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1. B0 = 0 almost surely,
3. For any finite sequence of times t0 < t1 < · · · < tn , the increments
are independent.
We refer to Theorem 10.28 of [36] and to Chapter 1 of [95] for the proof of
the existence of Brownian motion as a stochastic process (Bt )t∈R+ satisfying
"
N. Privault
the above Conditions 1-4. See also Problem 4.15 for a construction based on
linear interpolation.
and we have
Cov(Bs , Bt ) = IE[Bs Bt ]
= IE[Bs (Bt − Bs )] + IE[(Bs )2 ]
= IE[Bs ] IE[Bt − Bs ] + IE[(Bs )2 ]
= s, 0 ≤ s ≤ t,
hence
Cov(Bs , Bt ) = IE[Bs Bt ] = min(s, t), s, t ∈ R+ ,
cf. also Exercise 4.1-(d).
In the sequel, the filtration (Ft )t∈R+ will be generated by the Brownian paths
up to time t, in other words we write
• the date of the next Chinese new year, although it refers to a future event,
is also Ft -measurable because it is known at time t.
• the date of the next typhoon is not Ft -measurable since it is not known
at time t.
• the exercise date τ of an American option after time t (see Section 11.4)
is not Ft -measurable because it refers to a future random event.
78 "
(Bt − Bs ) ⊥
⊥ (Bt1 − Bt0 , Bt2 − Bt1 , . . . , Btn − Btn−1 ),
over the time interval [t, t+∆t] will be approximated by the Bernoulli random
variable √
∆Bt = ± ∆t (4.2)
with equal probabilities (1/2, 1/2).
The choice of the square root in (4.2) is in fact not fortuitous. Indeed, any
choice of ±(∆t)α with a power α > 1/2 would lead to explosion of the process
as dt tends to zero, whereas a power α ∈ (0, 1/2) would lead to a vanishing
process.
" 79
k−1
k
T, T , k = 1, . . . , N,
N N
Xk √
∆Bt = √ = ± ∆t
N
is the increment of Bt over ((k − 1)∆t, k∆t], and we get
X X1 + · · · + XN
BT ' ∆Bt ' √ .
0<t<T
N
Hence by the central limit theorem we recover the fact that BT has a centered
Gaussian distribution with variance T , cf. point 4 of the above definition of
Brownian motion. Indeed, the central limit theorem states that given any
sequence (Xk )k≥1 of independent identically distributed centered random
variables with variance σ 2 = Var[Xk ] = T , the normalized sum
X1 + · · · + Xn
√
n
1.5
0.5
Bt
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
80 "
1.5
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-2
-1 -1.5
-1
-1.5 -0.5
0
-2 -2 0.5
-1.5 -1 -0.5 1
0 0.5 1.5
1 1.5 2 2
" 81
n= 12
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
The next Figure 4.5 presents an illustration of the scaling property of Brow-
nian motion.
82 "
f
a2
6
a1
a4
-
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t
Recall that the classical integral of f given in (4.4) is interpreted as the area
under the curve f and computed as
†
The animation works in Acrobat reader on the entire pdf file.
" 83
w∞ n
X
f (t)dt = ai (ti − ti−1 ).
0
i=1
w∞ n
X
f (t)dBt := ai (Bti − Bti−1 ). (4.5)
0
i=1
w∞
In the next Lemma 4.3 we determine the probability distribution of f (t)dBt
0
and we show that it is independent of the particular representation (4.4) cho-
sen for f (t).
Lemma 4.3. w ∞Let f be a simple step function f of the form (4.4). The stochas-
tic integral f (t)dBt defined in (4.5) has a centered Gaussian distribution
0
w∞ w∞
f (t)dBt ' N 0, |f (t)|2 dt
0 0
hw ∞ i
with mean IE f (t)dBt = 0 and variance given by the Itô isometry
0
hw ∞ i w
∞ 2 w ∞
Var f (t)dBt = IE f (t)dBt = |f (t)|2 dt. (4.6)
0 0 0
the sum
w∞ n
X
f (t)dBt = ak (Btk − Btk−1 )
0
k=1
84 "
n
X
|ak |2 (tk − tk−1 ),
k=1
since
Var [ak (Btk − Btk−1 )] = a2k Var [Btk − Btk−1 ] = a2k (tk − tk−1 ),
In the sequel we will make a repeated use of the space L2 (R+ ) of measurable
functions f : R+ −→ R, called square-integrable functions, endowed with the
norm rw
∞
kf kL2 (R+ ) := |f (t)|2 dt < ∞, f ∈ L2 (R+ ), (4.7)
0
" 85
between two functions f and g in L2 (R+ ), cf. e.g. Chapter 3 of [98] for details.
Note that the set of simple step functions f of the form (4.4) is a linear
space which is dense in L2 (R+ ) for the norm (4.7), cf. e.g. Theorem 3.13 in
[98], namely, given f a function satisfying (4.7) and (fn )n∈N a sequence of
simple functions converging to f for the norm
rw
∞
kf − fn kL2 (R+ ) := |f (t) − fn (t)|2 dt
0
w∞
In order to extend the definition (4.5) of the stochastic integral f (t)dBt
0
to any function f ∈ L2 (R+ ), i.e. to f : R −→ R measurable such that
w∞
|f (t)|2 dt < ∞, (4.8)
0
hw ∞ i w
∞ 2 w ∞
Var f (t)dBt = IE f (t)dBt = |f (t)|2 dt. (4.9)
0 0 0
∗
See MH3100 Real Analysis I.
86 "
r∞
cf. e.g. Theorem 3.13 in [98]. The isometry (4.9) shows that 0 fn (t)dBt n∈N
is Cauchy and the space L2 (Ω) is complete, cf. e.g. Theorem 3.11 in [98] or
w ∞
Chapter 4 of [30], we conclude that fn (t)dBt converges for the
0 n∈N
L2 -norm to a limit in L2 (Ω). In this case we let
w∞ w∞
f (t)dBt := lim fn (t)dBt ,
0 n→∞ 0
which also satisfies (4.9) from (4.6) The uniqueness of this limit can then be
shown from (4.9).
w∞
For example, e dBt has a centered Gaussian distribution with variance
−t
0
w∞
1
∞
1
e−2t dt = − e−2t = .
0 2 0 2
w∞
Again, the Wiener stochastic integral f (s)dBs is nothing but a Gaussian
0
random variable and it cannot be “computed” in the way standard integral
are computed via the use of primitives. However, when f ∈ L2 (R+ ) is in
C 1 (R+ ), i.e. when f is continuously differentiable on R+ , we have the follow-
ing formula w∞ w∞
f (t)dBt = − f 0 (t)Bt dt, (4.10)
0 0
provided that limt→∞ t|f (t)|2 = 0 and f ∈ L2 (R+ ), cf. e.g. Remark 2.5.9 in
[83].
" 87
wT wT
f (t)dBt = f (T )BT − Bt f 0 (t)dt. (4.11)
0 0
88 "
The next proposition gives the extension of the stochastic integral from sim-
ple predictable processes to square-integrable Ft -adapted processes (Xt )t∈R+
for which the value of Xt at time t only depends on information contained
in the Brownian path up to time t. This also means that knowing the future
is not permitted in the definition of the Itô integral, for example a portfolio
strategy that would allow the trader to “buy at the lowest” and “sell at the
highest” is not possible as it would require knowledge of future market data.
Note that the difference between Relation (4.14) below and Relation (4.9)
is the expectation on the right hand side.
Proposition 4.6. The stochastic integral with respect to Brownian motion
(Bt )t∈R+ extends to all adapted processes (ut )t∈R+ such that
hw ∞ i
IE |ut |2 dt < ∞,
0
In addition, the Itô integral of an adapted process (ut )t∈R+ is always a cen-
tered random variable:
" 89
hw ∞ i
IE us dBs = 0. (4.15)
0
Proof. We start by showing that the Itô isometry (4.14) holds for the simple
predictable process u of the form (4.12). We have
!2
w 2 n
∞ X
IE ut dBt = IE Fi (Bti − Bti−1 )
0
i=1
n
X
= IE Fi Fj (Bti − Bti−1 )(Btj − Btj−1 )
i,j=1
" n #
X
= IE |Fi |2 (Bti − Bti−1 )2
i=1
X
+2 IE Fi Fj (Bti − Bti−1 )(Btj − Btj−1 )
1≤i<j≤n
n
X
= IE[IE[|Fi |2 (Bti − Bti−1 )2 |Fti−1 ]]
i=1
X
+2 IE[IE[Fi Fj (Bti − Bti−1 )(Btj − Btj−1 )|Ftj−1 ]]
1≤i<j≤n
n
X
= IE[|Fi |2 IE[(Bti − Bti−1 )2 |Fti−1 ]]
i=1
X
+2 IE[Fi Fj (Bti − Bti−1 ) IE[(Btj − Btj−1 )|Ftj−1 ]]
1≤i<j≤n
n
X
= IE[|Fi |2 IE[(Bti − Bti−1 )2 ]]
i=1
X
+2 IE[Fi Fj (Bti − Bti−1 ) IE[Btj − Btj−1 ]]
1≤i<j≤n
n
X
= IE[|Fi |2 (ti − ti−1 )]
i=1
" n #
X
= IE |Fi |2 (ti − ti−1 )
i=1
hw ∞ i
= IE |ut |2 dt ,
0
90 "
By Lemma 1.1 of [56], pages 22 and 46, or Proposition 2.5.3 of [83], the
set of simple predictable processes forms a linear space which is dense in
the subspace L2ad (Ω × R+ ) made of square-integrable adapted processes in
L2 (Ω × R+ ). In other words, given u a square-integrable adapted process
there exists a sequence (un )n∈N of simple predictable processes converging to
u in L2 (Ω × R+ ). Since this sequence
r n converges, it is Cauchy in L2 (Ω × R+ )
hence by the isometry (4.14), ut dBt n∈N is a Cauchy sequence in L2 (Ω),
" 91
with in particular
wb w∞
dBt = 1[a,b] (t)dBt = Bb − Ba , 0 ≤ a ≤ b,
a 0
wT w w wT
" 2 #
T T T2
IE = IE |Bt |2 dt = IE |Bt |2 dt = tdt =
Bt dBt .
0 0 0 0 2
In the sequel we will define the return at time t ∈ R+ of the risky asset
(St )t∈R+ as
dSt
= µdt + σdBt ,
St
with µ ∈ R and σ > 0. This equation can be formally rewritten in integral
form as wT wT
ST = S0 + µ St dt + σ St dBt ,
0 0
hence the need to define an integral with respect to dBt , in addition to the
usual integral with respect to dt. Note that in view of the definition (4.13),
this is a continuous-time extension of the notion portfolio value based on a
92 "
Our goal is now to solve Equation (4.16) and for this we will need to introduce
Itô’s calculus in Section 4.4 after reviewing classical deterministic calculus at
the beginning of Section 4.4.
Deterministic calculus
The fundamental theorem of calculus states that for any continuously differ-
entiable (deterministic) function f we have
wx
f (x) = f (0) + f 0 (y)dy.
0
states that
1 1 1
df (x) = f 0 (x)dx + f 00 (x)(dx)2 + f 000 (x)(dx)3 + f (4) (x)(dx)4 + · · · .
2 3! 4!
" 93
Note that Relation (4.17) can be obtained by neglecting the terms of order
larger than one in Taylor’s formula, since (dx)n << dx when n ≥ 2 and dx
is “small”.
Stochastic calculus
dBt = Bt+dt − Bt ,
and letting
df (Bt ) = f (Bt+dt ) − f (Bt ),
we have
df (Bt )
1 1 1
= f 0 (Bt )dBt + f 00 (Bt )(dBt )2 + f 000 (Bt )(dBt )3 + f (4) (Bt )(dBt )4 + · · · .
2 3! 4!
From
√ the construction of Brownian motion by its small increments dBt =
± dt, it turns out that the terms in (dt)2 and dtdBt = ±(dt)3/2 can be ne-
glected in Taylor’s formula at the first order of approximation in dt. However,
the term of order two √
(dBt )2 = (± dt)2 = dt
can no longer be neglected in front of dt.
For f ∈ C 2 (R), Taylor’s formula written at the second order for Brownian
motion reads
1
df (Bt ) = f 0 (Bt )dBt + f 00 (Bt )dt, (4.18)
2
df (Bt ) dBt 1
= f 0 (Bt ) + f 00 (Bt )
dt dt 2
does not make sense because the derivative
√
dBt dt 1
'± ' ± √ ' ±∞
dt dt dt
does not exist. Integrating (4.18) on both sides and using the relation
94 "
wt
f (Bt ) − f (B0 ) = df (Bs )
0
we get the integral form of Itô’s formula for Brownian motion, i.e.
wt 1 w t 00
f (Bt ) = f (B0 ) + f 0 (Bs )dBs + f (Bs )ds.
0 2 0
We now turn to the general expression of Itô’s formula which applies to Itô
processes of the form
wt wt
Xt = X0 + vs ds + us dBs , t ∈ R+ , (4.19)
0 0
or in differential notation
dXt = vt dt + ut dBt ,
where (ut )t∈R+ and (vt )t∈R+ are square-integrable adapted processes.
Given (t, x) 7−→ f (t, x) a smooth function of two variables on R+ ×R, from
∂f
now on we let denote partial differentiation with respect to the second
∂x
∂f
variable in f (t, x), while denote partial differentiation with respect to the
∂t
first (time) variable in f (t, x).
Theorem 4.7. (Itô formula for Itô processes). For any Itô process (Xt )t∈R+
of the form (4.19) and any f ∈ C 1,2 (R+ × R) we have
w t ∂f w t ∂f
f (t, Xt ) = f (0, X0 ) + vs (s, Xs )ds + us (s, Xs )dBs
0 ∂x 0 ∂x
w t ∂f w
1 t 2
∂ f
+ (s, Xs )ds + |us |2 2 (s, Xs )ds. (4.20)
0 ∂s 2 0 ∂x
w t ∂f 1wt ∂2f
+ (s, Xs )ds + |us |2 2 (s, Xs )ds,
0 ∂s 2 0 ∂x
which allows us to rewrite (4.20) in differential notation, as
df (t, Xt ) (4.21)
∂f ∂f ∂f 1 2
2∂ f
= (t, Xt )dt + ut (t, Xt )dBt + vt (t, Xt )dt + |ut | (t, Xt )dt,
∂t ∂x ∂x 2 ∂x2
or
∂f ∂f 1 ∂2f
df (t, Xt ) = (t, Xt )dt + (t, Xt )dXt + |ut |2 2 (t, Xt )dt.
∂t ∂x 2 ∂x
In case the function x 7−→ f (x) does not depend on the time variable t we
get
∂f ∂f 1 ∂2f
df (t, Xt ) = ut (t, Xt )dBt + vt (t, Xt )dt + |ut |2 2 (t, Xt )dt,
∂x ∂x 2 ∂x
and
∂f 1 ∂2f
df (t, Xt ) = (t, Xt )dXt + |ut |2 2 (t, Xt )dt.
∂x 2 ∂x
Next, consider two Itô processes (Xt )t∈R+ and (Yt )t∈R+ written in integral
form as wt wt
Xt = X0 + vs ds + us dBs , t ∈ R+ ,
0 0
and
96 "
wt wt
Yt = Y0 + bs ds + as dBs , t ∈ R+ ,
0 0
or in differential notation as
where the product dXt · dYt is computed according to the Itô rule
i.e.
Hence we have
· dt dBt
dt 0 0
dBt 0 dt
∂f ∂f 1 ∂2f
df (t, Xt ) = (t, Xt )dt + (t, Xt )dXt + (t, Xt )(dXt )2
∂t ∂x 2 ∂x2
∂f ∂f ∂f 1 ∂2f
= (t, Xt )dt + vt (t, Xt )dt + ut (t, Xt )dBt + (ut )2 2 (t, Xt )dt.
∂t ∂x ∂x 2 ∂x
Example
" 97
we get
d(Bt2 ) = df (Bt )
∂f ∂f 1 ∂2f
= (t, Bt )dt + (t, Bt )dBt + (t, Bt )dt
∂t ∂x 2 ∂x2
= 2Bt dBt + dt,
since
∂f ∂f 1 ∂2f
(t, x) = 0, (t, x) = 2x, and (t, x) = 1,
∂t ∂x 2 ∂x2
hence by integration we find
wT wT wT
BT2 = B0 + 2 Bs dBs + dt = 2 Bs dBs + T,
0 0 0
and wT 1
Bs dBs = BT2 − T .
0 2
Notation
We close this section with some comments on the practice of Itô’s calculus.
In some finance textbooks, Itô’s formula for e.g. geometric Brownian motion
can be found written in the notation
wT ∂f wT ∂f
f (T, ST ) = f (0, X0 ) + σ St (t, St )dBt + µ St (t, St )dt
0 ∂St 0 ∂St
w T ∂f 1 w T ∂2f
+ (t, St )dt + σ 2 St2 2 (t, St )dt,
0 ∂t 2 0 ∂St
or
∂f ∂f 1 ∂2f
df (St ) = σSt (St )dBt + µSt (St )dt + σ 2 St2 2 (St )dt.
∂St ∂St 2 ∂St
∂f
The notation (St ) can in fact be easily misused in combination with the
∂St
fundamental theorem of classical calculus, and lead to the wrong identity
∂f
df (St ) = (St )dSt .
∂St
Similarly, writing
df 1 d2 f
df (Bt ) = (Bt )dBt + (Bt )dt
dx 2 dx2
is consistent, while writing
98 "
df (Bt ) 1 d2 f (Bt )
df (Bt ) = dBt + dt
dBt 2 dBt2
that will defined the price St of a risky asset at time t, where µ ∈ R and
σ > 0. This equation is rewritten in integral form as
wt wt
St = S0 + µ Ss ds + σ Ss dBs , t ∈ R+ . (4.25)
0 0
It can be solved by applying Itô’s formula to the Itô process (St )t∈R+ as
in (4.19) with vt = µSt and ut = σSt , and by taking f (St ) = log St with
f (x) = log x, which shows that
1
d log St = µSt f 0 (St )dt + σSt f 0 (St )dBt + σ 2 St2 f 00 (St )dt
2
1
= µdt + σdBt − σ 2 dt,
2
hence
wt
log St − log S0 = d log Sr
0
wt 1
wt
= µ − σ 2 dr + σdBr
0 2 0
1
= µ − σ 2 t + σBt , t ∈ R+ ,
2
and
1
St = S0 exp µ − σ 2 t + σBt , t ∈ R+ .
2
The above provides a proof of the next proposition.
Proposition 4.8. The solution of (4.24) is given by
2
St = S0 eµt+σBt −σ t/2
, t ∈ R+ .
Proof. Let us provide an alternative proof by searching for a solution of the
form
St = f (t, Bt )
" 99
∂f ∂f 1 ∂2f
dSt = df (t, Bt ) = (t, Bt )dt + (t, Bt )dBt + (t, Bt )dt.
∂t ∂x 2 ∂x2
Comparing this expression to (4.24) and identifying the terms in dBt we get
∂f
(t, Bt ) = σSt ,
∂x
1 ∂2f
∂f
(t, Bt ) + (t, Bt ) = µSt .
∂t 2 ∂x2
1 ∂2f
∂f
(t, Bt ) + (t, Bt ) = µf (t, Bt ).
∂t 2 ∂x2
Since Bt is a Gaussian random variable taking all possible values in R, the
equations should hold for all x ∈ R, as follows:
∂f
(t, x) = σf (t, x), (4.28a)
∂x
1 ∂2f
∂f
(t, x) + (t, x) = µf (t, x). (4.28b)
∂t 2 ∂x2
∂g ∂ log f 1 ∂f
(t, x) = (t, x) = (t, x) = σ,
∂x ∂x f (t, x) ∂x
i.e.
∂g
(t, x) = σ,
∂x
which is solved as
g(t, x) = g(t, 0) + σx,
hence
f (t, x) = eg(t,0) eσx = f (t, 0)eσx .
Plugging back this expression into the second equation (4.28b) yields
100 "
∂f 1
eσx (t, 0) + σ 2 eσx f (t, 0) = µf (t, 0)eσx ,
∂t 2
i.e.
∂f
(t, 0) = µ − σ 2 /2 f (t, 0).
∂t
∂g
In other words, we have (t, 0) = µ − σ 2 /2, which yields
∂t
g(t, 0) = g(0, 0) + µ − σ 2 /2 t,
i.e.
We conclude that
The next Figure 4.7 presents an illustration of the geometric Brownian pro-
cess of Proposition 4.8.
4
St
3.5 ert
2.5
2
St
1.5
0.5
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
t
" 101
2
Conversely, taking St = f (t, Bt ) with f (t, x) = S0 eσx−σ t/2+µt
we may apply
Itô’s formula to check that
dSt = df (t, Bt )
∂f ∂f 1 ∂2f
= (t, Bt )dt + (t, Bt )dBt + (t, Bt )dt
∂t ∂x 2 ∂x2
= µ − σ 2 /2 S0 eσBt +(µ−σ /2)t dt + σS0 eσBt +(µ−σ /2)t dBt
2 2
1
+ σ 2 S0 eσBt +(µ−σ /2)t dt
2
2
= µS eσBt +(µ−σ /2)t dt + σS eσBt +(µ−σ /2)t dB
2 2
0 0 t
= µSt dt + σSt dBt .
σ : R+ × Rn −→ Rd ⊗ Rn
b : R+ × Rn −→ R
where (Bt )t∈R+ is a d-dimensional Brownian motion, see e.g. [93], Theorem V-
7.
102 "
Examples
where µ, σ > 0.
√
Letting Xt = Yt we have dXt = µXt dt + σdBt , hence
p wt 2
Yt = eµt Y0 + σ eµ(t−s) dBs .
0
" 103
Exercises
Exercise 4.2 Consider the price process (St )t∈R+ given by the stochastic
differential equation
dSt = rSt dt + σSt dBt .
Find the stochastic integral decomposition of the random variable ST , i.e.
find the constant C and the process (ζt )t∈[0,T ] such that
wT
ST = C + ζt dBt . (4.30)
0
104 "
Exercise 4.6 Consider (Bt )t∈R+ a standard Brownian motion generating the
filtration (Ft )t∈R+ and the process (St )t∈R+ defined by
w wt
t
St = S0 exp σs dBs + us ds , t ∈ R+ ,
0 0
for all β < 1/T . Hint: expand (BT ) using Itô’s formula.
2
Exercise 4.8
a) Solve the ordinary differential equation df (t) = cf (t)dt and the stochastic
differential equation dSt = rSt dt + σSt dBt , t ∈ R+ , where r, σ ∈ R are
constants and (Bt )t∈R+ is a standard Brownian motion.
b) Show that
2
IE[St ] = S0 ert and Var[St ] = S02 e2rt (eσ t − 1), t ∈ R+ .
c) Compute d log St .
" 105
Exercise 4.9
a) Solve the stochastic differential equation
where (Bt )t∈R+ is a standard Brownian motion and a, b, σ > 0 are positive
constants.
Exercise 4.10 Given T > 0, let (XtT )t∈[0,T ) denote the solution of the stochas-
tic differential equation
XtT
dXtT = σdBt − dt, t ∈ [0, T ), (4.32)
T −t
where (Bt )t∈R+ is a standard Brownian motion and σ, a, b > 0 are positive
constants. Show that the exponential Xt := ert of rt satisfies a stochastic
differential equation of the form
106 "
where the coefficients ã and b̃ and the functions f (x) and g(x) are to be
determined.
Exercise 4.12 Exponential Vasicek model (2). Consider a short term rate
interest rate proces (rt )t∈R+ in the exponential Vasicek model:
u0 (t) = α − βu(t).
" 107
Exercise 4.14 Let (Bt )t∈R+ denote a standard Brownian motion generating
the filtration (Ft )t∈R+ .
a) Consider the Itô formula
wt
∂f w t ∂f 1 w t 2 ∂2f
f (Xt ) = f (X0 )+ (Xs )dBs + vs (Xs )ds+
us u (Xs )ds,
∂x0 0 ∂x 2 0 s ∂x2
(4.37)
wt wt
where Xt = X0 + us dBs + vs ds.
0 0
log(x/K) + ν(T − t)
P(ST > K | St = x) = Φ √ ,
σ T −t
Problem 4.15 The goal of this problem is to prove the existence of stan-
dard Brownian motion (Bt )t∈[0,1] as a stochastic process satisfying the four
properties of Definition 4.1, i.e.:
1. B0 = 0 almost surely,
3. For any finite sequence of times t0 < t1 < · · · < tn , the increments
are independent.
108 "
kf k∞ := max |f (t)|
t∈[0,1]
Hint: Start from the inequality IE[(X − ε)+ ] ≥ 0 and compute the left-
hand side.
P(X ∈ dx | X + Y = z)
where dx (resp. dy) represents a “small” interval [x, x + dx] (resp. [y, y +
dy]).
c) Let (Bt )t∈R+ denote a standard Brownian motion and let 0 < u < v. Give
the distribution of B(u+v)/2 given that Bu = x and Bv = y.
Hint: Note that given that Bu = x, the random variable Bv can be written
as
Bv = (Bv − B(u+v)/2 ) + (B(u+v)/2 − Bu ) + x, (4.38)
" 109
and apply the result of Question (b) after identifying X and Y in the
above decomposition (4.38).
d) Consider the random sequences
(0)
(0)
Z = 0, Z1
(1) (0)
Z = 0, Z1/2 , Z1
(1)
Z (2) = 0, Z (2) , Z (1) , Z (2) , Z (0)
1/4 1/2 3/4 1
(3) (2) (3) (1) (3) (2) (3) (0)
Z (3) = 0, Z1/8 , Z1/4 , Z3/8 , Z1/2 , Z5/8 , Z3/4 , Z7/8 , Z1
.. ..
. .
(n) (n) (n) (n) (n)
Z (n) = 0, Z1/2
n , Z2/2n , Z3/2n , Z4/2n , . . . , Z1
(n+1) (n) (n+1) (n+1) (n+1) (n+1) (n+1)
= 0, Z1/2n+1 , Z1/2n , Z3/2n+1 , Z2/2n , Z5/2n+1 , Z3/2n , . . . , Z1
(n+1)
Z
(n)
with Z0 = 0, n ≥ 0, defined recursively as
(0)
i) Z1 ' N (0, 1),
(0) (0)
(1) Z + Z1
ii) ' 0
Z1/2 + N (0, 1/4),
2
(1) (1) (1) (0)
(2)
Z 0 + Z 1/2 (2)
Z1/2 + Z1
iii) Z1/4 ' + N (0, 1/8), Z3/4 ' + N (0, 1/8),
2 2
and more generally
(n) (n)
(n+1)
Zk/2n + Z(k+1)/2n
Z(2k+1)/2n+1 = +N (0, 1/2n+2 ), k = 0, 1, . . . , 2n −1,
2
where N (0, 1/2n+2 ) is an independent centered Gaussian sample with
(n+1) (n)
variance 1/2n+2 , and Zk/2n := Zk/2n , k = 0, 1, . . . , 2n .
(n)
In the sequel we denote by Zt t∈[0,1]
the continuous-time random path
(n)
obtained by linear interpolation of the sequence points in Zk/2n k=0,1,...,2n
.
(0) (1)
Draw a sample of the first four linear interpolations Zt t∈[0,1] , Zt t∈[0,1] ,
(2) (3) (n)
Zt t∈[0,1] , Zt t∈[0,1] , and label the values of Zk/2n on the graphs for
k = 0, 1, . . . , 2 and n = 0, 1, 2, 3.
n
110 "
Hint: Compare the constructions of Questions (c) and (d) and note that
under the above linear interpolation, we have
(n) (n)
(n)
Zk/2n + Z(k+1)/2n
Z(2k+1)/2n+1 = , k = 0, 1, . . . , 2n − 1.
2
f) Show that for any εn > 0 we have
(n+1) (n)
P
Z (n+1) − Z (n)
∞ ≥ εn ≤ 2n P |Z1/2n+1 − Z1/2n+1 | ≥ εn .
n=0
Hint: Use the fact that C0 ([0, 1]) is a complete space for the k · k∞ norm.
j) Argue that the limit (Zt )t∈[0,1] is a standard Brownian motion on [0, 1] by
checking the four relevant properties.
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Problem 4.16 Consider (Bt )t∈R+ a standard Brownian motion, and for any
n ≥ 1 and T > 0, define the discretized quadratic variation
n
(n)
X
QT := (BkT /n − B(k−1)T /n )2 , n ≥ 1.
k=1
h i
(n)
a) Compute IE QT , n ≥ 1.
(n)
b) Compute Var[QT ], n ≥ 1.
c) Show that
(n)
lim QT = T,
n→∞
where s
2
(n) (n)
QT − T
:= IE QT − T , n ≥ 1.
L2 (Ω)
(n)
Compute the limit limn→∞ Q̃T in L2 (Ω) by repeating the steps of Ques-
tions (a)-(c).
f) By the result of Question (e), show that the limit
wT n
X
Bt ◦ dBt := lim (BkT /n − B(k−1)T /n )B(k−1/2)T /n
0 n→∞
k=1
112 "
Exercise 4.17 Let (Bt )t∈R+ be a standard Brownian motion generating the
information flow (Ft )t∈R+ .
a) Let 0 ≤ t ≤ T . What is the probability law of BT − Bt ?
b) From the answer to Exercise A.4-(b), show that
r
T − t −Bt2 /(2(T −t)) Bt
IE[(BT )+ | Ft ] = e + Bt Φ √ ,
2π T −t
0 ≤ t ≤ T . Hint: write BT = BT − Bt + Bt .
c) Let σ > 0, ν ∈ R, and Xt := σBt + νt, t ∈ R+ . Compute eXt by applying
the Itô formula
wt
∂f w t ∂f 1 w t 2 ∂2f
f (Xt ) = f (X0 ) + (Xs )dBs + vs (Xs )ds +
us u (Xs )ds
∂x
0 0 ∂x 2 0 s ∂x2
wt wt
to f (x) = ex , where Xt is written as Xt = X0 + us dBs + vs ds,
0 0
t ∈ R+ .
d) Let St = eXt , t ∈ R+ , and r > 0. For which value of ν does (St )t∈R+
satisfy the stochastic differential equation
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Exercise 4.18 From the answer to Exercise A.4-(b), show that for any β ∈ R
we have
r
T − t −(β−Bt )2 /(2(T −t)) β − Bt
IE[(β − BT )+ | Ft ] = e + (β − Bt )Φ √ ,
2π T −t
0 ≤ t ≤ T.
Hint: write BT = BT − Bt + Bt .
114 "