Some Algorithmic Aspects of Arithmetical Structures

Where our story takes place? The main objective.
The algorithm
Some algorithmic aspects of

arithmetical structures.
Carlos E. Valencia O.
Departamento de Matemáticas, Cinvestav-IPN and
Instituto de Matemáticas, UNAM.
Montreal, July 28, 2017.
Joint work with R. Villagrán. This is a work in progress.
Where our story takes place? The main objective. The algorithm
Outline
1 Where our story takes place?

The main character of our history.
Diophantine equations and arithmetical structures.
An example: complete graph and Egyptian fractions.
2 The main objective.

Almost non-singular M-matrices.
3 The algorithm
Some computational results.
A last conjecture.
Where our story takes place?
Arithmetical structures of a graph were introduced by Lorenzini

in 1989 in his paper “Arithmetical Graphs”.

In 2015 in a CMO-Birs workshop on Sandpile groups, a group

of people were interested in the arithmetical structures.


As part of our research we compute, using Sage, the

arithmetical structures of some simple graphs like paths,
cycles, etc.


As part of our research we compute, using Sage, the

arithmetical structures of some simple graphs like paths,
cycles, etc.
But our first algorithms were brute force.

Arithmetical structures of a graph.
Definition
Given a connected graph G = (V , E), an arithmetical structure
of G is a pair (d, r) ∈ NV+ × NV+ such that gcd(rv | v ∈ V ) = 1 and
L(G, d)rt = 0t ,
where L(G, d) = diag(d) − A(G) is called a pseudo-Laplacian

matrix.
Consider the negative of the adjacency matrix of a graph G

v1
 
0 −1 0 0 −1
v2 v5  −1 0 −1 0 −1 
G
 
−A(G) = 
 0 −1 0 −1 0 

 0 0 −1 0 −1 
v3 v4 −1 −1 0 −1 0
Consider the negative of the adjacency matrix of a graph G

v1
 
0 −1 0 0 −1
v2 v5  −1 0 −1 0 −1 
G
 
−A(G) = 
 0 −1 0 −1 0 

 0 0 −1 0 −1 
v3 v4 −1 −1 0 −1 0
Is an integer matrix, with its diagonal entries equal to zero and

non-positive entries out of its diagonal.
Which is an special case of a Z -matrix.

The adjacency matrix.
If we put the degree of each vertex in its corresponding

diagonal entry we get the Laplacian Matrix of G.
v1
 
2 −1 0 0 −1
v2 v5  −1 3 −1 0 −1 
G
 
L(G) = 
 0 −1 2 −1 0 

 0 0 −1 2 −1 
v3 v4 −1 −1 0 −1 3
The adjacency matrix.
If we put the degree of each vertex in its corresponding

diagonal entry we get the Laplacian Matrix of G.
v1
 
2 −1 0 0 −1
v2 v5  −1 3 −1 0 −1 
G
 
L(G) = 
 0 −1 2 −1 0 

 0 0 −1 2 −1 
v3 v4 −1 −1 0 −1 3
Arithmetical structures of a graph generalizes the Laplacian

matrix of a graph.
A non-canonical example.
Consider G with d = (4, 2, 5, 1, 3) and r = (1, 2, 1, 3, 2).

Example
v1
 
 
4 −1 0 0 −1 1
v2 v5  −1 2 −1 0 −1 
 2 
G
 
 
L(G, d)r =
 0 −1 5 −1 0 


 1 = 0.

 0 0 −1 1 −1 
 3 
v3 v4 −1 −1 0 −1 3 2
The generalized Laplacian matrix.
Definition
The generalized Laplacian matrix of G is given by
(
xu if u = v ,
L(G, X )u,v =
−muv otherwise,
Definition
(
xu if u = v ,
L(G, X )u,v =
−muv otherwise,
where muv is the number of edges between u and v ,

Definition
(
xu if u = v ,
L(G, X )u,v =
−muv otherwise,
where muv is the number of edges between u and v , and
XG = {xu | u ∈ V (G)}
the set of variables indexed by the vertices of G.


Consider the path with five vertices. Then
 
x1 −1 0 0 0

 −1 x2 −1 0 0 

L(G, X ) = 
 0 −1 x3 −1 0 

 0 0 −1 x4 −1 
0 0 0 −1 x5
and

Consider the path with five vertices. Then
 
x1 −1 0 0 0

 −1 x2 −1 0 0 

L(G, X ) = 
 0 −1 x3 −1 0 

 0 0 −1 x4 −1 
0 0 0 −1 x5
and
det(L(G, X )) = x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 −x3 x4 x5 −x1 x4 x5 −x1 x2 x5 −x1 x2 x3 +x1 +x3 +x5 .

Every d is a solution of the Diophantine equation det(L(G, X )).

However, the converse is not true.

However, the converse is not true. Consider P5 , d = (1, 1, ∗, 1, 1)
and r = (1, 1, 0, −1, −1).
  
1 −1 0 0 0 1
 −1 1 −1 0 0 
 1 
 

L(G, d)r =  0 −1 ∗ −1 0   0 
  
 = 0.
 0 0 −1 1 −1   −1 
0 0 0 −1 1 −1
The pair (d, r) does not give an arithmetical structure.


However, the converse is not true. Consider P5 , d = (1, 1, ∗, 1, 1)
and r = (1, 1, 0, −1, −1).
  
1 −1 0 0 0 1
 −1 1 −1 0 0 
 1 
 

L(G, d)r =  0 −1 ∗ −1 0   0 
  
 = 0.
 0 0 −1 1 −1   −1 
0 0 0 −1 1 −1
The pair (d, r) does not give an arithmetical structure. However

d is a solution of the Diophantine equation associated to G.
Arithmetical structures of the complete graph.

It is not difficult to check that
n
Y n Y
X
det(L(Kn , X )) = (xj + 1) − (xj + 1).
j=1 i=1 j6=i
Qn
Thus dividing by j=1 (xj + 1) 6= 0 we get that
n
X 1
det(L(Kn , X )) = 0 if and only if = 1.
(xj + 1)
i=1
Arithmetical structures of the complete graph.
In the case of the complete graph (one of the most simple

graphs). If c = lcm(d1 + 1, . . . , dn + 1), then (Egyptian fractions)
n
X 1 c
A(Kn ) = {(d, r) ∈ (Nn+ )2 | = 1 and ri = for all i}.
di + 1 di + 1
i=1
Another examples: stars, trees, graphs with twins.

The main objective
Give an algorithm that computes the arithmetical structures.

The main objective
Give an algorithm that computes the positive solutions.

The main objective
Give an algorithm that computes all the solutions.

The main objective
Give an algorithm that computes all the solutions.
Generate a database with the arithmetical structures of all the

graphs with less or equal to eight vertices.
The concept of arithmetical structure can be generalized to

the setting of M-matrices.
The concept of arithmetical structure can be generalized to

the setting of M-matrices.
We introduce the new concept of almost non-singular M-matrices.
Definition
A real matrix A = (ai,j ) is called an almost non-singular
M-matrix if A is a Z -matrix and all the proper principal minors
are positive and its determinant is non-negative.
Arithmetical structures of matrices.

Theorem
If M is a non-negative matrix, then M is almost non-singular
M-matrix with det(M) = 0 if and only if M is an irreducible and
there exists r > 0 such that Mrt = 0t .
Moral: The concept of integer almost

non-singular M-matrix is equivalent to
arithmetical structure concept.
Definition
A real matrix A is said to be a M-matrix if A = αI − M, for some
Finiteness
Theorem
If M is a non-negative matrix with all the diagonal entries equal
to zero, then the set of arithmetical structures A(M) of M is
finite if and only if M is irreducible.
Finiteness
Theorem
If M is a non-negative matrix with all the diagonal entries equal
to zero, then the set of arithmetical structures A(M) of M is
finite if and only if M is irreducible.
Theorem
If M = (mij ) ∈ Mn×n is a real Z -matrix, then the following
conditions are equivalent:
(1) M is an almost non-singular M-matrix.
(2) M + D is a non-singular M-matrix for diag. matrix D 0.
Essentiality Dickson’s Lemma.

How to check when a Z -matrix is an M-matrix.
Let M be a real Z -matrix and

fM (x) = det(M + diag(x1 , . . . , xn )) ∈ R[x1 , . . . , xn ].
Then M is a M-matrix (non-singular M- matrix) if and only if the
coefficients of the polynomial fM are non-negative (positive).
Let M be a real Z -matrix and

fM (x) = det(M + diag(x1 , . . . , xn )) ∈ R[x1 , . . . , xn ].
Then M is a M-matrix (non-singular M- matrix) if and only if the
coefficients of the polynomial fM are non-negative (positive).
Also, M is an almost non-singular M-matrix if and only if all the

coefficients, except maybe the constant term of the polynomial
fM , are positive.
For instance, if
 
1 −1 0
M= 0 1 −1  ,
−1 −1 2
then fM (x) = x1 x2 x3 + 2x1 x2 + x1 x3 + x2 x3 + x1 + 2x2 + x3 . Thus,
M is an almost non-singular M-matrix, but not a non-singular.
The algorithm.
The algorithm
Consider the following arithmetical structure
4  
x1 + 4 −1 0 0 −1
2 3  −1 x2 + 2 −1 0 −1 
 
L =
 0 −1 x3 + 5 −1 0 

5 1  0 0 −1 x4 + 1 −1 
−1 −1 0 −1 x5 + 3
Then
det(L) = 6x1+24x2+6x3+54x4+7x1 x2+3x1 x3+ · · · +x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 .

Consider the restriction d0 = (2, 5, 1, 3)
 
x2 + 2 −1 0 −1
2 3  −1 x3 + 5 −1 0 
L = 
 0 −1 x4 + 1 −1 
5 1 −1 0 −1 x5 + 3
Then
det(L) = 6 + 7x2 + 3x3 + 22x4 + 7x5 + · · · + x2 x3 x4 x5 .

An arithmetical structure of G \ v1 such that (2, 3, 1, 3) ≤ (2, 5, 1, 3).
 
x2 + 2 −1 0 −1
2 3  −1 x3 + 3 −1 0 
L = 
 0 −1 x4 + 1 −1 
3 1 −1 0 −1 x5 + 3
Then
det(L) = 3x2 + 3x3 + 12x4 + 3x5 + · · · + x2 x3 x4 x5 .

An arithmetical structure of G \ v1 such that (2, 3, 1, 3) ≤ (2, 5, 1, 3).
0  
x1 −1 0 0 −1
2 3  −1 x2 + 2 −1 0 −1 
 
L =
 0 −1 x3 + 3 −1 0 

3 1  0 0 −1 x4 + 1 −1 
−1 −1 0 −1 x5 + 3
Then
det(L) = −12 − 2x2 + 3x1 x2 − 6x3 + 3x1 x3 − x2 x3 + · · · + x2 x3 x4 x5 .

The algorithm
Do this for every vertex and we get
3  
x1 + 3 −1 0 0 −1
2 3  −1 x2 + 2 −1 0 −1 
 
L =
 0 −1 x3 + 3 −1 0 

3 1  0 0 −1 x4 + 1 −1 
−1 −1 0 −1 x5 + 3
Then
det(L) = −12 + 7x2 + 3x3 + 16x4 + 7x5 + · · · + x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 .

The algorithm
Input: Z -matrix M of size n.

The algorithm
1) Let Ms = M(c, c) for all s ∈ [n].

The algorithm

2) Compute A(Ms ) for all s ∈ [n].
The algorithm

3) Let d = maxs∈[n] ds where ds ∈ A(Ms ).
The algorithm

4) Compute the AS d0 on M such that d ≤ d0 .
The algorithm

4) Compute the AS d0 on M such that d ≤ d0 .
Output: Arithmetical d-structures of M.

Some computational results.
n=3 Number of AS’s n=3 Number of AS’s
v3 v3
v1 v2 2 v1 v2 10
n=4 #AS’s n=4 #AS’s

v4
v4 v3
v1 v2 v2 v1 v3
5 14
v3
v4 v4 v3
v1 v2 26 v1 v2 35
v4 v3 v4 v3
v1 v2 63 v1 v2 215
n=5 #AS’s n=5 #AS’s n=5 #AS’s

v5 v5
v5 v4
v1 v4 v4
v2 v3 v2 v1 v3 v2 v1 v3
14 46 102
v5 v5
v5
v1 v4 v1 v4 v1 v4
v2 v3 120 v2 v3 126 v2 v3 134
v5 v2 v4 v5
v1
v1 v4 v1 v4
v2 v3 257 v3 v5 263 v2 v3 290

v5 v5 v5
v1 v4 v1 v4 v1 v4
v2 v3 388 v2 v3 448 v2 v3 480
v5 v2 v4 v5
v1
v1 v4 v1 v4
v2 v3 571 v3 v5 835 v2 v3 987

v5 v5 v5
v1 v4 v1 v4 v1 v4
v2 v3 1069 v2 v3 1319 v2 v3 1395

v5 v5 v5
v1 v4 v1 v4 v1 v4
v2 v3 2165 v2 v3 2849 v2 v3 12231
A last conjecture.
We pose a conjecture about the number of the arithmetical

structures of a graph.
Conjecture
If G is a simple connected graph with n vertices, then
|A(Pn )| ≤ |A(G)| ≤ |A(Kn )|.

Bibliography
D. J. Lorenzini, Arithmetical graphs, Math. Ann. 285

(1989), no. 3, 481-501.
H. Corrales and C. E. Valencia, Arithmetical structures of
graphs, arXiv:1604.02502.
C. E. Valencia and R. Villagrán, Algorithmic aspects of
arithmetical structures, in progress.
Gracias for listening!!!
http://www.math.cinvestav.mx/cvalencia

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Where our story takes place? The main objective.

Some algorithmic aspects of

1 Where our story takes place?

2 The main objective.

Where our story takes place?

Arithmetical structures of a graph were introduced by Lorenzini

Where our story takes place?

Arithmetical structures of a graph were introduced by Lorenzini

In 2015 in a CMO-Birs workshop on Sandpile groups, a group

Where our story takes place?

Arithmetical structures of a graph were introduced by Lorenzini

In 2015 in a CMO-Birs workshop on Sandpile groups, a group

As part of our research we compute, using Sage, the

Where our story takes place?

Arithmetical structures of a graph were introduced by Lorenzini

In 2015 in a CMO-Birs workshop on Sandpile groups, a group

As part of our research we compute, using Sage, the

But our first algorithms were brute force.

Arithmetical structures of a graph.

where L(G, d) = diag(d) − A(G) is called a pseudo-Laplacian

The main character of our history.

Consider the negative of the adjacency matrix of a graph G

The main character of our history.

Consider the negative of the adjacency matrix of a graph G

Is an integer matrix, with its diagonal entries equal to zero and

Which is an special case of a Z -matrix.

The adjacency matrix.

If we put the degree of each vertex in its corresponding

The adjacency matrix.

If we put the degree of each vertex in its corresponding

Arithmetical structures of a graph generalizes the Laplacian

Consider G with d = (4, 2, 5, 1, 3) and r = (1, 2, 1, 3, 2).

The generalized Laplacian matrix.

The generalized Laplacian matrix.

where muv is the number of edges between u and v ,

The generalized Laplacian matrix.

where muv is the number of edges between u and v , and

the set of variables indexed by the vertices of G.

The generalized Laplacian matrix.

The generalized Laplacian matrix.

det(L(G, X )) = x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 −x3 x4 x5 −x1 x4 x5 −x1 x2 x5 −x1 x2 x3 +x1 +x3 +x5 .

Diophantine equations and arithmetical structures.

Every d is a solution of the Diophantine equation det(L(G, X )).

Diophantine equations and arithmetical structures.

Every d is a solution of the Diophantine equation det(L(G, X )).

The pair (d, r) does not give an arithmetical structure.

Diophantine equations and arithmetical structures.

Every d is a solution of the Diophantine equation det(L(G, X )).

The pair (d, r) does not give an arithmetical structure. However

Arithmetical structures of the complete graph.

Arithmetical structures of the complete graph.

In the case of the complete graph (one of the most simple

Another examples: stars, trees, graphs with twins.

The main objective

Give an algorithm that computes the arithmetical structures.

The main objective

Give an algorithm that computes the arithmetical structures.

Give an algorithm that computes the positive solutions.

The main objective

Give an algorithm that computes the arithmetical structures.

Give an algorithm that computes the positive solutions.

Give an algorithm that computes all the solutions.

The main objective