweight concrete--Mix pro- Tests-Existing massive structures, 207-65
portioning, 211-1
Thermal expansion-Cracking of massive concrete af-
Reinforcement corrosion-Concrete durability, 201-1 fected by, 207-39
Reinforcement-Steel-Properties and availability, Trial mix-Mix proportioning-Normal weight concrete,
439-29 211-1
Repair
-Damage evaluation and method of repair, 201-1 Volume change
-Eroded structures, 210-1 -Cracking of massive concrete affected by, 207 -39
-Mass concrete, 207-1
Scaling-Durability, 201-39
Shrinkage--Drying-Prevention through use of shrink- Water-cement ratio
age-compensating cement concrete, 223-1 -Lightweight concrete--Mix proportioning, 211-21
Shrinkage-compensating cement concrete, 223-1 -Mix proportioning, 211-1
Slump -Proportioning normal weight concrete, 211-1
-Mix proportioning, 211-1 Workability-Mix proportioning, 211-1
-Proportioning normal weight concrete, 211-1
8·2
CONVERSION FACTORS-U.S. CUSTOMARY TO SI (METRIC)* To convert from to multiply by
Area
Force
kilogram-force .... . .............. newton (N) .................... . 9.807
kip-force. . . . . ............. newton (N) .................. . .. 4448
pound-force ....................... newton (N) .......... . 4.448
'This selected list gives practical conversion factors of units found in concrete tech-
nology. The reference source for information on SI units and more exact conversion
factors is ··Standard for Metric Practice" ASTM E 380. Symbols of metric units are
Pressure or stress (force per area) given in parentheses.
tE Indicates that the factor given is exact.
kilogram-force/square meter ......... pascal (Pa) ............ . 9.807 + One liter (cubic decimeter) equals 0.001 m" or 1000 cm 3 •
kip-force/square inch (ksi) ........ megapascal (MPa) . . ......... . 6.895 § These equations convert one temperature reading to another and include the neces-
newton/square meter (N/m') ......... pascal (Pa) ................ . 1.000E sary scale corrections. To convert a difference in temperature from Fahrenheit degrees
pound-force/square foot ............. pascal (Pa) ....... . 47.88 to Celsius degrees, divide by 1.8 only. i.e., a change from 70 to 88 F represents a change
pound-force/square inch (psi) ...... kilopascal (kPa) ........... . 6.895 of 18 For 1811.8 = 10 C deg.