Service Training Update 2008

SPEED SENSORS
Basic Operating Principles and Applications
Speed Sensors – General Information
• Speed sensors are divided into two classes
• Passive (no power required)
• VR – Variable Reluctance
• Active (requires a power source)
• Hall Effect
• Single (3 wires)
• Dual (4 wires)
• Current Loop (2 wires)
• AMR – Anisotropic Magneto Resistance
• Packaging differentiate product families
• Passive
• Thru-mold
• Adjustable
• Fixed Gap
• Overmold
• Fixed Gap
• Active
• Single Hall Effect
• Adjustable
• Fixed Gap
• Slip Head (obsolete)
• Dual Hall Effect
• Fixed Gap
• AMR
• Fixed Gap
 Speed Sensors Product Families
Thru-mold Passive
Adjustable Gap Thru-mold Fixed Gap Over-mold Fixed Gap

Active Current Loop AMR

Single Hall Effect Dual Hall Effect Hall Effect
Passive Sensors
Also known as:
VR (Variable Reluctance)
Mag Pickup
Pulse Generator
Timing Probe
Crankshaft Position Sensor
General - Passive
• Passive sensors do not require any external electrical power
supply.
• Output signal is an alternating current.
• Wave form is function of the actuator.
• Generally, sinusoidal in nature
• Voltage and frequency are both proportional to surface speed of
the actuator as it passes the sensor’s pole piece.
Product Description - Passive
• Non-contact transducer that converts mechanical
motion into electrical signal
• Actuator must be ferro-magnetic material
• Carbon steel, magnetic stainless steel, or iron
• Commonly used actuators include
• Gears, slotted discs, shafts with keyways
• No moving parts
Coil Magnet Shell

Molding
Material

Lead
Pole Wires
Piece
 Principle of Operation - Passive
• Permanent magnetic field applied through coil of wire.
• Figures below illustrate how the magnetic field changes by the
approach and passing of a gear tooth, e.g. flux discontinuity
• Change in the magnetic field produces a voltage across the coil
• Just like on an electric generator
• Voltage and frequency are directly proportional to target speed.

Low Reluctance Position High Reluctance Position

Principle of Operation – Passive (cont.)
• All physical space exhibits a degree of opposition to the passage of
magnetic flux. This is called Reluctance.
• Ferrous materials provide low reluctance path
• Air provides high reluctance path
• In a Variable Reluctance (VR) system, the reluctance of the magnetic flux is
varied.
• The path loops through a coil of wire, which generates a voltage at the
terminals of the coil that is exactly proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux.
• Relationship:
dφ
e=N
dt

e = voltage generated
N = number of turns of wire in the coil
φ = magnetic flux
dφ
= time rate of change of the flux
dt
Principle of Operation – Passive (cont.)
• The flux is provided by a permanent magnet.
• The flux is directed through the coil by a ferrous core called a
pole piece.
• Most targets are spur gears.
• As a tooth of a gear comes in alignment with the pole piece, the
reluctance decreases so the magnetic flux increases.
• There are many factors which affect the voltage level, wave
shape, and frequency:
• Strength of magnet
• Shape of target
• Number of turns of wire in the coil
• Speed of target
• Air gap between pole piece and target
• Permeability of target
• Load impedance
Timing and Position Sensing - Passive
VR
SENSOR
(PASSIVE)

GEAR
TOOTH TARGET

X
0

φ
X(-) X(+) Zero crossing is
X=0
in the center of
+
the tooth!
VOLTS

-
X=0
Active Sensors

Hall Effect
• Single (3-wires)
• Dual (4-wires)
• Current Loop (2-wires)

AMR
General - Active
• Active sensors require an external electrical power supply.
• Output signal is an alternating voltage.
• Wave form is function of the actuator.
• Square wave output
• Frequency is both proportional to surface speed of the actuator as it passes
the sensor’s tip.
• Zero speed detection
Product Description – Active Hall Effect
• Single Hall Effect sensors have 1 Hall element.
• Dual Hall Effect sensors have 2 Hall elements.
• Each element is spaced to provide two signals that are 90° apart.
• Rotor has to be designed to fit hall cell spacing
• This allow direction detection
• Signal A leads Signal B or vice-versa
• Current Loop
• Draws 4-8 mA in one state
• Draws 12-16 mA in other state
• State depends on direction of rotation of target
• In one direction, draws low current over tooth & high over valley
• In reverse direction, draws high current over tooth & low over valley
• Allows diagnostics to detect if sensor is connected
Principle of Operation – Active Hall Effect
• A Hall element is semiconductor that outputs a voltage
proportional to magnetic flux density.
• Cat’s Hall effect sensors have a permanent magnet.
• This provides a magnetic flux field.
• A bias voltage is applied across the Hall element.
• Current through the Hall element varies with changes in flux
density
• When a gear tooth passes in front of the sensor, the flux density from the
permanent magnet changes similar to that of a VR sensor.
• This creates a differential voltage across the semiconductor.
• The differential voltage is directly proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux.
• The differential voltage is amplified, filter, and then various peak detection
schemes are used to determine a tooth edge. All of this is done with an
integrated circuit (IC).
Principle of Operation – Active/Hall Effect
Perpendicular Magnetic Field
v
BZ

Current in silicon sensor

VH
Vo

Vs+ Hall Element

H H
Vo+ I Vo-

Vs-
Timing and Position Sensing - Active

DUTY CYCLE & PHASE

ANGLE DEPENDANT ON
TARGET PROFILE

SIGNAL B

Vsupply - 1V max

SIGNAL A

0 - 1V max

Signal edge
TARGET is at the
tooth edge
Current Loop Hall Effect Speed Sensor
• 2 – wires
• Fewer wires means better harness reliability
• Diagnostics - ability to detect if the sensor is connected or not
• Detects speed and direction
• Lowest cost speed sensor in our product line
• Requires ECM input circuitry currently available on A4E2
2-Wire Current Loop System

IHL = IOFF - ION

IOFF
ILO = IOFF
VOLTAGE
Ion SIGNAL

SENSOR
OUTPUT

ECM
Product Families - Passive
• Thru-mold
• Sensor has an external metal housing.
• During manufacturing, nylon is injected through the housing to mold over the magnet and
coil; hence, “thru-mold”.
• High Output
• Lower accuracy
• 5/8-18, ¾-16, M18x1.5 threads
• Low Output
• Higher accuracy
• 5/8-18, ¾-16, M16x1.5threads
• Pigtail
• Fixed gap
• Adjustable w/ jam nut – NOT RECOMMENDED FOR NEW DESIGNS
• Overmold
• Injection molded nylon directly over the magnet and coil; hence, “overmold”.
• High Gain Output
• Lower accuracy
• Low Gain Output
• Higher accuracy
• Bolt-n-go
Applications - Passive
• Low Gain Output Speed Sensors
• High position accuracy
• Lower output voltage
• Typical applications
• Crank
• Timing applications
• TC, TIS, and intermediate transmission speed sensors
• High Gain Output Speed Sensors
• Less accuracy in position
• Higher output voltage, i.e. lower RPM detection
• Typical applications
• CAM
• TOS
Key Characteristics - Passive
• Output voltage decreases with decrease of RPM

• Output voltage decreases with increase of air gap

25C
10
set speed
50
100
8 150
Peak to Peak

2 2

0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
air gap
Product Families – Active/Hall Effect
• Single Hall Effect
• One Hall cell
• One output
• 3-wires

• Dual Hall Effect

• Two Hall cells
• Quadrature output
• Phase shift indicates direction
• 4-wires (power, return, two signals)

• Current loop dual Hall effect

• One Hall cell
• Requires current source be provided by ECM
• Polarity change indicates direction
• 2-wires
Applications - Active
• Used where zero speed or near-zero speed
detection is required.
• Transmission Output Speed
• Traction Control Systems
• Steering
• Speed / Timing
• Perkins compact common rail
• LEC engines
• Century Propulsion Motor
Key Characteristics - Active
• Tooth profile

• Engines – edge accuracy B C D

A
• Transmissions – duty A = 3 MIN TOOTH HEIGHT

cycle
B = 2.5 OR 3 MIN TOOTH WIDTH
C =B TOOTH SPACING
D = 6 OR 10 MIN GEAR THICKNESS

ACTUAL VALUES ARE SENSOR AND

APPLICATION DEPENDENT
 Active/Hall Effect vs Passive
• Active – Hall Effect • Passive
• Speed Range • Speed Range
• 0 – 15 kHz • Low Output 200 Hz – 45 kHz typ
• Application dependent • High Output 50 Hz – 15 kHz typ
• Air Gap • Application dependent
• 0.5mm min. • Air Gap
• Application dependent • 0.5mm min
• Seal • Application dependent
• 100-150 psi
• Seal
• Direction • Thru-mold – not sealed
• Dual Hall Effect • Overmold – 5 psi
• 2-wire
• Phase shift is application dependent • Direction
• Requires 2 sensors located 90 degrees
• Sensor’s Housing material electrically apart
• Brass
• SST • Sensor’s Housing material
• Nylon • Thru-mold
• Aluminum
• SST
• Overmold
• Nylon
Anisotropic Magneto Resistance - AMR
• AMR presents a new opportunity to achieve
higher speed resolution than previously available
at Cat
• Two levels of resolution
• 1x: 96 ppr (pulses per revolution)
• 8x: 768 ppr
• Excellent duty cycle & phase shift accuracy
• Air gap performance >2x hall effect
• Zero speed detection
 Anisotropic Magneto Resistance - AMR

• Permalloy thin film technology

• 2-Part Encoder
• Hi/Lo Resolution Sensor
• Magnetic Ring
 AMR Functional Description
AMR measures
magnetic angle

• AMR (Anisotropic Magneto Resistance) occurs in thin, ferrous films.

• Preferred axis of magnetization is in the long direction.
• External field (Hy) applied perpendicular to the long axis causes the
magnetization vector (M) to rotate through the angle (θ).
• Resistance of the strip of material changes with the angle of the
magnetic field.

Ix M
θ

Hy ΔR = (1 - COS2 θ)ΔRmax
Ring Magnet
Ring magnet
emulates
traditional rotor
• Acts similar to teeth on a rotor

TOOTH
VALLEY
Rotor

N S N
S N S
Cross Sections
 AMR Ring Magnet Encoder Design
Magnetic poles
emulate rotor’s teeth

• Cat’s hall effect sensors contain a magnet to back bias the hall cell
• Ferrous rotor passes in front of sensor interrupting the magnetic field
• AMR senses a magnetic ring
• Magnetic poles rotate in front of the sensor
DHP w/ Rotor AMR w/ Magnetic Ring DHP Rotor vs AMR Ring
 AMR Advantage Wider air gap
performance than
hall effect

ΔR = (1 - COS2 θ)ΔRmax

• With hall effect, you get one pulse

for each tooth/valley or pole pair. Sensor
• AMR outputs 2 Pulses for every
pole pair Magnet Rotation
• Due to cosine square function of
angle to sensor
• Allows bigger magnetic poles for
same resolution of ppr 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

• Bigger magnets means stronger

magnets
• Increases air gap performance Flux Density resistance