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empowerment series
Social Work
with Groups
CO M P R E H E N S I V E P R AC T I C E
AND SELF-CARE
Tenth edition
Charles H. Zastrow, MSW, PhD

Professor Emeritus
University of Wisconsin–Whitewater
Sarah L. Hessenauer
Associate Professor
University of Wisconsin–Whitewater
Australia ● Brazil ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States
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Social Work with Groups: Comprehensive
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Charles H. Zastrow and Sarah L. Hessenauer
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Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2017
To Kathy, My wife and soul mate
Contents
Preface xv Models of Group Development Over Time 18
About the Authors xxi Garland, Jones, and Kolodny Model 18
EXERCISE 1.1 The Garland, Jones, and Kolodny Model 20
Tuckman Model 20
Chapter 1 EXERCISE 1.2 The Tuckman Model 21
Groups: Types and Stages Northen and Kurland Model

EXERCISE 1.3 The Northen and Kurland Model 22
21
of Development 1 Sequential-Stage Models of Group Development

Bales Model 23
22
Historical Development of Group Work 1 Group Cohesion 23

Settlement Houses 1 EXERCISE 1.4 Variables that Affect Group Cohesion 24
Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) 2 Membership and Reference Groups 25
Types of Groups 3 Breaking the Ice 26
Social Conversation 3 EXERCISE 1.5 Understanding Membership and Reference
Recreation/Skill Building 3 Groups 26
Education 3 Experiential Learning 27
Task 4 Ethics and Guidelines for Conducting Exercises 27
Problem Solving and Decision Making 5 Pitfalls to Avoid in Conducting Class Exercises 29
Focus 5 Summary 29
Self-Help and Mutual Aid 5
Group Exercises 29
Socialization 7
EXERCISE A Getting Acquainted 29
Treatment 8
EXERCISE B Introducing to a Partner 30
Common Types of Treatment Groups 8 EXERCISE C Personal Expectations for the Group 30
Psychoeducational Groups 8 EXERCISE D Searching for Descriptors 30
Symptom Management Groups 9 EXERCISE E Why I Decided to Be a Social Worker 31
Anger Management Groups 9
Competency Notes 31
Life Skills Groups 9
Social Skills Groups 9 Key Terms and Concepts 31
Process Groups 10
Stress Management Groups 10
Specialty Groups 10
Chapter 2
Sensitivity and Encounter Training 13 Social Group Work
Initial Development of Groups
Determining Objectives 15
15
and Social Work Practice 32
Size 15
Definition of Social Work 32
Open-Ended versus Closed-Ended Groups 16
Duration 16 Relationship Between Social Work and Social
Welfare 33
Stages of Groups 17
Intake 17 What Is the Profession of Social Work? 34
Selection of Members 17 Generalist Social Work Practice 34
Assessment and Planning 17 EXERCISE 2.1 Your Areas of Interest in Social Work 35
Group Development and Intervention 18 A Variety of Roles 36
Evaluation and Termination 18 Enabler 36
vi Contents
Broker 36 Group Exercises 60

Advocate 36 EXERCISE A Options Planning 60
Empowerer 37 EXERCISE B Social Work with Groups and Generalist
Activist 37 Practice 61
Mediator 37 EXERCISE C Assessing Social Work Competencies and
Negotiator 37 Behaviors in Field Placement 62
Educator 37 EXERCISE D Social Work Value Issues 66
Initiator 38 EXERCISE E Olga and Igor 69
Coordinator 38 EXERCISE F Genie and the Magic Lantern 69
Researcher 38 EXERCISE G Pregnancy and Tragedy 70
Group Facilitator 38 Competency Notes 70
Public Speaker 38
Key Terms and Concepts 71
A Systems Perspective 38
EXERCISE 2.2 Your Interest in Various Social Work Roles 39
Medical Model Versus Ecological Model
Medical Model 40
40
Chapter 3
EXERCISE 2.3 Understanding the Major Mental
Disorders 41
Group Dynamics:
Ecological Model 41 Leadership 72
EXERCISE 2.4 Understanding the Medical Model and the
Ecological Model 44 Approaches to Leadership 72
Goals of Social Work Practice 44 The Trait Approach 72
Goal 1: Enhance the Clients’ Problem-Solving, Coping, EXERCISE 3.1 The Charismatic Leader 74
and Developmental Capacities 44 The Position Approach 74
Goal 2: Link Clients with Systems that Provide Resources, The Leadership-Style Approach 75
Services, and Opportunities 44 EXERCISE 3.2 Machiavellian Leaders 75
Goal 3: Promote the Effective and Humane Operation of The Distributed-Functions Approach 76
Systems that Provide Resources and Services 45 EXERCISE 3.3 Authoritarian, Democratic,
Goal 4: Develop and Improve Social Policy 45 and Laissez-Faire Leaders 77
Goal 5: Promote Human and Community Well-Being 45 Servant Leadership Approach 77
EXERCISE 2.5 Your Interest in Achieving the Goals of Social EXERCISE 3.4 Applying the Distributed-Functions
Work 46 Approach 78
EXERCISE 2.6 Applying the Problem-Solving Approach 47 EXERCISE 3.5 Servant Leaders 79
A Problem-Solving Approach 47 Leadership Roles 80
Strengths Perspective 47 Task and Maintenance Roles 80
EXERCISE 2.7 The Strengths Perspective Applied to a Other Roles 81
Homeless Family 50 EXERCISE 3.6 Your Task and Maintenance Contributions
to a Group 82
Micro, Mezzo, and Macro Practice 51
Social Casework 51 Power and Influence in Groups 82
Case Management 51 Power Bases in Groups 83
Group Work 52 Reward Power 83
Group Treatment 53 Coercive Power 84
Family Treatment 53 Legitimate Power 84
Community Organization 53 Referent Power 84
Policy Analysis 54 Expert Power 84
EXERCISE 2.8 Identifying Your Interest in Various Social Work EXERCISE 3.7 The Power Bases in This Class 85
Activities 54 Effects of Unequal Power 86
Administration 55 Coleadership of a Group 87
Knowledge, Skills, and Values Needed for Social Advantages 87
Work Practice 55 EXERCISE 3.8 Groups of Equal Power and Unequal
Social Work Competencies 55 Power 88
Social Group Work as a Component of Social Disadvantages 89
Work Practice 59 Guidelines for Forming and Leading a
Summary 59 Group 89
Contents vii
Homework 89 The Psychoanalyzer 123

Planning a Session 91 The Withholder 123
Relaxing Before You Start a Meeting 91 The Beltliner 124
Cues upon Entering the Meeting Room 92 The Guiltmaker 124
Seating Arrangements 92 The Catastrophe Crier 124
Introductions 92 The Subject Changer 124
Clarifying Roles 93 The Whiner 124
Agenda 93 The Benedict Arnold 124
Additional Guidelines for Leading a Group 93 The Trivial Tyrannizer 124
Standards for Social Work Practice with The Shirker 124
Groups 94 The Power Grabber 125
Strengths-Based Leadership 101 The Paranoiac 125
Summary 101 Handling Disruptive Behavior 125
Minimizing Disruptiveness 125
Group Exercises 102 Leader Confrontation 126
EXERCISE A Desensitizing Fears of Leading a Group 102
Group Confrontation 126
EXERCISE B Task Functions and Group Maintenance
Functions 102 Reducing the Likelihood of Disruptive
EXERCISE C Power Bases 103 Behavior 127
EXERCISE D Leading a Group 104 EXERCISE 4.8 Handling Disruptive Behavior of a Group
Member 128
Competency Notes 104
Summary 129
Group Exercises 130
EXERCISE A Setting Personal and Group Goals 130
Chapter 4 EXERCISE B A Sphinx Foundation Grant 131
EXERCISE C The Nominal Group Approach 131
Group Dynamics: EXERCISE D Identifying and Changing Group Norms 132
Goals and Norms 106 EXERCISE E An Ornery Instructor 133

EXERCISE F How Group Decisions Affect Values 133
EXERCISE G Confrontation and I-Messages 135
Setting Personal and Group Goals 106 EXERCISE H Confronting and Being Confronted by
Personal Goals 107 Others 135
EXERCISE 4.1 Identifying Your Personal Goals 107
Hidden Agendas 108
EXERCISE 4.2 Hidden Agendas and Their Effects 108
Establishing Group Goals 109
Operational and Measurable Goals 110 Chapter 5
Verbal and Nonverbal
EXERCISE 4.3 Group Goals and Personal Goals in This
Class 111
Competition Versus Cooperation
EXERCISE 4.4 The Effects of a Competitive Group
112 Communication 138
Member 113 A Model of Communication 138
The Nominal Group Approach 114 One-Way Communication 139
Group Norms 115 Two-Way Communication 140
How Norms Are Learned and Developed 116 EXERCISE 5.1 The Emotional Effects of One-Way
EXERCISE 4.5 Group Norms in This Class 117 Communication 141
Conformity 118 Culture and Communication 142
EXERCISE 4.6 Your Yielding to Group Pressure 120 Perception 142
Do’s and Don’ts of Norms 121 The Perceptual Process 142
EXERCISE 4.7 Understanding Idiosyncrasy Credits 121 Physiological Influences 143
Problems of Conformity 122 Sociopsychological Influences 144
Types of Disruptive Behavior 122 EXERCISE 5.2 Using Defense Mechanisms 146
The Bear 122 EXERCISE 5.3 Defensive Communication 147
The Eager Beaver 122 Self-Disclosure 149
The Clown 123 The Johari Window 150
viii Contents
EXERCISE 5.4 Feeling Good After Self-Disclosure 150 Meeting Place and Room 180
EXERCISE 5.5 Johari Windows 152 First Meeting 180
How to Communicate Effectively 153 Working with Resistive and Disruptive Members 180
Sender 153 The Middle Stages 181
Receiver 153 Adjourning a Meeting 181
Listening Skills 154 Evaluating and Terminating 181
Active Listening 154 EXERCISE 6.1 Successful and Unsuccessful Group
I-Messages 155 Experiences 182
EXERCISE 5.6 Learning to Use I-Messages 156 Problem-Solving Approach 183
Collisions of Values 157 Identification and Definition 183
Technology and Groups 157 Assessment of Size and Causes 184
EXERCISE 5.7 Resolving Collisions of Values 158 Development of Alternative Strategies 184
Nonverbal Communication 159 Assessment of Strategies 184
Functions of Nonverbal Communication 159 Selection and Implementation 184
EXERCISE 5.8 Interpreting Nonverbal Cues 160 Evaluation 184
Forms of Nonverbal Communication 161 Barriers to Effective Problem Solving 185
Personal Boundaries 165 Inadequate Definitions 185
Territoriality 166 Invalid Hypotheses 185
Voice 167 Poor Communication 185
Physical Appearance 167 Lack of Skills 185
EXERCISE 5.9 Reading Nonverbal Cues 168 Lack of Resources 185
Environment 169 Lack of Motivation 185
Other Nonverbal Cues 170 Personality Differences 186
Summary 170 Brainstorming 186
Group Exercises 171 Conflict 187
EXERCISE A The Johari Window 171 Techniques for Resolving Conflicts 187
EXERCISE B Defense Mechanisms 171 Win-Lose Approach 187
EXERCISE C Distortions in Transmitting Information 171 EXERCISE 6.2 My Tolerance for Conflicts 188
EXERCISE D The Intruder 172 No-Lose Problem Solving 189
EXERCISE E Active Listening 173 Role Reversal 190
EXERCISE F My Nonverbal Communication 173 EXERCISE 6.3 Creativity Inspired by Conflict 191
EXERCISE G Nonverbal Cues 174 Empathy 191
EXERCISE H A Popular Faculty Member 174 Inquiry 191
EXERCISE I Double Messages 174 I-Messages 192
EXERCISE J The Flat Tire 175 Disarming 192
EXERCISE K Communicating While Blindfolded 175 Stroking 192
EXERCISE L Giving and Receiving Feedback About Letting Go or Forgiving 192
Nonverbal Communication 176 Mediation 192
EXERCISE M Zones of Personal Space 176 EXERCISE 6.4 Disarming and Stroking 193
Competency Notes 177 What If These Strategies Do Not Work? 195
Key Terms and Concepts 177 Intergroup Conflict 196
EXERCISE 6.5 Resolving Your Conflicts Effectively 196
Chapter 6 Decision Making

The Bases of Decisions
199
199
Task Groups 178 Approaches to Decision Making
Consensus 200
200
A Variety of Task Groups 178 Simple Majority Vote 201

Guidelines for Leading Task Groups 179 Two-Thirds or Three-Fourths Majority Vote 201
Establishing the Group’s Purpose 179 Delegated Decisions 202
Potential Sponsorship of the Task Group 179 Multiple Voting 202
Selecting Potential Members 179 Averaging Individual Opinions 203
Recruiting Members 179 Group Versus Individual Decision Making 203
Size of the Group 179 Groupthink 204
Orienting Members to the Group 180 EXERCISE 6.6 My Groupthink Experience 205
Contents ix
Summary 206 Group Development Stages in Women’s

Group Exercises 207 Groups 245
EXERCISE A Suspended from High School 207 Second Stage—Establishing a Relational Base 246
EXERCISE B Brainstorming 208 Third Stage—Mutuality and Interpersonal Empathy 246
EXERCISE C Busing to Achieve Racial Integration 208 Fourth Stage—Challenge and Change 246
EXERCISE D Creative Thinking 210 Summary 246
EXERCISE E The Manhattan Glass 210 Group Exercises 248
EXERCISE F Brainteasers 211 EXERCISE A Coming Out of the Closet 248
EXERCISE G Resolving Conflicts 212 EXERCISE B Spaceship to Futura 248
EXERCISE H Funding Social Programs Involves Hard EXERCISE C Feminist Intervention in Counseling 249
Choices 213 EXERCISE D Are You a Feminist? 249
EXERCISE I Consensus 214 EXERCISE E Double Standards 250
EXERCISE J Subjective Influences on Merit Raises 214 EXERCISE F Understanding Stereotypes 250
Competency Notes 216 Competency Notes 251
Key Terms and Concepts 216 Key Terms and Concepts 251
Chapter 7 Chapter 8
Working with Diverse Self-Help Groups 252
Groups 217 Mended Hearts: An Example 252
Definitions of Key Terms 217 Definition and Characteristics 253
EXERCISE 7.1 Some of My Stereotypes 219 Classification of Self-Help Groups 254
Katz and Bender Classification 254
Stereotyping and Multiculturalism:
Powell Classification 255
A Perspective 221
Your Stereotypes and Preconceptions 222 Benefits of Self-Help Groups 255
EXERCISE 7.2 Questionnaire about Gays and Lesbians 223 Linkage with Social Workers 256
EXERCISE 8.1 Merits and Shortcomings of a Self-Help
Knowledge About Diverse Groups 225
Group 257
Working with the LGBTIQQ Population in
Groups 228 Starting a Self-Help Group 258
Posture of Reciprocity 229 Online Self-Help Groups 260
EXERCISE 8.2 Checking Out Outline Self-Help Groups 261
Which Intervention Techniques Work? 229 EXERCISE 8.3 Using the American Self-Help Group
EXERCISE 7.3 Victimized in Iran 230
Clearinghouse 263
Anger Management 231
Cultural Communication 231 Summary 264
Ethnic-Sensitive Practice 233 Group Exercises 265
EXERCISE A Alcoholics Anonymous 265
Empowerment 234
EXERCISE B Combating Terrorism 265
Strengths Perspective 234
Culturally Competent Practice 234 Competency Notes 265
EXERCISE 7.4 Cultural Competence in Social Work Key Term and Concept 265
Practice 235
Cultural Humility 236
The Rap Framework Fob Leading Multiracial Chapter 9
Groups 238
Recognize 238
Social Work with
Anticipate 239 Families 266
Problem-Solve 239
Feminist Intervention 240 Diversity of Family Forms 266
Principles of Feminist Therapy 241 EXERCISE 9.1 Composition and Strengths of My
EXERCISE 7.5 Feminist Intervention 243 Family 268
Using Feminist Intervention in Groups 243 Societal Functions of Families 269
x Contents
Family Assessment 269 Theory Z 306

The Eco-Map 269 Management by Objectives 306
EXERCISE 9.2 An Eco-Map of My Family 272 Total Quality Management 307
The Genogram 272 EXERCISE 10.4 Applying Concepts of Models
EXERCISE 9.3 A Genogram of My Family 275 of Organizations 308
Aspects of Families for Workers The Relevance of Theory X and Theory Y
to Focus On 276 for Social Workers 309
Verbal Communication Patterns 277 Knopf ’s Bureaucratic System Model and
EXERCISE 9.4 Analyzing Verbal Communication Patterns in Theory X 310
Families 278 EXERCISE 10.5 Your Orientation toward Bureaucratic
Nonverbal Communication Patterns 279 Systems 313
EXERCISE 9.5 Analyzing Nonverbal Communication Patterns Organizational Effectiveness: Structure Versus
in Families 279 Leadership Competency 314
Family Roles of Members 280 Communities, Organizations, and Groups 315
Personal Goals and Family Goals 280 EXERCISE 10.6 Enjoying and Appreciating a
EXERCISE 9.6 Functional Roles and Problematic Roles in
Community 316
Families 281
EXERCISE 10.7 Analyzing Your Home Community 318
EXERCISE 9.7 Personal Goals, Family Goals, and Hidden
Agendas 282
Models of Community Practice 319
Locality Development Model 319
Norms and Cultural Values 283
Social Planning Model 319
EXERCISE 9.8 Norms and Cultural Values in Families 284
Social-Action Model 320
Family Problems and Social Work Services 286
Family Problems 286
Building and Sustaining Community
EXERCISE 9.9 Challenges Faced by My Family 287
Assets 323
Social Work Services 288 Skills for Macro Practice 323
Evaluating Outcomes 325
Summary 292
Fundraising 325
Group Exercises 292 Budgeting 326
EXERCISE A Family Counseling 292
Working with the Media 326
EXERCISE B You and Your Family 293
Conducting a Needs Assessment 326
EXERCISE C Analyzing Your Family in Terms of Group
Concepts 294
Summary 327
Competency Notes 295 Group Exercises 328
EXERCISE A Analyzing a Human Services Organization 328
Key Term and Concept 296 EXERCISE B Understanding and Applying Models of
Organizations 329
Chapter 10 EXERCISE C Theory X and Theory Y 329
EXERCISE D Appreciating Communities 329
Organizations, Communities, EXERCISE E Analyzing a Community 329
EXERCISE F Analyzing Community Change 330
and Groups 297 Questions 330
Organizations 297 Key Terms and Concepts 331
The Relationship Between a Group and
an Organization 298
EXERCISE 10.1 Refuting Our Organizational Myths 298
Models of Organizations 299
Chapter 11
The Autocratic Model 299 Educational Groups: With
The Custodial Model 300
EXERCISE 10.2 Working for an Autocratic Boss 300 a Focus on Self-Care 332
The Scientific Management Model 302
The Human Relations Model 302 Educational Groups 332
Theory X and Theory Y 303 Define Self-Care 332
The Collegial Model 304 Importance of Managing Stress 333
EXERCISE 10.3 Working for Theory X versus Theory Y Conceptualizing Stress 333
Managers 304
Contents xi
EXERCISE 11.1 My Physiological Reactions to High Levels

of Stress 334 Chapter 12
Reactions to Stress
Stressors 335
335 Treatment Groups 363
EXERCISE 11.2 My Stress-Related Illnesses 336 Starting, Leading, and Ending Treatment
Optimal Levels of Stress 337 Groups 363
Long-Term Distress 337 Preparation and Homework 363
EXERCISE 11.3 Events and Self-Talk as EXERCISE 12.1 My Concerns about Participating in a
Stressors 339 Treatment Group 365
Burnout 341 EXERCISE 12.2 My Concerns about Co-facilitating a
EXERCISE 11.4 A Time When I Burned Out 342 Treatment Group 366
Structural Causes of Burnout 342 Relaxing before Starting a Session 367
Burnout and Compassion Fatigue 344
Cues Upon Entering the Meeting Room 367
Managing Stress 344 Strategies for Working with Hostile, Involuntary
Goal Setting and Time Management 344 Members 367
Set Goals 345
Seating Arrangements 368
Prioritize Goals 345
List Tasks for A Goals 345 Introduction 368
Prioritize Tasks 346 Clarifying Roles 369
Schedule Tasks 346 Building Rapport 370
EXERCISE 11.5 My High-Value Goals and EXERCISE 12.3 The Helper Therapy Principle 370
Tasks 346 Exploring Problems in Depth 371
Relaxation 347 EXERCISE 12.4 Using Tact in Treatment Groups 372
Mindfulness 348 Exploring Alternative Solutions 373
Exercise 349
Stages of Group Development 376
Taking Care of Your Physical Self 349
Social Support Groups 349 Ending a Session 379
Talking to Others 349 Ending a Group 380
Positive Thinking 349 Co-Facilitating Treatment Groups 383
Compassion Satisfaction 350 Legal Safeguards for Group Facilitators 384
Changing Stress-Producing Thoughts 350 Setting Professional Boundaries With
Law of Attraction 351 Clients 385
EXERCISE 11.6 Qualities I Admire in Others 352 EXERCISE 12.5 Boundaries with Clients 386
Changing or Adapting to Distressing
The Therapeutic Factors: What it is That
Events 352
Heals 387
Personal Pleasures 353
EXERCISE 12.6 What Causes Positive Changes through
Overcoming Procrastination 353 Counseling 389
Swiss Cheese Approach 353
Selecting Intervention Strategies: Evidence-
EXERCISE 11.7 Ending My Procrastination 354
Based Practice 389
Other Suggestions 355
EXERCISE 11.8 Stress Management Techniques Summary 391
for Me 355 Group Exercises 392
EXERCISE 11.9 Developing a Self-Care Improvement EXERCISE A Developing Counseling Skills with
Plan 356 Role-Playing 392
Summary 357 EXERCISE B Group Treatment in Action 392
EXERCISE C Facilitating an Intervention Group 393
Group Exercises 357 EXERCISE D Who Am I? 394
EXERCISE A Resolving Current Stressors 357
EXERCISE E The Miracle Workers 395
EXERCISE B Relaxation through Meditation 358
EXERCISE F Clients I Would Find Difficult to Work With 396
EXERCISE C Setting High-Value Goals and Tasks 360
EXERCISE G Feeling Good about Ourselves 397
EXERCISE D Time Diagram 361
EXERCISE H Self-Fulfilling Prophecies 397
EXERCISE E Ending Procrastination 361
xii Contents
Chapter 13 EXERCISE 13.14 Achieving Closure in a Lost Relationship 439

EXERCISE 13.15 Epitaphs 440
Treatment Groups with Group Work with Older Adults
Introduction 441
441
Diverse and Vulnerable How Group Work Can Be Used with Older Adults 442
Populations 400 Reality Orientation 443

Validation Therapy 443
Remotivation Therapy 443
Introduction 400 Reminiscence Groups 443
Group Work with Adolescents 401 Topic-Specific Groups 444
EXERCISE 13.1 Anger Management Group 403 Health-Related Groups 444
EXERCISE 13.2 “Own Your C.R.A.P. ” 405 Groups for Family Members 444
Group Work with People who have an Eating Psychotherapy Groups 444
Disorder 407 EXERCISE 13.16 Things That Go Together 445
EXERCISE 13.3 Body Image Group 408 EXERCISE 13.17 Would You Rather? 447
EXERCISE 13.4 Fear Food Group 410 EXERCISE 13.18 Balloon Pop and Reminisce 448
EXERCISE 13.5 Mirror Reflection Image Group 411 Summary 449
Group Work with Individuals Affected Group Exercises 450
by Domestic Violence 412 EXERCISE A Designing a Group Treatment Exercise 450
Group Work with Victims of Domestic Violence 413 Competency Notes 450
Group Work Exercises with Victims of Domestic
Violence 414
EXERCISE 13.6 Empowerment Role-Play 414
EXERCISE 13.7 Safety Planning 416
Group Work with Children and Other Witnesses of Chapter 14
Domestic Violence 419
Group Work Exercises with Children and Other Termination and Evaluation
Witnesses of Domestic Violence 420
EXERCISE 13.8 Feeling Identification Exercise 420
of a Group 451
EXERCISE 13.9 Stress Relief and Deep-Breathing Exercise 422 Termination 451
Group Work with Offenders of Domestic Violence 424 EXERCISE 14.1 The Emotions Involved in Leaving a Group
Group Work Exercises with Offenders 425 That Is Important to You 452
EXERCISE 13.10 “Bail Out” Exercise 425 Termination of a Successful Group 453
EXERCISE 13.11 Empathy Role-Play 428 Termination of an Unsuccessful Group 453
Group Work with People Who Are A Member Dropping Out 454
Grieving 429 EXERCISE 14.2 The Experience of Being Rejected 455
Stage One: Denial 430 Transfer of a Member 456
Stage Two: Rage and Anger 430 The Leader’s Leaving 456
Stage Three: Bargaining 430 EXERCISE 14.3 The Experience of a Significant Person
Stage Four: Depression 430 Leaving 457
Stage Five: Acceptance 430 Evaluation 457
Westberg Model 431 Process Evaluation 457
Shock and Denial 431 EXERCISE 14.4 Your Process Evaluation of a Group 458
Emotions Erupt 431
Outcome Evaluation 459
Anger 431
EXERCISE 14.5 Applying Single-Subject Design to
Illness 431
Alleviating One of Your Bad Habits 462
Panic 431
EXERCISE 14.6 Applying a Satisfaction Questionnaire to a
Guilt 431
Group You Participated In 464
Depression and Loneliness 431
Reentry Difficulties 432 Summary 466
Hope 432 Group Exercises 466
Affirming Reality 432 EXERCISE A Evaluating and Ending the Class 466
Grief Management in Groups 432 EXERCISE B Final Exam, Leading a Treatment Group 467
EXERCISE 13.12 Coping with a Loss 433 Competency Notes 469
EXERCISE 13.13 Recognizing That Life Is Terminal 435 Key Terms and Concepts 469
Contents xiii
Appendix 1 Theory of Behavior Therapy 500

Behavior Therapy Techniques 501
Group Treatment Theories Assertiveness Training 501
Resource Manual Nonassertive, Aggressive, and Assertive Behaviors
Assertiveness Training in Groups 503
502
(GTTRM) 471 Token Economies

EXERCISE M2.4 Becoming Assertive 506
505
Counseling Versus Therapy/Psychotherapy 471 EXERCISE M2.5 Token Economy 508

Behavioral Contracting 509
MODULE 1 Rational Therapy in Groups 473 Cognitive-Behavioral Techniques 510
Albert Ellis 473 EXERCISE M2.6 Contingency Contracting 511
Theory of Rational Therapy 473 Problem Names 513
EXERCISE M1.1 Our Self-Talk Causes Our Emotions 475 Cognitive Distortions and Thinking Errors 514
Changing Unwanted Emotions 477 Thought Stopping and Covert Assertion 515
Meaningful Activity 478 Diversion Techniques 515
Changing Self-Talk 478 EXERCISE M2.7 Applying Thought Stopping and Covert
EXERCISE M1.2 Using Meaningful Activities to Change Assertion 516
Unwanted Emotions 479 EXERCISE M2.8 Applying the Diversion Technique 518
Changing the Distressing Event 480 Reframing 519
EXERCISE M1.3 Changing Unwanted Emotions with a EXERCISE M2.9 Applying Reframing 521
Rational Self-Analysis 483 Summary 523
EXERCISE M1.4 Changing Unwanted Emotions by Changing Group Exercises 523
Events 484 EXERCISE A Role-Playing Assertive Behavior 523
Destructive Ways of Dealing with Unwanted EXERCISE B Giving and Receiving Compliments 524
Emotions 484 EXERCISE C Expressing Anger Constructively 525
EXERCISE M1.5 Changing Unwanted Emotions by Abusing EXERCISE D Identifying and Accepting Rights 526
Alcohol, Other Drugs, or Food 485 EXERCISE E Behavioral Contracting 527
Assessing and Changing Dysfunctional EXERCISE F Reframing 527
Behavior 486 Competency Notes 527
What Really Causes Psychological Changes
Via Psychotherapy? 487 MODULE 3 Reality Therapy in Groups 529
EXERCISE M1.6 Our Actions Are Determined by Our William Glasser 529
Thouughts 488 Choice Theory 529
EXERCISE M1.7 The Key Therapeutic Change Agent 490 Axioms of Choice Theory 531
Using Rational Therapy in Groups 491 EXERCISE M3.1 Seeking to Change Someone and Being
Summary 492 Controlled by Someone 532
Group Exercises 492 EXERCISE M3.2 The Creativity in Our Brains 536
EXERCISE A Changing Unwanted Emotions with Self-Talk 492 EXERCISE M3.3 The Effects of Nagging and
EXERCISE B Writing a Rational Self-Analysis 493 Preaching 537
EXERCISE C Using Positive Affirmations 493 EXERCISE M3.4 Improving an Unhappy Relationship 539
EXERCISE D Assessing and Changing Dysfunctional EXERCISE M3.5 Letting Go to Grudges 540
Behavior 494 EXERCISE M3.6 Expressing Our Negative Emotions in Terms
EXERCISE E Improving Your Self-Concept 495 of Verbs 541
Competency Notes 495 EXERCISE M3.7 Changing Our Feelings and Improving
Somatic Problems 542
MODULE 2 Behavior Therapy in Groups 496 Principles of Reality Therapy 543
Types of Learning Processes 496 EXERCISE M3.8 A Mentally Healthy Person 545
Operant Conditioning 496 EXERCISE M3.9 The Solving Circle 546
Respondent Conditioning 497 EXERCISE M3.10 Symptoms as a Cry for Help 547
EXERCISE M2.1 Operant Conditioning 498 Can Our Thoughts Alter Our Genetic
EXERCISE M2.2 Pavlovian Conditioning 499 Code? 548
Modeling 499 Using Reality Therapy in Groups 548
EXERCISE M2.3 Modeling 500 Summary 548
xiv Contents
Group Exercise 549 EXERCISE M4.1 Lemons to Lemonade 565

EXERCISE A Mental Illness Debate 549 EXERCISE M4.2 Conducting a Behavior Analysis 567
Competency Notes 549 Summary 569
Group Exercise 569
MODULE 4 Dialectical Behavior Therapy EXERCISE A Conducting Your Own DBT Skills Group 569
in Groups 551 Competency Notes 572
Introduction and History 551
What Is Dialectical Behavior
Therapy? 553 Appendix 2
DBT Groups 556
Mindfulness Skills 558 Answers to Group Exercises
Emotional Regulation Skills 559
Distress Tolerance Skills 560
D–F in Chapter 6 573
Interpersonal Effectiveness Skills 561
Skill Group Example 562 Notes 575
Behavior Chain Analysis 563 Index 585
Preface
What inspired this book? In the spring of 1983, I was teaching my first group work course
to an undergraduate social work class. Before the start of the semester, I wrote a number
of lectures about group dynamics and how groups are used in social work practice with
socialization groups, task groups, decision-making and problem-solving groups, self-help
groups, and therapy groups. At the start of the semester, I dutifully began giving these lec-
tures. Soon, however, I began sensing that the lectures were not being well received. During
the third week, a student stayed after class and said, “I’m afraid this may hurt my grade,
but most of the students in this class feel that you can’t teach a group work class with only
lectures. The only way students will learn how to run groups is by having the experience (in
class or out of class) of leading groups.” I thought about it for a few days and decided the
student was exactly right. With the students’ consent, I redesigned the whole course, with
the basic thrust being to have the students take turns in leading the class on group work
topics that we mutually agreed upon. Because at that time there was no social work group
text to facilitate this process, I attempted to write one. The first edition of this text was pub-
lished in 1985.
The basic assumption of this text is that the best way for students to learn how to run
groups is by leading groups in class. The classroom thus becomes a laboratory for students
to practice and develop their group leadership skills. This text is designed to facilitate this
laboratory approach to undergraduate and graduate group work courses.
This edition provides a number of opportunities for students to gain proficiency in
social group work skills through the inclusion of numerous “skill-building” exercises in var-
ious sections of each chapter. This book is a “worktext” that focuses on using skill-building
exercises to facilitate student development of group leadership skills.
A major focus of this edition is to provide text content and skill-building exercises that
focus on students acquiring the 9 competencies and 31 behaviors of the 2015 EPAS (Educa-
tional Policy and Accreditation Standards) of the Council on Social Work Education (CSWE).
The advantage of using the exercises from this workbook is that the exercises are
explicitly connected to the competencies and behaviors of 2015 EPAS. In addition, there
is an assessment process in this workbook that will facilitate the evaluation of students on
the extent to which they are attaining the competencies and behaviors of 2015 EPAS. The
higher a student is assessed in attaining these competencies and behaviors, the more likely
it is that the student is becoming a competent social worker. A table that identifies the chap-
ters in the text and the practice exercises in this workbook that relate to the 31 behaviors in
2015 EPAS can be found on the inside covers of the text. (Students will progress in develop-
ing the knowledge, values, skills, and cognitive and affective processes needed to become a
competent social worker by conscientiously completing these exercises.)
An additional advantage of this text is that it may be used in preparing self-study doc-
uments for accreditation—as documentation that the course in which Social Work with
Groups is being used is covering the competencies and behaviors of 2015 EPAS. Coverage is
provided with text content and with exercises.
A SELF-CARE EMPHASIS
This edition of Social Work with Groups has an emphasis on self-care; that is, the impor-
tance of social workers setting the highest priority in taking care of their own physical,
emotional, intellectual, social, and spiritual well-being. Why? It is axiomatic that if social
xv
xvi Preface
workers do not care for themselves, their ability to care for EXERCISE 4.1 Identifying Your Personal Goals
others will be sharply diminished or even depleted. The more Competition Versus Cooperation
that social workers maximize their physical, emotional, intel- EXERCISE 4.4 The Effects of a Competitive Group
lectual, social, and spiritual well-being, the more energy, Member
knowledge, skills, cognitive, and emotional resources they EXERCISE 4.6 Your Yielding to Group Pressure
will have in providing services to clients. Types of Disruptive Behavior
It is also axiomatic that the same intervention strategies Handling Disruptive Behavior
that social workers learn to maximize their own physical, Reducing the Likelihood of Disruptive Behavior
emotional, intellectual, social, and spiritual well-being are the EXERCISE 4.8 Handling Disruptive Behavior of a
same strategies that social workers can convey to clients so Group Member
that clients can use these strategies to learn to better care for EXERCISE G Confrontation and I-Messages
themselves and improve their well-being! EXERCISE H Confronting and Being Confronted
A social worker primarily works as a “change agent” by Others
(i.e., someone who facilitates positive changes) in individu-
als, groups, families, organizations, and communities. Why is Chapter 5
self-care essential in working with individuals, groups, fami- A Model of Communication
lies, organizations, and communities? A social worker who One-Way Communication
sets the highest priority on taking care of his or her physical, EXERCISE 5.1 The Emotional Effects of One-Way
emotional, intellectual, social, and spiritual well-being learns Communication
an immense number of intervention strategies to improve his Two-Way Communication
or her life. These strategies are precisely the strategies that Perception
the worker can convey to individuals, members of treatment EXERCISE 5.2 Using Defense Mechanisms
groups, and family members, which these clients can then use EXERCISE 5.3 Defensive Communication
to improve their lives. Self-Disclosure
A social worker who has excelled in self-care also has the The Johari Window
critical resources (physical energy, positive mind-set, emo- EXERCISE 5.4 Feeling Good After Self-Disclosure
tional poise, intellectual capacities, problem-solving skills, EXERCISE 5.5 Johari Windows
and social skills) to effectively work with organizations and How to Communicate Effectively
communities to facilitate positive changes. Listening Skills
Self-care content and exercises to facilitate self-care for Active Listening
social work students and practicing social workers is con- I-Messages
tained in the following materials in this text: EXERCISE 5.6 Learning to Use I-Messages
EXERCISE 5.7 Resolving Collisions of Values
Chapter 1 Collisions of Values
EXERCISE E Why I Decided to Be a Social Worker Forms of Nonverbal Communication
EXERCISE 5.8 Interpreting Nonverbal Cues
Chapter 2 Posture
A Problem-Solving Approach Body Orientation
The Strengths Perspective Facial Expressions
EXERCISE 2.6 Applying the Problem-Solving Eye Contact
Approach Gestures
Knowledge, Skills, and Values Needed for Social Touching
Work Practice Clothing
EXERCISE D Social Work Value Issues Personal Boundaries
EXERCISE F Genie and the Magic Lantern Territoriality
Voice
Chapter 3 Physical Appearance
Guidelines for Forming and Leading a Group EXERCISE 5.9 Reading Nonverbal Cues
Relaxing Before You Start a Meeting Environment
EXERCISE A Desensitizing Fears of Leading a Group Other Nonverbal Cues
EXERCISE D Leading a Group EXERCISE C Distortions in Transmitting
Information
Chapter 4 EXERCISE E Active Listening
Setting Personal and Group Goals EXERCISE F My Nonverbal Communications
Personal Goals EXERCISE G Nonverbal Cues
Preface xvii
EXERCISE I Double Messages Chapter 8

EXERCISE J The Flat Tire Online Self-Help Groups
EXERCISE K Communicating While Blindfolded EXERCISE 8.2 Checking Out Online Self-Help Groups
EXERCISE L Giving and Receiving Feedback About EXERCISE 8.3 Using the American Self-Help Group
Nonverbal Communication Clearinghouse
EXERCISE M Zones of Personal Space EXERCISE A Alcoholics Anonymous
Chapter 6 Chapter 9
Guidelines for Leading Task Groups EXERCISE 9.1 Composition and Strengths of Family
Problem-Solving Approach The Eco-Map
Identification and Definition EXERCISE 9.2 An Eco-Map of My Family
Assessment of Size and Causes The Genogram
Development of Alternative Strategies EXERCISE 9.3 A Genogram of My Family
Assessment of Strategies EXERCISE 9.4 Analyzing Verbal Communication Pat-
Selection and Implementation terns in Families
Evaluation EXERCISE 9.5 Analyzing Nonverbal Communication
Barriers to Effective Problem Solving Patterns in Families
Techniques for Resolving Conflicts EXERCISE 9.6 Functional Roles and Problematic Roles
Win-Lose Approach in Families
EXERCISE 6.2 My Tolerance for Conflicts EXERCISE 9.7 Personal Goals, Family Goals, and Hid-
No-Lose Problem Solving den Agendas
Role Reversal EXERCISE 9.8 Norms and Cultural Values in Families
EXERCISE 6.3 Creativity Inspired by Conflict Family Problems
Empathy EXERCISE 9.9 Challenges Faced by My Family
Inquiry EXERCISE B You and Your Family
I-Messages EXERCISE C Analyzing Your Family in Terms of
Disarming Group Concepts
Stroking
EXERCISE 6.4 Disarming and Stroking Chapter 10
Letting Go or Forgiving EXERCISE 10.1 Refuting Our Organizational Myths
Mediation EXERCISE 10.2 Working for an Autocratic Boss
What If These Strategies Do Not Work? Theory X and Theory Y
Intergroup Conflict EXERCISE 10.3 Working for Theory X Versus Theory
EXERCISE 6.5 Resolving Your Conflicts Effectively Y Managers
Group Versus Individual Decision Making Knopf ’s Bureaucratic System Model and Theory X
Groupthink EXERCISE 10.5 Your Orientation Toward Bureaucratic
EXERCISE 6.6 My Groupthink Experience Systems
EXERCISE D Creative Thinking EXERCISE 10.6 Enjoying and Appreciating a Com-
munity
Chapter 7 EXERCISE C Theory X and Theory Y
EXERCISE 7.1 Some of My Stereotypes EXERCISE D Appreciating Communities
Knowledge About Diverse Groups
Which Intervention Techniques Work? Chapter 11
Anger Management Define Self-Care
Cultural Communication Importance of Managing Stress
Ethnic-Sensitive Practice Reactions to Stress
Empowerment EXERCISE 11.1 My Physiological Reactions to High
Strengths Perspective Levels of Stress
Culturally Competent Practice Stressors
Cultural Humility EXERCISE 11.2 My Stress-Related Illnesses
Principles of Feminist Therapy Optimal Levels of Stress
EXERCISE 7.5 Feminist Intervention Long-Term Distress
Using Feminist Intervention in Groups EXERCISE 11.3 Events and Self-Talk as Stressors
EXERCISE D Are You a Feminist? Burnout
EXERCISE E Double Standards EXERCISE 11.4 A Time When I Burned Out
xviii Preface
Structural Causes of Burnout Chapter 13

Burnout and Compassion Fatigue EXERCISE 13.1 Anger Management Group
Managing Stress, Burnout, and Compassion Fatigue EXERCISE 13.2 “Own Your C.R.A.P”
Goal Setting and Time Management EXERCISE 13.3 Body Image Group
EXERCISE 11.5 My High-Value Goals and Tasks EXERCISE 13.6 Empowerment Role-Play
Relaxation EXERCISE 13.7 Safety Planning
Mindfulness Grief Management in Groups
Exercise EXERCISE 13.12 Coping with a Loss
Taking Care of Your Physical Self EXERCISE 13.13 Recognizing Life Is Terminal
Social Support Groups EXERCISE 13.14 Achieving Closure in a Lost
Talking to Others Relationship
Positive Thinking EXERCISE 13.15 Epitaphs
Compassion Satisfaction
Changing Stress-Producing Thoughts Chapter 14
Law of Attraction EXERCISE 14.1 The Emotions Involved in Leaving a
EXERCISE 11.6 Qualities I Admire in Others Group That Is Important to You
Changing or Adapting to Distressing Events EXERCISE 14.2 The Experience of Being Rejected
Personal Pleasures EXERCISE 14.3 The Experience of a Significant Person
Overcoming Procrastination Leaving
Swiss Cheese Approach EXERCISE 14.5 Applying Single-Subject Design to
EXERCISE 11-7 Ending My Procrastination Alleviating One of Your Bad Habits
Other Suggestions
EXERCISE 11.8 Stress Management Techniques for Me Module 1
EXERCISE 11.9 Developing a Self-Care Improvement Theory of Rational Therapy
Plan EXERCISE M1.1 Our Self-Talk Causes Our Emotions
EXERCISE A Resolving Current Stressors Changing Unwanted Emotions
EXERCISE B Relaxing Through Meditation EXERCISE M1.2 Using Meaningful Activities to
EXERCISE C Setting High-Value Goals and Tasks Change Unwanted Emotions
EXERCISE D Time Diagram EXERCISE M1.3 Changing Unwanted Emotions with a
EXERCISE E Ending Procrastination Rational Self-Analysis
EXERCISE M1.4 Changing Unwanted Emotions by
Chapter 12 Changing Events
EXERCISE 12.1 My Concerns About Participating in a EXERCISE M1.5 Changing Unwanted Emotions by
Treatment Group Abusing Alcohol, Other Drugs, or Food
EXERCISE 12.2 My Concerns About Co-facilitating a Assessing and Changing Dysfunctional Behavior
Treatment Group What Really Causes Psychological Changes via Psycho-
Strategies for Working with Hostile, Involuntary therapy?
Members EXERCISE M1.6 Our Actions Are Determined by Our
Building Rapport Thoughts
EXERCISE 12.3 The Helper Therapy Principle EXERCISE M1.7 The Key Therapeutic Change Agent
Exploring Problems in Depth EXERCISE A Changing Unwanted Emotions with
Exploring Alternative Solutions Self-Talk
Setting Professional Boundaries with Clients EXERCISE B Writing a Rational Self-Analysis
EXERCISE 12.5 Boundaries with Clients EXERCISE C Using Positive Affirmations
The Therapeutic Factors: What It Is That Heals EXERCISE D Assessing and Changing Dysfunctional
EXERCISE 12.6 What Causes Positive Changes Behavior
Through Counseling? EXERCISE E Improving Your Self-Concept
EXERCISE D Who Am I?
EXERCISE E The Miracle Workers Module 2
EXERCISE F Clients I Would Find Difficult to Work Types of Learning Processes
With EXERCISE M2.1 Operant Conditioning
EXERCISE G Feeling Good About Ourselves EXERCISE M2.2 Pavlovian Conditioning
EXERCISE H Self-Fulfilling Prophecies EXERCISE M2.3 Modeling
Preface xix
Theory of Behavior Therapy Ride the Wave

Assertiveness Training Please Master
Token Economies Distress Tolerance Skills
EXERCISE M2.4 Becoming Assertive Self-Soothe First Aid Kit
EXERCISE M2.5 Token Economy Crisis Survival Network
Behavioral Contracting Half-Smile
Cognitive Behavior Techniques Dear Man
EXERCISE M2.6 Contingency Contracting Give
EXERCISE M2.7 Applying Thought Stopping and Making Repairs
Covert Assertion Broken Record
EXERCISE M2.8 Applying the Diversion Technique Skill Group Example: Lemons to Lemonade Skill
EXERCISE M2.9 Applying Reframing Group
EXERCISE A Role-Playing Assertive Behavior Behavior Chain Analysis
EXERCISE B Giving and Receiving Compliments Vulnerability
EXERCISE C Expressing Anger Constructively EXERCISE M4.1 Lemons to Lemonade
EXERCISE D Identifying and Accepting Personal Precipitating Event
Rights Thoughts, Feelings, and Actions
EXERCISE E Behavioral Contracting Consequences
EXERCISE F Reframing Alternative Strategies and Vulnerability Reduction
Behavior Chain Analysis Example
Module 3 EXERCISE M4.2 Conducting a Behavior Analysis
Choice Theory
EXERCISE M3.1 Seeking to Change Someone and This text obviously has considerable theories on how
Being Controlled by Someone social workers can improve the lives of the clients they serve.
EXERCISE M3.2 The Creativity in Our Brains In addition, there are a plethora of exercises that social work
EXERCISE M3.3 The Effects of Nagging and Preaching students can utilize to learn how to apply these theories.
EXERCISE M3.4 Improving an Unhappy Relationship Equally important is the fact that these theories and exercises
EXERCISE M3.5 Letting Go of Grudges can and should be used by social work students to maximize
EXERCISE M3.6 Expressing Our Negative Emotions in their physical, emotional, intellectual, social, and spiritual
Terms of Verbs well-being.
EXERCISE M3.7 Changing Our Feelings and Improv-
ing Somatic Problems PLAN OF THE BOOK
Principles of Reality Therapy Each chapter is designed according to the following format:
EXERCISE M3.8 A Mentally Healthy Person 1. The learning objectives of the chapter are stated.
EXERCISE M3.9 The Solving Circle 2. Theoretical material is presented on how the learning
EXERCISE M3.10 Symptoms as a Cry for Help objectives can be achieved. If the learning objective is to
Can Our Thoughts Alter Our Genetic Code? learn how to handle disruptive members of a group, for
example, the chapter describes appropriate strategies.
Module 4 3. Several “skill-building” exercises are then interspersed
Mindfulness Skills throughout each chapter and at the end of each chapter.
Moment to Pause These exercises give students practice in acquiring the
Wise Mind skills described in the chapter.
One Mind
Turtling At the end of the book is a Group Treatment Theories
Focused Breathing Resource Manual (GTTRM). To highlight the uniqueness of
Effectiveness the GTTRM, material is presented in modules rather than
Radical Acceptance chapters. This GTTRM presents prominent theories of coun-
Nonjudgmental seling that are widely used by social workers in working with
Willingness treatment groups.
Middle Path
Emotional Regulation Skills USING THE BOOK
Lemons to Lemonade After the instructor covers the introductory material con-
Opposite Emotion tained in the first chapter, it is suggested that students (either
xx Preface
individually or in small groups) take turns preparing and con- instructor may assign certain exercises as written homework
ducting future class sessions by summarizing the theoretical to be submitted for evaluation. (4) The instructor may have
material in the chapters and leading the class in related exer- each student complete several exercises and then place them
cises. (Students may also be given the opportunity to select a in a portfolio, which the instructor may periodically review
topic not covered in the text.) for evaluation purposes.
The skill-building exercises in this text may be used in a Students should make their presentations stimulating,
variety of ways. The assigned leader (who may be the instruc- interesting, and educational by speaking extemporaneously
tor, a student, or a small group of students) for a chapter rather than reading and by adapting chapter topics using per-
may use the exercises in the following ways: (1) The assigned sonal observations or research. Students should also prepare
leader may request that the other students complete certain and distribute handouts that summarize the key points of
exercises as a homework assignment prior to the next class their presentations and should move around the classroom
period; the exercises are then reviewed when the class next to maintain and increase the interest of the class. The use of
meets. (2) The assigned leader may have the other students technological resources, such as Microsoft PowerPoint, is also
complete one or more exercises during the class. (3) The suggested.
About the Authors
Charles H. Zastrow, MSW, PhD, is Professor Emeritus in Social Work at the University of
Wisconsin-Whitewater. He chaired the Social Work Department for six years at this cam-
pus. He has also been the Assistant Director and Professor in the Social Work Program at
George Williams College of Aurora University at Williams Bay, Wisconsin. He has worked
as a practitioner in a variety of public and private social welfare agencies and has chaired
28 social work accreditation site visit teams for the Council on Social Work Education
(CSWE).
He was a member of the Commission on Accreditation of CSWE for six years. He is a
member of the International Association for Social Work with Groups, the National Asso-
ciation of Social Workers, the Council on Social Work Education, and the NASW Register
of Clinical Social Workers. He is licensed as a clinical social worker in Wisconsin. In addi-
tion to Social Work with Groups, he has written several other books, including the following
textbooks: Introduction to Social Work and Social Welfare (12th ed.), Generalist Social Work
Practice (11th ed.), and Understanding Human Behavior and Social Environment (10th ed.)
(with Dr. Karen Kirst-Ashman).
Sarah L. Hessenauer, BSW, MSW, PhD, is an associate professor in social work at the Uni-
versity of Wisconsin-Whitewater. She has been in the department for 10 years and is chair
of the department. She earned her BSW degree in 1990 from the University of Wisconsin-
Whitewater, her MSW in 1991 from UW-Milwaukee, and her PhD in 2011 from Loyola
University of Chicago. She is a certified licensed clinical social worker in the state of Wis-
consin. She has worked as a practitioner and administrator in a variety of mental health
and addictions agencies. She is a Council on Social Work Education (CSWE) accreditation
site visitor. She is a current member of NASW, BPD, and CSWE. She has authored several
articles and is a reviewer for several social work journals.
CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS
Katherine Drechsler, MSW Craig Mead, MSW, LSW
Lecturer Licensed Social Worker at Presence
University of Wisconsin–Whitewater St. Mary and Elizabeth Medical
Doctoral Student in Social Work Center
George Williams College of Aurora Chicago, IL
University
Jacob Dunn, MSW, LCSW Michael Wallace, MSSW, LCSW
Associate Lecturer Clinical Social Worker and Lecturer
University of Wisconsin–Madison (Retired)
Social Worker, Stoughton Hospital Social Work Department
Geriatric Psychiatry Unit University of Wisconsin–Whitewater
Stoughton, WI
Rachel Dunn, MSW, LCSW Mary R. Weeden, LCSW, PhD
Associate Lecturer Clinical Therapist for Eating Disorders
University of Wisconsin–Madison Instructor, University of Wisconsin–
Psychotherapist, Crossroads Counseling Oshkosh
Janesville, WI
xxi
1
Groups: Types and
Stages of Development
LEARNING
OBJECTIVES E very social service agency uses groups, and every practicing social worker is involved
in a variety of groups. Social work with groups is practiced in adoption agencies,
correctional settings, halfway houses, substance abuse treatment centers, physical reha-
Each group develops a unique bilitation centers, family service agencies, private psychotherapy clinics, mental hospitals,
character or personality nursing homes, community centers, public schools, and many other social service settings.
because of the principles of To effectively serve clients in human service systems today, social workers in generalist
group dynamics. This chapter
practice positions must be trained in group methods. Often, social workers serve as leaders
will help prepare students to:
and participants in myriad groups requiring skills ranging from simple to complex. The
LO 1 beginning social worker is likely to be surprised at the diverse groups in existence and
Understand the history of
excited by the challenge of practicing social work in many different settings.
social group work.
LO 2
Identify the primary types of
groups in social work. LO 1 Understand the History
LO 3 of Social Group Work
Understand four models of
group development over HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF GROUP WORK
time. The roots of group social work began in the settlement houses, the Young
LO 4 Men’s and Young Women’s Christian Associations (YMCAs and YWCAs),
Describe the differences Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts, and Jewish centers of the 1800s.1 These agen-
between reference groups cies focused on providing group programs for people considered “normal.”
and membership groups.
Recipients of early group services came for recreation, informal education,
LO 5 friendship, and social action. Euster notes that these recipients “learned to
Comprehend guidelines on cooperate and get along with others socially; they enriched themselves through
how to conduct classroom
new knowledge, skills, and interests, and the overall state of society was bettered
exercises.
through responsible involvement in community problems.”2
Settlement Houses
The first settlement house, Toynbee Hall, was established in London in 1884;
many others were soon formed in large U.S. cities.3
Many of the early settlement-house workers were daughters of ministers. Usu-
ally from middle- and upper-class families, they would live in a poor neighbor-
hood so they could experience the harsh realities of poverty. Using the missionary
approach of teaching residents how to live moral lives and improve their circum-
stances, early settlement workers sought to improve housing, health, and living
conditions; find jobs for workers; teach English, hygiene, and occupational skills;
and improve living conditions through neighborhood cooperative efforts. The
techniques settlement houses used to effect change are now called social group
work, social action, and community organization.
Settlement houses not only emphasized “environmental reform,” but they
also “continued to struggle to teach the poor the prevailing middle-class values
1
2 CHAPTER 1: Groups: Types and Stages of Development
of work, thrift, and abstinence as the keys to success.”4 In addition to dealing with local
problems through local action, settlement houses played important roles in drafting legisla-
tion and organizing to influence social policy and legislation.
The most noted leader in the settlement-house movement was Jane Addams of Hull
House in Chicago. She was born in 1860 in Cedarville, Illinois, the daughter of parents who
owned a successful flour mill and wood mill.5 After graduating from Rockford Seminary in
Rockford, Illinois, she attended medical school briefly but was forced to leave due to illness.
She then traveled for a few years in Europe, perplexed as to what her life work should be.
At the age of 25, she joined the Presbyterian Church, which helped her find a focus for her
life: religion, humanitarianism, and serving the poor. (She later joined the Congregational
Church, now known as the United Church of Christ.) Addams heard about the establishment
of Toynbee Hall in England and returned to Europe to study the approach. The staff of college
students and graduates, mainly from Oxford, lived in the slums of London to learn conditions
firsthand and to improve life there with their own personal resources, including financial ones.
Jane Addams returned to the United States and rented a two-story house, later named
Hull House, in an impoverished neighborhood in Chicago. With a few friends, Addams initi-
ated a variety of group and individual activities for the community. Group activities included
a literature reading group for young women; a kindergarten; and groups that focused on
social relationships, sports, music, painting, art, and discussion of current affairs. Hull House
also provided services to individuals who needed immediate help, such as food, shelter, and
information on and referral for other services. A Hull House Social Science Club studied
social problems in a scientific manner and then became involved in social action efforts to
improve living conditions. This group worked successfully for passage of Illinois legislation
to prevent the employment of children in sweatshops. Addams also became interested in the
various ethnic groups in the neighborhood. She was fairly successful in bringing the various
nationalities together at Hull House, where they could interact and exchange cultural values.
The success of Hull House served as a model for the establishment of settlement houses
in other areas of Chicago and many other large cities in the United States. Settlement-house
leaders believed that by changing neighborhoods, they could improve communities, and by
altering communities, they could develop a better society. For her extraordinary contribu-
tions, Jane Addams received the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1931.
Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA)

The founder of the Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA), George Williams,6 was born
and reared on a small farm in England. He stopped attending school at the age of 13 to work
on his father’s farm, but at 14, he became an apprentice to a draper (a manufacturer and
dealer of cloth and woolen materials) and learned the trade. He grew up in a religious envi-
ronment and joined the Congregational Church at the age of 16. At 20, he moved to London
and worked for another drapery firm. Like Williams, the business owner, George Hitchcock,
was deeply religious and allowed his new employee to organize prayer meetings at work.
The size of the prayer circle gradually grew, and the meetings featured Bible reading as well
as prayers. The success of this group inspired Williams and his associates to organize similar
groups at other drapers’ establishments. The prayer circle Williams formed with 12 fellow
employees marked the beginning of YMCAs. In 1844, the resulting prayer circles at 14 businesses
formed an association called the Young Men’s Christian Association. Each group conducted
weekly religious services that included prayer, Bible readings, and discussions of spiritual topics.
The YMCA soon began to expand its activities. Prominent speakers from various fields
of public and scholarly life addressed its members. An office was selected, and Protestant
clergy in France, Holland, and other countries were persuaded to form YMCAs. Gradually,
the programs were expanded to meet the unique needs of the communities in which the
YMCAs were located.
In 1851, Thomas V. Sullivan, a retired mariner, picked up a religious weekly in Boston
and read about the YMCA movement in London.7 Sullivan gathered a few friends and
established the first YMCA in the United States. Similar to the London association, the
U.S. movement spread quickly to other communities. In only 7 years, YMCAs were serving
communities throughout the United States.
Identify the Primary Types of Groups in Social Work 3
The U.S. YMCA had many firsts. It was the first organization to aid troops during
wartime in the field and in prison camps. It pioneered community sports and athletics,
invented volleyball and basketball, and taught water safety and swimming. It devised an
international program of social service similar to that of the Peace Corps. It originated group
recreational camping, developed night schools and adult education, initiated widespread
nondenominational Christian work for college students, and reached out to assist foreign
students. From an origin that involved a narrowly focused religious objective, YMCAs have
expanded their objectives in a variety of directions. The success of YMCAs helped spur the
first Young Women’s Christian Association (YWCA), formed in Boston in 1866.8
LO 2 Identify the Primary Types of Groups in Social Work

TYPES OF GROUPS
A variety of groups occur in social work—social conversation, recreation skill building,
educational, task, problem solving and decision making, focus, self-help, socialization,
treatment, and sensitivity and encounter training. According to Johnson and Johnson, a
group may be defined as two or more individuals in face-to-face interaction, each aware
of positive interdependence as they strive to achieve mutual goals, each aware of his or her
membership in the group, and each aware of the others who belong to the group.9
Social Conversation
Social conversation is often employed to determine what kind of relationship might develop
with people we do not know very well. Because talk is often loose and tends to drift aimlessly,
there is usually no formal agenda for social conversations. If the topic of conversation is dull,
the subject can simply be changed. Although individuals may have a goal (perhaps only to
establish an acquaintanceship), such goals need not become the agenda for the entire group.
In social work, social conversation with other professionals is frequent, but groups involving
clients generally have objectives other than conversation, such as resolving personal problems.
Recreation/Skill Building
Recreational groups may be categorized as informal recreational groups or skill-building
recreational groups.
A recreational group service agency (such as the YMCA, YWCA, or neighborhood
center) may offer little more than physical space and the use of some equipment to
provide activities for enjoyment and exercise. Often activities such as playground games
and informal athletics are spontaneous, and the groups are practically leaderless. Some
agencies claim that recreation and interaction with others help build character and
prevent delinquency among youths by providing an alternative to street life.
In contrast to informal recreational groups, a skill-building recreational group has an
increased focus on tasks and is guided by an adviser, coach, or instructor. The objective is to
improve a set of skills in an enjoyable way. Examples of activities include arts and crafts and
sports such as golf, basketball, and swimming, which may develop into competitive team
sports with leagues. These groups are frequently led by professionals with recreational train-
ing rather than social work training, and the agencies involved include the YMCA, YWCA,
Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, neighborhood centers, and school recreational departments.
Education
Although the topics covered vary widely, all educational groups teach specialized skills
and knowledge, such as classes on childrearing, stress management, parenting, English
as a foreign language, and assertiveness training. Orientations offered by social service
organizations to train volunteers fall into this category as well. Educational groups usually
have a classroom atmosphere, involving considerable group interaction and discussion; a
professional person with expertise in the area, often a social worker, assumes the role of
teacher.
Task
Task groups are formed to achieve a specific set of tasks or objectives. The following examples
are types of task groups that social workers are apt to interact with or become involved in. A
board of directors is an administrative group charged with responsibility for setting the pol-
icy governing agency programs. A task force is a group established for a special purpose and
A Problem-Solving and Decision-Making Group: Family Group Conferencing
The family group conferencing approach with abused or to remain in the meeting.) The kinship network makes plans
neglected children originated in New Zealand. The approach to respond to the issues that are raised, including developing
has now been adopted in many other countries, including in a plan for the safety and the care of the child. The coordina-
the United States. tor and/or protective services retain the right to veto a family
When evidence of child abuse by child protective services plan if they believe the child will not be protected. (In reality, a
or the police has been documented, some child protective veto is rarely used.) Several meetings over several days may be
services agencies are now offering the parents of the affected necessary to develop the family plan.
children the option of using the family group conferencing Downs and colleagues summarize the challenges faced by
approach to attempt to improve the parenting and end future social workers with this approach:
abuse. The process is first explained to the parents. If the par-
Working with family group decision making requires a
ents agree to involve their extended kinship network in plan-
new approach to family-centered practice. The social
ning, the process is then implemented.
worker must expand his or her ideas about the family to
The family decision-making conference is facilitated by a
recognize the strength and centrality of the extended
professional person (often associated with child protective
kinship network, particularly in communities of color. Use
services). The professional person is usually called the “family
of the strengths perspective is critical. The worker must
group coordinator.” Three characteristics are central to family
understand the greater investment of kin in the well-being
group conferencing:
of the child and should also understand that, even when
1. Family is widely defined to include extended family
parts of the kinship system may seem to be compromised
members, as well as other people who are significant to
or dysfunctional, the healthier kinfolk can assess and deal
the family.
with the problem. One of the greatest challenges for the
2. The family is given the opportunity to prepare the plan.
social worker is incorporating the sharing of power or
3. The professionals involved with the family must agree to
returning of power to the kinship network. Many social
the plan unless it is thought to place the child at risk.
workers trained as family therapists or child welfare work-
The coordinator prepares and plans for the first meeting of
ers have assumed a power role and may find it difficult to
the extended family. Such planning may take weeks.
relinquish a sense of control.b
Downs, Moore, McFadden, and Costin describe the initial
planning process: There are several advantages of family group conferencing. It
facilitates getting the extended family involved in meeting the
This involves working with the family; identifying con-
needs of the abused/neglected child or children and in meet-
cerned parties and members of the extended kinship net-
ing the needs of their parents. It reduces government inter-
work; clarifying their roles and inviting them to a family
vention in people’s lives. It recognizes the strengths of kinship
group meeting; establishing the location, time, and other
networks to provide assistance to at-risk families. It reduces
logistics; and managing other unresolved issues. At the
the number of children placed in foster homes. (Frequently
meeting the coordinator welcomes and introduces par-
with this approach one or more extended family members
ticipants in a culturally appropriate manner, establishes
temporarily take in the child, giving the parents an opportu-
the purpose of the meeting, and helps participants reach
nity to receive whatever they need to become more stable and
agreement about roles, goals, and ground rules. Next,
to learn better parenting skills.)
information is shared with the family, which may involve
Family group conferencing has also been adapted to
the child protection workers and other relevant profession-
respond to other family issues, such as families with an adjudi-
als such as a doctor or teacher involved with the child.a
cated delinquent.
In the New Zealand model, the coordinator and other profes-
sional withdraw from the meeting in the next stage to allow
a. Downs, S. W., Moore, E., McFadden, E. J., & Costin, L. B. (2000). Child
the family privacy for their deliberations. (Some programs in welfare and family services. (6th ed., p. 295). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
the United States and other countries allow the coordinator b. Ibid., p. 295.
is usually disbanded after the task is completed. A committee of an agency or organization

is a group that is formed to deal with specific tasks or matters. An ad hoc committee, like a
task force, is set up for one purpose and usually ceases functioning after completion of its task.
Problem Solving and Decision Making

Both providers and consumers of social services may become involved in groups concerned
with problem solving and decision making. (There is considerable overlap between task
groups and these groups; in fact, problem-solving and decision-making groups can be con-
sidered a subcategory of task groups.)
Social service providers use group meetings for objectives such as developing a treat-
ment plan for a client or a group of clients, or deciding how best to allocate scarce resources.
Potential consumers of services may form a group to meet a current community need. Data
on the need may be gathered, and the group may be used as a vehicle, either to develop a
program or to influence existing agencies to provide services. Social workers may function
as stimulators and organizers of these group efforts.
In problem-solving and decision-making groups, each participant normally has
some interest or stake in the process and stands to gain or lose personally by the outcome.
Usually, there is a formal leader, and other leaders sometimes emerge during the process.
Focus
Focus groups are closely related to task groups and problem-solving and decision-making
groups. They may be formed for a variety of purposes, including (1) to identify needs or
issues, (2) to generate proposals that resolve an identified issue, and (3) to test reactions to
alternative approaches to an issue. A focus group is a group convened to discuss a specific
issue or single topic, often with the aid of questionnaires, and a moderator who actively keeps
the conversation oriented to that topic. Such groups are often established to acquire informa-
tion and generate ideas that would not be as accessible through individual interviews.10
Two examples of a focus group are a nominal group (described in Chapter 4) and a
brainstorming session (described in Chapter 6).
A representative group is another version of a focus group. Its strength is that its mem-
bers have been selected specifically to represent different perspectives and points of view in
a community. At best, the representative group is a focus group that reflects the cleavages in
the community and seeks to bring diverse views to the table; at worst, it is a front group for
people who seek to make the community think it has been involved.
Self-Help and Mutual Aid

Self-help groups are increasingly popular and often successful in helping individuals over-
come social or personal problems. Katz and Bender provide a comprehensive definition:
Self-help groups are voluntary, small group structures . . . usually formed by peers who have
come together for mutual assistance in satisfying a common need, overcoming a common
handicap or life-disrupting problem, and bringing about desired social and/or personal
change. The initiators and members of such groups perceive that their needs are not, or
cannot be, met by or through existing social institutions. . . . They often provide material
assistance as well as emotional support, they are frequently “cause”-oriented, and promul-
gate an ideology or [set of] values through which members may attain an enhanced sense
of personal identity.11
Alcoholics Anonymous, developed by two recovering alcoholics, was the first self-help
group to demonstrate substantial success. In Self-Help Organizations and Professional Prac-
tice, Powell describes numerous self-help groups that are now active.12
Closely related to self-help groups are mutual-aid groups, and the terms are some-
times interchangeable. Mutual-aid groups are informal or formal associations of people
who share certain problems and meet regularly in small groups with professional leaders
to provide emotional support, information, assistance in problem solving, and other help
for each other.
A Self-Help Group: Parents Anonymous
Parents Anonymous (PA), a national self-help organization or social status as basic differences that would prevent
for parents who have abused or neglected their children, was easy communication or mutual understanding.
established in 1970 by Jolly K. in California. For 4 years before
Members express feelings of gratification at finding
forming the group, Jolly had struggled with an uncontrol-
that other parents are “in the same boat.” They contrast
lable urge to severely punish her daughter. One afternoon she
this with their feelings about professionals who, they
attempted to strangle the child. Desperate, she sought help
often assume, have not taken out the time from their
from a local child-guidance clinic and was placed in therapy.
training and current job: responsibilities to raise families
When asked by her therapist what she could do about her
of their own.a
problem, Jolly developed an idea. As she explained, “If alco-
holics could stop drinking by getting together, and gamblers PA emphasizes honesty and directness, as parents who are
could stop gambling, maybe the same principle would work prone to abuse their children have learned to hide this problem
for [child] abusers, too.” With her therapist’s encouragement because society finds it difficult to acknowledge. In contrast to
she formed “Mothers Anonymous” in 1970 and organized a society’s tendency to deny the problem, the goal of PA is to help
few chapters in California. Nearly every major city in the United parents admit that they are abusive. The term abuse is used lib-
States and Canada now has a chapter, and the name has been erally at meetings, and this insistence on frankness has a healthy
changed to Parents Anonymous because fathers who abuse effect on members. Abusive parents are relieved because they
their children are also eligible to join. have finally found a group of people able to accept them as
PA is a crisis intervention program that offers two main they are. Furthermore, only when they are able to admit they
forms of help: a weekly group meeting and personal and are abusive can they begin to find ways to heal themselves.
telephone contact. Members share experiences and feelings During meetings, parents are expected to actually admit to
during weekly meetings and learn to better control their emo- beating their child or engaging in other forms of abuse, and
tions. During periods of crisis, personal and telephone contact the members challenge each other to find ways to curb these
is especially important, particularly when a member feels a activities. Members share constructive approaches to anger
nearly uncontrollable desire to take anger or frustration out and other abuse-precipitating emotions and help each other
on a child. Parents may be referred to PA by a social agency develop specific plans for dealing with situations that have
(including protective services) or be self-referred as parents resulted in abusive episodes. Members learn to recognize
who recognize that they need help. danger signs and to take action to avoid abuse.
Cassie Starkweather and S. Michael Turner describe why Leadership is provided by a group member selected by other
abusive parents would rather participate in a self-help group members. The leader, called a chairperson, is normally assisted by
than receive professional counseling: a professional sponsor who serves as resource and back-up per-
son to the chair and the group. The social worker who assumes
It has been our experience that most [abusive] parents
the role of sponsor must be prepared to perform a variety of func-
judge themselves more harshly than other, more objective
tions, including teacher-trainer, broker of community services
people tend to judge them. The fear of losing their children
needed by parents, advocate, consultant, and counselor.b
frequently diminishes with reassurance from other mem-
bers that they are not the monsters they think they are.
SOURCE: Adapted from Introduction to Social Work and Social
Generally speaking, PA members are so afraid they are Welfare, 8th ed., by Zastrow © 2004. Reprinted with permission
of Brooks/Cole.
going to be judged by others as harshly as they judge a. Starkweather, C. L., & Turner, S. M. (1975). Parents Anonymous:
themselves that they are afraid to go out and seek help. Reflections on the development of a self-help group. In N. C. Ebel-
Frequently our members express fears of dealing with a ing & D. A. Hill (Eds.), Child abuse: Intervention and treatment
(p. 151). Acton, MA: Publishing Sciences Group.
professional person, seeing differences in education, sex, b. Check the Parents Anonymous website at http://parentsanonymous.org.
Many self-help groups use individual confession and testimony techniques. Each
member explains his or her problem and recounts related experiences and plans for han-
dling the problem. When a member encounters a crisis (for example, an abusive parent
having an urge to abuse a child), he or she is encouraged to call another group member, who
helps the person cope. Having experienced the misery and consequences of the problem,
group members are highly dedicated to helping themselves and then fellow sufferers. The
participants also benefit from the “helper therapy” principle; that is, the helper gains psy-
chological rewards.13 Helping others makes a person feel worthwhile, enabling the person
to put his or her own problems into perspective.
Most self-help groups are “direct service” in that they help members with individual
problems. Other self-help groups work on community-wide issues and tend to be more
social action oriented. Some direct service self-help groups attempt to change legislation
and policy in public and private institutions. Others (parents of children with a cognitive
disability, for example) also raise funds and operate community programs. However, many
people with personal problems use self-help groups in the same way others use social agen-
cies. An additional advantage of self-help groups is that they generally operate with a mini-
mal budget. (For further discussion, see Chapter 8.)
Socialization
The primary objective of most socialization groups is to develop attitudes and behaviors
in group members that are more socially acceptable.14 Developing social skills, increasing
self-confidence, and planning for the future are other focuses. Leadership roles in social-
ization groups are frequently filled by social workers who work with groups for predelin-
quent youths to curb delinquency; youths of diverse racial backgrounds to reduce racial
tensions; and pregnant, unmarried young females to help them make plans for the future.
Older residents in nursing homes are often remotivated by socialization groups and become
A Socialization Group: A Group at a Runaway Center
New Horizons, located in an older home in a large Midwestern some residents may refuse to share in domestic tasks; there
city, is a private, temporary shelter where youths on the run can may be squabbles about which TV program to watch;
stay for 2 weeks. The facility is licensed to house up to eight some residents may be overly aggressive. Because most
youths; however, state law requires that parents be contacted of the youths face a variety of crises associated with being on
and parental permission received before New Horizons can the run, many are anxious and under stress. In such an emo-
provide shelter overnight. Services include temporary shelter, tional climate, interaction problems are certain to arise. Staff
individual and family counseling, and a 24-hour hotline for members are sometimes intensely questioned about their
youths in crisis. Because the average stay at New Horizons is actions, decisions, and policies. For example, one of the
9 days, the population is continually changing. During their policies at New Horizons is that each resident must agree
stay, youths (and often their parents) receive intensive counsel- not to use alcohol or narcotic drugs while at the shelter.
ing, which focuses on reducing conflicts between the youths The penalty is expulsion. Occasionally, few youths use some
and their parents and on helping them make future living plans. drugs, are caught, and are expelled. Removing a youth from
The 2-week limit conveys the importance to residents and their this facility has an immense impact on the other residents,
families of resolving the conflicts that keep them apart. and at the following meetings staff members are expected to
Every evening at 7 p.m., a group meeting allows residents clarify and explain such decisions.
to express their satisfactions and dissatisfactions with the The staff also presents material on topics requested by
facilities and program at New Horizons. All the residents and residents during meetings. Subjects often covered include
the two or three staff members on duty are expected to attend. sex; drugs; homosexuality; physical and sexual abuse (a fair
The meetings are convened and led by the staff, most of whom number of residents are abused by family members); avoid-
are social workers. Sometimes, the group becomes primarily ing rape; handling anger, depression, and other unwanted
a “gripe” session, but the staff makes conscientious efforts to emotions; legal rights of youths on the run; being more
improve or change situations involving legitimate gripes. For assertive; explaining running away to relatives and friends; and
example, a youth may indicate that the past few days have human services available to youths in the community. During
been “boring,” and staff and residents then jointly plan activi- such presentations, considerable discussion with residents is
ties for the next few days. encouraged and generally occurs.
Interaction problems that arise between residents, and The final objective of the group is to convey information
between staff and residents, are also handled during a group about planned daily activities and changes in the overall pro-
session. A resident may be preventing others from sleeping; gram at New Horizons.
involved in various activities. Teenagers at correctional schools are helped to make plans for
returning to their home community. Leadership of all the groups mentioned in this section
requires considerable skills and knowledge to help the group to foster individual growth
and change.
Treatment
Treatment groups are generally composed of members with severe emotional, behavioral, and
personal problems. Leaders of such groups must have superb counseling and group leader-
ship skills, including the ability to accurately perceive the core of each member’s response
to what is being communicated. Group leaders must also have the personal capacities to
develop and maintain a constructive atmosphere within a group. As in one-on-one counsel-
ing, the goal of treatment groups is to have members explore their problems in depth and then
develop strategies for resolving them. Three treatment approaches (reality therapy, behavior
therapy, and rational therapy) are described in the Group Treatment Theories Resource Man-
ual (located at the end of the text). These three treatment approaches can be used to change
dysfunctional behaviors and unwanted emotions of group members. There are a variety of
treatment groups. (See “Common Types of Treatment Groups.”)
COMMON TYPES OF TREATMENT GROUPS*

Social workers are likely to encounter treatment groups in a wide variety of settings, such
as outpatient mental health clinics, community-based social service agencies, inpatient
psychiatric units, intensive outpatient programs, substance abuse programs, residential
programs, domestic violence programs, special education programs, therapeutic day
schools, veterans’ programs, day treatment programs, correctional institutions, juvenile
justice programs, and other institutional programs. Most treatment groups in these settings
are based upon a recovery model emphasizing that clients can achieve long-term recov-
ery from serious mental illness, developmental and social problems, and behavioral health
issues. This recovery is facilitated and achieved through skill building and psychosocial
rehabilitation, which improves clients’ abilities to self-manage symptoms and problems in
their current environment. These groups are often called psychosocial rehabilitation or
community support groups and focus on changing behavior, skill building, and increasing
natural supports. Groups are frequently structured using cognitive and behavioral therapy
approaches (see modules at the end of the text), and facilitators are often given substantial
latitude as to the content and structure of specific group sessions. Next we’ll look at some of
the more common treatment groups social workers may encounter and be asked to facili-
tate. The types of groups an agency provides and the group names used will vary depending
on agency, mission, population, and client needs.
Psychoeducational Groups
Psychoeducational groups are becoming increasingly common in many community-based
agencies and institutional settings. These groups are designed to educate and empower
clients, families, caregivers, and support systems to be able to better manage a client’s psy-
chiatric symptoms, mental illness, or behavioral health problems. They often center on a
specific diagnosis, such as depression, anxiety, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD), bipolar disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), substance dependence, or
obsessive-compulsive disorder. The primary goal is to educate and improve understanding
about common symptoms; recognize early warning signs; improve symptom management;
and enhance relapse prevention, effective intervention, coping skills, and effective supports.
An additional goal is to improve insight, which enhances recovery, reduces inpatient hospi-
talizations, and improves family stress levels and well-being. Sometimes psychoeducational
groups are specifically geared toward family members and client support systems. Often
these are facilitated self-help groups that emphasize peer support and encouragement.
* This material was written by Craig Mead, MSW, LSW, Licensed Social Worker at Presence St. Mary and
Elizabeth Medical Center, Chicago, IL.
For example, an ADHD parents group would focus on educating parents on symptoms to
improve their ability to distinguish true symptoms from other oppositional, defiant, or age-
appropriate behaviors. Parents also benefit from hearing about others’ struggles and may
subsequently feel less self-blame and alienation. They can provide each other encourage-
ment and support and share successful parenting skills and behavior interventions.
Symptom Management Groups

Symptom management groups focus on helping individuals cope with specific types of
disorders. These groups are structured for people who struggle with specific diagnoses,
such as depression, anxiety, bipolar disorder, eating disorders, obsessive-compulsive disor-
der, borderline personality, ADHD, or addictions. For example, a depression group would
focus on specific symptoms and issues that are unique to people who struggle with depres-
sion. Often they include a significant psychoeducational segment and then focus on skill
improvement. Skill instruction is tailored to the unique needs of the group. These groups
frequently focus on improving the use of coping skills and strategies to manage feelings,
control impulses, reduce problematic thinking patterns, and effectively solve interpersonal
problems. The group process is used to help empower participants to make meaningful
changes, view problems in perspective, and enhance their overall well-being. Managing
symptoms is viewed as an important action step in the recovery process.
Anger Management Groups

An anger management group is one of the most common types of groups found in treat-
ment settings. An inability to manage one’s feelings is a common deficit, especially in people
with emotional problems. The emotion of anger is given special attention because of the
unhealthy behavior choices people often make when they are angry. Verbal or physical
aggression is a common behavioral manifestation of anger. These groups often focus on
finding healthier ways to channel feelings, learning more effective coping skills, building
better assertiveness skills, improving problem-solving ability, challenging distorted think-
ing patterns, resolving conflicts collaboratively, and learning to express feelings without
aggression. The group process is used as an opportunity to practice these skills with the
assistance of the facilitator and other participants.
Life Skills Groups

A life skills group is also often called an independent living skills or daily living skills
group. This group is most commonly used with adults with chronic mental illness, adults
with developmental or cognitive disabilities, and teenagers and young adults. The focus is
on teaching skills to improve the participant’s ability to live independently. These groups
tend to be much more didactic in nature but utilize the group process for collaborative
learning and support-system building. Individual group sessions may focus on managing
money, budgeting, accessing public transportation, securing and maintaining housing,
housekeeping, laundry, grocery shopping, cooking, accessing healthcare and prescrip-
tions, finding employment, job skills, and healthy living. Groups may cover a myriad
of topics and be customized to the specific needs and developmental and skill levels of
participants.
Social Skills Groups

Social skills groups focus on improving the participant’s interpersonal effectiveness skills.
Topics often include improving assertiveness, problem solving, conflict resolution, building
healthy relationships, boundaries, manners, making friends, empathy, and building natural
supports. Participants may be challenged to improve their self-awareness of problematic
and unhealthy behaviors. Role-play is frequently used to practice new skills and improve
the client’s ability to self-manage relationships. At times participants may process specific
problems expressed by group members and discuss potential changes that group members
might make. Group members are encouraged to provide positive and negative feedback,
which enhances participants’ understanding of others’ perception of them.
Process Groups
Process groups are often used in inpatient, residential, and other settings where group
members spend significant amounts of time together. They are also used in other settings
when one group participant has a major issue to resolve that would be beneficial and rel-
evant for all members to discuss. Sometimes these groups are prescheduled, such as a daily
reflection group at a group home or inpatient facility. Other times a group session may be
called spontaneously to resolve a major conflict or problem within the milieu. The specific
issue is brought to the attention of the group, and participants are encouraged to process
through their thoughts and feelings, provide each other with feedback and support, and
collaboratively problem-solve as a group. Sometimes group members may be confronta-
tional and challenging, which can be a healthy process when facilitated properly. In some
settings, this group is used to help participants process thoughts and feelings about a major
life event, such as the death of a loved one or a suicide attempt by a group member.
Participants are assisted with managing feelings, reframing unhealthy thought patterns,
and integrating life’s challenges.
Stress Management Groups

Stress management groups focus on learning healthier and more effective strategies for
dealing with stress. Participants may be encouraged to make lifestyle changes and take a
more proactive role in reducing stress before it happens. Group facilitators often instruct
on a variety of relaxation techniques and lead participants in practice exercises. Breathing
exercises, guided meditation, yoga, positive imagery, and healthy living are common
themes. Participants are encouraged to practice relaxation techniques at home, which will
improve their ability to use the skills at times of increased stress. Skill development, such
as time management, problem solving, or assertiveness training, may also be a topic for
specific sessions. The group process may also be used to challenge and change thinking
patterns and beliefs that contribute to stress. Psychoeducation may be used to assist partici-
pants to recognize how stress contributes to their disorders. Other areas of discussion could
include exercise, healthy eating, and avoiding substance use. (A stress management group
is sometimes also called an educational group. See Chapter 11 for a detailed discussion of
stress management groups.)
Specialty Groups
Specialty groups address specific topics or problems that are unique to certain client popu-
lations and settings. The focus of the group and topics discussed will vary depending on
client needs. For example, substance abuse programs have a number of different groups
geared specifically toward alcohol and drug addiction recovery. Different groups may focus
on drug and alcohol education, relapse prevention, recovery and lifestyle changes, or 12-step
programs. Other examples would include eating disorder program groups, grief counseling
and support groups, veteran PTSD recovery groups, domestic violence recovery groups, and
healthcare-focused groups for psychological challenges related to patients with cancer, heart
disease, or other major illnesses. (Treatment groups are discussed more fully in Chapter 12.)
In summary, to be a competent group therapist, the professional should have superb
interviewing and counseling skills, a working knowledge of the principles of group dynam-
ics (described in Chapters 1 through 6 of this text), and a working knowledge of contem-
porary therapy approaches, three of which are described in the Group Treatment Theories
Resource Manual, located at the end of this text.
Group treatment has several advantages over one-on-one therapy. The “helper” ther-
apy principle generally is operative. Members at times interchange roles and become the
helper for someone else, receiving psychological rewards and putting their own problems
into perspective in the process. Group treatment also allows members with interaction
problems to test new approaches. In addition, research has shown it is generally easier to
change the attitudes of an individual in a group than one on one.15 Group treatment permits
a social worker to treat more than one person at a time and represents a substantial savings
of professional time. (See “Group Therapy with Substance Use Disorders.”)
Group Therapy with Substance Use Disorders*
ADVANTAGES OF GROUP TREATMENT group members read and discuss a handout on the poten-
Group therapy is one of the therapeutic tools used for treat- tial physiological effects of alcohol.c
ing people with substance use disorders. A benefit of using Skills-development groups are primarily developed from
groups for treating people with substance use disorders is a cognitive-behavioral approach. This approach is most
that groups intrinsically reduce feelings of isolation of group often used in conjunction with psychoeducational elements.
members, and participation in the group allows members of The most common type of skills-development group is one
the group to realize that they are not the only ones dealing that teaches and helps group members develop coping skills.
with the process of recovery. These qualities experienced by These skills may be directly related to substance use, such as
the group members can draw them into the culture of recov- learning refusal skills when offered drugs, or to broader areas
ery. People who abuse substances often are more likely to in the client’s life, such as ways to manage anger or anxiety.
remain abstinent and committed to recovery when treatment Many of the skills that people with substance use heed to
is provided in groups because of rewarding and therapeutic develop are interpersonal in nature, so group therapy is a
forces such as affiliation, confrontation, support, gratification, place for them to practice these skills.d
and identification. Groups provide positive peer support and Cognitive-behavioral groups identify that the substance
pressure to abstain from substances of abuse. Another reason use of the individual is a learned behavior that can be modi-
groups work as a mode of treatment for substance use is that fied through various interventions. These interventions
factors associated with substance use, such as depression, iso- include identification of conditioned stimuli associated with
lation, and shame, can be addressed. Great emphasis is placed the specific addictive behaviors, avoidance of such stimuli,
on interpersonal process within the groups, which helps sub- development of enhanced contingency management strate-
stance use clients resolve problems in relating to other people, gies, and response desensitization. The cognitive-behavioral
problems that they may have attempted to avoid by means of group works to change the learned behavior by changing think-
addictive substances.a ing patterns, beliefs, and perceptions (see Modules 1 and 3).
The group activities help the individual develop social networks
that will help support the individual’s recovery. Cognitions devel-
DEFINING THERAPEUTIC GROUP MODELS oped by psychological elements such as thoughts, beliefs, deci-
IN SUBSTANCE USE TREATMENT sions, opinions, and assumptions are challenged and strategies are
Five models of groups are used in substance use treatment: learned to change these thought patterns. Cognitive-behavioral
● Psychoeducational groups groups are most helpful in the beginning stages of recovery.e
● Skills-development groups Participation in support groups helps members strengthen
● Cognitive-behavioral groups their ability to manage their thinking and emotions and to
● Support groups develop interpersonal skills by interacting with group
● Interpersonal process group psychotherapy members. Group members help each other out by discussing
Treatment providers routinely use the first four models pragmatic concerns members may currently be having.
and various combinations of them. Interpersonal process An example of this would be group members coaching an
groups are not widely used because of the extensive train- individual on how to manage current triggers of wanting to
ing required to lead these groups and the long duration to use a substance as a way of coping. These groups are used
complete this type of group. This demands a high level of to improve group members’ self-esteem and self-confidence.
commitment from both the providers and the clients.b The Group leaders and group members offer words of support and
major purpose of psychoeducational groups is to create encouragement to each other. Support groups can be found
and expand awareness about the behavioral, medical, and in all stages of substance use treatment. Learning specific
psychological consequences of substance use. This type recovery tools, such as relapse-prevention skills, can be the
of group is highly structured and presents group-specific basis of forming a substance use support group.f
content. The information presented is designed to have Interpersonal process groups use psychodynamics, or
a direct application to the clients’ lives to help instill self- knowledge of the way people function psychologically, to pro-
awareness. This self-awareness presents options for growth mote change in substance use recovery. The psychodynamic
and change, identifies community resources that can assist approach recognizes that unresolved conflicts in the mind
in the recovery process, and attempts to motivate clients to (some that may be out of the person’s awareness) may be
take action on their own to attend treatment. An example influencing the person’s behavior. Early experiences in the per-
of a psychoeducational group activity would be to have son’s life may be influencing the person’s substance rise. The
(continued)
Group Therapy with Substance Use Disorders* (continued )
individual’s perceptions may be distorting his or her reality, to raise consciousness of their drinking during the day. This
and behaviors, such as the use of a substance, may be chosen exercise helps raise consciousness about the quantity and fre-
to deal with the situation.g quency of their substance use. Clients in the early stages of
change are often unaware of how much and how often they
STAGES-OF-CHANGE THERAPY are drinking. Students could complete this exercise by thinking
FOR SUBSTANCE USERS about something that they would like to change in their lives.
The stages-of-change therapy model can be used for group

Step 1
therapy for substance users. This model uses the transtheoreti-
The facilitator of the group explains in a nonthreatening way
cal model of change to describe how people make successful
that sometimes it is difficult for people to realize how much
changes in their lives. The transtheoretical model of change is
they are using in a day.
based on research completed by Prochaska and Diclemente.h
This model agrees that change does not happen all at once Step 2
and it takes time and energy to change. This model notes five The facilitator hands out a worksheet and has the clients
distinct stages of change: precontemplation, contemplation, answer the following questions: describe your use from the
preparation, action, and maintenance. (See Chapter 12 for an time you wake up in the morning until around noon; describe
expanded description of this approach.) Treatment strategies your using from noon until early evening, and describe your
for the group are based on the stages-of-change model. It use from around 6 p.m. until you go to bed. Students could an-
is important for the leaders of the group to be aware of the swer the same questions about the identified behavior that
stages of change, determine what stage of change group they would like to change.
members are in, and then develop activities to motivate indi-
viduals to move along the stages of change.i Step 3
The change process starts with an individual not knowing Ask the clients to discuss what they have learned about their sub-
that a change needs to take place. This stage is called the pre- stance use by doing the exercise. Discuss with the group mem-
contemplation stage. In this stage substance abuse users do bers when this use may be less or may be more. Students could
not see their using as a problem. If there is a problem, the per- discuss what they have learned about their desired behavior
son is probably ignoring it or does not consider the problem as they want to change and reflect on what they learned about the
something that is important. When the problem can no longer duration and frequency of the behavior they would like to change.
be ignored—for example, a partner no longer wants to be with Students could discuss the importance of raising consciousness
the user because of the using behavior—the individual may of a behavior in the early stages of the change process.k
begin to consider that he or she needs to do something about
his or her using. This stage is seen as the contemplation stage
* This material was written by Katherine Drechsler and Dr. Sarah
of change. If the problem continues to grow and the individual Hessenauer. Ms. Drechsler is a lecturer at the University of Wisconsin–
begins to make plans to change, this is considered the prepa- Whitewater and is a doctoral student in social work at George Williams
ration stage of the change process. When individuals start the College. Dr. Hessenauer is an associate professor and chair of the Social
Work Department at the University of Wisconsin–Whitewater.
action stage of change, their mental, physical, and social forces a. Harris, J., & Hill, R. (2011). Principles and practice of group work in
have been organized and they begin to take steps to make the addictions. New York, NY: Routledge.
change. If the clients continue to maintain the change, it is said b. Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. (2005). Substance abuse treat-
ment group therapy. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health
that they are in the maintenance stage of change. This model Services Administration. (Treatment Improvement Protocol [TIP]
does expect and prepares for individuals to possibly go back Series, No. 41.) Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.mh.gov/books
to the problem behavior.j /NBK64220/.
c. Ibid.
d. Ibid.
e. Ibid
EXERCISE: “A DAY IN THE LIFE” f. Ibid.
An example of an exercise that could be completed in a group g. Ibid.
setting with clients who are in the precontemplation or contem- h. Prochaska, J. O., & DiClemente, C. C. (1982). Trans-theoretical therapy
toward a more integrative model of change. Psychotherapy Theory,
plation stage of change with their substance use is as follows: Research and Practice 19(3), 276–288.
i. Crouch, C., DiClemente, C., Maner, G., & Velasquez, M. (2001). Group
Goal treatment for substance abuse: A stages-of-change therapy manual.
New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
The name of the exercise is called “A Day in the Life.” The j. Ibid.
change-process objective for the exercise is for group members k. Ibid.
Sensitivity and Encounter Training

Encounter groups, sensitivity training groups, and T (training) groups all refer to a group
experience in which people relate to each other in a close interpersonal manner and
self-disclosure is required. The goal is to improve interpersonal awareness. The goal of
sensitivity training groups is to have members develop an increased sensitive awareness
and understanding of oneself and one’s relationships with others. Members participate in
discussions and experiential activities to improve interpersonal awareness.16
An encounter group may meet for a few hours or over a few days. Once increased
interpersonal awareness is achieved, it is anticipated that attitudes and behaviors will
change. For these changes to occur, a three-phase process generally takes place: unfreezing,
change, and refreezing.17
Unfreezing occurs in encounter groups through a deliberate process of interacting in
nontraditional ways. Our attitudes and behavior patterns have been developed through years
of social experiences. Such patterns, following years of experimentation and refinement, have
now become nearly automatic. The interpersonal style we develop through years of trial and
error generally has considerable utility in our everyday interactions. Deep down, however, we
may recognize a need for improvement but are reluctant to make the effort, partly because our
present style is somewhat functional and partly because we are afraid to reveal things about
ourselves. Unfreezing occurs when we decide certain patterns of our present behavior need to
be changed and we are psychologically ready to explore ways to make changes.
Tubbs and Baird describe the unfreezing process in sensitivity groups:
Unfreezing occurs when our expectations are violated. We become less sure of ourselves
when traditional ways of doing things are not followed. In the encounter group, the leader
usually does not act like a leader. He or she frequently starts with a brief statement encour-
aging the group members to participate, to be open and honest, and to expect things to
be different. Group members may begin by taking off their shoes, sitting in a circle on the
floor, and holding hands with their eyes closed. The leader then encourages them to feel
intensely the sensations they are experiencing, the size and texture of the hands they are
holding, and so forth.
Other structured exercises or experiences may be planned to help the group focus on the
“here-and-now” experience. Pairs may go for “trust walks” in which each person alternately
is led around with eyes closed. Sitting face to face and conducting a hand dialogue or a
silent facial mirroring often helps to break the initial barriers to change. Other techniques
may involve the “pass around” in which a person in the center of a tight circle relaxes and is
physically passed around the circle. Those who have trouble feeling a part of the group are
encouraged to break into or out of the circle of people whose hands are tightly held. With
these experiences, most participants begin to feel more open to conversation about what
they have experienced. This sharing of experiences or self-disclosure about the here and
now provides more data for the group to discuss.18
The second phase of the process involves making changes in attitudes and behavior patterns,
which are usually facilitated by spontaneous feedback as to how a person “comes across”
to others. In everyday interaction, spontaneous feedback seldom occurs, so ineffective
interaction patterns are repeated. In sensitivity groups, feedback is strongly encouraged, as
the following interaction illustrates:
Carl: All right (in a sharp tone), let’s get this trust walk over with and stop dillydally-
ing around. I’ll lead the first person around—who wants to be blindfolded first?
Judy: I feel uncomfortable about your statement. I feel you are saying this group is
a waste of your time. Also, this appears to be your third attempt this evening to
“boss” us around.
Jim: I also feel like you are trying to tell us peons what to do. Even the tone of your
voice is autocratic and suggests some disgust with this group.
Carl: I’m sorry. I didn’t mean it to sound like that. I wonder if I do that outside the
group too?
Such feedback provides us with new insights on how we affect others. Once problem
interactions are identified, that member is encouraged to try out new response patterns in
the relative safety of the group.
The third and final phase involves “refreezing,” a term that is not an accurate descrip-
tion because it implies rigidity within a new set of response patterns. On the contrary, by
experimenting with new sets of behaviors, a group member becomes a growing, continu-
ally changing person who becomes increasingly effective in interacting with others. In ter-
minating a sensitivity group, the leader may alert the participants to be “on guard” as old
behavior patterns tend to creep back in.
Sensitivity groups usually generate an outpouring of emotions, as do treatment groups.
Sensitivity groups provide an interesting contrast to treatment groups. In treatment groups,
each member explores personal and emotional problems in depth and then develops strat-
egies to resolve them. Sensitivity groups generally do not directly attempt to identify and
change specific emotional or personal problems, such as drinking, feelings of depression, or
sexual dysfunctions. The philosophy behind sensitivity groups is that by simply increasing
personal and interpersonal awareness, people will be better able to avoid, cope with, and
handle specific personal problems that arise.
Despite their popularity, sensitivity groups remain controversial. In some cases,
inadequately trained and incompetent individuals have become self-proclaimed leaders
and enticed people to join through sensational advertising. If handled poorly, the short
duration of some groups may intensify personal problems; for example, a person’s defense
mechanisms may be stripped away without first developing adaptive coping patterns. Many
authorities on sensitivity training disclaim the use of encounter groups as a form of psycho-
therapy and discourage those with serious personal problems from joining such a group.
Carl Rogers, in reviewing his own extensive experience as leader/participant, echoes these
concerns:
Frequently the behavior changes that occur, if any, are not lasting. In addition, the indi-
vidual may become deeply involved in revealing himself and then be left with problems
which are not worked through. Less common, but still noteworthy, there are also very
occasional accounts of an individual having a psychotic episode during or immediately fol-
lowing an intensive group experience. We must keep in mind that not all people are suited
for groups.19
In some cases, the popularity of sensitivity groups has led some individuals to enter harm-
ful groups with incompetent leaders where normal ethical standards have been abused.
Shostrom has identified some means by which those interested in encounter groups can
prevent exploitation: (1) Never participate in a group of fewer than a half-dozen members.
The necessary and valuable candor generated by an effective group cannot be dissipated,
shared, or examined by too small a group, and scapegoating or purely vicious ganging up
can develop. (2) Never join an encounter group on impulse—as a fling, binge, or surrender
to the unplanned. (3) Never stay with a group that has a behavioral ax to grind. (4) Never
participate in a group that lacks formal connection with a professional who has proper
credentials.20
After reviewing the research on the outcome of sensitivity groups, Lieberman, Yalom,
and Miles provide an appropriate perspective for those interested in the intensive group
experience:
Encounter groups present a clear and evident danger if they are used for radical surgery to
produce a new man [person]. The danger is even greater when the leader and the partici-
pants share this misconception. If we no longer expect groups to produce magical, lasting
change and if we stop seeing them as panaceas, we can regard them as useful, socially sanc-
tioned opportunities for human beings to explore and to express themselves. Then we can
begin to work on ways to improve them so that they may make a meaningful contribution
toward solving human problems.21
Contrasting Goals of Treatment Groups versus Sensitivity Groups
TREATMENT GROUPS SENSITIVITY GROUPS

Step 1: Examine problems in depth. Step 1: Help each person become more aware of himself
Step 2: Develop and select from various resolution approaches or herself and how he or she affects others in interpersonal
a strategy to resolve the problem. interactions.
Step 2: Help a person develop more effective interaction
patterns.
INITIAL DEVELOPMENT OF GROUPS

The process of establishing and conducting groups varies significantly, depending on the
type of group and the specific purposes to be achieved. However, for a group to reach its
maximum potential, some unifying or common elements still need to be addressed prior
to establishing the group. These factors described in this section include determining a
group’s objectives, size, open-ended or closed-ended status, and duration. In addition,
because specific pitfalls or dilemmas characterize certain types of groups, plans must be
made to prevent or handle problems should they arise.
Determining Objectives
Careful consideration must be given to the objectives for a group being formed in order
to select effective members. For example, problem-solving groups often require the
expertise of professionals in other disciplines—professionals whose skills and knowl-
edge directly contribute to the accomplishment of group goals; some of these profes-
sionals may have backgrounds, training, and perceptions that differ from those of the
social worker. Although this approach produces a group with a wealth of expertise,
it creates additional demands on the leader. When the members have diverse back-
grounds and interests, other difficulties include problems encountered in setting goals,
prioritizing goals, and determining tasks to be performed. Educational groups, on the
other hand, are usually composed of members who share a common interest in a par-
ticular area, such as childrearing skills. Individuals with similar needs join an educa-
tional group primarily to gain rather than dispense information. This tends to make
leadership easier. Because potential members of treatment groups (unlike those of
problem-solving or educational groups) often have diverse problems and may also have
interactional difficulties, a much more thorough screening of members is required.
Therefore, it is essential that the objectives or purposes of each group be established
at the beginning because they have a significant impact on the process of membership
selection and other aspects of functioning.
Size
The size of a group affects members’ satisfaction, interaction, and the amount of output
per member. Although smaller groups are generally rated more favorably, larger groups
are often more successful in resolving complex problems.22 Although members in larger
groups experience more stress and greater communication difficulties, they usually bring
a greater number of problem-solving skills and resources to the group as a whole. Because
each person has fewer opportunities to interact in a large group, some members feel inhib-
ited and reluctant to talk. As the size of the group increases, discussion generally hinges on
the input of the most frequent contributor, who assumes a dominant role. As a result, the
gap in participation widens between the most frequent contributor and the other members
of the group.
In his research on group size, Slater found that groups of five people were considered
most satisfactory by members themselves and most effective in dealing with an intellectual
task involving the collection and exchange of information about a situation; the coordina-
tion, analysis, and evaluation of this information; and a group decision regarding the appro-
priate administrative action to be taken.23 In a group of five members, a number of different
relationships can be formed with a moderate level of intimacy. Several individuals can also
act as “buffers” who deal with strained situations or power plays. If a vote is needed to
resolve a dispute, obviously a two-two split can be avoided. In groups smaller than five,
Slater observed, the members were inhibited from expressing their ideas through fear of
alienating one another and thereby destroying the group. In groups of more than five,
members also felt inhibited and participated less often.
Groups with an even number of members tend to have higher rates of disagreement
and antagonism than those with an odd number, apparently because of the possible division
of the group into two equal subdivisions.24 For each task to be accomplished, there is prob-
ably an optimal group size. The more complex the task, the larger the optimal size, so that
the knowledge, abilities, and skills of many members are available to accomplish the task. A
group should be large enough to allow members to speak freely without being inhibited and
small enough to permit a moderate level of intimacy and involvement.
Open-Ended versus Closed-Ended Groups

Whether the group will be open ended, with new members added as old members leave,
or whether the membership will remain constant until termination (closed ended) should
be determined at the outset. Open-ended groups provide a measure of synergism through
the addition of new members. As new individuals join, they provide a different viewpoint,
even though they usually are gradually socialized into group norms and practices by the
older members. The impact of such changes is not all beneficial, however. The constant
change in membership may inhibit openness and detract from the sense of trust needed
before certain subjects are broached. In addition, open groups are likely to “have members
at different levels of commitment to the process and members [who are not] at the same
stages of development.”25
A closed-ended group can often function more effectively because it has a relatively
constant population and often operates within a specified time frame.26 Although the
premature loss of members can seriously damage such a group’s effectiveness, a leader
must deal with member termination in both open and closed groups and plan for this
eventuality.
Duration
The duration of a group has two related components: the number of sessions and the length
of each session. Many groups meet for 1 to 2 hours once or twice a week for a specified
number of weeks. Meeting for 1 to 2 hours tends to optimize productive activity and behav-
ior. Meeting lengths shorter than 1 hour usually do not allow sufficient time to thoroughly
discuss the issues that are raised. In meetings that last longer than 3 hours, members tend
to become drowsy, frustrated, and unable to concentrate. Although a meeting length of 1 to
2 hours appears to be a guideline for optimal functioning in many groups, at times pressing
issues may necessitate a longer meeting to process and conclude group business. Obvi-
ously, if a crisis occurs 5 minutes before the end of the meeting, the group leader should
not conclude the session. By the same token, some discussions can become so intense that
they could last indefinitely and accomplish little. A pragmatic approach to terminating each
meeting or series of meetings within a set time frame will enhance the group’s respect for
the leader and foster the group’s development.
Setting meetings in which there are 3 or 4 (or more) days between meetings usually
allows the members some time to work on tasks that are designed to accomplish their per-
sonal goals and the goals of the group. For example, in educational groups, members can
study and complete homework assignments between meetings. In treatment groups, mem-
bers can carry out homework assignments designed to reduce or resolve personal problems.
STAGES OF GROUPS
The steps involved in planning and implementing educational, treatment, and socialization
groups are similar to the procedures followed by social workers who deal with individual clients:
GROUPS INDIVIDUALS
intake intake
selection of members assessment and planning
assessment and planning intervention
group development and intervention evaluation and termination
evaluation and termination
Inexperienced group leaders usually expect a smooth transition from one stage to
another and are disappointed if this does not occur. Therefore, many new practitioners tend
to force the group out of one stage into another instead of allowing the natural growth pro-
cess to evolve. Experience will demonstrate the futility of these efforts as, barring unfore-
seen circumstances, each group will move at its own pace and eventually arrive at the same
destination. Groups that skip stages or whose development is otherwise thwarted will often
return to a previous stage to complete unfinished business. Although groups do sometimes
become mired in one stage, these occurrences are less common than generally thought.
The procedures for establishing socialization, educational, and treatment groups are briefly
summarized in the following material and expanded upon throughout the text.
Intake
During intake, the presenting concerns and needs of prospective members are identi-
fied. Judgments that some or all of these people could benefit from a group approach are
made. An agreement is often formulated between the members of the group and the group
leader about tentative group goals (see Chapter 4). This stage may also be referred to as the
contract stage, as the leader and the members make a commitment to pursue the situation
to the next step.
Selection of Members
Individuals most likely to benefit from a group should be selected as members. Selecting a
group requires attention to both descriptive and behavioral factors.27 A decision needs to
be made whether to seek homogeneity or diversity in these factors. There are few guide-
lines as to when diversity and when homogeneity of these factors will be most effective and
efficient. Age, sex, and level of education are descriptive factors that may create homogene-
ity or foster diversity within the group. In groups of children and adolescents, the age span
among members must be kept relatively small because levels of maturity and interests can
vary greatly. Similarly, same-sex groupings may facilitate achieving group goals for pre-
adolescents, but for middle-adolescent groups there may be specific advantages to having
representation from both sexes.
The behavioral attributes expected of a group member will also have a major
effect on the attainment of group objectives. For example, placing several hyperactive or
aggressive youngsters in a group may be a prelude to failure. Members may be selected
for their value as models for appropriate behavior or because they possess other per-
sonal characteristics expected to enhance the group. As a general rule, the best judgment
regarding a member’s potential contribution to the group is obtained by looking at past
behavioral attributes.28
Assessment and Planning

A more in-depth assessment and statement of goals and plans for action occur during this
phase. In reality, this step is completed only when the group ends because the dynamic
nature of most groups requires an ongoing adjustment of goals and intervention plans.
Goals should be time limited with a reasonable chance for attainment, and the leader should
ensure that all goals are clearly stated to aid in later evaluations. Clarification of goals also
eliminates hidden agendas.
Group Development and Intervention

Numerous models of group development have evolved. Four of these models are described
in the following section of this chapter, entitled “Models of Group Development over Time.”
Evaluation and Termination

To think of evaluation as a specific point in the life of a group is perhaps not realistic
because evaluation must be an ongoing process. The decision to terminate a group may be
based on the accomplishment of group or individual goals, the expiration of a predeter-
mined period of time, the failure of the group to achieve desired ends, the relocation of the
leader of the group, or a shortage of funds to keep the group going.
The termination of a group often produces the same reactions that characterize the ter-
mination of other significant relationships, including the feeling of being rejected. The group
leader must be aware of these potential feelings and help group members terminate with a min-
imum of difficulty. Additional material on how to terminate a group is presented in Chapter 14.
LO 3 Understand Four Models of Group

Development over Time
MODELS OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT OVER TIME
Groups change over time. Numerous framework models have been developed to describe
these changes. The models of group development described here are (1) the Garland, Jones,
and Kolodny Model; (2) the Tuckman Model; (3) the Northen and Kurland Model; and
EP 6a (4) the Bales Model.
EP 7b
Garland, Jones, and Kolodny Model
Garland, Jones, and Kolodny developed a model that identifies live stages of development
in social work groups.29 By describing and understanding the various kinds of developmen-
tal problems in groups, leaders can more effectively anticipate and respond to the reactions
of group members. The conceptualization of Garland et al. appears particularly applicable
to socialization, therapeutic, and encounter groups; to a lesser extent, the model is appli-
cable to self-help, task, problem-solving and decision-making, educational, and recreation/
skill groups.
Emotional closeness among members is the central focus of the model and is reflected
in struggles that occur at five stages of group growth: preaffiliation, power and control,
intimacy, differentiation, and separation.
Preaffiliation In the first stage, preaffiliation, members are ambivalent about joining the
group and interaction is guarded. Members test out, often through approach and avoidance
behavior, whether they really want to belong. Because new situations are often frightening,
members attempt to protect themselves from being hurt or taken advantage of, maintaining
a certain amount of distance and attempting to get what they can from the group without
taking many risks. Even though individuals are aware that group involvement will make
demands that may be frustrating or even painful, they are attracted because of rewards and
satisfying experiences in other groups. These former positive ramifications are transferred
to the “new” group. During this first stage, the leader tries to make the group appear as
attractive as possible “by allowing and supporting distance, gently inviting trust, facilitating
exploration of the physical and psychological milieu, and by providing activities if neces-
sary and initiating group structure.”30 This stage ends gradually as members begin to feel
safe and comfortable within the group and to view its rewards as worth a tentative emo-
tional commitment.
Power and Control In the second stage, power and control, the character of the group
begins to emerge. Patterns of communication, alliances, and subgroups begin to develop.
Understand Four Models of Group Development over Time 19
Individuals assume certain roles and responsibilities, establish norms and methods for han-
dling group tasks, and begin to ask questions. Although these processes are necessary to
conduct meetings, they also lead to a power struggle, in which each member attempts to
gain greater control over the gratifications and rewards to be received from the group. A
major source of gratification for any group is the leader, who influences the direction of
the group and gives or withholds emotional and material rewards. At this point, members
realize that the group is becoming important to them. This second stage is transitional,
with certain basic issues requiring resolution: Does the group or the leader have primary
control? What are the limits of the power of the group and of the leader, and to what extent
will the leader use his or her power?
This uncertainty results in anxiety and considerable testing by group members to
gauge limits and establish norms for the power and authority of both the group and
the leader. Rebellion is not uncommon, and the dropout rate in groups is often highest
at this stage. During this struggle the leader should (1) help the members understand
the nature of the power struggle, (2) give emotional support to help members weather
the discomfort of uncertainty, and (3) help establish norms to resolve the uncertainty.
Group members must trust the leader to maintain a safe balance of shared power and
control. When that trust is achieved, group members make a major commitment to
become involved.
Intimacy In the third stage, intimacy, the likes and dislikes of intimate relationships are
expressed. The group becomes more like a family, with sibling rivalry exhibited and with
the leader sometimes referred to as a parent. Feelings are more openly expressed and dis-
cussed, and the group is viewed as a place where growth and change take place. Individuals
feel free to examine and make efforts to change personal attitudes, concerns, and problems,
and there is a feeling of “oneness” or cohesiveness. Members struggle to explore and make
changes in their personal lives and to examine “what this group is all about.”
Differentiation During the fourth stage, differentiation, members are freer to experi-
ment with new and alternative behavior patterns because they recognize individual rights
and needs, and they communicate more effectively. Leadership is more evenly shared, roles
are more functional, and the organization itself is more efficient. Power problems are now
minimal, and decisions are made and carried out on a less emotional and more objective
basis. Garland and Frey note:
This kind of individualized therapeutic cohesion has been achieved because the group
experience has all along valued and nurtured individual integrity. . .
The worker assists in this stage by helping the group to run itself and by encouraging it to act
as a unit with other groups or in the wider community. During this time the [social] worker
exploits opportunities for evaluation by the group of its activities, feelings and behavior.31
The differentiation stage is analogous to a healthy functioning family in which the chil-
dren have reached adulthood and are now becoming successful in pursuing their own lives.
Relationships are more often between equals, and members are mutually supportive and
able to relate to each other in more rational and objective ways.
Separation The final stage is separation. Group purposes have been achieved, and
members have learned new behavioral patterns to enable them to move on to other social
experiences. Termination is not always easily accomplished, as members may be reluctant
to move on and may display regressive behavior to prolong the existence of the group.
Members may express anger or may psychologically deny that termination is approaching.
Garland and Frey describe the leader’s (or social worker’s) role this way:
To facilitate separation the [social] worker must be willing to let go. Concentration
upon group and individual mobility, evaluation of the experience, help with the expres-
sion of the ambivalence about termination and recognition of the progress which has
EXERCISE 1.1 The Garland, Jones, and Kolodny Model
GOAL: This exercise is designed to help you analyze groups in terms of the Garland, Jones, and Kolodny Model.
Write a description of a group that you have participated in that has at least some of the group development stages identified by
the Garland, Jones, and Kolodny Model. Identify the stages of your group that are consistent with the model. Also describe any
developmental stages of your group that are inconsistent with this model.
been made are his major tasks. Acceptance of termination is facilitated by active guid-
ance of members as individuals to other ongoing sources of support and assistance.32
Tuckman Model
Tuckman reviewed more than 50 studies, primarily of limited-duration therapy and sen-
sitivity groups, and concluded that these groups go through the following five predictable
developmental stages: forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.33 Each
stage will be briefly described.
Forming Members become oriented toward each other, work on being accepted, and
learn more about the group. This stage is marked by a period of uncertainty in which
members try to determine their places in the group and learn the group’s rules and
procedures.
Storming Conflicts begin to arise as members resist the influence of the group and rebel
against accomplishing their tasks. Members confront their various differences, and the
management of conflict often becomes the focus of attention.
Norming The group establishes cohesiveness and commitment. In the process, the
members discover new ways to work together. Norms are also set for appropriate behavior.
Performing The group works as a unit to achieve group goals. Members develop
proficiency in achieving goals and become more flexible in their patterns of working
together.
Adjourning The group disbands. The feelings that members experience are similar to
those in the “separation stage” of the Garland, Jones, and Kolodny Model described in the
previous section.
Understand Four Models of Group Development over Time 21
EXERCISE 1.2 The Tuckman Model
GOAL: This exercise is designed to help you analyze groups in terms of the Tuckman Model.
Write a description of a group that you have participated in that has at least some of the group development stages identified by
the Tuckman Model. Identify the stages of your group that are consistent with the model. Also describe any developmental stages
of your group that are inconsistent with this model.
Northen and Kurland Model*

Northen and Kurland focus on stages of group development and point out that each stage
has its own developmental issues that must be attended to and at least partially resolved
before the group can move into the next stage.34 Northen and Kurland propose a four-stage
model with emphasis on socioemotional themes.
Inclusion-Orientation The main socioemotional theme of this stage, as the title

implies, is whether or not group members will feel included. This stage is typically marked
by anxiety and uncertainty as group members become acquainted with the group leader
and each other. “The major task for the members is to become oriented to the group and to
decide to be included in the group’s membership.”35
Uncertainty-Exploration The major theme of this stage has to do with group mem-
bers’ uncertainty regarding issues of power and control. The socioemotional issue pertains
to conflict, especially in relation to the group leader. Group members at this stage explore
and test their relationships with the leader and each other in order to establish roles and
develop trust and acceptance.
Mutuality-Goal Achievement At this stage, the group is characterized by mutual aid

and problem solving. Socioemotional patterns among group members show greater self-
disclosure, empathy, and mutual acceptance. Conflict and differences are dealt with as a
means to achieve both individual and group goals.
Separation-Termination The final stage focuses on the socioemotional issues of separation

and termination. Members at this stage may be reluctant to leave the leader and the group. The
task here is to help prepare members for termination, deal with any unfinished business, and, most
important, help group members transfer what they have learned in group to life outside the group.
* The description of this model was written by Michael Wallace, MSW, retired instructor of the University of
Wisconsin–Whitewater.
Another random document with
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RUSSIAN TEA CAKES Crunchy, sugared, nut-filled snowballs.
This favorite with men came to us from a man. Carl Burkland, a radio executive of
New York City, made them himself for me one Christmas season.
Mix together thoroughly ...
1 cup soft butter

½ cup sifted confectioners’ sugar
1 tsp. vanilla
Sift together and stir in ...
2¼ cups sifted GOLD MEDAL Flour

¼ tsp. salt
Mix in ...
¾ cup finely chopped nuts
Chill dough. Roll into 1″ balls. Place 2½″ apart on ungreased baking
sheet. Bake until set, but not brown. While still warm, roll in
confectioners’ sugar. Cool. Roll in sugar again.
temperature: 400° (mod. hot oven).
time: Bake 10 to 12 min.
amount: About 4 doz. 1½″ cookies.
MANDEL KAGER (Almond Cookies)

These little cakes of intriguing flavor are always on hand for Norway’s holiday
festivities.
1 cup soft shortening (part butter)

½ cup sugar
1 egg
Sift together and stir in ...

1⅔ cups sifted GOLD MEDAL Flour
½ tsp. baking powder
1 tbsp. cinnamon (3 tsp.)
1 to 1½ tsp. ground cardamom
Mix in ...
½ cup chopped toasted almonds
Chill dough. Roll into 1″ balls. Place on ungreased baking sheet.

Flatten slightly. Brush tops with egg glaze (1 slightly beaten egg yolk
mixed with 1 tbsp. water). Top each with a blanched almond half.
Bake until golden brown.
temperature: 375° (quick mod. oven).
amount: About 3½ doz. 1½″ cookies.
BERLINER KRANSER (Berlin Wreaths)
Delicious and buttery, these gay little
wreaths are made each holiday
season in Norway.
1½ cups soft shortening

(half butter)
1 cup sugar
2 tsp. grated orange rind
2 eggs
Stir in ... Life-size candid camera shot of a

Berliner Krans.
4 cups sifted GOLD
MEDAL Flour
Chill dough. Break off small pieces and roll to pencil size about 6″
long and ¼″ thick. Form each piece into a circle, bringing one end
over and through in a single knot. (See sketch above.) Leave ½″ end
on each side. Place on ungreased baking sheet. Brush tops with
meringue (made by beating 1 egg white until stiff, gradually beating
in 2 tbsp. sugar). Press bits of red candied cherries on center of knot
for holly berries. Add little jagged leaves cut out of green citron. Bake
until set ... but not brown.
amount: About 6 doz. 2″ cookies.
to shape a Berliner Krans: Forma

circle and bring one end over and
through.
If rich dough splits apart or seems
crumbly, let it get slightly warm or
work in a few drops of liquid until the
dough sticks together.
PRESS COOKIES Buttery morsels
in intriguing shapes.
HOW TO MAKE
COOKIES WITH A
PRESS
Force dough through a
cooky press (or pastry
tube). Follow directions
accompanying cooky
press. Hold the press
upright, and force out the
dough until it appears at
the edge of the mold ...
then lift the press away.
SPRITZ ( Recipe) (“Spurted out of a press”)
Crisp, fragile, buttery-tasting curlicues.
1 cup soft butter

⅔ cup sugar
3 egg yolks
1 tsp. flavoring (almond or vanilla) or 4 tbsp. grated almonds.
Work in with the hands ...
2½ cups sifted GOLD MEDAL Flour
Chill dough. Force through cooky press onto ungreased baking

sheet in letter S’s, rosettes, fluted bars, or other desired shapes.
Bake until set ... but not brown.
amount: About 6 doz. cookies.
CHOCOLATE SPRITZ
Follow recipe above—but blend into the shortening mixture 4 sq.
unsweetened chocolate (4 oz.), melted.
Have baking sheet cold before forcing cooky dough through press onto it. If sheet
is not cold, the fat in the dough will melt and the cookies will pull away from the
sheet when the press is lifted.
BUTTER COOKIES
Follow recipe for Butter Cookies on p. 31. Force chilled dough
through cooky press onto ungreased baking sheet in form of flowers,
wreaths, or any desired shapes.
★ ALMOND WREATHS
Beautiful almond-topped
garlands.
1 cup soft shortening

(mostly butter)
Dough for press cookies may be rolled
¾ cup confectioners’ sugar
out and cut into desired shapes. For
2 egg yolks wreaths, cut with scalloped cooky cutter
1 egg white ... then cut out center with a smaller
1 tsp. vanilla sized cutter.
¼ tsp. salt
Sift together and work in with the hands ...
2 cups sifted GOLD MEDAL Flour
Chill dough. Force through cooky press onto ungreased baking

sheet in shape of wreaths. Brush wreaths with slightly beaten egg
white. Sprinkle with mixture of 2 tbsp. sugar, ¼ tsp. cinnamon, and ¼
cup very finely chopped blanched almonds. Bake until set ... but not
brown.
TO DECORATE
Press bits of red or green candied cherry into top of wreaths to
simulate a bow.
temperature: 350° (mod. oven).
amount: About 6 doz. cookies.
ALPHABETICAL INDEX
General Methods, pages 14 and 15
Almond Crescents, 41
Almond Macaroons, 21
Almond Paste, 21
Almond Wreaths, 43
Animal Cookies, 37
Applesauce Cookies, 17
Bar Cookies, 26
Bell Cookies, 37
Berliner Kranser, 42
Boy and Girl Cookies, 37
Brazil or Pecan Jumbles, 20
Brown Sugar Drops, 16
Brownies, 26
Burnt Butter Icing, 18
Busy-Day Coconut Drops, 16
Busy-Day Nut Drops, 16
Butter Cookies, 31 and 43
Butter Fingers, 41
Butterscotch Cookies, 18
Caraway Cookies, 30
Cherry and Hatchet Cookies, 31
Cherry-Coconut Macaroons, 21
Chocolate Chip Cookies, 20
Chocolate-Coconut Macaroons, 21
Chocolate Cream Drops, 18
Chocolate-Frosted Brownies, 26
Chocolate Icing, 18
Chocolate Pinwheels, 30
Chocolate Refrigerator Cookies, 22
Chocolate Spritz, 43
Christmas Tree Cookies, 37
Coconut Cream Drops, 18
Coconut Jumbles, 20
Coconut-Lemon Bars, 28
Coconut Macaroons, 21
Coffee-and-Spice Drops, 17
Cookies with Faces, 31
Dainty Tea Brownies, 26

Date-and-Nut Squares, 27
Date-Apricot Bars, 29
Date Bars or Matrimonial Cake, 29
Date-Nut Refrigerator Cookies, 22
Date-Oatmeal Cookies, 40
Decorating Icing, 31
Drop Cookies, 16
English Tea Cakes, 41
Fig Bars, 32
Filled Bar Cookies, 29
Filled Cookies, 32
Filled Cookies in Fancy Shapes, 32
Finska Kakor, 39
Flower Cookies, 31
Frosted Gingies, 34
Fruit-and-Nut Drops, 18
Ginger Creams, 19
Ginger Refrigerator Cookies, 23
Gingerbread Boys, 34
Gingies, 34
Glazed Orange Jumbles, 20
Glazing Icing, 38
Gold Cookies, 25
Hazelnut Bars, 29
Heart Cookies, 31
Hermits, 17
His Mother’s Oatmeal Cookies, 33
Holiday Fruit Cookies, 16
Honey Peanut Butter Cookies, 40
Jell-Meringue-Filbert Bars, 28
Jewelled Cookies, 27
Lebkuchen, 38
Lemon Icing, 26
Lemon Snowdrops, 41
Lemon Sugar Cookies, 30
Little Sugar Hats, 38
Macaroons, 21
Mandel Kager, 42
Marie’s Chocolate Icing, 26
Merry Christmas Cookies, 37
Mincemeat Cookies, 17
Miscellaneous Cookies, 25
Molasses Crinkles, 25
Molded Cookies, 40
Monkey-Faced Cookies, 19
New Northland Cookies, 23

Nurnberger, 38
Nut Refrigerator Cookies, 22
Nut Sugar Cookies, 30
Oatmeal Drop Cookies, 19

Oatmeal Refrigerator Cookies, 24
Old-Fashioned Sour Cream Drops, 18
Old-Time Cinnamon Jumbles, 20
Orange-Almond Refrigerator Cookies, 22
Orange-Chocolate Chip Cookies, 20
Peanut Butter Cookies, 40

Peanut Macaroons, 21
Petticoat Tails, 24
Pineapple Filling, 33
Place Cards or Favors, 31
Plantation Fruit Bars, 26
Poinsettias, 32
Press Cookies, 43
Prune Filling, 33
Prune-Orange Bars, 29
Quick Cream Icing, 19
Raisin, Fig and Date Filling, 33

Raisin, Fig or Date Filling, 33
Refrigerator Cookies, 22
Rich Sugar Cookies, 30
Rolled Cookies, 30
Russian Tea Cakes, 42
Salted Peanut Cookies, 16

Sandbakelser, 39
Scotch Shortbread, 39
Simple White Icing, 34
Snickerdoodles, 25
Spiced Prune Drops, 17
Spritz, 43
Star Cookies, 37
Stocking Cookies, 37
Stone Jar Molasses Cookies, 34
Sugar Cookies, 30
Sugar Jumbles, 20
3-in-1 Jumbles, 20
Thumbprint Cookies, 41
Toffee-Nut Bars, 28
Toy Cookies, 37
Tutti-Frutti Surprises, 27
Walnut Squares, 27
Washboards, 25
Wheaties-Coconut Macaroons, 21
Wheaties Drop Cookies, 17
Wreath Cookies, 37
Zucker Hütchen, 38
TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE
Attention has been paid to replicating the layout of the original where possible.
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changes have been made are noted below.
Disruptive blemishes on illustrations have been touched up, but there remain
some discolorations accumulated over time. Back cover has intentionally been
left unretouched in homage to the well loved condition in which most copies of
this book are found.
Illustrations without captions have had alt-text description added, this is denoted
with parentheses.
The indexes were not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page
references.
Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after
careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of
external sources. Some hyphens in words have been silently removed, some
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inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained.
Pp 22,23: Steps 3 and 4 of REFRIGERATOR COOKIES have been moved from

page 23 to be with 1 and 2 on page 22.
Pg 26,27: Recipe for Lemon Icing moved from Pg 27 to be with Plantation Fruit
Bars Pg 26
Pg 26: "next page" changed to "below" to reflect move of Lemon Icing
Pp 31; “opposite page” replaced with “above page”
Pp 32: “opposite page” replaced with “below”
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Empowerment Series Social Work With Groups Comprehensive Practice and Self Care 10Th Edition Charles Zastrow Full Chapter

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Empowerment Series: Social Work with

Groups: Comprehensive Practice and

Charles H. Zastrow, MSW, PhD

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Groups: Types and Stages Northen and Kurland Model

of Development 1 Sequential-Stage Models of Group Development

Historical Development of Group Work 1 Group Cohesion 23

Broker 36 Group Exercises 60

Homework 89 The Psychoanalyzer 123

Goals and Norms 106 EXERCISE E An Ornery Instructor 133

Chapter 6 Decision Making

A Variety of Task Groups 178 Simple Majority Vote 201

Summary 206 Group Development Stages in Women’s

Family Assessment 269 Theory Z 306

EXERCISE 11.1 My Physiological Reactions to High Levels

Chapter 13 EXERCISE 13.14 Achieving Closure in a Lost Relationship 439

Populations 400 Reality Orientation 443

Appendix 1 Theory of Behavior Therapy 500

(GTTRM) 471 Token Economies

Counseling Versus Therapy/Psychotherapy 471 EXERCISE M2.5 Token Economy 508

Group Exercise 549 EXERCISE M4.1 Lemons to Lemonade 565

EXERCISE I Double Messages Chapter 8

Structural Causes of Burnout Chapter 13

Theory of Behavior Therapy Ride the Wave

Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA)

LO 2 Identify the Primary Types of Groups in Social Work

A Problem-Solving and Decision-Making Group: Family Group Conferencing

is usually disbanded after the task is completed. A committee of an agency or organization

Problem Solving and Decision Making

Self-Help and Mutual Aid

A Self-Help Group: Parents Anonymous

A Socialization Group: A Group at a Runaway Center

COMMON TYPES OF TREATMENT GROUPS*

Symptom Management Groups

Anger Management Groups

Life Skills Groups

Social Skills Groups

Stress Management Groups

Group Therapy with Substance Use Disorders*

Group Therapy with Substance Use Disorders* (continued )

The stages-of-change therapy model can be used for group

Sensitivity and Encounter Training

Contrasting Goals of Treatment Groups versus Sensitivity Groups

TREATMENT GROUPS SENSITIVITY GROUPS

INITIAL DEVELOPMENT OF GROUPS

Open-Ended versus Closed-Ended Groups

Assessment and Planning

Group Development and Intervention

Evaluation and Termination

LO 3 Understand Four Models of Group

EXERCISE 1.1 The Garland, Jones, and Kolodny Model