An Introduction to the Ancient World

Lukas De Blois
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/an-introduction-to-the-ancient-world-lukas-de-blois/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

The Caucasus : An introduction Thomas De Waal

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-caucasus-an-introduction-
thomas-de-waal/

World History: From the Ancient World to the

Information Age Parker

https://textbookfull.com/product/world-history-from-the-ancient-
world-to-the-information-age-parker/

The Real World An Introduction to Sociology 5th Edition

Kerry Ferris

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-real-world-an-introduction-
to-sociology-5th-edition-kerry-ferris/

The Real World An Introduction to Sociology 6th Edition

Kerry Ferris

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-real-world-an-introduction-
to-sociology-6th-edition-kerry-ferris/
Virtue and Knowledge An Introduction to Ancient Greek
Ethics 1st Edition William J. Prior

https://textbookfull.com/product/virtue-and-knowledge-an-
introduction-to-ancient-greek-ethics-1st-edition-william-j-prior/

People of the Earth An Introduction to World Prehistory

15th Edition Fagan

https://textbookfull.com/product/people-of-the-earth-an-
introduction-to-world-prehistory-15th-edition-fagan/

An Introduction to the Languages of the World Second

Edition Anatole V. Lyovin

https://textbookfull.com/product/an-introduction-to-the-
languages-of-the-world-second-edition-anatole-v-lyovin/

The European World 1500 1800 An Introduction to Early

Modern History Beat Kümin

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-european-world-1500-1800-an-
introduction-to-early-modern-history-beat-kumin/

People of the Earth An Introduction to World Prehistory

15th Edition Brian M. Fagan

https://textbookfull.com/product/people-of-the-earth-an-
introduction-to-world-prehistory-15th-edition-brian-m-fagan/
An Introduction
to the Ancient
World
An Introduction to the Ancient World is an engaging and useful introductory text
for students who are encountering the ancient Mediterranean and Near East for the
first time. It is an excellent mix of erudition, concision and clarity that even advanced
students and professionals will find valuable and suitable to their needs. Few
introductory ancient history texts compare with An Introduction to the Ancient World,
and none surpass it. Having used it as a textbook in both my Western Civilization and
World Civilizations courses, it gives students a coherent overview that committee-
produced, expensive textbooks lack.
– Edward Dandrow, University of Central Florida, USA

An Introduction to the Ancient World offers a thorough survey of the history of the
ancient Near East, Greece and Rome. Covering the social, political, economic and
cultural processes that have influenced later western and Near Eastern civilisations,
this volume considers subjects such as the administrative structures, economies and
religions of the ancient Near East, Athenian democracy, the development of classical
Greek literature, the interaction of cultures in the Hellenistic world, the political
and administrative system of the Roman Republic and empire, and the coming of
Christianity, all within the broad outline of political history.

This third edition is thoroughly updated and some chapters are completely rewritten to
cover recent historical research. Changes include:

• more attention to economic structures and developments, and to the history of the
later Roman Empire (third to sixth centuries ad);
• incorporation of the results of recent archaeological and historical research, and
recently published studies of ancient literature;
• ‘boxes’ that support the main text, on topics including economic and political
systems, religion and terminology;
• redrawn maps and new, higher-quality images;
• the inclusion of useful websites in the bibliography.

An Introduction to the Ancient World provides an easily readable, user-friendly,

integrated overview for students of ancient history, classics and archaeology. Lavishly
illustrated, clearly and concisely written, and well organised, this fully updated and
revised edition will remain a key resource for students beginning to investigate the
civilisations of the ancient Mediterranean.

Lukas de Blois is Emeritus Professor of Ancient History at Radboud University,

Nijmegen, the Netherlands. He published books and articles on the history of the
Roman Empire in the third century ad, the history of the Late Roman Republic, ancient
historiography (Sallust, Tacitus, Cassius Dio), Plutarch’s biographies and Greek Sicily
in the fourth century bc. His most recent contribution is Image and Reality of Roman
Imperial Power in the Third Century ad (Routledge, 2018).

R.J. van der Spek is Emeritus Professor of Ancient Mediterranean and West Asian
History at the Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. He specialises in the
history of the ancient Near East in the context of Mediterranean history. He has
published on Hellenistic Babylonia and economic history. He edited two volumes in the
Routledge Explorations in Economic History on market performance (no. 68) and the
history of monetary policy (no. 80) from ancient Mesopotamia to the modern world.
An Introduction
to the Ancient
World
THIRD EDITION

LUKAS DE BLOIS AND

R.J. V A N D E R S P E K

First and second editions translated from the

Dutch by Susan Mellor
Third edition published 2019
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

and by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2019 Lukas de Blois and R.J. van der Spek

The right of Lukas de Blois and R.J. van der Spek to be identified as authors of
this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or

utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known
or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered

trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to
infringe.

First published in 1983 by Uitgeverij Coutino b.v.

First published in English by Routledge 1997
Second edition published by Routledge 2008

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book has been requested

ISBN: 978-1-138-50456-1 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-8153-7241-7 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-351-24546-3 (ebk)

Typeset in Avenir, Bell and Bembo

by Apex CoVantage, LLC
 v

CONTENTS
List of maps xiii
List of figuresxiv
List of boxes xx
Preface to the third edition xxi
Chronologyxxiii

INTRODUCTION 1

PART I
THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST 7

1 THE ORIGINS OF THE CIVILISATIONS OF

EGYPT AND MESOPOTAMIA 9

2 THE THIRD MILLENNIUM 15

The Early Bronze Age 15
Egypt, the Old Kingdom (c. 2600–c. 2150) 15
Mesopotamia, Sumer and Akkad 17
Epilogue 20

3 THE SECOND MILLENNIUM 22

The Middle Bronze Age (c. 2000–c. 1600) 22
Egypt, the Middle Kingdom (c. 2000–c. 1800) and
the Second Intermediate period (c. 1800–c. 1550) 22
Mesopotamia, the Old Assyrian and Old Babylonian periods 24
Northern Mesopotamia: the city of Assur and the kingdom of
Shamshi-Adad I (c. 2000–c. 1760) 25
Southern Mesopotamia, the Old Babylonian empire
(c. 1800–c. 1600) 25
The Late Bronze Age (c. 1600–c. 1200) 27
The ‘concert of powers’ 27
Egypt, the New Kingdom (c. 1550–c. 1100) 28
Babylonia and Assyria 32
Mitanni 32
The Hittite empire 32
Crete and Mycenae 33
International relations 35
vi C ontents

4 THE FIRST MILLENNIUM 38

The Early Iron Age (c. 1200–c. 750 bc) 38
Disruption and recovery 38
Egypt, the Third Intermediate period (c. 1100–715 bc) 39
Syria and the Phoenicians 40
Israel 42
The West Asian empires (c. 750 bc–ad 651) 44
The Neo-Assyrian empire 44
The Neo-Babylonian empire 47
The Persian or Achaemenid empire 49
The Hellenistic kingdoms 53
The Parthian or Arsacid empire 53
The Neo-Persian or Sasanid empire 54
The Roman empire 54
The Arabs 54

5 RELIGION 55
Polytheism 55
Henotheism and monotheism 63

6 ECONOMY AND SOCIET Y 66

Agricultural economy, land tenure 66
A ‘redistribution economy’ and market economy 66
Trade and means of payment 69
Social organisation 72

7 GOVERNMENT 76
Kingship 76
The administrative machinery 77
The army 79

PART II
THE GREEK WORLD 81

8 THE EARLY IRON AGE (c. 1200 – c. 750 b c ):

‘THE DARK AGES’ 83
Disruption and recovery 83

9 THE ARCHAIC PERIOD (c. 750 – c. 500 b c )85

Introduction 85
Demographic and economic changes 86
The polis 87
Colonisation 89
C ontents vii

Social changes 92
Military changes 94
Cultural changes 94
The alphabet 94
Literature 95
The visual arts 96
Architecture 96
Religion 96
Philosophy 104
Political changes 105
Tyranny 105
Sparta 106
Athens 109

10 THE CLASSICAL PERIOD (c. 500 – c. 330 b c )118

The Persian Wars 119
Sparta and Athens after 479 bc 121
The Delian League (477–404 bc) 123
Athenian leaders in the fifth century 124
Athens’s state income 125
The Great Peloponnesian War (431–404 bc) 127
The years between 404 and 336 bc 131
The Second Athenian League (377–355) 132
Social and military changes 133
The rise of Macedonia 133
Philip II (359–336): the end of the Classical
period in Greek history 134
The Athenian population in the fifth and fourth centuries bc 135
The metics 135
The slaves 135
Women in Athens and Sparta 137
Further development of the Athenian democracy 138
The Council of the Areopagus in 462/1 139
Pericles 140
The democracy and the fleet 140
Old and new politicians 141
The stability of the Athenian democracy 141
Criticism of the Athenian democracy 142
Athens as the centre of Greek culture in the Classical period 143
Attic drama 143
Philosophy 145
Historical writing 150
viii C ontents

The Greeks in the western Mediterranean 152

The economy of the Greek city states 154

11 THE HELLENISTIC WORLD (c. 330 – c. 30 b c )159

Introduction 159
Alexander the Great 160
From Alexander to the Roman conquest 162
Macedonia: the Antigonid kingdom 165
Athens and Sparta 165
Leagues of states in Greece 166
Asia: the Seleucid kingdom 166
Egypt: the Ptolemaic kingdom 167
The government and the cities of the Hellenistic kingdoms 170
Economy and society 172
Greece 172
The Near East 173
Cultural aspects 175
General 175
Greek religion 177
Near Eastern religions 180
Philosophy 180
Science 182
The Judeans (Jews) in the Hellenistic era 183
The impact of Hellenistic culture in the Parthian
kingdom and the Roman empire 186
Conclusion 187

PART III
ROME189

12 EARLY ROMAN HISTORY (753 –265 b c )191

The western Mediterranean 191
The Etruscans 192
Carthage 194
The origins of Rome 194
State and society in early Rome 196
A note on Roman names 198
The army and the Comitia Centuriata 198
The early republic (509–265 bc) 199
State and society 199
Roman expansion in Italy (509–265 bc) 200
Colonisation 203
C ontents ix

Municipia 205
The military character of Roman society 206
The struggle of the orders (c. 500–287 bc) 206
History of the struggle of the orders 209
The institutions of the Roman Republic at the end of
the struggle of the orders 211
The magistrates 211
The Senate 214
Nobiles, senators and equites 214
Social composition of the Roman population 217
The popular assemblies 219
An oligarchic government 221
A new type of client 222
Some demographic data 222

13 FURTHER EXPANSION AND NEW SOCIAL

TENSIONS (264 –133 b c )224
Roman expansion between 264 and 121 bc 224
The Punic Wars 224
Wars in Spain, the Po Valley and the Hellenistic east 229
Two forms of Roman expansion 230
The administration of a province 233
Disadvantages of Roman control 234
New social tensions 234
The consequences of Rome’s expansion 234
Slavery in Italy and Sicily 238
Slave revolts 238
Piracy 239
Some demographic data 240
The city of Rome 240
Inadequate organisation 240
A change in mentality 241
Greek influences 241
Literature and other forms of amusement 242

14 THE CENTURY OF THE CIVIL WARS (133 –30 b c )244

Serious problems and discontent 244
The Gracchi 246
Tiberius Gracchus 246
Gaius Gracchus 246
Political consequences of the Gracchan reforms 247
Marius’s military reforms 248
x C ontents

The Social War (91–88 bc) and the First Civil

War (88–82 bc) 252
Citizenship for the Italian allies 252
The popular assemblies 253
The First Civil War (88–82 bc) 254
The years 79–49 bc 257
Spartacus’s slave revolt (73–71 bc) 257
Pompey, Crassus and Caesar 257
The First Triumvirate 261
Chaos in Rome 261
The Second Civil War (49–45 bc) and its
aftermath (44–30 bc) 264
The flourishing of cultural life during the civil wars 268

15 THE EARLY IMPERIAL AGE (27 b c – ad 193) 270

Augustus 271
Augustus’s constitutional position and the real basis
of his power 271
The settlement of 27 bc: different types of provinces 271
The settlements of 23 and 19 bc 275
Changes in the administration 276
The Senate and the popular assemblies 278
The higher orders: senators and equites (knights) 279
The decuriones 280
The city of Rome 280
The army 281
Ideal and religious aspects of emperorship 283
Latin literature in the Augustan era 284
Augustus’s conquests 284
The early imperial age after Augustus (ad 14–193) 286
Wars and rebellions 286
Emperorship and the problem of the
emperor’s succession 291
Developments in administration after Augustus 297
The spread of Roman citizenship 298
Changes in the higher orders 299
Roman law 301
The western and eastern provinces 303
The western provinces 303
The eastern half of the empire 307
Agriculture, trade and crafts 309
The lower classes 309
C ontents xi

Trade 316
Work and status 316
Women in the Roman empire 316
Religion 321
Roman gods and religious practices 322
The introduction of foreign gods 325
The Christians 326

16 THE CRISIS OF THE THIRD CENTURY ad AND

LATE ANTIQUIT Y 333
Growing pressures on the northern and eastern
frontiers 333
The Germans 334
The Sasanid empire 337
Internal instability in the Roman empire 339
Military problems 339
Structural defects 340
The Severi (193–235) 340
Septimius Severus (193–211) 340
Roman citizenship for all free inhabitants of
the empire 342
The second half of the Severan era 343
The soldier emperors (235–284) 344
Diocletian (ruled 284–305) 349
Further expansion of bureaucracy 350
The Senate and the equestrian order 352
Emperorship and the emperor’s succession 352
The persecutions of the Christians 354
Constantine the Great (ruled 306–337) 355
Constantine’s conversion to Christianity 355
Constantinople 357
The army 358
Increased fiscal burdens and the monetary system 359
The Roman empire after Constantine 360
East and west 360
The Christian empire 364
The end of the Roman empire in the west 367

17 EPILOGUE 371
The end of the ancient world 371
xii C ontents

PART IV
APPENDICES375

Appendix 1: Greek and Roman names 377

Appendix 2: Near Eastern, Greek and Roman money 378
Appendix 3: The Roman emperors 380

Select bibliography 383

Websites 383
Bibliographies 383
Encyclopaedias 384
Works of general coverage 384
The ancient near east to alexander the great 384
The greeks 385
The hellenistic world 385
Rome 385

Index387
 xiii

MAPS

1.1 Rainfall in the Near East 13

2.1 The ancient Near East in the third millennium bc 18
3.1 Ancient Egypt 23
3.2 The Near East in the Middle Bronze Age 24
3.3 The Near East, 1600–1200 bc 28
4.1 The kingdoms of Israel and Judah, c. 850 bc 42
4.2 The Near East in the seventh and sixth centuries bc 48
4.3 The Persian empire, 539–331 bc 50
9.1a Influence of Greek culture in the Archaic and Classical
periods, c. 600–330 bc 90
9.1b Greek and Phoenician colonisation 91
9.2 Cleisthenes’s division of Attica into trittyes 116
10.1 Persian campaigns against the Greeks, 490–479 bc 120
10.2 Greece on the eve of the Peloponnesian War 121
10.3 Attica at the time of the Peloponnesian War, 431–404 bc 122
10.4 Greece c. 360 bc, just before the rise of Macedonia 132
11.1 Alexander’s empire 160
11.2 The Hellenistic kingdoms, c. 200 bc 164
12.1 The (western) Mediterranean in the fifth and fourth centuries bc 192
12.2 Peoples living in Italy c. 600 bc 196
12.3 Rome and her allies c. 350 bc 201
12.4 Rome and her allies 241 bc 202
12.5 The city of Rome in the republican era 207
13.1 Roman expansion, c. 500–220 bc 225
13.2 The expansion of the Roman empire between 218 and 120 bc 229
13.3 Rome and her Italian allies, 91 bc 237
14.1 Rome’s conquests and influence in Asia Minor, 133 bc onwards 256
14.2 The situation under Caesar and Pompey 262
15.1 The Roman empire under the emperor Augustus 288
15.2 The Roman empire under the emperor Trajan (98–117) 289
15.3 Areas occupied by the Celts and the Germans before the
Roman expansion 304
15.4 The limes (fortified frontier) of the lower Rhine, ad 47–260 314
15.5 Agricultural and industrial products and roads in the Roman empire 315
16.1 The Roman empire at the time of Diocletian and
Constantine the Great 350
16.2 The German migrations and the fall of the Western Roman
empire in the fifth century ad 368
xiv

LIST OF FIGURES

1.1 Sowing plough. Impression of a cylinder seal (second millennium) 10

1.2 Clay tablet from Jebel Aruda, Syria, length 9.2 cm, c. 3400–3200 bc 11
2.1 The crowns of Egypt 16
2.2 The pyramids of kings Cheops, Chephren and Mycerinus near Giza,
fourth dynasty 17
2.3 The Ziqqurat of Ur, Third Dynasty, c. 2100 bc 20
3.1 The Code of Hammurabi of Babylon, c. 1750 bc, height 2.25 m 26
3.2 Coronation of Queen Hatshepsut by Horus, the falcon-headed sky god,
and Thoth, the ibis-headed scribe of the gods 29
3.3 Relief showing Akhenaten, Nefertiti and their daughters 30
3.4 Temples at Abu Simbel, dedicated to Amon, Ra, Ptah and himself to
commemorate his victory at Kadesh 31
3.5 The throne room at the palace at Knossos (partly reconstructed) 34
3.6a The ‘Lion Gate’ in the south-western part of the fortifications of
Hattusha (c. fourteenth or thirteenth century bc) 35
3.6b The ‘Lion Gate’ in the north-western fortifications of Mycenae, built
c. 1300–1250 bc, which may have been inspired by the Lion
Gate of Hattusha 35
3.7 Ramses II in the battle at Kadesh against the Hittites, 1275 bc 36
4.1 Winged feline animal (60 cm) which served as a wooden front
leg of a chair 41
4.2 The Assyrian army attacks a town. Relief from the palace of Sargon II
in Dur-Sharrukin in Khorsabad (Room XIV) 45
4.3 Part of a relief from the palace of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh depicting
an Assyrian soldier conducting captives across the water 46
4.4 The Ishtar Gate of Babylon built by Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562),
rebuilt in the Pergamum Museum in Berlin 49
4.5a Human-headed winged bull, palace of Sargon II at Dur-Sharrukin,
c. 707 bc 52
4.5b Human-headed winged bull, Gate of All Nations at the palace of
Xerxes in Persepolis 52
5.1 The cosmos: papyrus of Paser, twenty-first dynasty, c. 1000 bc, showing
Egyptian gods 56
5.2 Egyptian gods Isis, Osiris and Horus (Late Period 700–330 bc) 57
5.3 The Phoenician god Melquart riding a lion: relief from the
seventh–sixth century bc, originally from the Phoenician city
Amrit in Syria, now in the Louvre 58
5.4 The Judgement of the Dead: illustration from the book of the dead of
Tayuheryt, twenty-first dynasty, c. 1000 bc 64
L I S T O F F igures xv

6.1 Relief from the palace of Sargon II in Dur-Sharrukin (Khorsabad)

depicting transport of cedars of the Lebanon (c. 710 bc) 71
6.2 Model of a palace economy 73
7.1 Tribute from Jehu of Bit Omri being paid to King Shalmaneser III.
The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III. 78
9.1 Proto-Corinthian pitcher (olpē) found in an Etruscan tomb on the
estate of Mario Chigi (now known as the ‘Chigi Vase’), c. 650–640,
showing hoplites in combat 93
9.2a Attic geometric wine pitcher (oinochoē) from Athens
(750–700 bc) 97
9.2b Early Corinthian wine pitcher (oinochoē) (c. 590–580 bc); upper band:
sphinx and knight on horseback; lower band: a ram and a lion 97
9.2c Panathenaic amphora, c. 490–480 bc, by the Kleophrades Painter 98
9.2d Red figure oil flask (lekythos) depicting man holding a lyre made of a
tortoise shell, c. 480 bc, by the Eucharides Painter 98
9.3a Egyptian sculpture of a nude male: Old Kingdom, fifth dynasty,
c. 2400 bc 99
9.3b Archaic sculpture of a young man (kouros) from Anavyssos in Attica,
‘Kroisos Kouros’: probably sixth century bc (c. 530) 99
9.4a Doric order 100
9.4b Ionic order 100
9.4c Corinthian order 100
9.5 The theatre at the sanctuary of the god Apollo at Delphi, Greece 101
9.6 Black-figure amphora, 530–510 bc, depicting the olive harvest 112
9.7 Scene showing Harmodius (right; depicted as clean-shaven because he
was younger) raising his weapon while his lover Aristogeiton
(left; bearded) stabs the tyrant Hipparchus 114
10.1 A modern reconstruction of an Athenian trireme 123
10.2 The ‘long walls’ between Athens and Piraeus 125
10.3 Bronze statuette (c. 460 bc) of Pallas Athena, the patron deity of the
city of Athens 126
10.4 Pericles (c. 495–429) wearing the helmet of a heavily armed soldier
(hoplite) 128
10.5 ‘Herm’ form, from the island of Siphnos 129
10.6 The Athenian acropolis, the city’s religious centre 136
10.7 A Greek private house 138
10.8 Attic red figure wine-cup (kylix), c. 500 bc, attributed to Onesimos 139
10.9 Schematic representation of the development of the theatre 144
10.10 Late classical terracotta statuette depicting an actor, wearing one of
the standardised masks they used for performances. Originally, it was
brightly painted. 146
10.11 Scene showing a Greek school represented on a cup by Douris
(c. 480 bc), found in Cerveteri (ancient Caere) in Italy 147
10.12 Socrates (469–399), bust from a herm 149
xvi L I S T O F F igures

10.13 The temple of Hera at Poseidonia or Paestum, fifth century bc 153
11.1 Model of the city of Pergamum, one of the most important foci of
Greek culture in the Hellenistic era 163
11.2 The Great Altar of Zeus of Pergamum, built to commemorate
Pergamum’s successes against the Galatians 164
11.3a Relief from the temple for the gods Horus and Sobek in southern
Egypt close to Aswan, built by Ptolemy VI (180–145) and his
successors. It depicts Ptolemy VI as pharaoh presenting an offering to
falcon god Horus (with double crown) and Isis, all in typical
Egyptian style. 168
11.3b Gold pentadrachm coin depicting Ptolemy II with royal
diadem; rev. eagle standing on a thunderbolt. Completely Greek
representation. 168
11.3c Limestone votive stela of a certain Nepheros with Greek
inscription. Nepheros dedicates a sanctuary to Isis and Serapis on
behalf of King Ptolemy XII (80–58 and 55–51 bc). The relief shows
the gods Thoth, Isis and Serapis in and a situla (bucket-shaped vessel).
On top a winged disk. 169
11.4 ‘The Dying Gaul’, a Roman copy of a typical Hellenistic sculpture.
The original is thought to have been commissioned by Attalus I in
Pergamum to celebrate victories over the Galatians. 176
11.5 Statuette representing Isis: Roman period, second century ad 178
11.6 Silver tetradrachm from Boeotia, c. 287 bc (16.86 g). Obverse: head of
laureate Poseidon; reverse: seated Poseidon with dolphin in right hand
and trident in left hand. 179
11.7 Fragment of a mummy shroud from Thebes: Roman imperial age,
second century ad 188
12.1 Etruscan Necropolis of the Banditaccia, Cerveteri 193
12.2 Republican coin, the reverse showing the story from the myth of the
she-wolf suckling Romulus and Remus after they were abandoned,
obverse showing the demigod Hercules 195
12.3 A silver coin (denarius) from 54 bc, minted at Rome. The obverse
shows the head of Libertas (a personification of ‘Freedom’),
the reverse the consul Lucius Junius Brutus walking between two
lictors, each carrying an axe over his shoulder, and preceded
by an assistant 199
12.4 The Via Appia, the first paved Roman road in Italy 204
12.5 Silver victory coin from an uncertain mint on Sicily, 211–208 bc. The
obverse (left) shows the laureate head of Jupiter; the reverse (right)
shows the deity Victoria placing a wreath on a tropaeum (trophy). 209
12.6 The Senate House (Curia), built in Julius Caesar’s time 213
12.7 The Rostra (speaker’s platform) in the Forum, Rome’s central square 215
12.8 A Roman noble with busts of his ancestors, known as the ‘Togatus
Barberini’ 216
L I S T O F F igures xvii

13.1 Boarding bridges used by the Romans during the First Punic War 226
13.2 Carthaginian coin (c. 220–205 bc) showing head of the Carthaginian
heroic god Melquart on the obverse (left), and a war elephant on the
reverse (right) 227
13.3 Battle order of a Roman legion at the time of the Second Punic War 228
13.4 A token from a slave chain 239
14.1 A Roman officer in the first century bc 249
14.2 Gold coin honouring Sulla as a dictator 255
14.3 Gnaeus Pompeius (Pompey) (106–48 bc) 259
14.4 The tomb of Caecilia Metella 260
14.5 G(aius) Julius Caesar (102–44 bc) 265
14.6 Silver coin of Mark Antony and Cleopatra (34 bc) 266
15.1 Augustus (27 bc–ad 14) 273
15.2 Silver coin (c. ad 134–138) showing the emperor Hadrian on the
obverse and a personification of Egypt on the reverse 274
15.3 Like the city of Rome, growing provincial towns needed aqueducts
to ensure a sufficient water supply. This is the aqueduct of Segovia
in Spain. 282
15.4 Part of the relief on the Altar of Peace (Ara Pacis) consecrated by
Augustus in 9 bc, showing the imperial family 285
15.5 Gaius Caesar (Caligula). Marble bust c. ad 40. 291
15.6 Funerary monument of Gaius and Lucius Caesar next to one of
Augustus’s triumphal arches 292
15.7a Statue of Agrippina the Younger 293
15.7b Statue of Claudius from Cerveteri, wearing an oak wreath crown
awarded for saving the lives of fellow Romans 294
15.8 The emperor Nero (ruled ad 54–68) and his mother, Agrippina, on
the obverse of a bronze coin 296
15.9 Hadrian (emperor ad 117–138). Shown here on the obverse of a gold
aureus. 298
15.10 School scene 300
15.11 A Celt dressed in a hooded cape, breeches and leggings 305
15.12 The central mound of the hillfort at British Camp, Herefordshire
Beacon. The layered earthwork defences can be seen clearly.
During the struggles against the conquering Roman armies
(ad 42–84) such hilltop fortresses could give Roman army
detachments a lot of trouble. 306
15.13 Mosaic depicting wrestlers on the wall of the Villa of Silin, Libya.
During Roman times athletics, chariot races, wrestling and boxing
spread across all the countries of the eastern Mediterranean and also
the west. 307
15.14a A street lined with shops in a small Roman town 311
15.14b Plan and elevation of typical Roman houses 312
15.14c Street scene in a large Roman city 313
xviii L I S T O F F igures

15.15 Roman shop-lined street from around the beginning of the second
century ad 317
15.16 River ship transporting casks of wine 318
15.17 Paying tribute: relief from a funerary monument in the Moselle region 318
15.18a Portrait of a girl from the middle of the third century ad 319
15.18b A Roman lady at her toilet. Detail of a funerary monument from
Neumagen, near Trier, Germany, third century 320
15.19 Representation of the three gods of the Capitol (the Capitoline Triad)
in Rome: Jupiter (centre), the principal state god of Rome, Juno and
Minerva 323
15.20 The Roman god Mars, god of war but also of the revival of nature in
springtime 324
15.21 Bacchus (Dionysus) flanked by two revelling ecstatic creatures 326
15.22 Bronze plaque of the god Mithras slaying the bull, mid-second–early-
third century ad 327
15.23 Statuette of Isis-Fortuna, second century ad Roman bronze 328
16.1 Marcus Aurelius (ruled ad 161–180), showing mercy to defeated
opponents, on a marble relief panel 335
16.2 Sasanian relief at Naqsh e Rustam (Iran) depicting the triumph of the
Persian king Shapur I over three Roman emperors (Gordian III, Philip
the Arabian, and Valerian) 337
16.3 Bronze head of Septimius Severus (ruled ad 193–211),
from Asia Minor 341
16.4 Dynastic gold coin of Septimius Severus, his wife Julia Domna,
and his sons Caracalla and Geta. Struck at Rome, ad 200–201. 343
16.5 The emperor Gallienus (ruled 253–268). Marble portrait head. 346
16.6 The Porta Asinaria, one of the gates in the Aurelian Walls in Rome 348
16.7 Diocletian and his co-emperors, represented in close concord. Initially
on display in Constantinople, it is now fixed to a corner of the façade
of St Mark’s Basilica in Venice. 353
16.8 Gold coin of the emperor Decius, one of the soldier emperors
(ruled 249–251). The obverse shows the head of the emperor, the
reverse shows the genius (protecting power as well as personification)
of the army that won the throne for him, the army of the Danube
region (sometimes called Illyricum). 354
16.9 Statue of Constantine the Great at York, where he was proclaimed
emperor (306 ad) 356
16.10a The Imperial Baths in Trier, one of the capitals of the Roman empire
in the fourth century 357
16.10b Back view of the Aula Palatina, Constantine’s immense throne room
and audience hall in Trier 358
16.11 A gold coin showing the emperor Constantine the Great
(ruled ad 306–337) 359
L I S T O F F igures xix

16.12a The city of Tongeren in Belgium, showing the walled area until ad 275
and the later urban area 361
16.12b Maastricht in its Roman heyday and the fourth-century castellum
(dark shading) in which the remaining population lived 361
16.13 Mosaic at St Vitale at Ravenna, built in the fifth century ad. 366
A.1 The Julio-Claudian dynasty 381
xx

BOXES

0.1 Language families 4

5.1 Major Mesopotamian gods 61
5.2 Major Egyptian gods 62
6.1 One model for the Near Eastern economy? 68
6.2 Labour force in antiquity 74
9.1 Different forms of government 88
9.2 Major Greek and Roman gods 102
9.3 The constitution of Sparta 108
9.4 The population of Sparta and Athens 108
9.5 Solon’s reforms 110
9.6 The reforms of Cleisthenes 117
10.1 The character of the Greco-Roman economy 156
11.1 Israel, Israelites, Hebrew(s), Judah, Judea, Judeans, Jews,
Samari(t)ans and Palestine 185
12.1 Social structure of the early republic 208
12.2 The Roman magistrates 211
12.3 The Comitia Centuriata 221
13.1 Territories coming under Roman dominion from
264 to 121 bc 232
13.2 The consequences of Rome’s expansion in the
second century bc 236
14.1 Social structure in the late republic 250
14.2 The basis of power of important generals 251
14.3 Estimated number of adult male citizens in years of Census 267
15.1 Territories annexed during the first two centuries of the
principate (30 bc–ad 161) 290
15.2 The emperors of the Roman Empire in the first and second
centuries ad 295
 xxi

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

The third edition of An Introduction to the Ancient World is in many respects a new book
in comparison with the first and second editions, of which the first one appeared in
1997, the second in 2008. Like its predecessors it is still a short survey of the history of
ancient western Asia, Egypt, Greece and Rome that can be used in courses of ancient
history, but also in broader kinds of teaching, such as courses focusing on (ancient)
culture and society, at different levels of education.
In selecting the material we employed, as before, three basic criteria. First of all, we
described phenomena of a general historical interest that also played a role in other
historical periods, such as social structures, the character of the economy, the urge for
expansion, the development of government, political theories, division of power, social
conflicts and religions. Our second criterion was the effects of such factors in later
civilisations. Where possible, we discussed issues that had impact on later history. Our
third criterion was the treated topics’ place in a continuous historical context. We believe
that if one’s aim is to write a book providing a brief introduction to a particular period
in history there is no sense in discussing topics without considering how they relate to
one another, and placing them in the wider context of historical development. That
is the reason why this book contains a survey of the entire history of ancient Egypt,
western Asia, Greece and Rome.
A revised edition is a consequence of progress in scholarly work. In the years since the
publication of the first and second editions our understanding of the ancient world has
been enhanced by new archaeological finds and texts, but it has also changed, because
scholarly interests have changed. Any book is the product of its time, and the twenty-
first century approaches the ancient world in a different way than the twentieth. This is
why the book has been so thoroughly revised again.
Every chapter has been subjected to rethinking and discussion; many paragraphs are
added, and others substantially rewritten. Specialists of different fields made contributions
to this new book. Assyriologist Kristin Kleber (Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam) and
Egyptologist Ben Haring (University of Leiden) went through Chapters 1–7, concerning
the ancient Near East; archaeologist Jan Paul Crielaard (Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam)
read Chapters 8–9, concerning Early Iron Age Greece; and ancient historian Jaap-Jan
Flinterman (Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam) read Chapter 10 on classical Greece and
Chapters 12–14, concerning the Roman Republic. In addition, we profited from the
work done by users of the book who filled in questionnaires sent out by Routledge.
Bert van der Spek made the final revision of Chapters 1–11 and the epilogue, and Lukas
de Blois went through Chapters 12–16. All the chapters were the object of mutual
comment and discussion.
Another innovation is the introduction of ‘boxes’ concerning topics that deserve
attention besides the running text on matters such as debates on the ancient economy,
lists of gods, explanation of concepts and terminology, and diagrams of political
institutions.
xxii P reface to the T hird E dition

The previous editions contained a large bibliography. It is our impression that

students hardly use this list. In modern days there are easier ways to find the recent
literature on the Internet. Hence, we decided to reduce the bibliography to a few
standard works of reference, encyclopaedias, ground-breaking books and articles, and of
course websites. Finally we added some schematic overviews of historical periods.
We are very grateful for the help we received from the various scholars mentioned
earlier, but they cannot be blamed for remaining errors and debatable opinions. The
authors of this book are responsible for the text of the book as it now is.
Lukas de Blois and Bert van der Spek
CHRONOLOGY

Year Roman world Greek world Egypt Levant and Asia Minor Northern Mesopotamia Southern Mesopotamia/Iran

3100 EARLY BRONZE AGE

3000 Early Dynastic Early Dynastic
2900 Dyn. 1 Menes I–III
2800 Early Minoan/ Dyn. 2 Gilgamesh of Uruk 2700
Early Helladic
2700
2600 OLD KINGDOM Sumerian city states
2500 Capital: Memphis Kish, Uruk, Umma, Lagash, Ur,
2400 Dyn. 3 Djoser Nippur
Dyn. 4 Cheops (c.
2300 <<<  AKKAD
2575), Chephren,
Sargon (c. 2350)
Mycerinus.
2200 Dyn. 5–6
2100 1st Intermediate <<<  UR III
Period (2150– Kingdom of the Third Dynasty of Ur
2000)
Dyn. 7–8

MIDDLE BRONZE AGE

2000 MIDDLE OLD ASSYRIAN OLD BABYLONIAN
KINGDOM PERIOD PERIOD
1900 Capital: Thebes City state Assur Kingdoms of Isin and
Dyn. 11–12 Larsa
Sesostris III
Assyrian Colony in Kanesh
1800 Bronze Age in 2nd Intermediate Kingdom of Old Babylonian Kingdom
Italy Period Shamshi-Adad I Hammurabi (c. 1700)
1700 Dyn. 15–16 Hyksos Old Hittite Kingdom <<< ‘Law Codex’
Dyn. 17
Year Roman world Greek world Egypt Levant and Asia Minor Northern Mesopotamia Southern Mesopotamia/Iran

LATE BRONZE AGE

1600 MYCENAEAN NEW KINGDOM Mitanni MIDDLE ASSYRIAN MIDDLE BABYLONIAN
1500 Late Minoan/ Dyn. 18 Syria NEO-HITTITE EMPIRE PER IOD PER IOD
1400 Late Helladic Hatšepsut Pal. Suppiluliumas (c. 1360) c. 1350: rise of Assyrian KASSITE KINGS
c. 1450 Thutmosis III Thutmosis III 1275: Battle of Kadesh power after fall of Mitanni
1300
Mycenaens Achnaton (c. 1360)
conquer Tut-anch-amon
Knossos Dyn. 19
Ramses II
(1279–12)
1200 SEA PEOPLES Arameans and Chaldaeans
1100–750 EARLY IRON AGE
1100 Arrival of Latins ‘Dark Ages’ 3rd Intermediate Kingdoms of Phrygia (Gordium) to 750 and Lydia (Sardes) Dark Ages Dark Ages
in Italy Period in Asia Minor to 547 Assyrian kingdom Various Babylonian dynasties
(1100–715) Aramaic and Neo-Hittite kingdoms survives
Dyn. 21
Dyn. 22–23
(Libyan dyn.)
1000 Israel: David, Solomon
900 Israel Juda Growth of Assyria
Samaria Jerusalem Assyrian campaigns
against Aramaic states
800
750 ROMAN ARCHAIC vassal vassal kingdom of Assyria <<<<<<<<< NEO-ASSYRIAN EMPIRE
KINGDOM PERIOD kingdom Tiglat-pileser III (745–727) : 729: conquers Babylon
754: Mythical Polis of Assyria Shalmaneser V (727–722)
founding Homer Sargon II (722–705)
of Rome by Hesiod
Romulus 722:
province
of Assyria
700 Late Period <<<<<<<<<< Sennacherib (705–681)
(715–332)
Dyn. 24
Dyn. 25: Nubian <<<<<<<<<< Esarhaddon (681–669)
____________ Hezekiah
Assyrian
domination
(671–655) <<<<<<<<<< Assurbani pal (669–631)
_____________
Cylon 632 Dyn. 26: Saïs
Psammetichus I
(664–610)
612: Fall of Nineveh by the Medes and Babylonians
600 Tarquin Priscus Solon 594 Necho II (610–595) 586: <<<<<<<<<< NEO-BABYLONIAN EMPIRE MEDIAN
Servius Tullius Babylonian (612–539) EMPIRE
Tarquin Peisistratus †528 Amasis (570–526) Exile; Judah province of Babylonia Nabopolassar in Iran
Superbus Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562) (Ecbatana), N.
(535–09) Nabonidus (556–539): Mesopotamia
c. 508: consuls Cleisthenes 508 539: Cyrus of Persia conquers and Eastern
Babylon Asia Minor
_____________
Persian kings
525–404 = Dyn. 27 550: Cyrus
of Persia
conquers
Media
<<<<<<<<<< PERSIAN EMPIRE
Samaria Judah (Yehud) Province of Persian empire Cyrus II (559/539–529)
Persian Cambyses (529–522) : 525 conquers Egypt
province
Year Roman world Greek world Egypt Levant and Asia Minor Northern Mesopotamia Southern Mesopotamia/Iran
500 REPUBLIC CLASSICAL <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<< Darius I (522–486)
Early Roman PERIOD
Republic: 490: Marathon <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<< Xerxes (486–464)
Roman Themistocles
expansion in 480: Salamis <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<< Artaxerxes I (464–424)
Italy; conflict Pericles
of patricians 431–404:
and plebeians Peloponnesian
(500–265) War
451: Law of XII
Tables
400 386: King’s Egypt
367: Leges Peace independent <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<< Artaxerxes II (404–358)
Liciniae Philip II of (404–341)
Sextiae Macedonia Dyn. 28–30
(382–336)
338: End of 338: Battle of Persian kings <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<< Darius III (336–331/0)
Latin League Chaeronea (dyn. 31)

336 A L E X A N D E R T H E G R E A T (336–323): start HELLENISTIC PERIOD

331: Battle of Gaugamela
Wars of the Successors (diadochi): 301: Antigonus the One-Eyed defeated and killed at Ipsus (Asia Minor)
300 287: Lex Ptolemaic empire <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<< Seleucid empire (311–64) >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
Hortensia Antigonid (323–31)
270 Battle of empire Ptolemy I 312 Battle of Gaza: Ptolemy
Beneventum: (276–148) (323–282) conquers Palestine
Italy subdued Ptolemy II <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<< Seleucus I (311–281) >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
Roman Antigonus (282–246)
expansion II Gonatas Ptolemy III <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<< Antiochus I (281–261) >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
in the west (276–239) (246–222)
(264–201) Antigonus Ptolemy IV
264–241: 1st III Doson (222–204)
Punic War (229–221)
218–201: 2nd Philip V
Punic War – (221–179)
Hannibal
200 Roman 168: Battle Attalid Kingdom Antiochus III (223–187) conquers Palestine 200
expansion in of Pydna: Attalus I (241–197) Antiochus IV (175–164) Maccabean revolt 168
east and west creation of four
(200–30) Macedonian Attalus III (138–133)
214–148: 4 republics
Macedonian
Wars Attalus bequeaths his empire to the Roman people
191–188: Syrian
war against
Antiochus III
150 149–146: 3rd 148: Macedonia Asia Minor: Juda: Seleucid empire reduced Parthian empire (141
Punic War: Roman 133 168 Mac. to Syria bc–ad 224 n.) [since 247 bc in
Carthage province Asia Roman revolt Parthia]
sacked. 146: Corinth province 141: Mithradates I conquers
Civil Wars sacked. 104 Babylonia.
(133–31) Greece under Hasmonean.
Optimates vs supervision Kingdom
Populares Macedonia.
133: Tiberius
Gracchus
123–1: Gaius
Gracchus
100 91–88: Social Mithridates of
War Pontus (120–63)
88–82: 1st Civil War with Rome
War: Marius– (88–63)
Sulla
73–1: Slave 64: Pompey
war. Spartacus conquers Syria
59: First and Palestine.
Triumvirate: End of Seleucid
Caesar, and Hasmonean
Crassus, dynasties.
Pompey
Year Roman world Greek world Egypt Levant and Asia Minor Northern Mesopo- Southern Mesopotamia/Iran
tamia
58–50: Caesar conquers Gaul
49–45: 2nd Civil War: Caesar-
Pompey
44: Caesar †
44–31: 3rd period of civil wars.
43: Second Triumvirate: 53: Battle
Octavian, Mark Antony, Lepidus of Carrhae
31: Battle of Actium (Harran).
Parthians defeat
Cleopatra VII Crassus.
(51–30)

30: Egypt annexed

ROMAN EMPIRE
Early imperial age: the principate (27 bc–ad 193)

27 bc: Augustus consul and receives proconsular power in Gaul, Spain and Syria 27 bc: Greece organised as province: Achaea.
23 bc: Augustus: tribunicia potestas and imperium proconsulare maius
115–7: Trajan conquers
ad 1 14 Augustus †; 27 bc–ad 68: Julio-Claudian dynasty: Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero Mesopotamia; relinquished
9: Roman army defeated in Germany by Hadrian
66–73: Judean revolt. 70: sack of Jerusalem
69–70: Batavian revolt – Julius Civilis
68–69: Year of the four emperors: Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian
69–96: Flavian dynasty: Vespasian, Titus, Domitian
96–192: Adoptive Emperors: Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius (+ son Commodus)
115–7: Jewish rebellions in Palestine, Egypt, Cyprus and Syria.
132–6: Jewish revolt of Bar Kochba. 136: Jews banned from Jerusalem, which becomes a colonia: Aelia
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
themselves, who are hastening to get out of it—are so intolerable,
that hardly any amount of pay will ever be thought a full recompense
for the sacrifices which a person grown up to man’s estate, and
properly qualified in other respects, would be called upon to make,
were he required to mess in the cock-pit. In the event, therefore, of
such union of offices, the gentleman in whom they are joined ought
to bear a regular commission, mess with the commissioned officers,
and walk the weather side of the deck; perhaps also he might
advantageously wear a suitable uniform. At all events, he ought to
possess a distinct rank, and be considered as essentially a part of
the ship’s complement as the surgeon, purser, or any other officer in
the civil department of the fleet.
People unacquainted with the nature of naval discipline may smile,
perhaps, at some of the privileges glanced at above, as essential to
the right exercise of power. But long experience has shewn that the
distinctions in question are the recognised symbols or indexes of due
subordination and general good order. They unquestionably
contribute, indirectly, to the maintenance of that prompt and effective
obedience, and respect to constituted authority, which, combined
with self-respect, go so far to form the sinews of naval strength. If,
therefore, it be of real utility to have the schoolmaster’s work as well
executed as that of the other officers, it surely follows that he ought
to be placed in a situation to command, not merely the dogged
attention of the midshipmen, but in one which will insure the official
reverence of the boys, together with a proportionate degree of
consideration from those whom they command. If these minute
particulars in balancing the scales of discipline be not duly attended
to, the respect of the pupils will dwindle into familiarity, and the
schoolmaster, if he be not a strong-minded person, may end by
losing his own self-confidence. All lessons then become a farce, and
the teacher either relapses into a useless appendage to the ship, or,
if forcibly sustained by the stern authority of the captain, he is apt to
degenerate into a mere pedagogue.
It may safely be laid down as a pretty general principle, that to
render any man of much use, he must be placed permanently in a
station, which of itself, and by the ordinary workings of the
established order of things, will insure attention both from superiors
and inferiors. Without this adjustment, there can be no good service
performed any where—on land or at sea.
It is sometimes not sufficiently recollected, that schooling on board
ship differs materially from what it is on shore; for it not only treats of
very different matters, but has other objects in view, both immediate
and remote. Before a young person actually engages in a
profession, the great purpose of a school appears to consist in mere
training—that is to say, in carrying his faculties through a course of
preparatory discipline, without any more specific object than mental
exercise. But when the youth is once fairly embarked in the pursuit
which is to furnish employment for his life, an immediate modification
takes place. The system which it is necessary to follow at sea is then
placed in distinct contrast to that previously observed.
On shore, education and business are two separate things, one of
which does not begin till the other ends; while, on board ship, the two
always go hand in hand. As the lessons of the teacher may be put in
practice immediately, the utility of theoretical knowledge is exhibited
on the spot; and thus a gradually increasing impulse is given to the
whole course of study. A boy who learns from his master what the
word Latitude means, and what is the method of obtaining it,
instantly runs upon deck, takes a quadrant in his hand, observes the
sun’s meridional altitude, and is filled with amaze and delight on
discovering: within what small limits he has been able to determine
the ship’s place relatively to the equator. Next day he sets to work
with increased eagerness to conquer the more difficult problem of
finding the Longitude, which he has immediate opportunities of
bringing to the test of actual experiment. The theory of Gunnery,
likewise, when studied by itself, is frequently found to be intricate,
and often far from satisfactory; but, when all its results can be
brought to the test of experiment, the aspect which this very
important pursuit assumes is totally different. How few officers, for
instance, understand correctly the meaning of the elementary term
Point Blank, or have any useful conception of the mathematical
principles which it involves! How often do we hear people gravely
assuming that the shot rises between the gun and the point-blank
mark! The laws which regulate the action of fluids directed against
plane surfaces are by no means easily explained when grappled with
alone; but, when brought to bear on the use of the rudder, or the trim
of the sails, there is hardly a boy afloat who fails to appreciate the
value of true science over what is called ‘rule of thumb;’ or rather,
who may not soon be taught to feel the mighty advantage of uniting
the two, so as to make theory and practice mutually assist each
other.
Nearly the same thing may be said of almost every other branch of
knowledge: with languages, for instance—I mean more particularly
the modern languages—French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian,
most of which are made to tell generally as soon as acquired. The
Mathematics in all their wonderful branches, and Science in almost
every department, furnish ample objects to fill up the leisure hours of
an officer. Geography, history, and the law of nations, come into
professional play at every turn. A young man, therefore, of any
capacity or industry, is nearly sure of rendering himself useful in a
short time, be his particular pursuits what they may, provided only
that his zeal is duly encouraged by the captain, and seconded by the
ready assistance of a properly qualified preceptor whom he has
been taught to respect. It must never be forgotten, however, that
along with all this knowledge of a professional, literary, or scientific
nature, there ought to be mixed up instructions of a still more
important description, upon which the formation of a young man’s
character will mainly depend, whether we view him merely as an
officer, or in his wider capacity as a member of the civil community.
Every one acquainted with the difficult task of bringing boys safely
through the intricate labyrinth of temptations which must be
encountered in the early stages of a sea life, will acknowledge, that
the superintendent of a young man’s habits has little or no chance of
success, unless he can secure the confidence of his pupil. I very
much fear, however, that there can be little hope of establishing such
a relation between them, unless the preceptor be truly the superior,
not only in station but in attainments, and unless it be his peculiar
study to acquire this ascendency over his pupil’s mind, in order to
the better regulation of his manners. I use the word manners in its
largest sense; and it is clear that, unless the schoolmaster have
leisure to keep these objects constantly in view, he cannot hope to
gain the proper degree of influence over any boy’s mind. As chaplain
of the ship, however, his religious duties, so far from interfering with
the objects alluded to, would blend admirably with all of them, and
furnish the best means, and, if it were needed, the best excuse, for a
judicious and parental sort of interference. To expect that any such
interference of the schoolmaster, under the present system, can be
efficacious, is, I much fear, a complete delusion; and this furnishes a
strong reason for uniting in one person the kindred duties of chaplain
and teacher. It shews, at the same time, how inefficient any such
union must be, unless care be taken to secure fitting persons to fill a
joint office of such delicacy.
There is still another, and by no means an unimportant benefit,
which might arise to the naval service from this improvement: I mean
its effect on the higher classes of officers. If there be nothing more
shocking than a disreputable clergyman in a mess-room, so, on the
other hand, I conceive there can be nothing more useful, in many
very material respects, than the constant companionship of a right-
minded and well-educated person of this description. I say nothing of
the obvious and salutary influence which his presence never fails to
exercise over the manners of men, already too much disposed to
laxity in their habits; but it may be well to consider, likewise, the great
additional benefits which may arise to the officers from their
possessing the means of instructing themselves in the different
branches of knowledge, with which a chaplain, regularly qualified to
teach, would be able to impart.
Except on board ship, and at sea, few of the senior officers of the
Navy, in war time, have the opportunity, and still fewer the means, of
improving their acquaintance with those pursuits, of which, in the
earlier periods of their service, they may have gained a smattering. I
allude to the classics, to modern languages, and the belles lettres
generally, to the higher branches of mathematics, and to many of
those sciences formerly deemed abstruse, but which have lately
become popular; such as chemistry, geology, and natural history in
all its departments.
 The time is not remote when it was held by high naval authorities,
that all or any of these refinements, instead of being useful to an
officer, actually stood in his way; and, as far as they went, interfered
with the due execution of his duty. Nor can it, or ought it, to be
denied, that the principle of extra instruction is very apt to be carried
too far, and the refining system overdone. Nor must it ever be
forgotten in these discussions, that the service—that is to say, the
hard, regular, seamanlike round of official duties, in all seasons, and
under all circumstances, ought always to be the primary objects of
an officer’s thoughts, before which every thing else is not only to
bend, but, if need be, must break. And it is chiefly on the principle of
rendering an officer only the more fit for such technical routine, that
any of the pursuits alluded to can ever be considered as having
legitimate claims on his attention. If such studies become so
engrossing as to detach his thoughts from his sterner duty; to make
him a scholar instead of a seaman, a dandy instead of a
disciplinarian; or if he allow himself to attend to these extraneous
matters with any other view than to his improvement as a strictly
professional man, he will, of course, find them, one and all,
prejudicial, and not be encouraged. Under proper regulation,
however, there seems little or no danger of any thing of this
description proving injurious to an officer’s character, as a useful,
hard-working servant of the public.
It was formerly thought, that high-born, high-bred, and even well-
educated men, were less fitted to make good officers for the ordinary
course of professional work, than persons who had sprung from a
lower origin, or whose education was limited to the mere
technicalities of the profession, and who were without taste and
without manners—men of the Hawser Trunion school, in short. But
the copious experience of the late arduous war seems to have
shewn, both in the army and in the navy, that the contrary is the true
state of the case. And certainly, as far as my own observation and
inquiries have gone, I have found reason to believe that those
officers who are the best informed and the best bred, and who
possess most of the true spirit of gentlemen, are not only the safest
to trust in command over others, but are always the readiest to yield
that prompt and cheerful obedience to their superiors, which is the
mainspring of good order. Such men respect themselves so justly,
and value their own true dignity of character so much, and are at all
times so sensitively alive to the humiliation of incurring reproach, that
they are extremely cautious how they expose themselves to merited
censure. From the early and constant exercise of genuine
politeness, they become habitually considerate of the feelings of
others; and thus, by the combined action of these great principles of
manners, officers of this stamp contrive to get through much more
work, and generally do it much better, than persons of less
refinement. Moreover, they consider nothing beneath their closest
attention which falls within the limits of their duty; and, as a leading
part of this principle, they are the most patient as well as vigilant
superintendents of the labours of those placed under their authority,
of any men I have ever seen. It is not that they watch their inferiors
with a view to entrap and pounce upon them, but solely with the
public-spirited and generous object of keeping all parties right, in
order, by checking errors in the outset, before they have grown into
crimes, to prevent the hard necessity of punishment.
This is a pretty fair sketch of the method of acting observed by a
thorough-bred, gentlemanlike, well-instructed officer; and every one
who has been in command, and in protracted difficulties, or has
merely been employed in the ordinary course of service, will readily
admit that, with the assistance of such men, every department of his
duty has gone on better and more pleasantly than it could have
possibly done if the persons under his command had been of a
coarser stamp.
It is quite true that the full degree of refinement alluded to can
hardly ever be fully taught on board ship. But it may often be
approximated to good purpose. It is quite within our power, for
example, so to train up young men, that they shall gradually acquire
not only that sort of knowledge, but also those habits, which
experience has shewn to have the most direct tendency to enlarge
the understanding, and to chastise the taste. Precisely as this
amount of intelligence increases, so will the capacity of an officer to
do good service increase likewise; and it is absurd to suppose that
he will be less disposed to do his duty well, from knowing better how
to comply with its obligations.
Weak minds and perverse dispositions, under any system of
instruction or of discipline, will, of course, defeat these calculations;
and there will, therefore, always be many effeminate and idle
persons in a fleet, who, by mistaking mere acquirements for the
knowledge of how to turn them to useful account, deserve the title
they receive of ‘the King’s hard bargains.’ But, taking the average
run of officers in the Navy, it may safely be expected, that if, in other
respects, they are kept to their duty, and if they themselves have a
real interest in the service, the more information they can acquire
upon every subject worthy of a gentleman’s attention, the better will
they be fitted for the performance not only of those higher exploits
which all the world understand and admire, but even of those humble
and unseen professional avocations, which make up by far the
greater and the most important part of our daily duties.
If, then, we can furnish all ranks of our naval officers afloat with a
ready and agreeable means of filling up their time, of which most of
them have a good deal to spare, we may fairly hope that they will not
be slow to avail themselves of the opportunities placed within their
reach. In order, however, to render these measures of any extensive
utility, this plan of furnishing assistance must be carried a long way.
A chaplain-schoolmaster should be allowed even to the smallest
class of ships on board which, by any contrivance, the proper degree
of accommodation can be obtained. And if these ideas were followed
up in the admirable spirit with which some recent improvements
have been carried into effect in the Navy, for instance, in the
discipline, victualling, payment of wages, ratings, and other matters,
a very great boon would be conferred on the service.
It is not likely that the measure proposed would materially
augment the expenses of the Navy, if, indeed, it had that effect at all;
since both a chaplain and schoolmaster are expressly allowed to all
ships, from the first to the sixth class, inclusive. But, even supposing
the expense were to be augmented, there can be no doubt, I should
conceive, in the mind of any person who has reflected seriously on
these subjects, that the return for such outlay would be speedy and
certain. The religious, moral, and intellectual character of officers, on
whose good conduct so much depends, must, in every conceivable
state of things, be an object of material consequence to the country.
And it were really almost a libel on the nation, to imagine that they
would not cheerfully agree to the additional expenditure which might
be required, if the advantages be such as are stated. There can be
no truer economy, than expending money for the promotion of virtue
and sound knowledge amongst this class of public servants. For
their duties, it must be recollected, generally lie so far beyond the
reach of ordinary scrutiny, that almost the only security we have for
their good conduct rests on their own sense of honour. A dishonest
officer on a foreign station might often divert from its proper purpose,
by a single stroke of his pen, and without much danger of detection,
more of the public money than would furnish the Navy with chaplains
and schoolmasters for ten years.
It is to accomplish only one-half the great task of instruction merely
to fill a boy’s head with technical information—his principles and
habits ought to be likewise taken into our safe keeping. It is also
greatly to be desired, that, when the period arrives at which he is
expected to become, as it is called, his own master, he should find
no difficulty in continuing, from choice, those pursuits to which he
had previously applied himself on compulsion, or merely as a means
of promotion. And there seems to be no method more likely to
accomplish this desirable purpose, than affording the young
commissioned officer the companionship of an instructor, or, at all
events, of a person whose duty it should be, if required, not only to
continue, in the ward-room, the course of information commenced in
the cock-pit, but whose aim ought to be, so to modify these studies
as to adapt them to the altered circumstances of the pupil, and to win
his attention to their pursuit by rendering them agreeable and useful.
It is not pretended, by any means, that such a task is an easy one;
on the contrary, it will require not only considerable abilities, but high
attainments, and no inconsiderable degree of good taste, together
with a long apprenticeship of self-discipline, and an exclusive
application to these arduous duties, as the grand object and
business of the instructor’s life.
 There really appears, however, to be no situation but that of a
clergyman which offers any reasonable chance of these conditions
being fulfilled. And as the education of such a person is necessarily
expensive, and the double office which it is proposed he should fill,
one of great responsibility, labour, and difficulty, as well as one of
peculiar and irremediable discomfort and privation, without any of
those energetic excitements which stimulate every other class of
officers to exertion, the remuneration ought clearly to be very
considerable, otherwise no set of properly qualified men will engage
permanently in its pursuit.
A distinct class of officers, of this sacred character, although as yet
they do not exist, might be readily created. If the emoluments of the
chaplain of a man-of-war were respectable, the situation rendered as
agreeable, in point of comfort, as the nature of the elements will
admit of, and if the prospects of future provision be made certain, or
contingent only upon a right performance of duty, there cannot, I
think, be a doubt that, in a short time, there would be an ample and
steady supply of chaplains, as highly qualified, in point of
attainments, as the Admiralty might choose to fix on the scale.
If this important professional object were once fairly carried into
effect, we should probably soon discover an improvement in the
whole system of naval discipline, the best evidences of which would
be, the increased efficiency of the whole service, arising out of the
gradually ameliorated habits and higher intellectual cultivation, as
well as improved tastes and more rational happiness, of every class
of the officers, from the oldest captain down to the youngest first-
class boy, just untied from his mother’s apron-string.
In all that has been said, I have taken into view almost exclusively
the advantages which would accrue to the officers from the adoption
of this plan of uniform instruction. It is to them, individually as
gentlemen, and collectively as a body, upon the certainty of whose
hearty exertions the government can at all times depend, that the
country must ever look for that energetic momentum in our naval
strength, upon which the national power, in this department,
essentially rests. Surely, however, it is not too much to say, as a
matter of experience, that the influence of a resident clergyman on
board ship, wherever there is one, over the minds of the crew, is felt
to be quite as salutary, when properly exercised, as it is to the
labourers in any parish of the empire.
It signifies nothing to say that the structure of naval discipline is
widely different from the civil administration of the land; for the very
same principles, and, more or less, the very same motives to right or
wrong action, must always be in play in both cases. A judicious
chaplain, therefore, who shall have become acquainted by personal
experience with the habits, tastes, feelings, and pursuits of the
seamen, may undoubtedly contribute an important share to the
efficiency of the whole of our naval system. So far from interfering
with, or in any way checking the strict course of nautical affairs, I
conceive that the chaplain’s influence, rightly exercised, acting in
cordial understanding with the captain, and sanctioned by his
authority, might advance the best interests of the service by greatly
diminishing offences, and thus lessening the melancholy necessity of
punishments. Whenever this benevolent purpose can be effected, in
a greater or less degree, both those who obey and those who
command are sure to be better pleased with one another, and, it is
reasonable to suppose, far more desirous of co-operating heartily in
the accomplishment of the common purpose for which they are
brought together.

END OF THE FIRST VOLUME.

LONDON:
J. MOYES, TOOK’S COURT, CHANCERY LANE.

FOOTNOTES:
 [2] I quote from a paper on the State of Education in the British
Navy, printed in the United Service Journal, Part XI. for October
1830. The performance and the promise of the very rising officer,
who wrote this article, help to furnish the fairest practical answer
to those who object to the early advancement of young men of
rank in the Navy.
 Transcriber’s Notes

pg 219 Changed: when on board passage vesssels

to: when on board passage vessels
pg 225 Changed: half of sound snoose
to: half of sound snooze
pg 308 Changed: as the captian can ameliorate the habits
to: as the captain can ameliorate the habits
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FRAGMENTS
OF VOYAGES AND TRAVELS, INCLUDING ANECDOTES OF A
NAVAL LIFE ***

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions

will be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S.

copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright
in these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and
distribute it in the United States without permission and without
paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General
Terms of Use part of this license, apply to copying and
distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the
PROJECT GUTENBERG™ concept and trademark. Project
Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if
you charge for an eBook, except by following the terms of the
trademark license, including paying royalties for use of the
Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is
very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such
as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
research. Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and
printed and given away—you may do practically ANYTHING in
the United States with eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright
law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark license, especially
commercial redistribution.

START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
 PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the

free distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this
work (or any other work associated in any way with the phrase
“Project Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of
the Full Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or
online at www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and

Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand,
agree to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual
property (trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to
abide by all the terms of this agreement, you must cease using
and return or destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works in your possession. If you paid a fee for
obtaining a copy of or access to a Project Gutenberg™
electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the terms
of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only

be used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by
people who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.
There are a few things that you can do with most Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works even without complying with the
full terms of this agreement. See paragraph 1.C below. There
are a lot of things you can do with Project Gutenberg™
electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement and
help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™
electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the
collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the
individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the
United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright
law in the United States and you are located in the United
States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from copying,
distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative works
based on the work as long as all references to Project
Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope that you will
support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting free
access to electronic works by freely sharing Project
Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of this
agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name
associated with the work. You can easily comply with the terms
of this agreement by keeping this work in the same format with
its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it
without charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also
govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most
countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside
the United States, check the laws of your country in addition to
the terms of this agreement before downloading, copying,
displaying, performing, distributing or creating derivative works
based on this work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The
Foundation makes no representations concerning the copyright
status of any work in any country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project

Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other

immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must
appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project
Gutenberg™ work (any work on which the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” appears, or with which the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed,
viewed, copied or distributed:

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United

States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it
away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg
License included with this eBook or online at
www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United
States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is

derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to
anyone in the United States without paying any fees or charges.
If you are redistributing or providing access to a work with the
phrase “Project Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the
work, you must comply either with the requirements of
paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use
of the work and the Project Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth
in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is

posted with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and
distribution must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through
1.E.7 and any additional terms imposed by the copyright holder.
Additional terms will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™
License for all works posted with the permission of the copyright
holder found at the beginning of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project

Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files
containing a part of this work or any other work associated with
Project Gutenberg™.
 1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute
this electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1
with active links or immediate access to the full terms of the
Project Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form,
including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if
you provide access to or distribute copies of a Project
Gutenberg™ work in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or
other format used in the official version posted on the official
Project Gutenberg™ website (www.gutenberg.org), you must, at
no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a copy, a
means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
request, of the work in its original “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other
form. Any alternate format must include the full Project
Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,

performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™
works unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or

providing access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works provided that:

• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the
method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The
fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty
payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on
which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your
periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked
as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information
 about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation.”

• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who

notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that
s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and
discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of Project
Gutenberg™ works.

• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of

any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in
the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90
days of receipt of the work.

• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project

Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different
terms than are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain
permission in writing from the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, the manager of the Project Gutenberg™
trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3
below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend

considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on,
transcribe and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright
law in creating the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite
these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the
medium on which they may be stored, may contain “Defects,”
such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt
data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other
medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES -

Except for the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in
paragraph 1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation, the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
and any other party distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic
work under this agreement, disclaim all liability to you for
damages, costs and expenses, including legal fees. YOU
AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE,
STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH
OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH
1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER
THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR
ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE
OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF
THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If

you discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of
receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you
paid for it by sending a written explanation to the person you
received the work from. If you received the work on a physical
medium, you must return the medium with your written
explanation. The person or entity that provided you with the
defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu
of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or
entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.
If the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund
in writing without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set

forth in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’,
WITH NO OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS