Ocean

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Further information: Seawater
For other uses, see Ocean (disambiguation).

Clouds over the Atlantic Ocean

Earth's oceans

 Arctic

 Atlantic

 Indian

 Pacific

 Southern

World Ocean

 v
 t
 e

An ocean (from Ancient Greek Ὠκεανός, transc. Okeanós, the sea of classical antiquity[1]) is a
body of saline water that composes much of a planet's hydrosphere.[2] On Earth, an ocean is one
of the major conventional divisions of the World Ocean. These are, in descending order by area,
 the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern (Antarctic), and Arctic Oceans.[3][4] The word sea is often
used interchangeably with "ocean" in American English but, strictly speaking, a sea is a body of
saline water (generally a division of the world ocean) partly or fully enclosed by land. [5]
Saline water covers approximately 360,000,000 km2 (140,000,000 sq mi) and is customarily
divided into several principal oceans and smaller seas, with the ocean covering approximately
71% of Earth's surface and 90% of the Earth's biosphere.[6] The ocean contains 97% of Earth's
water, and oceanographers have stated that less than 5% of the World Ocean has been
explored.[6] The total volume is approximately 1.35 billion cubic kilometers (320 million cu mi) with
an average depth of nearly 3,700 meters (12,100 ft).[7][8][9]
As the world ocean is the principal component of Earth's hydrosphere, it is integral to life, forms
part of the carbon cycle, and influences climate and weather patterns. The world ocean is
the habitat of 230,000 known species, but because much of it is unexplored, the number of
species that exist in the ocean is much larger, possibly over two million. [10] The origin of Earth's
oceans is unknown; oceans are thought to have formed in the Hadean eon and may have been
the impetus for the emergence of life.
Extraterrestrial oceans may be composed of water or other elements and compounds. The only
confirmed large stable bodies of extraterrestrial surface liquids are the lakes of Titan, although
there is evidence for the existence of oceans elsewhere in the Solar System. Early in their
geologic histories, Mars and Venus are theorized to have had large water oceans. The Mars
ocean hypothesis suggests that nearly a third of the surface of Mars was once covered by water,
and a runaway greenhouse effect may have boiled away the global ocean of Venus. Compounds
such as salts and ammoniadissolved in water lower its freezing point so that water might exist in
large quantities in extraterrestrial environments as brine or convecting ice. Unconfirmed oceans
are speculated beneath the surface of many dwarf planets and natural satellites; notably, the
ocean of Europa is estimated to have over twice the water volume of Earth. The Solar
System's giant planets are also thought to have liquid atmospheric layers of yet to be confirmed
compositions. Oceans may also exist on exoplanets and exomoons, including surface oceans of
liquid water within a circumstellar habitable zone. Ocean planets are a hypothetical type of planet
with a surface completely covered with liquid.[11][12]

Contents

 1Etymology

 2Earth's global ocean

o 2.1Oceanic divisions

o 2.2Global system

o 2.3Physical properties

o 2.4Oceanic zones

o 2.5Exploration

o 2.6Oceanic maritime currents

o 2.7Climate

o 2.8Biology
 o 2.9Gases

o 2.10Surface

o 2.11Mixing time

o 2.12Salinity

o 2.13Absorption of light

o 2.14Economic value

o 2.15Waves and swell

 3Extraterrestrial oceans

o 3.1Planets

o 3.2Natural satellites

o 3.3Dwarf planets and trans-Neptunian objects

o 3.4Extrasolar

o 3.5Non-water surface liquids

 4See also

 5References

 6Further reading

 7External links

Etymology
The word « ocean » comes from the figure in classical antiquity, Oceanus (/oʊ
ˈsiːənəs/; Greek: Ὠκεανός Ōkeanós,[13] pronounced [ɔːkeanós]), the elder of the Titans in
classical Greek mythology, believed by the ancient Greeks and Romans to be the divine
personification of the sea, an enormous river encircling the world.
The concept of Ōkeanós has an Indo-European connection. Greek Ōkeanós has been compared
to the Vedic epithet ā-śáyāna-, predicated of the dragon Vṛtra-, who captured the cows/rivers.
Related to this notion, the Okeanos is represented with a dragon-tail on some early Greek vases.
[14]

Earth's global ocean

Various ways to divide the World Ocean

Oceanic divisions
Further information: Borders of the oceans

1. Epipelagic zone: surface – 200 meters deep 2. Mesopelagic zone: 200 m – 1000 m 3. Bathypelagic
zone: 1000 m – 4000 m 4. Abyssopelagic zone: 4000 m – 6000 m 5. Hadal zone (the trenches): 6000 m to
the bottom of the ocean

Though generally described as several separate oceans, the global, interconnected body of salt
water is sometimes referred to as the World Ocean or global ocean.[15][16] The concept of a
continuous body of water with relatively free interchange among its parts is of fundamental
importance to oceanography.[17]
The major oceanic divisions – listed below in descending order of area and volume – are defined
in part by the continents, various archipelagos, and other criteria.[9][12][18]

Area Volume Avg. dep Coastli

Ocea
# Location (km )
2
(km )
3
th ne
n
(%) (%) (m) (km)

168,723,0
Pacific Separates Asia and Oceania from 669,880,000
1 00 3,970 135,663
Ocean the Americas[19][NB] 50.1
46.6

Separates 85,133,00
Atlantic 310,410,900
2 the Americas from Europe and Af 0 3,646 111,866
Ocean 23.3
rica[20] 23.5

70,560,00
Indian Washes upon southern Asia and 264,000,000
3 0 3,741 66,526
Ocean separates Africa and Australia[21] 19.8
19.5
 Area Volume Avg. dep Coastli
Ocea
# Location (km )2
(km )3
th ne
n
(%) (%) (m) (km)

Sometimes considered an
21,960,00
Souther extension of the Pacific, Atlantic 71,800,000
4 0 3,270 17,968
n Ocean and Indian Oceans,[22][23] which 5.4
6.1
encircles Antarctica

Sometimes considered
a sea or estuary of the Atlantic,[24]
15,558,00
Arctic [25]
which covers much of 18,750,000
5 0 1,205 45,389
Ocean the Arctic and washes upon 1.4
4.3
northern North
America and Eurasia[26]

361,900,0 1,335,000,0
Total – World Ocean 00 00 3,688 377,412[27]
100 100

NB: Volume, area, and average depth figures include NOAA ETOPO1 figures for marginal South China
Sea.
Sources: Encyclopedia of Earth,[19][20][21][22][26] International Hydrographic Organization,[23] Regional
Oceanography: an Introduction (Tomczak, 2005),[24] Encyclopædia Britannica,[25] and the International
Telecommunication Union.[27]

Oceans are fringed by smaller, adjoining bodies of water such as seas, gulfs, bays, bights,
and straits.
Global system

World Distribution of Mid-Oceanic Ridges; USGS

Three main types of plate boundaries.

The mid-ocean ridges of the world are connected and form a single global mid-oceanic ridge
system that is part of every ocean and the longest mountain range in the world. The continuous
mountain range is 65,000 km (40,000 mi) long (several times longer than the Andes, the longest
continental mountain range).[28]
Physical properties
Further information: Seawater
The total mass of the hydrosphere is about 1.4 quintillion metric tons (1.4×1018 long tons
or 1.5×1018 short tons), which is about 0.023% of Earth's total mass. Less than 3% is freshwater;
the rest is saltwater, almost all of which is in the ocean. The area of the World Ocean is about
361.9 million square kilometers (139.7 million square miles), [9] which covers about 70.9% of
Earth's surface, and its volume is approximately 1.335 billion cubic kilometers (320.3 million
cubic miles).[9] This can be thought of as a cube of water with an edge length of 1,101 kilometers
(684 mi). Its average depth is about 3,688 meters (12,100 ft),[9] and its maximum depth is 10,994
meters (6.831 mi) at the Mariana Trench.[29] Nearly half of the world's marine waters are over
3,000 meters (9,800 ft) deep.[16] The vast expanses of deep ocean (anything below 200 meters or
660 feet) cover about 66% of Earth's surface.[30] This does not include seas not connected to the
World Ocean, such as the Caspian Sea.
The bluish color of water is a composite of several contributing agents. Prominent contributors
include dissolved organic matter and chlorophyll.[31] Mariners and other seafarers have reported
that the ocean often emits a visible glow which extends for miles at night. In 2005, scientists
announced that for the first time, they had obtained photographic evidence of this glow. [32] It is
most likely caused by bioluminescence.[33][34][35]

Oceanic zones

The major oceanic zones, based on depth and biophysical conditions

Oceanographers divide the ocean into different vertical zones defined by physical and biological
conditions. The pelagic zone includes all open ocean regions, and can be divided into further
regions categorized by depth and light abundance. The photic zone includes the oceans from the
surface to a depth of 200 m; it is the region where photosynthesis can occur and is, therefore, the
most biodiverse. Because plants require photosynthesis, life found deeper than the photic zone
must either rely on material sinking from above (see marine snow) or find another energy
source. Hydrothermal vents are the primary source of energy in what is known as the aphotic
zone (depths exceeding 200 m). The pelagic part of the photic zone is known as the epipelagic.
The pelagic part of the aphotic zone can be further divided into vertical regions according to
temperature. The mesopelagic is the uppermost region. Its lowermost boundary is at
a thermocline of 12 °C (54 °F), which, in the tropics generally lies at 700–1,000 meters (2,300–
3,300 ft). Next is the bathypelagic lying between 10 and 4 °C (50 and 39 °F), typically between
700–1,000 meters (2,300–3,300 ft) and 2,000–4,000 meters (6,600–13,100 ft), lying along the
top of the abyssal plain is the abyssopelagic, whose lower boundary lies at about 6,000 meters
(20,000 ft). The last zone includes the deep oceanic trench, and is known as the hadalpelagic.
This lies between 6,000–11,000 meters (20,000–36,000 ft) and is the deepest oceanic zone.
The benthic zones are aphotic and correspond to the three deepest zones of the deep-sea.
The bathyal zonecovers the continental slope down to about 4,000 meters (13,000 ft). The
abyssal zone covers the abyssal plains between 4,000 and 6,000 m. Lastly, the hadal zone
corresponds to the hadalpelagic zone, which is found in oceanic trenches.
The pelagic zone can be further subdivided into two subregions: the neritic zone and the oceanic
zone. The neritic zone encompasses the water mass directly above the continental
shelves whereas the oceanic zone includes all the completely open water.
In contrast, the littoral zone covers the region between low and high tide and represents the
transitional area between marine and terrestrial conditions. It is also known as the intertidal zone
because it is the area where tide level affects the conditions of the region.
If a zone undergoes dramatic changes in temperature with depth, it contains a thermocline. The
tropical thermocline is typically deeper than the thermocline at higher latitudes. Polar waters,
which receive relatively little solar energy, are not stratified by temperature and generally lack a
thermocline because surface water at polar latitudes are nearly as cold as water at greater
depths. Below the thermocline, water is very cold, ranging from −1 °C to 3 °C. Because this deep
and cold layer contains the bulk of ocean water, the average temperature of the world ocean is
3.9 °C.[citation needed] If a zone undergoes dramatic changes in salinity with depth, it contains
a halocline. If a zone undergoes a strong, vertical chemistry gradient with depth, it contains
a chemocline.
The halocline often coincides with the thermocline, and the combination produces a pronounced
pycnocline.

Exploration

Map of large underwater features (1995, NOAA)

The deepest point in the ocean is the Mariana Trench, located in the Pacific Ocean near
the Northern Mariana Islands. Its maximum depth has been estimated to be 10,971 meters
(35,994 ft) (plus or minus 11 meters; see the Mariana Trench article for discussion of the various
estimates of the maximum depth.) The British naval vessel Challenger II surveyed the trench in
1951 and named the deepest part of the trench the "Challenger Deep". In 1960,
the Trieste successfully reached the bottom of the trench, manned by a crew of two men.

Oceanic maritime currents

Oceanic surface currents (U.S. Army, 1943).

Amphidromic points showing the direction of tides per incrementation periods along with resonating
directions of wavelength movements.

Oceanic maritime currents have different origins. Tidal currents are in phase with the tide, hence
are quasiperiodic, they may form various knots in certain places,[clarification needed] most notably
around headlands. Non periodic currents have for origin the waves, wind and different densities.
The wind and waves create surface currents (designated as « drift currents »). These currents
can decompose in one quasi permanent current (which varies within the hourly scale) and one
movement of Stokes drift under the effect of rapid waves movement (at the echelon of a couple
of seconds).).[36] The quasi permanent current is accelerated by the breaking of waves, and in a
lesser governing effect, by the friction of the wind on the surface. [37]
This acceleration of the current takes place in the direction of waves and dominant wind.
Accordingly, when the sea depth increases, the rotation of the earth changes the direction of
currents, in proportion with the increase of depth while friction lowers their speed. At a certain
sea depth, the current changes direction and is seen inverted in the opposite direction with
speed current becoming nul: known as the Ekman spiral. The influence of these currents is
mainly experienced at the mixed layer of the ocean surface, often from 400 to 800 meters of
maximum depth. These currents can considerably alter, change and are dependent on the
various yearly seasons. If the mixed layer is less thick (10 to 20 meters), the quasi permanent
current at the surface adopts an extreme oblique direction in relation to the direction of the wind,
becoming virtually homogeneous, until the Thermocline.[38]
In the deep however, maritime currents are caused by the temperature gradients and
the salinity between water density masses.
In littoral zones, breaking wave is so intense and the depth measurement so low, that maritime
currents reach often 1 to 2 knots.
Amphidromic points showing the direction of tides per incrementation periods along with resonating
directions of wavelength movements.

Oceanic maritime currents have different origins. Tidal currents are in phase with the tide, hence
are quasiperiodic, they may form various knots in certain places,[clarification needed] most notably
around headlands. Non periodic currents have for origin the waves, wind and different densities.
The wind and waves create surface currents (designated as « drift currents »). These currents
can decompose in one quasi permanent current (which varies within the hourly scale) and one
movement of Stokes drift under the effect of rapid waves movement (at the echelon of a couple
of seconds).).[36] The quasi permanent current is accelerated by the breaking of waves, and in a
lesser governing effect, by the friction of the wind on the surface. [37]
This acceleration of the current takes place in the direction of waves and dominant wind.
Accordingly, when the sea depth increases, the rotation of the earth changes the direction of
currents, in proportion with the increase of depth while friction lowers their speed. At a certain
sea depth, the current changes direction and is seen inverted in the opposite direction with
speed current becoming nul: known as the Ekman spiral. The influence of these currents is
mainly experienced at the mixed layer of the ocean surface, often from 400 to 800 meters of
maximum depth. These currents can considerably alter, change and are dependent on the
various yearly seasons. If the mixed layer is less thick (10 to 20 meters), the quasi permanent
current at the surface adopts an extreme oblique direction in relation to the direction of the wind,
becoming virtually homogeneous, until the Thermocline.[38]
In the deep however, maritime currents are caused by the temperature gradients and
the salinity between water density masses.
In littoral zones, breaking wave is so intense and the depth measurement so low, that maritime
currents reach often 1 to 2 knots.

Climate

A map of the global thermohaline circulation; blue represent deep-water currents, whereas red represent
surface currents

Ocean currents greatly affect Earth's climate by transferring heat from the tropics to the polar
regions. Transferring warm or cold air and precipitation to coastal regions, winds may carry them
inland. Surface heat and freshwater fluxes create global density gradients that drive
the thermohaline circulation part of large-scale ocean circulation. It plays an important role in
supplying heat to the polar regions, and thus in sea ice regulation. Changes in the thermohaline
circulation are thought to have significant impacts on Earth's energy budget. In so far as the
thermohaline circulation governs the rate at which deep waters reach the surface, it may also
significantly influence atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations.
For a discussion of the possibilities of changes to the thermohaline circulation under global
warming, see shutdown of thermohaline circulation.
It is often stated that the thermohaline circulation is the primary reason that the climate of
Western Europe is so temperate. An alternate hypothesis claims that this is largely incorrect, and
that Europe is warm mostly because it lies downwind of an ocean basin, and
because atmospheric waves bring warm air north from the subtropics.[39][40]
The Antarctic Circumpolar Current encircles that continent, influencing the area's climate and
connecting currents in several oceans.
One of the most dramatic forms of weather occurs over the oceans: tropical cyclones (also called
"typhoons" and "hurricanes" depending upon where the system forms).

Biology
Further information: Marine biology
The ocean has a significant effect on the biosphere. Oceanic evaporation, as a phase of
the water cycle, is the source of most rainfall, and ocean temperatures
determine climateand wind patterns that affect life on land. Life within the ocean evolved 3 billion
years prior to life on land. Both the depth and the distance from shore strongly influence
the biodiversity of the plants and animals present in each region.[41]
As it is thought that life evolved in the ocean, the diversity of life is immense, including:

 Bacteria : ubiquitous single-celled prokaryotes found throughout the world

 Archaea : prokaryotes distinct from bacteria, that inhabit many environments of the
ocean, as well as many extreme environments

 Algae : algae is a "catch-all" term to include many photosynthetic, single-

celled eukaryotes, such as green algae, diatoms, and dinoflagellates, but also multicellular
algae, such as some red algae (including organisms like Pyropia, which is the source of the
edible nori seaweed), and brown algae (including organisms like kelp).

 Plants : including sea grasses, or mangroves

 Fungi : many marine fungi with diverse roles are found in oceanic environments

 Animals : most animal phyla have species that inhabit the ocean, including many that are
only found in marine environments such as sponges, Cnidaria (such
as corals and jellyfish), comb jellies, Brachiopods, and Echinoderms (such as sea
urchins and sea stars). Many other familiar animal groups primarily live in the ocean,
including cephalopods(includes octopus and squid), crustaceans (includes lobsters, crabs,
and shrimp), fish, sharks, cetaceans (includes whales, dolphins, and porpoises).
In addition, many land animals have adapted to living a major part of their life on the oceans. For
instance, seabirds are a diverse group of birds that have adapted to a life mainly on the oceans.
They feed on marine animals and spend most of their lifetime on water, many only going on land
for breeding. Other birds that have adapted to oceans as their living space
are penguins, seagulls and pelicans. Seven species of turtles, the sea turtles, also spend most of
their time in the oceans.

Gases

Characteristics of oceanic gases [42][43][44]

 % Dissolved gas, by volume,
Concentration of seawater, by mass (in
Gas in seawater at the ocean
parts per million), for the whole ocean
surface

Carbon
64 to 107 15%
dioxide (CO2)

Nitrogen (N2) 10 to 18 48%

Oxygen (O2) 0 to 13 36%

Solubility of oceanic gases (in mL/L) with temperature at salinity of 33‰ and
atmospheric pressure[45]

Temperature O2 CO2 N2

0 °C 8.14 8,700 14.47

10 °C 6.42 8,030 11.59

20 °C 5.26 7,350 9.65

30 °C 4.41 6,600 8.26

Surface

Generalized characteristics of ocean surface by latitude [46][47][48][49][50][51][52]

Oceanic waters
Oceanic waters Oceanic waters in
Characteristic in tropical
in polar regions temperate regions
regions

Precipitation vs. evaporation P>E P>E E>P

Sea surface temperature in
−2 °C 5 to 20 °C 20 to 25 °C
winter

Average salinity 28‰ to 32‰ 35‰ 35‰ to 37‰

Annual variation of air

≤ 40ªC 10 °C < 5 °C
temperature

Annual variation of water

< 5ªC 10 °C < 5 °C
temperature

Mixing time

Mean oceanic residence time for various constituents [53][54]

Constituent Residence time (in years)

Iron (Fe) 200

Aluminum (Al) 600

Manganese (Mn) 1,300

Water (H2O) 4,100

Silicon (Si) 20,000

Carbonate (CO32−) 110,000

Calcium (Ca2+) 1,000,000

Sulfate (SO42−) 11,000,000

Potassium (K+) 12,000,000

Magnesium (Mg2+) 13,000,000

Sodium (Na+) 68,000,000

Chloride (Cl−) 100,000,000

Salinity
A zone of rapid salinity increase with depth is called a halocline. The temperature of maximum
density of seawater decreases as its salt content increases. Freezing temperature of water
decreases with salinity, and boiling temperature of water increases with salinity. Typical seawater
freezes at around −1.9 °C at atmospheric pressure. If precipitation exceeds evaporation, as is
the case in polar and temperate regions, salinity will be lower. If evaporation exceeds
precipitation, as is the case in tropical regions, salinity will be higher. Thus, oceanic waters in
polar regions have lower salinity content than oceanic waters in temperate and tropical regions. [55]
Salinity can be calculated using the chlorinity, which is a measure of the total mass of halogen
ions (includes fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine) in seawater. By international agreement,
the following formula is used to determine salinity:
Salinity (in ‰) = 1.80655 × Chlorinity (in ‰)
The average chlorinity is about 19.2‰, and, thus, the average salinity is around 34.7‰ [55]

Absorption of light

Absorption of light in different wavelengths by ocean [55]

Color: Depth at which 99 percent of the Percent absorbed in 1

Wavelength (nm) wavelength is absorbed (in meters) meter of water

Ultraviolet (UV):
31 14.0
310

Violet (V): 400 107 4.2

Blue (B): 475 254 1.8

Green (G): 525 113 4.0

Yellow (Y): 575 51 8.7

Orange (O): 600 25 16.7

Red (R): 725 4 71.0

Infrared (IR): 800 3 82.0

Economic value
Many of the world's goods are moved by ship between the world's seaports.[56] Oceans are also
the major supply source for the fishing industry. Some of the major harvests
are shrimp, fish, crabs, and lobster.[6]

Waves and swell

Further information: Wind wave
See also: Sea § Waves
The motions of the ocean surface, known as undulations or waves, are the partial and alternate
rising and falling of the ocean surface. The series of mechanical waves that propagate along the
interface between water and air is called swell.[citation needed]

Extraterrestrial oceans
Further information: Extraterrestrial liquid water and List of largest lakes and seas in the Solar
System

Artist's conception of subsurface ocean of Enceladus confirmed April 3, 2014. [57][58]

Two models for the composition of Europa predict a large subsurface ocean of liquid water. Similar models
have been proposed for other celestial bodies in the Solar System.

Although Earth is the only known planet with large stable bodies of liquid water on its surface and
the only one in the Solar System, other celestial bodies are thought to have large oceans.[59]

Planets
The gas giants, Jupiter and Saturn, are thought to lack surfaces and instead have a stratum
of liquid hydrogen, however their planetary geology is not well understood. The possibility of
the ice giants Uranus and Neptune having hot, highly compressed, supercritical water under their
thick atmospheres has been hypothesised. Although their composition is still not fully understood,
a 2006 study by Wiktorowicz and Ingersall ruled out the possibility of such a water "ocean"
existing on Neptune,[60] though some studies have suggested that exotic oceans of
liquid diamond are possible.[61]
The Mars ocean hypothesis suggests that nearly a third of the surface of Mars was once covered
by water, though the water on Mars is no longer oceanic (much of it residing in the ice caps). The
possibility continues to be studied along with reasons for their apparent disappearance.
Astronomers think that Venus had liquid water and perhaps oceans in its very early history. [citation
needed]
If they existed, all later vanished via resurfacing.

Natural satellites
A global layer of liquid water thick enough to decouple the crust from the mantle is thought to be
present on the natural satellites Titan, Europa, Enceladus and, with less
certainty, Callisto, Ganymede[62][63] and Triton.[64][65] A magma ocean is thought to be present
on Io. Geysers have been found on Saturn's moon Enceladus, possibly originating from about 10
kilometers (6.2 mi) deep ocean beneath an ice shell.[57] Other icy moons may also have internal
oceans, or may once have had internal oceans that have now frozen.[66]
Large bodies of liquid hydrocarbons are thought to be present on the surface of Titan, although
they are not large enough to be considered oceans and are sometimes referred to as lakes or
seas. The Cassini–Huygens space mission initially discovered only what appeared to be dry
lakebeds and empty river channels, suggesting that Titan had lost what surface liquids it might
have had. Cassini's more recent fly-by of Titan offers radar images that strongly suggest
hydrocarbon lakes exist near the colder polar regions. Titan is thought to have a subsurface
liquid-water ocean under the ice and hydrocarbon mix that forms its outer crust.

Dwarf planets and trans-Neptunian objects

Diagram showing a possible internal structure of Ceres

Ceres appears to be differentiated into a rocky core and icy mantle and may harbour a liquid-
water ocean under its surface.[67][68]
Not enough is known of the larger trans-Neptunian objects to determine whether they are
differentiated bodies capable of supporting oceans, although models of radioactive decay
suggest that Pluto,[69] Eris, Sedna, and Orcus have oceans beneath solid icy crusts
approximately 100 to 180 km thick.[66]

Extrasolar

Rendering of a hypothetical large extrasolar moon with surface liquid-water oceans

Some planets and natural satellites outside the Solar System are likely to have oceans, including
possible water ocean planets similar to Earth in the habitable zone or "liquid-water belt". The
detection of oceans, even through the spectroscopy method, however is likely extremely difficult
and inconclusive.
Theoretical models have been used to predict with high probability that GJ 1214 b, detected by
transit, is composed of exotic form of ice VII, making up 75% of its mass,[70] making it an ocean
planet.
Other possible candidates are merely speculated based on their mass and position in the
habitable zone include planet though little is actually known of their composition. Some scientists
speculate Kepler-22b may be an "ocean-like" planet.[71] Models have been proposed for Gliese
581 d that could include surface oceans. Gliese 436 b is speculated to have an ocean of "hot
ice".[72] Exomoons orbiting planets, particularly gas giants within their parent star's habitable zone
may theoretically have surface oceans.
Terrestrial planets will acquire water during their accretion, some of which will be buried in the
magma ocean but most of it will go into a steam atmosphere, and when the atmosphere cools it
will collapse on to the surface forming an ocean. There will also be outgassing of water from the
mantle as the magma solidifies—this will happen even for planets with a low percentage of their
mass composed of water, so "super-Earth exoplanets may be expected to commonly produce
water oceans within tens to hundreds of millions of years of their last major accretionary
impact."[73]