Chapter 2

Human Biology
Dr. S. Miller
Val Heike
NICC
9/2/2010 11:42:33 AM

 Acid Any of a class of substances whose aqueous solutions are characterized by a sour taste,
the ability to turn blue litmus red, and the ability to react with bases and certain metals to
form salts.
 Adenine one of the fundamental components of nucleic acids, as DNA, in which it
forms a base pair with thymine, and RNA, in which it pairs with uracil.
 Amino acid An organic compound containing an amino group (NH 2), a carboxylic acid group
(COOH), and any of various side groups, especially any of the 20 compounds that have the basic
formula NH2CHRCOOH, and that link together by peptide bonds to form proteins or that function as
chemical messengers and as intermediates in metabolism.
 Atom (atomistic) the smallest unit of matter as recognized by chemical properties of molecules.
Atoms are composed of protons, neutrons and electrons. The latter provide all properties described
by molecular interactions and chemical reactions that are essential processes in biology.
 Atomic number proton number
 ATP Short for Adenosine triophosphate, a nucleotide and universal energy currency for metabolism.
Almost all caloric content of food is converted into ATP before it can be utilized for tissue growth,
muscle work and other physiological processes.
 Axons are distinguished from dendrites by several features, including shape (dendrites often taper
while axons usually maintain a constant radius), length (dendrites are restricted to a small region
around the cell body while axons can be much longer), and function (dendrites usually receive
signals while axons usually transmit.
 Base also known as bias or like a placebo it is a stationary entity from which a study starts
from.
 Buffer usually containing a weak acid and its conjugate weak base, or a salt, of such a composition
that the pH is held constant within a certain range. An example is a solution containing acetic acid
(CH3COOH) and the acetate ion (CH3COO). The pH depends on their relative concentration and can
be found with a simple formula involving their ratio. Relatively small additions of acid or base will
change the concentration of the two species, but their ratio, and hence the pH, will not change
much. Different buffers are useful in different pH ranges; they include phosphoric acid, citric acid,
and boric acid, each with their salts. Biological fluids such as blood, tears, and semen have natural
buffers to maintain them at the pH required for their proper function. See also law of mass action.
 Carbohydrates Biochemical name for sugar containing molecules including single sugar
(monosaccharide’s) like glucose and glucose, but also polysaccharides (complex carbohydrates) like
starch (poly-glucose), cellulose (plant fiber material, also poly-glucose with a different chemical bond
structure linking glucose units than those found in starch/glycogen and enzymatically indigestible by
humans), chitin (hard shells of insects), and more complex carbohydrate components part of lipids
and proteins such as blood serum glycoproteins (antibodies and blood group determinants A, O, B,
rhesus positive or negative). All microorganisms (bacteria, viruses) contain carbohydrate surfaces
(glycolipids) being the major determinants of immunogenic reactions during infections.
 Calorie all foods count calories list it even if it is registered as zero. Chemical energy in
foods is expressed in calories (Cal). The scientific definition of a calorie is the amount of energy
needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by one degree Celsius from 15° to 16° at
atmospheric pressure. This is the true calorie, sometimes referred to as a "small calorie". A kilocalorie
is equal to 1000 calories. In reference to food energy, the term "calorie" is actually a 1,000 calories or
1 kilocalorie. The USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference contains values for both
kilocalories and kilojoules (1 kcal equals 4.184 kJ).
 Cellulose Fat Cell
 Cerebellum - does not initiate movement; it only times the length of muscle contractions and
orders the sequence in which muscles should contract to bring about a movement. The
command to initiate a movement is received from the cerebral cortex.


 [ CITATION Yah10 \l 1033 ]


 Complementary paired bases The standard arrangement of bases in nucleotides in relation
to their opposite pairing, such as thymine being paired with adenine and cytosine paired with
guanine.
 Compound To combine so as to form a whole; mix
 Covalent bond Covalent The chemical bond between atoms Cytosine -is one of the four main
bases found in DNA and RNA. It is a pyramiding derivative, with a heterocyclic aromatic
ring and two substituent’s attached.
 Denaturation - is commonly defined as any non-covalent change in the structure of a
protein.
 Disaccharide -. Any of a class of sugars, including lactose and sucrose that are composed of
two monosaccharides.
 DNA (see also RNA) -Short for Deoxy-Ribonucleic Acid; makes up the genetic component of
each cell. DNA is a linear polymer of four building blocks called nucleotides. Nucleotides are
distinguished by their base structures known as adenine (A), guanine (G), thymine (T), and cytosine
(C). The structure of DNA is the double helix and in all organisms contains only two forms of base
pair combinations -  AT (TA) and GC (CG)  -  which determine and control the accurate copying of the
nucleotide sequence during cell division or protein biosynthesis.
 Electron - Subatomic particle carrying a negative electric charge in atoms or
molecules.
 Electrophysiology
The technique of recording and stimulating currents and voltages across cell membranes using
microelectrodes. Electrodes can be used to measure membrane potentials and inject currents. The
latter charges the membrane and changes the membrane potentials. If the recorded voltage change
is fed back to the stimulating electrode, the current can be adjusted such that the measured
membrane potential stays constant. This is called the 'voltage-clamp' technique and has largely been
responsible to elucidate the mechanism underlying the electrical phenomena of neurons and muscle
tissue.
 Element An atom with a unique number of protons (atomic number). There are 102 different
elements and some additional synthetic elements that are not found in nature. Elements have
different physical and chemical properties and can be combined to molecules (two or more atoms
linked through covalent bonds). The elements are listed according to atomic number and chemical
properties in the periodic table.
 Emulsification A process that forms a liquid, known as an emulsion, containing very small
droplets of fat or oil suspended in a fluid, usually water. Fats and oils are made into an
emulsion in the small intestine by the action of bile salts. Emulsification increases the surface
area of these lipids making them much easier to digest. Unemulsified fat usually passes
through the intestines and is eliminated in faces.

 Fat - A tissue composed of bundles of collage nous white fibers between which are rows of
connective tissue cells; the tendons, ligaments, aponeuroses, and some of the membranes,
such as the Dura mater.
 Fatty acid- Most common form of lipids found in all cells. Come in saturated (reduced) and
unsaturated (oxidized) form and are a component of phospholipids and fats.
 Glucose -The major carbohydrate in starch and fruit sugar. The latter is also known as sucrose and
contains fructose with every glucose molecule.
 Glycogen -The major complex carbohydrate in animal cells made of glucose. Glycogen is for animals
what starch is for plants. Although glycogen is important long term storage of energy in muscle and
liver cells, it is of little nutritional significance, because most glycogen in muscle spontaneously
degrades during slaughtering. Thus meats, except liver, have little or no carbohydrate content.

 Guanine -
 Glycolysis
A metabolic pathway found in all organisms. This pathway consists of ten chemical reactions
 catalyzed by proteins (enzymes) and is responsible for the degradation and synthesis of
carbohydrates. Glycolysis does not depend on the presence of oxygen and is able to provide the cell
with the universal energy currency called ATP, short for adenosine triophosphate. This pathway can
degrade glucose only partially and will produce waste products such as lactate (in mammalian muscle
causing sour muscle under anaerobic exercise conditions) or ethanol in microorganisms (used for
fermentation of wine or beer). In the presence of oxygen, no waste products are formed and instead
further degraded to carbon dioxide and water. The latter processes are known as Krebs cycle and
oxidative phosphorylation.
 Hemoglobin
A protein that binds and transports molecular oxygen in animals. It is a tetrameric protein (a protein
with four subunits) where each subunit binds one heme, a co-factor responsible for oxygen binding.
Oxygen binding on individual subunits shows positive cooperativity, a form of interaction between
subunits where binding of oxygen to the heme in one subunit increases the strength of binding of
oxygen to hemes in all other subunits.
 Hexose - In organic chemistry, a hexose is a monosaccharide with six carbon atoms, having
the chemical formula C 6 H 12 O 6.
 Ion - an electrically charged atom or group of atoms, the electrical charge of which results
when a neutral atom or group of atoms loses or gains one or more electrons during chemical
reactions, by the action of certain forms of radiant energy, etc.: the loss of electrons results in
a positively charged ion (cation), the gain of electrons in a negatively charged ion (anion)
 Plasma Membrane - All living cells have a plasma membrane that encloses their contents. In
prokaryotes and plants, the membrane is the inner layer of protection surrounded by a rigid cell wall.
These membranes also regulate the passage of molecules in and out of the cells.
Testing knowledge 1-35

 Name the subatomic particles of the atom. Describe their charge, atomic mass, and
location in the atom.
 Subatomic particles are particles that are smaller than the atom.
 Protons, neutrons, and electrons are the three main subatomic
particles found in an atom.
 Protons have a positive (+) charge. An easy way to remember this is
to remember that both proton and positive start with the letter "P."
 Neutrons have no electrical charge. An easy way to remember this is
to remember that both neutron and no electrical charge start with
the letter "N."
 Why can a radioisotope be used as a tracer in the human body? Give an example?
Many of the chemical elements have a number of isotopes. The isotopes of an element have the
same number of protons in their atoms (atomic number) but different masses due to different
 numbers of neutrons. In an atom in the neutral state, the number of external electrons also
equals the atomic number. These electrons determine the chemistry of the atom. The atomic
mass is the sum of the protons and neutrons. There are 82 stable elements and about 275 stable
isotopes of these elements.

When a combination of neutrons and protons, which does not already exist in nature, is
produced artificially, the atom will be unstable and is called a radioactive isotope or
radioisotope. There are also a number of unstable natural isotopes arising from the decay of
primordial uranium and thorium.

Overall there are some 3800 radioisotopes. At present there are up to 200 radioisotopes used
on a regular basis, and most must be produced artificially.

Radioisotopes can be manufactured in several ways. The most common is by neutron activation
in a nuclear reactor. This involves the capture of a neutron by the nucleus of an atom resulting
in an excess of neutrons (neutron rich). Some radioisotopes are manufactured in a cyclotron in
which protons are introduced to the nucleus resulting in a deficiency of neutrons (proton rich).

The nucleus of a radioisotope usually becomes stable by emitting an alpha and/or beta particle
(or positron). These particles may be accompanied by the emission of energy in the form of
electromagnetic radiation known as gamma rays. This process is known as radioactive decay.
Radioactive products which are used in medicine are referred to as radiopharmaceuticals.
 Explain the difference between an ironic bond and a covalent bond. Unlike ionic,
covalent molecules exist as true molecules. Because electrons are shared in covalent molecules,
no full ionic charges are formed.  Thus covalent molecules are not strongly attracted to one
another.  As a result, covalent molecules move about freely and tend to exist as liquids or gases
at room temperature.  
Bonding
Atoms form molecules when two or more are bonded together.
A1—bond—A2 = Molecule: A1A2
Covalent bonds are formed when electrons in the outer orbit are shared between two
atoms. With this type of bond formed, molecules can rotate around their shared electrons
and change shapes. Every atom forms a characteristic number of covalent bonds. The
number of bonds depends on the number of electrons in the outer orbit.
Hydrogen (H) has atomic number 1, with 1 electron in its outer orbit. Hydrogen forms 1
bond (single bond) meaning: 1 electron is shared.
Oxygen (O) has atomic number 8, with 6 electrons in its outer orbit. Thus Oxygen forms
2 bonds (double bond) meaning: 2 electrons are shared.
Nitrogen (N) has atomic number 7, with 5 electrons in its outer orbit. Nitrogen forms 3
bonds (triple bond) meaning: 3 electrons are shared.
Carbon (C) has atomic number 6, with 4 electrons in its outer orbit. Carbon forms 4
bonds, meaning: 4 electrons are shared.
In general:  # of electrons in outer orbit + Shared electrons = 8 (full octet)
Make note that any electron shared is in attempt to reach a stable state. In most atoms this
is an octet, or eight electrons in the outer orbit.  Note Hydrogen only has space for 2
electrons in its outer orbit, one present and one shared.
 Ions are atoms with a net electric charge due to the gain or loss of one or more electrons.
Ionic bonds are bonds formed between two oppositely charged ions. Cations are ions
with a net positive charge, while anions are those with a net negative charge.
Ionic forms of elements are important to the body, as they are able to conduct electricity
when dissolved in water. Theses ions are called electrolytes. Single atoms, or atoms that
are covalently linked in molecules can undergo ionization. See examples below.
NaCl  ↔  Na+ + Cl-, R-COOH ↔ R-COO- + H+ R-NH2 + H+ ↔ R-NH3
Where R is any molecule attached to the shown functional group.
An atom with a single electron in its outermost orbital is known as a free radical. Free
radicals are highly reactive and short-lived. In organism terms, they are responsible for
cellular breakdown. Sun damage is a classic example of free radicals acting on skin cells.
Polar bonds are bonds in which the electrons are shared unequally.  The unequal sharing
gives the atom with the higher share a more negative charge and the one with the lower
share of electrons has a slightly more positive charge.
Hydrogen bonds are weak bonds between the hydrogen atom (more positive, lesser
share of the electron) in one polar bond and an oxygen or nitrogen atom (more negative,
greater share of the electron) in another polar bond.
H--O--H - - - O---H
Molecule 1        Molecule 2
Hydrogen bond between hydrogen of one water molecule and the oxygen of    another. 
These bonds are rather weak.
 Relate the properties of water to its polarity and hydrogen bonding between water
molecules? Since the hydrogen and oxygen atoms in the molecule carry opposite (though
partial) charges, nearby water molecules are attracted to each other like tiny little magnets. The
electrostatic attraction between the ð+ hydrogen and the ð- oxygen in adjacent molecules is
called hydrogen bonding.
 On th pH scale, which numbers indicate a basic solution? An acidic solution? A
neutral solution? What makes a solution basic, acidic, or neutral?
The pH scale measures how acidic or basic a substance is. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. A
pH of 7 is neutral. A pH less than 7 is acidic. A pH greater than 7 is basic.
 What are buffers, and why are they important to life?
 A buffer like tissue and fat or muscles protect organs or joints from damage much like shocks
protect us from damage while going over rough terrain. I found this is really cool even though I
only understand bits and pieces so far.
Buffers in the Kidneys
.HYDROGEN PHOSPHATE KIDNEY BUFFER
ACIDIFICATION OF URINE

The pH of blood plasma is kept within normal limits by controlling the

excretion of H+ ions in the urine and the reabsorption of bicarbonate into blood plasma. If acid is
excreted in the urine, it is in effect removed from the blood when an equal quantity of bicarbonate
is added to the blood. Bicarbonate (as a base) neutralizes hydrogen ions in the blood. If the blood
is too acidic more hydrogen ions are excreted, if the blood is too basic, then less hydrogen ions
are excreted.

HCO3- + H+ <===> H2CO3 <===> CO2 + H2O

The renal tubules excrete hydrogen ions by an unknown series of reactions into
the tubular urine. The amount of hydrogen ions excreted is controlled by the concentration of H+
(pH), bicarbonate, and the partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2)
in the blood plasma and by the amount of Na+ and bicarbonate in the developing urine.
Hydrogen ions and sodium ions exchange places throughout the formation of urine. For every H+
which enters the urine, one sodium ion is reabsorbed from the urine into the blood and is
conserved. For every H+ ion excreted and every Na+ ion conserved, one bicarbonate ion is also
reabsorbed into the blood. The charges on
sodium and bicarbonate are thus always balanced.
 Nitrogen would be found in which categories of molecules unique to organisms? All
life forms are made largely of carbon-based or organic molecules. Organic molecules are
composed primarily of six elements: CHNOPS or carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus
and sulfur. Living things also contain inorganic molecules such as water, carbon dioxide, and
oxygen.
 Name some monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides, and state some
general functions of each. What is the most common subunit for polysaccharides?
 Starch (found in plants).
 glycogen, Muscle and liver
 dextran is a branched polymer of glucose
 What are the subunits of a triglyceride? What is the difference between a saturated
fatty acid? What are the functions of fat in the body?
Triglycerides are a type of lipid present in the blood. Lipids are naturally produced by the body or
eaten as food. Fatty acids are the subunits of a triglyceride. While completely necessary for good
health, lipids have the potential to damage the body.
Both unsaturated fat and saturated fat are in a variety of foods, studies have found that these fats are
not created equally. Unsaturated fats can be beneficial to your heart, whereas inundated fats could be
detrimental to your cholesterol and your heart.
Fat is essential for the proper execution of the body. Fats afford essential fatty acids, which are not made
by the body and must be obtained from food. The essential fatty acids are linoleic and linolenic acid. They
are important for controlling tenderness, blood clotting, and brain development.
 How does the structure of phospholipids differ from a triglyceride? Describe the
arrangement of phospholipids in the plasma membrane.
Triglyceride Structure
Triglycerides are a form of lipid. According to Merriam-Webster's Medical Dictionary,
triglycerides consist of a glycerol molecule that has three kinds of lipids, known as fatty acids,
bound to it.
The membrane acts as a boundary, holding the cell constituent together and keeping other substances
from ingoing. The plasma membrane is permeable to specific molecules, however, and allows nutrients
and other essential elements to enter the cell and waste equipment to leave the cell. Small molecules,
such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water, are able to overtake freely across the membrane, but the
passage of larger molecules, such as amino acids and sugars, is carefully regulated.
 What is the subunit of a protein, and how do two subunits join to form a peptide
bond?. A peptide bond occurs when the carboxyl groups of one amino acid forms a polar
covalent bond with the amino group of another amino acid. In the formation of this bond one
water molecule is releases. The newly formed molecule will then have a free amino group at one
end and a free carboxyl group at the other, which allows for linking additional amino acids.
 Discus the primary, secondary, and tertiary structures of proteins. Why are these
structures so important? In general, we can use the conformation of a protein to
classify it into one of two very broad categories. One of those is fibrous, the other is
globular. The fibrous proteins are generally long and insoluble in water. The globular
proteins are tightly folded and most of them are soluble in water. Some proteins
combine the properties of both fibrous and globular within the same protein. These
structures are important because they make up the cell structures.

 Describe the double-helix structure of DNA and the single stranded structure of
RNA.
Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, like proteins, is a linear macromolecule found in all living cells.
In contrast to proteins, however, it is build up of only 4 different types of building blocks, called
nucleotides. Nucleotides are composed of a base, being either a purine or pyrimidine group, or a
2'-deoxyribosyl-tri-phosphate. The four types of bases composing the sequence of DNA are:
Purines:

                   Adenine A         Guanine G 

Pyrimidines:
                   Thymine T  Cytosine C 

RNA Structure
 
1. Ribonucleic acid
RNA is very similar to DNA in that is made of 4 different building blocks, the ribonucleotidesThe
pyrimidine base thymine is modified in that it lacks a methyl group and the resulting uracil takes
its place in base pairing. The ribose comes in its fully hydroxylated form. Together, the presence
of uracil in place of thymine, and the 2'-OH in the ribose constitute the two chemical differences
between RNA and DNA. RNA is composed of the four bases:
Purines:

                   Adenine A         Guanine G 

 
Pyrimidines:

                   Uracil U                    Cytosine C 

(Note: more structures can be found at  KEGG database)
 What type of reaction releases the energy of an ATP molecule?
Covalent bonding. Phosphate group bonding is an inherently high negative free energy
states. The hydrolysis of a phosphate groups is almost always an energy releasing reaction.
Explain? ATP to cellular processes. .... A messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule is a special type of
RNA.

 The atom number gives the B. number of protons in the nucleus

  Isotopes differ in their B. atomic number
 Which type of bond results from the complete transfer of electrons from one atom to
another B ionic
 Which of the following properties of water is not due to hydrogen bonding between
water molecules? C. Water is a solvent for polar molecules and ionic compounds.
 If a chemical accepted H7 from the surrounding solution, the chemical would be a(n)
C buffer
 What is true of a solution that goes from pH5 to pH8? A. The H7 concentration
decreases as the solution becomes more basic.
 An example of a polysaccharide used for energy storage in humans is B. glycogen
 Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids differ in the D. all of the above
 The difference between one amino acid and another is found in the group? C. R
 An example of hydrolysis reaction is B. dipeptide +H2O→amino acid + amino acid
 The helix and pleated sheet form of a protein is its …….structure. A. secondary
 An RNA nucleotide differs from a DNA molecule in that RNA has A. ribose and C.
uracil
 Glucose subset molecule B. polysaccharide
 Nucleotide subset molecule D. DNA,RNA
 Glycerol and fatty acid subset molecule A. fat
 Amino acid subset molecule C. polypeptide
 Lipids molecular category. A. fat
 Proteins molecular category C. polypeptide
 Nucleic acids molecular category D. DNA,RNA
 Carbohydrates molecular category polysaccharide
 A. subunits
B. dehydration reaction
C. macromolecule
D. hydrolysis reaction