Laws of Thermodynamics:

1. Zeroth Law: If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third, they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other.

2. First Law: A change in the internal energy of a closed thermodynamic system is equal to the
difference between the heat supplied to the system and the amount of work done by the
system on its surroundings.
ΔQ = ΔU + W

3. Second Law: Heat cannot spontaneously flow from a colder location to a hotter location.

4. Third Law: As a system approaches absolute zero, all processes cease and the entropy of the
system approaches a minimum value.
Amphoteric Oxides:
 Al2O3, aluminium oxide
 Cr2O3, chromium(III) oxide
 ZnO, zinc oxide
 SnO, tin(II) oxide
 SnO2, tin(IV) oxide
 PbO, lead(II) oxide
 PbO2, lead(IV) oxide

List of Mineral Ores:

 Zircon, ZrSiO4
 Smithsonite, ZnCO3
 Cinnabar, HgS
 Galena, PbS
 Chlorargyrite, AgCl
 Acanthite, Ag2S
 Argentite, Ag2S
 Hessite, Ag2Te
 Pyrite (fool’s gold), FeS2
 Corundum (bauxite-hydrated), Al2O3
 Hematite, Fe2O3
 Magnetite, Fe3O4
 Pyrolusite, MnO2
 Carnallite, KMgCl3.6H2O
 Sphalerite (zinc blende), ZnS
 Cassiterite, SnO2
 Malachite, Cu2CO3(OH)2
 Chalcopyrite, CuFeS2
 Sylvite, KCl
 Chromite, FeCr2O4
 Cryolite, Na3AlF6
 Sperrylite, PtAs2
 Ilmenite, FeTiO3
 Rutile, TiO2
Alchemical Solvents:
Aqua regia (Latin: royal water), nitro-hydrochloric acid: made from HNO3:HCl in 1:3 ratio.
HNO3 (aq) + 3 HCl (aq) → NOCl (g) + Cl2 (g) + 2 H2O (l)

Dissolves Au and Pt. Some exceptions are Ru, Ta, Ir, Os, Ti, Rh.

Dissolving gold:
Au (s) + 3 NO3− (aq) + 6 H+ (aq) → Au3+ (aq) + 3 NO2 (g) + 3 H2O (l)
Au3+ (aq) + 4 Cl− (aq) → [AuCl4]− (aq)

Aqua fortis (Latin: strong water), Spirit of nitre, HNO3: was used to dissolve Ag and other metals
except Au.

Aqua vitae (Latin: water of life), Spirit of wine (S.V.), C2H5OH: concentrated C2H5OH (aq).

Vitriol: Sulphuric acid, H2SO4.