Sea

Sea refers to a large body of salty water, specifically of

seawater. There are particular seas and the sea. The
sea commonly refers to the ocean, the wider body of
seawater. Particular seas are either marginal seas,
second-order sections of the oceanic sea (e.g. the
Mediterranean Sea), or certain large, entirely
landlocked, saltwater lakes (e.g. the Caspian Sea).

The salinity of water bodies varies widely, being lower

near the surface and the mouths of large rivers and
higher in the depths of the ocean; however, the relative
proportions of dissolved salts vary little across the Coastal sea waves at Paracas National Reserve,
oceans. The most abundant solid dissolved in seawater Ica, Peru
is sodium chloride. The water also contains salts of
magnesium, calcium, potassium, and mercury, amongst
many other elements, some in minute concentrations.

The ocean moderates Earth's climate and has important roles in the water, carbon, and nitrogen cycles. The
surface of water interacts with the atmosphere, exchanging properties such as particles and temperature, as
well as currents. Surface currents are the water currents that are produced by the atmosphere's currents and
its winds blowing over the surface of the water, producing wind waves, setting up through drag slow but
stable circulations of water, as in the case of the ocean sustaining deep-sea ocean currents. Deep-sea
currents, known together as the global conveyor belt, carry cold water from near the poles to every ocean
and significantly influencing Earth's climate. Tides, the generally twice-daily rise and fall of sea levels, are
caused by Earth's rotation and the gravitational effects of the Moon and, to a lesser extent, of the Sun. Tides
may have a very high range in bays or estuaries. Submarine earthquakes arising from tectonic plate
movements under the oceans can lead to destructive tsunamis, as can volcanoes, huge landslides, or the
impact of large meteorites.

A wide variety of organisms, including bacteria, protists, algae, plants, fungi, and animals, lives in the seas,
which offers a wide range of marine habitats and ecosystems, ranging vertically from the sunlit surface and
shoreline to the great depths and pressures of the cold, dark abyssal zone, and in latitude from the cold
waters under polar ice caps to the warm waters of coral reefs in tropical regions. Many of the major groups
of organisms evolved in the sea and life may have started there.

The seas have been an integral element for humans throughout history and culture. Humans harnessing and
studying the seas have been recorded since ancient times, and evidenced well into prehistory, while its
modern scientific study is called oceanography and maritime space is governed by the law of the sea, with
admiralty law regulating human interactions at sea. The seas provide substantial supplies of food for
humans, mainly fish, but also shellfish, mammals and seaweed, whether caught by fishermen or farmed
underwater. Other human uses of the seas include trade, travel, mineral extraction, power generation,
warfare, and leisure activities such as swimming, sailing, and scuba diving. Many of these activities create
marine pollution.

Definition
The sea is the interconnected system of all the Earth's
oceanic waters, including the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian,
Southern and Arctic Oceans.[1] However, the word "sea"
can also be used for many specific, much smaller bodies
of seawater, such as the North Sea or the Red Sea. There
is no sharp distinction between seas and oceans, though
generally seas are smaller, and are often partly (as
marginal seas or particularly as a mediterranean sea) or
wholly (as inland seas) enclosed by land.[2] However, an
exception to this is the Sargasso Sea which has no
coastline and lies within a circular current, the North
Atlantic Gyre.[3]: 9 0  Seas are generally larger than lakes
and contain salt water, but the Sea of Galilee is a
freshwater lake.[4][a] The United Nations Convention on
the Law of the Sea states that all of the ocean is
"sea".[8][9][b] Animated map exhibiting the world's oceanic
waters. A continuous body of water encircling
Earth, the World Ocean is divided into a
Legal definition number of principal areas with relatively
uninhibited interchange among them. Five
The law of the sea has at its center the definition of the oceanic divisions are usually defined: Pacific,
boundaries of the ocean, clarifying its application in Atlantic, Indian, Arctic, and Southern; the last
marginal seas. But what bodies of water other than the sea two listed are sometimes consolidated into the
the law applies to is being crucially negotiated in the case first three.
of the Caspian Sea and its status as "sea", basically
revolving around the issue of the
Caspian Sea about either being
factually an oceanic sea or only a
saline body of water and therefore
solely a sea in the sense of the common
use of the word, like all other saltwater
lakes called sea.

Physical science
Earth is the only known planet with
seas of liquid water on its surface,[3]: 2 2  Marginal seas as defined by the International Maritime Organization
although Mars possesses ice caps and
similar planets in other solar systems
may have oceans.[11] Earth's 1,335,000,000 cubic
kilometers (320,000,000  cu  mi) of sea contain about
97.2 percent of its known water[12][c] and cover
approximately 71 percent of its surface.[3]: 7  [17]
Another 2.15% of Earth's water is frozen, found in the
sea ice covering the Arctic Ocean, the ice cap covering
Antarctica and its adjacent seas, and various glaciers
and surface deposits around the world. The remainder
Composite images of the Earth created by NASA
(about 0.65% of the whole) form underground
in 2001
reservoirs or various stages of the water cycle,
containing the freshwater encountered and used by most terrestrial life: vapor in the air, the clouds it slowly
forms, the rain falling from them, and the lakes and rivers spontaneously formed as its waters flow again
and again to the sea.[12]

The scientific study of water and Earth's water cycle is hydrology; hydrodynamics studies the physics of
water in motion. The more recent study of the sea in particular is oceanography. This began as the study of
the shape of the ocean's currents[18] but has since expanded into a large and multidisciplinary field:[19] it
examines the properties of seawater; studies waves, tides, and currents; charts coastlines and maps the
seabeds; and studies marine life.[20] The subfield dealing with the sea's motion, its forces, and the forces
acting upon it is known as physical oceanography.[21] Marine biology (biological oceanography) studies the
plants, animals, and other organisms inhabiting marine ecosystems. Both are informed by chemical
oceanography, which studies the behavior of elements and molecules within the oceans: particularly, at the
moment, the ocean's role in the carbon cycle and carbon dioxide's role in the increasing acidification of
seawater. Marine and maritime geography charts the shape and shaping of the sea, while marine geology
(geological oceanography) has provided evidence of continental drift and the composition and structure of
the Earth, clarified the process of sedimentation, and assisted the study of volcanism and earthquakes.[19]

Seawater

Salinity

A characteristic of seawater is that it is salty. Salinity is

Salinity map taken from the Aquarius Spacecraft.
The rainbow colours represent salinity levels: red =
40 ‰, purple = 30 ‰
usually measured in parts per thousand (‰ or per mil),
and the open ocean has about 35 grams (1.2 oz) solids
per litre, a salinity of 35 ‰. The Mediterranean Sea is
slightly higher at 38  ‰ ,[22] while the salinity of the
northern Red Sea can reach 41‰.[23] In contrast, some
landlocked hypersaline lakes have a much higher
salinity, for example the Dead Sea has 300 grams
(11 oz) dissolved solids per litre (300 ‰).

While the constituents of table salt (sodium and chloride) make up about 85 percent of the solids in solution,
there are also other metal ions such as magnesium and calcium, and negative ions including sulphate,
carbonate, and bromide. Despite variations in the levels of salinity in different seas, the relative composition
of the dissolved salts is stable throughout the world's oceans.[24][25] Seawater is too saline for humans to
drink safely, as the kidneys cannot excrete urine as salty as seawater.[26]

Although the amount of salt in the ocean remains relatively constant within the scale of millions of years,
various factors affect the salinity of a body of water.[27] Evaporation and by-product of ice formation
(known as "brine rejection") increase salinity, whereas precipitation, sea ice melt, and runoff from land
reduce it.[27] The Baltic Sea, for example, has many rivers flowing into it, and thus the sea could be
considered as brackish.[28] Meanwhile, the Red Sea is very salty due to its high evaporation rate.[29]

Temperature

Sea temperature depends on the amount of solar radiation falling on its surface. In the tropics, with the sun
nearly overhead, the temperature of the surface layers can rise to over 30 °C (86 °F) while near the poles the
temperature in equilibrium with the sea ice is about −2  °C (28  °F). There is a continuous circulation of
water in the oceans. Warm surface currents cool as they move away from the tropics, and the water
becomes denser and sinks. The cold water moves
back towards the equator as a deep sea current, Major solutes in seawater (3.5% salinity)[25]
driven by changes in the temperature and density of Solute Concentration (‰) % of total salts
the water, before eventually welling up again
towards the surface. Deep seawater has a Chloride 19.3 55
temperature between −2  °C (28  °F) and 5  °C Sodium 10.8 30.6
(41 °F) in all parts of the globe. [30]
Sulphate 2.7 7.7

Seawater with a typical salinity of 35  ‰ has a Magnesium 1.3 3.7

freezing point of about −1.8 °C (28.8 °F). When its Calcium 0.41 1.2
temperature becomes low enough, ice crystals form
on the surface. These break into small pieces and Potassium 0.40 1.1
coalesce into flat discs that form a thick suspension Bicarbonate 0.10 0.4
known as frazil. In calm conditions this freezes into
Bromide 0.07 0.2
a thin flat sheet known as nilas, which thickens as
new ice forms on its underside. In more turbulent Carbonate 0.01 0.05
seas, frazil crystals join into flat discs known as Strontium 0.01 0.04
pancakes. These slide under each other and
Borate 0.01 0.01
coalesce to form floes. In the process of freezing,
salt water and air are trapped between the ice Fluoride 0.001 <0.01
crystals. Nilas may have a salinity of 12–15 ‰, but
All other solutes <0.001 <0.01
by the time the sea ice is one year old, this falls to
4–6 ‰.[31]

Oxygen concentration

The amount of oxygen found in seawater depends primarily on the plants growing in it. These are mainly
algae, including phytoplankton, with some vascular plants such as seagrasses. In daylight the photosynthetic
activity of these plants produces oxygen, which dissolves in the seawater and is used by marine animals. At
night, photosynthesis stops, and the amount of dissolved oxygen declines. In the deep sea, where
insufficient light penetrates for plants to grow, there is very little dissolved oxygen. In its absence, organic
material is broken down by anaerobic bacteria producing hydrogen sulphide.[32]

Climate change is likely to reduce levels of oxygen in surface waters, since the solubility of oxygen in water
falls at higher temperatures.[33] Ocean deoxygenation is projected to increase hypoxia by 10%, and triple
suboxic waters (oxygen concentrations 98% less than the mean surface concentrations), for each 1 °C of
upper ocean warming.[34]

Light

The amount of light that penetrates the sea depends on the angle of the sun, the weather conditions and the
turbidity of the water. Much light gets reflected at the surface, and red light gets absorbed in the top few
metres. Yellow and green light reach greater depths, and blue and violet light may penetrate as deep as
1,000 metres (3,300 ft). There is insufficient light for photosynthesis and plant growth beyond a depth of
about 200 metres (660 ft).[35]

Sea level
Over most of geologic time, the sea level has been higher than it is today.[3]: 7 4  The main factor affecting
sea level over time is the result of changes in the oceanic crust, with a downward trend expected to continue
in the very long term.[36] At the last glacial maximum, some 20,000 years ago, the sea level was about 125
metres (410 ft) lower than in present times (2012).[37]

For at least the last 100 years, sea level has been rising at an average rate of about 1.8 millimetres (0.071 in)
per year.[38] Most of this rise can be attributed to an increase in the temperature of the sea due to climate
change, and the resulting slight thermal expansion of the upper 500 metres (1,600 ft) of water. Additional
contributions, as much as one quarter of the total, come from water sources on land, such as melting snow
and glaciers and extraction of groundwater for irrigation and other agricultural and human needs.[39]

Waves

Wind blowing over the surface of a body of water forms waves that
are perpendicular to the direction of the wind. The friction between
air and water caused by a gentle breeze on a pond causes ripples to
form. A strong blow over the ocean causes larger waves as the
moving air pushes against the raised ridges of water. The waves
reach their maximum height when the rate at which they are
Movement of molecules as waves
travelling nearly matches the speed of the wind. In open water,
pass
when the wind blows continuously as happens in the Southern
Hemisphere in the Roaring Forties, long, organised masses of water
called swell roll across the ocean.[3]: 8 3–84 [40][41][d] If the wind dies
down, the wave formation is reduced, but already-formed waves
continue to travel in their original direction until they meet land.
The size of the waves depends on the fetch, the distance that the
wind has blown over the water and the strength and duration of that
wind. When waves meet others coming from different directions,
interference between the two can produce broken, irregular seas.[40]
When the wave enters shallow water,
Constructive interference can cause individual (unexpected) rogue
it slows down and its amplitude
waves much higher than normal.[42] Most waves are less than 3 m (height) increases.
(10 ft) high[42] and it is not unusual for strong storms to double or
triple that height;[43] offshore construction such as wind farms and
oil platforms use metocean statistics from measurements in computing the wave forces (due to for instance
the hundred-year wave) they are designed against.[44] Rogue waves, however, have been documented at
heights above 25 meters (82 ft).[45][46]

The top of a wave is known as the crest, the lowest point between waves is the trough and the distance
between the crests is the wavelength. The wave is pushed across the surface of the sea by the wind, but this
represents a transfer of energy and not a horizontal movement of water. As waves approach land and move
into shallow water, they change their behavior. If approaching at an angle, waves may bend (refraction) or
wrap rocks and headlands (diffraction). When the wave reaches a point where its deepest oscillations of the
water contact the seabed, they begin to slow down. This pulls the crests closer together and increases the
waves' height, which is called wave shoaling. When the ratio of the wave's height to the water depth
increases above a certain limit, it "breaks", toppling over in a mass of foaming water.[42] This rushes in a
sheet up the beach before retreating into the sea under the influence of gravity.[40]

Tsunami
 A tsunami is an unusual form of wave caused by an infrequent
powerful event such as an underwater earthquake or landslide, a
meteorite impact, a volcanic eruption or a collapse of land into the
sea. These events can temporarily lift or lower the surface of the sea
in the affected area, usually by a few feet. The potential energy of
the displaced seawater is turned into kinetic energy, creating a
shallow wave, a tsunami, radiating outwards at a velocity
proportional to the square root of the depth of the water and which
therefore travels much faster in the open ocean than on a continental
The 2004 tsunami in Thailand shelf.[47] In the deep open sea, tsunamis have wavelengths of
around 80 to 300 miles (130 to 480  km), travel at speeds of over
600 miles per hour (970 km/h)[48] and usually have a height of less
than three feet, so they often pass unnoticed at this stage.[49] In contrast, ocean surface waves caused by
winds have wavelengths of a few hundred feet, travel at up to 65 miles per hour (105 km/h) and are up to
45 feet (14 metres) high.[49]

As a tsunami moves into shallower water its speed decreases, its wavelength shortens and its amplitude
increases enormously,[49] behaving in the same way as a wind-generated wave in shallow water, but on a
vastly greater scale. Either the trough or the crest of a tsunami can arrive at the coast first.[47] In the former
case, the sea draws back and leaves subtidal areas close to the shore exposed which provides a useful
warning for people on land.[50] When the crest arrives, it does not usually break but rushes inland, flooding
all in its path. Much of the destruction may be caused by the flood water draining back into the sea after the
tsunami has struck, dragging debris and people with it. Often several tsunami are caused by a single
geological event and arrive at intervals of between eight minutes and two hours. The first wave to arrive on
shore may not be the biggest or most destructive.[47]

Currents

Wind blowing over the surface of the sea causes

friction at the interface between air and sea. Not only
does this cause waves to form but it also makes the
surface seawater move in the same direction as the
wind. Although winds are variable, in any one place
they predominantly blow from a single direction and
thus a surface current can be formed. Westerly winds
are most frequent in the mid-latitudes while easterlies
dominate the tropics.[51] When water moves in this Surface currents: red–warm, blue–cold
way, other water flows in to fill the gap and a circular
movement of surface currents known as a gyre is
formed. There are five main gyres in the world's oceans: two in the Pacific, two in the Atlantic and one in
the Indian Ocean. Other smaller gyres are found in lesser seas and a single gyre flows around Antarctica.
These gyres have followed the same routes for millennia, guided by the topography of the land, the wind
direction and the Coriolis effect. The surface currents flow in a clockwise direction in the Northern
Hemisphere and anticlockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. The water moving away from the equator is
warm, and that flowing in the reverse direction has lost most of its heat. These currents tend to moderate the
Earth's climate, cooling the equatorial region and warming regions at higher latitudes.[52] Global climate
and weather forecasts are powerfully affected by the world ocean, so global climate modelling makes use of
ocean circulation models as well as models of other major components such as the atmosphere, land
surfaces, aerosols and sea ice.[53] Ocean models make use of a branch of physics, geophysical fluid
dynamics, that describes the large-scale flow of fluids such as seawater.[54]
Surface currents only affect the top few hundred
metres of the sea, but there are also large-scale flows in
the ocean depths caused by the movement of deep
water masses. A main deep ocean current flows
through all the world's oceans and is known as the
thermohaline circulation or global conveyor belt. This
movement is slow and is driven by differences in
density of the water caused by variations in salinity and
temperature.[55] At high latitudes the water is chilled
by the low atmospheric temperature and becomes
saltier as sea ice crystallizes out. Both these factors The global conveyor belt shown in blue with
make it denser, and the water sinks. From the deep sea warmer surface currents in red
near Greenland, such water flows southwards between
the continental landmasses on either side of the
Atlantic. When it reaches the Antarctic, it is joined by further masses of cold, sinking water and flows
eastwards. It then splits into two streams that move northwards into the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Here it is
gradually warmed, becomes less dense, rises towards the surface and loops back on itself. It takes a
thousand years for this circulation pattern to be completed.[52]

Besides gyres, there are temporary surface currents that occur under specific conditions. When waves meet
a shore at an angle, a longshore current is created as water is pushed along parallel to the coastline. The
water swirls up onto the beach at right angles to the approaching waves but drains away straight down the
slope under the effect of gravity. The larger the breaking waves, the longer the beach and the more oblique
the wave approach, the stronger is the longshore current.[56] These currents can shift great volumes of sand
or pebbles, create spits and make beaches disappear and water channels silt up.[52] A rip current can occur
when water piles up near the shore from advancing waves and is funnelled out to sea through a channel in
the seabed. It may occur at a gap in a sandbar or near a man-made structure such as a groyne. These strong
currents can have a velocity of 3 ft (0.9 m) per second, can form at different places at different stages of the
tide and can carry away unwary bathers.[57] Temporary upwelling currents occur when the wind pushes
water away from the land and deeper water rises to replace it. This cold water is often rich in nutrients and
creates blooms of phytoplankton and a great increase in the productivity of the sea.[52]

Tides

Tides are the regular rise and fall in water level experienced by seas
and oceans in response to the gravitational influences of the Moon
and the Sun, and the effects of the Earth's rotation. During each
tidal cycle, at any given place the water rises to a maximum height
known as "high tide" before ebbing away again to the minimum
"low tide" level. As the water recedes, it uncovers more and more
of the foreshore, also known as the intertidal zone. The difference
in height between the high tide and low tide is known as the tidal
range or tidal amplitude.[58][59]

High tides (blue) at the nearest and Most places experience two high tides each day, occurring at
furthest points of the Earth from the intervals of about 12 hours and 25 minutes. This is half the 24 hours
Moon and 50 minute period that it takes for the Earth to make a complete
revolution and return the Moon to its previous position relative to an
observer. The Moon's mass is some 27  million times smaller than
the Sun, but it is 400 times closer to the Earth.[60] Tidal force or tide-raising force decreases rapidly with
distance, so the moon has more than twice as great an effect on tides as the Sun.[60] A bulge is formed in the
ocean at the place where the Earth is closest to the Moon, because it is also where the effect of the Moon's
gravity is stronger. On the opposite side of the Earth, the lunar force is at its weakest and this causes another
bulge to form. As the Moon rotates around the Earth, so do these ocean bulges move around the Earth. The
gravitational attraction of the Sun is also working on the seas, but its effect on tides is less powerful than
that of the Moon, and when the Sun, Moon and Earth are all aligned (full moon and new moon), the
combined effect results in the high "spring tides". In contrast, when the Sun is at 90° from the Moon as
viewed from Earth, the combined gravitational effect on tides is less causing the lower "neap tides".[58]

A storm surge can occur when high winds pile water up against the coast in a shallow area and this,
coupled with a low pressure system, can raise the surface of the sea at high tide dramatically.

Ocean basins

The Earth is composed of a magnetic central core, a

mostly liquid mantle and a hard rigid outer shell (or
lithosphere), which is composed of the Earth's rocky
crust and the deeper mostly solid outer layer of the
mantle. On land the crust is known as the continental
crust while under the sea it is known as the oceanic
crust. The latter is composed of relatively dense basalt
and is some five to ten kilometres (three to six miles)
thick. The relatively thin lithosphere floats on the
Three types of plate boundary
weaker and hotter mantle below and is fractured into a
number of tectonic plates.[61] In mid-ocean, magma is
constantly being thrust through the seabed between adjoining plates to form mid-oceanic ridges and here
convection currents within the mantle tend to drive the two plates apart. Parallel to these ridges and nearer
the coasts, one oceanic plate may slide beneath another oceanic plate in a process known as subduction.
Deep trenches are formed here and the process is accompanied by friction as the plates grind together. The
movement proceeds in jerks which cause earthquakes, heat is produced and magma is forced up creating
underwater mountains, some of which may form chains of volcanic islands near to deep trenches. Near
some of the boundaries between the land and sea, the slightly denser oceanic plates slide beneath the
continental plates and more subduction trenches are formed. As they grate together, the continental plates
are deformed and buckle causing mountain building and seismic activity.[62][63]

The Earth's deepest trench is the Mariana Trench which extends for about 2,500 kilometres (1,600  mi)
across the seabed. It is near the Mariana Islands, a volcanic archipelago in the West Pacific. Its deepest point
is 10.994 kilometres (nearly 7 miles) below the surface of the sea.[64]

Coasts

The zone where land meets sea is known as the coast and the part
between the lowest spring tides and the upper limit reached by
splashing waves is the shore. A beach is the accumulation of sand
or shingle on the shore.[65] A headland is a point of land jutting out
into the sea and a larger promontory is known as a cape. The
indentation of a coastline, especially between two headlands, is a
bay, a small bay with a narrow inlet is a cove and a large bay may
be referred to as a gulf.[66] Coastlines are influenced by a number Praia da Marinha in Algarve, Portugal
of factors including the strength of the waves arriving on the shore,
the gradient of the land margin, the composition and hardness of the
coastal rock, the inclination of the off-shore slope and the changes of the
level of the land due to local uplift or submergence. Normally, waves roll
towards the shore at the rate of six to eight per minute and these are known
as constructive waves as they tend to move material up the beach and have
little erosive effect. Storm waves arrive on shore in rapid succession and are
known as destructive waves as the swash moves beach material seawards.
Under their influence, the sand and shingle on the beach is ground together
and abraded. Around high tide, the power of a storm wave impacting on the
foot of a cliff has a shattering effect as air in cracks and crevices is
compressed and then expands rapidly with release of pressure. At the same
time, sand and pebbles have an erosive effect as they are thrown against the
rocks. This tends to undercut the cliff, and normal weathering processes The Baltic Sea in the
such as the action of frost follows, causing further destruction. Gradually, a archipelago of Turku,
wave-cut platform develops at the foot of the cliff and this has a protective Finland
effect, reducing further wave-erosion.[65]

Material worn from the margins of the land eventually ends up in the sea. Here it is subject to attrition as
currents flowing parallel to the coast scour out channels and transport sand and pebbles away from their
place of origin. Sediment carried to the sea by rivers settles on the seabed causing deltas to form in estuaries.
All these materials move back and forth under the influence of waves, tides and currents.[65] Dredging
removes material and deepens channels but may have unexpected effects elsewhere on the coastline.
Governments make efforts to prevent flooding of the land by the building of breakwaters, seawalls, dykes
and levees and other sea defences. For instance, the Thames Barrier is designed to protect London from a
storm surge,[67] while the failure of the dykes and levees around New Orleans during Hurricane Katrina
created a humanitarian crisis in the United States.

Water cycle

The sea plays a part in the water or hydrological cycle, in which water evaporates from the ocean, travels
through the atmosphere as vapour, condenses, falls as rain or snow, thereby sustaining life on land, and
largely returns to the sea.[68] Even in the Atacama Desert, where little rain ever falls, dense clouds of fog
known as the camanchaca blow in from the sea and support plant life.[69]

In central Asia and other large land masses, there are endorheic basins which have no outlet to the sea,
separated from the ocean by mountains or other natural geologic features that prevent the water draining
away. The Caspian Sea is the largest one of these. Its main inflow is from the River Volga, there is no
outflow and the evaporation of water makes it saline as dissolved minerals accumulate. The Aral Sea in
Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, and Pyramid Lake in the western United States are further examples of large,
inland saline water-bodies without drainage. Some endorheic lakes are less salty, but all are sensitive to
variations in the quality of the inflowing water.[70]

Carbon cycle

Oceans contain the greatest quantity of actively cycled carbon in the world and are second only to the
lithosphere in the amount of carbon they store.[71] The oceans' surface layer holds large amounts of
dissolved organic carbon that is exchanged rapidly with the atmosphere. The deep layer's concentration of
dissolved inorganic carbon is about 15 percent higher than that of the surface layer[72] and it remains there
for much longer periods of time.[73] Thermohaline circulation exchanges carbon between these two
layers.[71]
Carbon enters the ocean as atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolves in the surface layers and is converted into
carbonic acid, carbonate, and bicarbonate:[74]

CO2 (gas) ⇌ CO2 (aq)

CO2 (aq) + H2O ⇌ H2CO3
H2CO3 ⇌ HCO3− + H+
HCO3− ⇌ CO32− + H+

It can also enter through rivers as dissolved organic carbon and is converted by photosynthetic organisms
into organic carbon. This can either be exchanged throughout the food chain or precipitated into the deeper,
more carbon rich layers as dead soft tissue or in shells and bones as calcium carbonate. It circulates in this
layer for long periods of time before either being deposited as sediment or being returned to surface waters
through thermohaline circulation.[73]

Life in the sea

The oceans are home to a diverse collection of life forms that use it as a
habitat. Since sunlight illuminates only the upper layers, the major part of
the ocean exists in permanent darkness. As the different depth and
temperature zones each provide habitat for a unique set of species, the
marine environment as a whole encompasses an immense diversity of
life.[75] Marine habitats range from surface water to the deepest oceanic
trenches, including coral reefs, kelp forests, seagrass meadows, tidepools,
muddy, sandy and rocky seabeds, and the open pelagic zone. The
organisms living in the sea range from whales 30 metres (98 feet) long to
microscopic phytoplankton and zooplankton, fungi, and bacteria. Marine
life plays an important part in the carbon cycle as photosynthetic organisms
convert dissolved carbon dioxide into organic carbon and it is economically
important to humans for providing fish for use as food.[76][77]: 2 04–229  Coral reefs are among the
most biodiverse habitats in
Life may have originated in the sea and all the major groups of animals are the world.
represented there. Scientists differ as to precisely where in the sea life arose:
the Miller-Urey experiments suggested a dilute chemical "soup" in open
water, but more recent suggestions include volcanic hot springs, fine-grained clay sediments, or deep-sea
"black smoker" vents, all of which would have provided protection from damaging ultraviolet radiation
which was not blocked by the early Earth's atmosphere.[3]: 1 38–140 

Marine habitats

Marine habitats can be divided horizontally into coastal and open ocean habitats. Coastal habitats extend
from the shoreline to the edge of the continental shelf. Most marine life is found in coastal habitats, even
though the shelf area occupies only 7 percent of the total ocean area. Open ocean habitats are found in the
deep ocean beyond the edge of the continental shelf. Alternatively, marine habitats can be divided vertically
into pelagic (open water), demersal (just above the seabed) and benthic (sea bottom) habitats. A third
division is by latitude: from polar seas with ice shelves, sea ice and icebergs, to temperate and tropical
waters.[3]: 1 50–151 

Coral reefs, the so-called "rainforests of the sea", occupy less than 0.1 percent of the world's ocean surface,
yet their ecosystems include 25 percent of all marine species.[78] The best-known are tropical coral reefs
such as Australia's Great Barrier Reef, but cold water reefs harbour a wide array of species including corals
(only six of which contribute to reef formation).[3]: 2 04–207 [79]

Algae and plants

Marine primary producers — plants and microscopic organisms in the plankton — are widespread and very
essential for the ecosystem. It has been estimated that half of the world's oxygen is produced by
phytoplankton.[80][81] About 45 percent of the sea's primary production of living material is contributed by
diatoms.[82] Much larger algae, commonly known as seaweeds, are important locally; Sargassum forms
floating drifts, while kelp form seabed forests.[77]: 2 46–255  Flowering plants in the form of seagrasses grow
in "meadows" in sandy shallows,[83] mangroves line the coast in tropical and subtropical regions[84] and
salt-tolerant plants thrive in regularly inundated salt marshes.[85] All of these habitats are able to sequester
large quantities of carbon and support a biodiverse range of larger and smaller animal life.[86]

Light is only able to penetrate the top 200 metres (660 ft) so this is the only part of the sea where plants can
grow.[35] The surface layers are often deficient in biologically active nitrogen compounds. The marine
nitrogen cycle consists of complex microbial transformations which include the fixation of nitrogen, its
assimilation, nitrification, anammox and denitrification.[87] Some of these processes take place in deep
water so that where there is an upwelling of cold waters, and also near estuaries where land-sourced
nutrients are present, plant growth is higher. This means that the most productive areas, rich in plankton and
therefore also in fish, are mainly coastal.[3]: 1 60–163 

Animals and other marine life

There is a broader spectrum of higher animal taxa in the sea than on

land, many marine species have yet to be discovered and the number
known to science is expanding annually.[88] Some vertebrates such as
seabirds, seals and sea turtles return to the land to breed but fish,
cetaceans and sea snakes have a completely aquatic lifestyle and many
invertebrate phyla are entirely marine. In fact, the oceans teem with life
and provide many varying microhabitats.[88] One of these is the A thornback cowfish
surface film which, even though tossed about by the movement of
waves, provides a rich environment and is home to bacteria, fungi,
microalgae, protozoa, fish eggs and various larvae.[89]

The pelagic zone contains macro- and microfauna and myriad zooplankton which drift with the currents.
Most of the smallest organisms are the larvae of fish and marine invertebrates which liberate eggs in vast
numbers because the chance of any one embryo surviving to maturity is so minute.[90] The zooplankton
feed on phytoplankton and on each other and form a basic part of the complex food chain that extends
through variously sized fish and other nektonic organisms to large squid, sharks, porpoises, dolphins and
whales.[91] Some marine creatures make large migrations, either to other regions of the ocean on a seasonal
basis or vertical migrations daily, often ascending to feed at night and descending to safety by day.[92] Ships
can introduce or spread invasive species through the discharge of ballast water or the transport of organisms
that have accumulated as part of the fouling community on the hulls of vessels.[93]

The demersal zone supports many animals that feed on benthic organisms or seek protection from predators
and the seabed provides a range of habitats on or under the surface of the substrate which are used by
creatures adapted to these conditions. The tidal zone with its periodic exposure to the dehydrating air is
home to barnacles, molluscs and crustaceans. The neritic zone has many organisms that need light to
flourish. Here, among algal encrusted rocks live sponges, echinoderms, polychaete worms, sea anemones
and other invertebrates. Corals often contain photosynthetic symbionts and live in shallow waters where
light penetrates. The extensive calcareous skeletons they extrude build up into coral reefs which are an
important feature of the seabed. These provide a biodiverse habitat for reef dwelling organisms. There is
less sea life on the floor of deeper seas but marine life also flourishes around seamounts that rise from the
depths, where fish and other animals congregate to spawn and feed. Close to the seabed live demersal fish
that feed largely on pelagic organisms or benthic invertebrates.[94] Exploration of the deep sea by
submersibles revealed a new world of creatures living on the seabed that scientists had not previously
known to exist. Some like the detrivores rely on organic material falling to the ocean floor. Others cluster
round deep sea hydrothermal vents where mineral-rich flows of water emerge from the seabed, supporting
communities whose primary producers are sulphide-oxidising chemoautotrophic bacteria, and whose
consumers include specialised bivalves, sea anemones, barnacles, crabs, worms and fish, often found
nowhere else.[3]: 2 12  A dead whale sinking to the bottom of the ocean provides food for an assembly of
organisms which similarly rely largely on the actions of sulphur-reducing bacteria. Such places support
unique biomes where many new microbes and other lifeforms have been discovered.[95]

Humans and the sea

History of navigation and exploration

Humans have travelled the seas since

they first built sea-going craft.
Mesopotamians were using bitumen to
caulk their reed boats and, a little later,
masted sails.[96] By c. 3000 BC,
Austronesians on Taiwan had begun
spreading into maritime Southeast
Asia.[97] Subsequently, the
Austronesian "Lapita" peoples Map showing the seaborne migration and expansion of the
displayed great feats of navigation, Austronesians beginning at around 3000 BC
reaching out from the Bismarck
Archipelago to as far away as Fiji,
Tonga, and Samoa.[98] Their descendants continued to travel thousands of miles between tiny islands on
outrigger canoes,[99] and in the process they found many new islands, including Hawaii, Easter Island
(Rapa Nui), and New Zealand.[100]

The Ancient Egyptians and Phoenicians explored the Mediterranean and Red Sea with the Egyptian Hannu
reaching the Arabian Peninsula and the African Coast around 2750 BC.[101] In the first millennium BC,
Phoenicians and Greeks established colonies throughout the Mediterranean and the Black Sea.[102] Around
500 BC, the Carthaginian navigator Hanno left a detailed periplus of an Atlantic journey that reached at
least Senegal and possibly Mount Cameroon.[103][104] In the early Mediaeval period, the Vikings crossed
the North Atlantic and even reached the northeastern fringes of North America.[105] Novgorodians had also
been sailing the White Sea since the 13th century or before.[106] Meanwhile, the seas along the eastern and
southern Asian coast were used by Arab and Chinese traders.[107] The Chinese Ming Dynasty had a fleet of
317 ships with 37,000 men under Zheng He in the early fifteenth century, sailing the Indian and Pacific
Oceans.[3]: 1 2–13  In the late fifteenth century, Western European mariners started making longer voyages of
exploration in search of trade. Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope in 1487 and Vasco da
Gama reached India via the Cape in 1498. Christopher Columbus sailed from Cadiz in 1492, attempting to
reach the eastern lands of India and Japan by the novel means of travelling westwards. He made landfall
instead on an island in the Caribbean Sea and a few years later, the Venetian navigator John Cabot reached
Newfoundland. The Italian Amerigo Vespucci, after whom America was named, explored the South
American coastline in voyages made between 1497 and 1502, discovering the mouth of the Amazon
River.[3]: 1 2–13  In 1519 the Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan led the Spanish Magellan-Elcano
expedition which would be the first to sail around the world.[3]: 1 2–13 

As for the history of navigational instrument, a

compass was first used by the ancient Greeks and
Chinese to show where north lies and the direction in
which the ship is heading. The latitude (an angle which
ranges from 0° at the equator to 90° at the poles) was
determined by measuring the angle between the Sun,
Moon or a specific star and the horizon by the use of
an astrolabe, Jacob's staff or sextant. The longitude (a
line on the globe joining the two poles) could only be
calculated with an accurate chronometer to show the
exact time difference between the ship and a fixed
Gerardus Mercator's 1569 world map. The
point such as the Greenwich Meridian. In 1759, John
coastline of the old world is quite accurately
Harrison, a clockmaker, designed such an instrument
depicted, unlike that of the Americas. Regions in
and James Cook used it in his voyages of
high latitudes (Arctic, Antarctic) are greatly
exploration.[108] Nowadays, the Global Positioning
enlarged on this projection.
System (GPS) using over thirty satellites enables
accurate navigation worldwide.[108]

With regards to maps that are vital for navigation, in the second century, Ptolemy mapped the whole known
world from the "Fortunatae Insulae", Cape Verde or Canary Islands, eastward to the Gulf of Thailand. This
map was used in 1492 when Christopher Columbus set out on his voyages of discovery.[109] Subsequently,
Gerardus Mercator made a practical map of the world in 1538, his map projection conveniently making
rhumb lines straight.[3]: 1 2–13  By the eighteenth century better maps had been made and part of the
objective of James Cook on his voyages was to further map the ocean. Scientific study has continued with
the depth recordings of the Tuscarora, the oceanic research of the Challenger voyages (1872–1876), the
work of the Scandinavian seamen Roald Amundsen and Fridtjof Nansen, the Michael Sars expedition in
1910, the German Meteor expedition of 1925, the Antarctic survey work of Discovery II in 1932, and
others since.[19] Furthermore, in 1921, the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) was set up, and
it constitutes the world authority on hydrographic surveying and nautical charting.[110] A fourth edition
draft was published in 1986 but so far several naming disputes (such as the one over the Sea of Japan) have
prevented its ratification.

History of oceanography and deep sea exploration

Scientific oceanography began with the voyages of Captain James Cook from 1768 to 1779, describing the
Pacific with unprecedented precision from 71 degrees South to 71 degrees North.[3]: 1 4  John Harrison's
chronometers supported Cook's accurate navigation and charting on two of these voyages, permanently
improving the standard attainable for subsequent work.[3]: 1 4  Other expeditions followed in the nineteenth
century, from Russia, France, the Netherlands and the United States as well as Britain.[3]: 1 5  On HMS
Beagle, which provided Charles Darwin with ideas and materials for his 1859 book On the Origin of
Species, the ship's captain, Robert FitzRoy, charted the seas and coasts and published his four-volume
report of the ship's three voyages in 1839.[3]: 1 5  Edward Forbes's 1854 book, Distribution of Marine Life
argued that no life could exist below around 600 metres (2,000 feet). This was proven wrong by the British
biologists W. B. Carpenter and C. Wyville Thomson, who in 1868 discovered life in deep water by
dredging.[3]: 1 5  Wyville Thompson became chief scientist on the Challenger expedition of 1872–1876,
which effectively created the science of oceanography.[3]: 1 5 
On her 68,890-nautical-mile (127,580  km) journey round the globe, HMS Challenger discovered about
4,700 new marine species, and made 492 deep sea soundings, 133 bottom dredges, 151 open water trawls
and 263 serial water temperature observations.[111] In the southern Atlantic in 1898/1899, Carl Chun on the
Valdivia brought many new life forms to the surface from depths of over 4,000 metres (13,000 ft). The first
observations of deep-sea animals in their natural environment were made in 1930 by William Beebe and
Otis Barton who descended to 434 metres (1,424 ft) in the spherical steel Bathysphere. This was lowered
by cable but by 1960 a self-powered submersible, Trieste developed by Jacques Piccard, took Piccard and
Don Walsh to the deepest part of the Earth's oceans, the Mariana Trench in the Pacific, reaching a record
depth of about 10,915 metres (35,810 ft),[112] a feat not repeated until 2012 when James Cameron piloted
the Deepsea Challenger to similar depths.[113] An atmospheric diving suit can be worn for deep sea
operations, with a new world record being set in 2006 when a US Navy diver descended to 2,000 feet
(610 m) in one of these articulated, pressurized suits.[114]

At great depths, no light penetrates through the water layers from above and the pressure is extreme. For
deep sea exploration it is necessary to use specialist vehicles, either remotely operated underwater vehicles
with lights and cameras or crewed submersibles. The battery-operated Mir submersibles have a three-person
crew and can descend to 20,000 feet (6,100  m). They have viewing ports, 5,000-watt lights, video
equipment and manipulator arms for collecting samples, placing probes or pushing the vehicle across the
sea bed when the thrusters would stir up excessive sediment.[115]

Bathymetry is the mapping and study of the topography of the ocean floor. Methods used for measuring the
depth of the sea include single or multibeam echosounders, laser airborne depth sounders and the
calculation of depths from satellite remote sensing data. This information is used for determining the routes
of undersea cables and pipelines, for choosing suitable locations for siting oil rigs and offshore wind
turbines and for identifying possible new fisheries.[116]

Ongoing oceanographic research includes marine lifeforms, conservation, the marine environment, the
chemistry of the ocean, the studying and modelling of climate dynamics, the air-sea boundary, weather
patterns, ocean resources, renewable energy, waves and currents, and the design and development of new
tools and technologies for investigating the deep.[117] Whereas in the 1960s and 1970s research could focus
on taxonomy and basic biology, in the 2010s attention has shifted to larger topics such as climate
change.[118] Researchers make use of satellite-based remote sensing for surface waters, with research ships,
moored observatories and autonomous underwater vehicles to study and monitor all parts of the sea.[119]

Law

"Freedom of the seas" is a principle in international law dating from the seventeenth century. It stresses
freedom to navigate the oceans and disapproves of war fought in international waters.[120] Today, this
concept is enshrined in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), the third version
of which came into force in 1994. Article 87(1) states: "The high seas are open to all states, whether coastal
or land-locked." Article 87(1) (a) to (f) gives a non-exhaustive list of freedoms including navigation,
overflight, the laying of submarine cables, building artificial islands, fishing and scientific research.[120] The
safety of shipping is regulated by the International Maritime Organization. Its objectives include developing
and maintaining a regulatory framework for shipping, maritime safety, environmental concerns, legal
matters, technical co-operation and maritime security.[121]

UNCLOS defines various areas of water. "Internal waters" are on the landward side of a baseline and
foreign vessels have no right of passage in these. "Territorial waters" extend to 12 nautical miles (22
kilometres; 14 miles) from the coastline and in these waters, the coastal state is free to set laws, regulate use
and exploit any resource. A "contiguous zone" extending a further 12 nautical miles allows for hot pursuit
of vessels suspected of infringing laws in four specific areas: customs, taxation, immigration and pollution.
An "exclusive economic zone" extends for 200 nautical miles (370 kilometres; 230 miles) from the
baseline. Within this area, the coastal nation has sole exploitation rights over all natural resources. The
"continental shelf" is the natural prolongation of the land territory to the continental margin's outer edge, or
200 nautical miles from the coastal state's baseline, whichever is greater. Here the coastal nation has the
exclusive right to harvest minerals and also living resources "attached" to the seabed.[120]

War

Control of the sea is important to the security of a maritime nation,

and the naval blockade of a port can be used to cut off food and
supplies in time of war. Battles have been fought on the sea for
more than 3,000 years. In about 1210 B.C., Suppiluliuma II, the
king of the Hittites, defeated and burned a fleet from Alashiya
(modern Cyprus).[122] In the decisive 480 B.C. Battle of Salamis,
the Greek general Themistocles trapped the far larger fleet of the
Persian king Xerxes in a narrow channel and attacked vigorously,
Naval warfare: The explosion of the destroying 200 Persian ships for the loss of 40 Greek vessels.[123]
Spanish flagship during the Battle of At the end of the Age of Sail, the British Royal Navy, led by
Gibraltar, 25 April 1607 by Cornelis Horatio Nelson, broke the power of the combined French and
Claesz van Wieringen, formerly Spanish fleets at the 1805 Battle of Trafalgar.[124]
attributed to Hendrik Cornelisz
Vroom With steam and the industrial production of steel plate came greatly
increased firepower in the shape of the dreadnought battleships
armed with long-range guns. In 1905, the Japanese fleet decisively
defeated the Russian fleet, which had travelled over 18,000 nautical miles (33,000  km), at the Battle of
Tsushima.[125] Dreadnoughts fought inconclusively in the First World War at the 1916 Battle of Jutland
between the Royal Navy's Grand Fleet and the Imperial German Navy's High Seas Fleet.[126] In the
Second World War, the British victory at the 1940 Battle of Taranto showed that naval air power was
sufficient to overcome the largest warships,[127] foreshadowing the decisive sea-battles of the Pacific War
including the Battles of the Coral Sea, Midway, the Philippine Sea, and the climactic Battle of Leyte Gulf,
in all of which the dominant ships were aircraft carriers.[128][129]

Submarines became important in naval warfare in World War I, when German submarines, known as U-
boats, sank nearly 5,000 Allied merchant ships,[130] including the RMS Lusitania, which helped to bring
the United States into the war.[131] In World War II, almost 3,000 Allied ships were sunk by U-boats
attempting to block the flow of supplies to Britain,[132] but the Allies broke the blockade in the Battle of the
Atlantic, which lasted the whole length of the war, sinking 783 U-boats.[133] Since 1960, several nations
have maintained fleets of nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines, vessels equipped to launch ballistic
missiles with nuclear warheads from under the sea. Some of these are kept permanently on patrol.[134][135]

Travel

Sailing ships or packets carried mail overseas, one of the earliest being the Dutch service to Batavia in the
1670s.[136] These added passenger accommodation, but in cramped conditions. Later, scheduled services
were offered but the time journeys took depended much on the weather. When steamships replaced sailing
vessels, ocean-going liners took over the task of carrying people. By the beginning of the twentieth century,
crossing the Atlantic took about five days and shipping companies competed to own the largest and fastest
vessels. The Blue Riband was an unofficial accolade given to the fastest liner crossing the Atlantic in
regular service. The Mauretania held the title with 26.06 knots (48.26  km/h) for twenty years from
1909.[137] The Hales Trophy, another award for the fastest commercial crossing of the Atlantic, was won
by the United States in 1952 for a crossing that took three days, ten hours and forty minutes.[138]

The great liners were comfortable but expensive in fuel and staff. The age of the trans-Atlantic liners waned
as cheap intercontinental flights became available. In 1958, a regular scheduled air service between New
York and Paris taking seven hours doomed the Atlantic ferry service to oblivion. One by one the vessels
were laid up, some were scrapped, others became cruise ships for the leisure industry and still others
floating hotels.[139]

Trade

Maritime trade has existed for millennia. The Ptolemaic

dynasty had developed trade with India using the Red
Sea ports and in the first millennium BC the Arabs,
Phoenicians, Israelites and Indians traded in luxury
goods such as spices, gold, and precious stones.[140]
The Phoenicians were noted sea traders and under the
Greeks and Romans, commerce continued to thrive.
With the collapse of the Roman Empire, European
Shipping routes, showing relative density of
trade dwindled but it continued to flourish among the
commercial shipping around the world
kingdoms of Africa, the Middle East, India, China and
southeastern Asia.[141] From the 16th to the 19th
centuries, over a period of 400 years, about 12–13 million Africans were shipped across the Atlantic to be
sold as slaves in the Americas as part of the Atlantic slave trade.[142][143]: 1 94 

Large quantities of goods are transported by sea, especially across the Atlantic and around the Pacific Rim.
A major trade route passes through the Pillars of Hercules, across the Mediterranean and the Suez Canal to
the Indian Ocean and through the Straits of Malacca; much trade also passes through the English
Channel.[144] Shipping lanes are the routes on the open sea used by cargo vessels, traditionally making use
of trade winds and currents. Over 60 percent of the world's container traffic is conveyed on the top twenty
trade routes.[145] Increased melting of Arctic ice since 2007 enables ships to travel the Northwest Passage
for some weeks in summertime, avoiding the longer routes via the Suez Canal or the Panama Canal.[146]
Shipping is supplemented by air freight, a more expensive process mostly used for particularly valuable or
perishable cargoes. Seaborne trade carries more than US$4 trillion worth of goods each year.[147] Bulk
cargo in the form of liquids, powder or particles are carried loose in the holds of bulk carriers and include
crude oil, grain, coal, ore, scrap metal, sand and gravel.[148] Other cargo, such as manufactured goods, is
usually transported within standard sized, lockable containers, loaded on purpose-built container ships at
dedicated terminals.[149] Before the rise of containerization in the 1960s, these goods were loaded,
transported and unloaded piecemeal as break-bulk cargo. Containerization greatly increased the efficiency
and decreased the cost of moving goods by sea, and was a major factor leading to the rise of globalization
and exponential increases in international trade in the mid-to-late 20th century.[150]

Food

Fish and other fishery products are among the most widely consumed sources of protein and other essential
nutrients.[151] In 2009, 16.6% of the world's intake of animal protein and 6.5% of all protein consumed
came from fish.[151] In order to fulfill this need, coastal countries have exploited marine resources in their
exclusive economic zone, although fishing vessels are increasingly venturing further afield to exploit stocks
in international waters.[152] In 2011, the total world production of fish, including aquaculture, was estimated
 to be 154  million tonnes, of which most was for human
consumption.[151] The harvesting of wild fish accounted for
90.4  million tonnes, while annually increasing aquaculture
contributes the rest.[151] The north west Pacific is by far the most
productive area with 20.9 million tonnes (27 percent of the global
marine catch) in 2010.[151] In addition, the number of fishing
vessels in 2010 reached 4.36 million, whereas the number of people
German factory ship, 92 metres
employed in the primary sector of fish production in the same year
(302 ft) long
amounted to 54.8 million.[151]

Modern fishing vessels include fishing trawlers with a small crew,

stern trawlers, purse seiners, long-line factory vessels and large factory ships which are designed to stay at
sea for weeks, processing and freezing great quantities of fish. The equipment used to capture the fish may
be purse seines, other seines, trawls, dredges, gillnets and long-lines and the fish species most frequently
targeted are herring, cod, anchovy, tuna, flounder, mullet, squid and salmon. Overexploitation has become a
serious concern; it does not only cause the depletion of fish stocks, but also substantially reduce the size of
predatory fish populations.[153] It has been estimated that "industrialized fisheries typically reduced
community biomass by 80% within 15 years of exploitation."[153] In order to avoid overexploitation, many
countries have introduced quotas in their own waters.[154] However, recovery efforts often entail substantial
costs to local economies or food provision.

Artisan fishing methods include rod and line, harpoons, skin diving,
traps, throw nets and drag nets. Traditional fishing boats are
powered by paddle, wind or outboard motors and operate in near-
shore waters. The Food and Agriculture Organization is
encouraging the development of local fisheries to provide food
security to coastal communities and help alleviate poverty.[155]

Aquaculture

About 79 million tonnes (78M long tons; 87M short tons) of food Fishing boat in Sri Lanka
and non-food products were produced by aquaculture in 2010, an
all-time high. About six hundred species of plants and animals were
cultured, some for use in seeding wild populations. The animals raised included finfish, aquatic reptiles,
crustaceans, molluscs, sea cucumbers, sea urchins, sea squirts and jellyfish.[151] Integrated mariculture has
the advantage that there is a readily available supply of planktonic food in the ocean, and waste is removed
naturally.[156] Various methods are employed. Mesh enclosures for finfish can be suspended in the open
seas, cages can be used in more sheltered waters or ponds can be refreshed with water at each high tide.
Shrimps can be reared in shallow ponds connected to the open sea.[157] Ropes can be hung in water to
grow algae, oysters and mussels. Oysters can be reared on trays or in mesh tubes. Sea cucumbers can be
ranched on the seabed.[158] Captive breeding programmes have raised lobster larvae for release of juveniles
into the wild resulting in an increased lobster harvest in Maine.[159] At least 145 species of seaweed – red,
green, and brown algae – are eaten worldwide, and some have long been farmed in Japan and other Asian
countries; there is great potential for additional algaculture.[160] Few maritime flowering plants are widely
used for food but one example is marsh samphire which is eaten both raw and cooked.[161] A major
difficulty for aquaculture is the tendency towards monoculture and the associated risk of widespread
disease. Aquaculture is also associated with environmental risks; for instance, shrimp farming has caused
the destruction of important mangrove forests throughout southeast Asia.[162]

Leisure

Use of the sea for leisure developed in the nineteenth century, and became a significant industry in the
twentieth century.[163] Maritime leisure activities are varied, and include self-organized trips cruising,
yachting, powerboat racing[164] and fishing;[165] commercially organized voyages on cruise ships;[166] and
trips on smaller vessels for ecotourism such as whale watching and coastal birdwatching.[167]

Sea bathing became the vogue in Europe in the 18th century after Dr.
William Buchan advocated the practice for health reasons.[168] Surfing is a
sport in which a wave is ridden by a surfer, with or without a surfboard.
Other marine water sports include kite surfing, where a power kite propels a
rider on a board across the water,[169] windsurfing, where the power is
provided by a fixed, manoeuvrable sail[170] and water skiing, where a
powerboat is used to pull a skier.[171]

Beneath the surface, freediving is necessarily restricted to shallow descents.

Scuba diver with face mask, Pearl divers can dive to 40 feet (12 m) with baskets to collect oysters.[172]
fins and underwater Human eyes are not adapted for use underwater but vision can be improved
breathing apparatus by wearing a diving mask. Other useful equipment includes fins and
snorkels, and scuba equipment allows underwater breathing and hence a
longer time can be spent beneath the surface.[173] The depths that can be
reached by divers and the length of time they can stay underwater is limited by the increase of pressure they
experience as they descend and the need to prevent decompression sickness as they return to the surface.
Recreational divers restrict themselves to depths of 100 feet (30 m) beyond which the danger of nitrogen
narcosis increases. Deeper dives can be made with specialised equipment and training.[173]

Industry

Power generation

The sea offers a very large supply of energy carried by ocean waves, tides, salinity differences, and ocean
temperature differences which can be harnessed to generate electricity.[174] Forms of sustainable marine
energy include tidal power, ocean thermal energy and wave power.[174][175] Electricity power stations are
often located on the coast or beside an estuary so that the sea can be used as a heat sink. A colder heat sink
enables more efficient power generation, which is important for expensive nuclear power plants in
particular.[176]

Tidal power uses generators to produce electricity from tidal flows, sometimes by using a dam to store and
then release seawater. The Rance barrage, 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) long, near St Malo in Brittany opened in
1967; it generates about 0.5 GW, but it has been followed by few similar schemes.[3]: 1 11–112 

The large and highly variable energy of waves gives them enormous destructive capability, making
affordable and reliable wave machines problematic to develop. A small 2 MW commercial wave power
plant, "Osprey", was built in Northern Scotland in 1995 about 300 metres (980 feet) offshore. It was soon
damaged by waves, then destroyed by a storm.[3]: 1 12 
 Offshore wind power is captured by wind turbines placed out at
sea; it has the advantage that wind speeds are higher than on land,
though wind farms are more costly to construct offshore.[177] The
first offshore wind farm was installed in Denmark in 1991,[178] and
the installed capacity of worldwide offshore wind farms reached 34
GW in 2020, mainly situated in Europe.[179]

Tidal power: the 1 km Rance Tidal Extractive industries

Power Station in Brittany generates
0.5 GW. The seabed contains large reserves of minerals which can be
exploited by dredging. This has advantages over land-based mining
in that equipment can be built at specialised shipyards and
infrastructure costs are lower. Disadvantages include problems caused by waves and tides, the tendency for
excavations to silt up and the washing away of spoil heaps. There is a risk of coastal erosion and
environmental damage.[180]

Seafloor massive sulphide deposits are potential sources of silver,

gold, copper, lead and zinc and trace metals since their discovery in
the 1960s. They form when geothermally heated water is emitted
from deep sea hydrothermal vents known as "black smokers". The
ores are of high quality but prohibitively costly to extract.[181]

There are large deposits of petroleum, as oil and natural gas, in

rocks beneath the seabed. Offshore platforms and drilling rigs
extract the oil or gas and store it for transport to land. Offshore oil
Minerals precipitated near a and gas production can be difficult due to the remote, harsh
hydrothermal vent environment.[182] Drilling for oil in the sea has environmental
impacts. Animals may be disorientated by seismic waves used to
locate deposits, and there is debate as to whether this causes the
beaching of whales. [183] Toxic substances such as mercury, lead and arsenic may be released. The
infrastructure may cause damage, and oil may be spilt.[184]

Large quantities of methane clathrate exist on the seabed and in ocean sediment, of interest as a potential
energy source.[185] Also on the seabed are manganese nodules formed of layers of iron, manganese and
other hydroxides around a core. In the Pacific these may cover up to 30 percent of the deep ocean floor.
The minerals precipitate from seawater and grow very slowly. Their commercial extraction for nickel was
investigated in the 1970s but abandoned in favour of more convenient sources.[186] In suitable locations,
diamonds are gathered from the seafloor using suction hoses to bring gravel ashore. In deeper waters,
mobile seafloor crawlers are used and the deposits are pumped to a vessel above. In Namibia, more
diamonds are now collected from marine sources than by conventional methods on land.[187]

The sea holds large quantities of valuable dissolved minerals.[188] The most important, Salt for table and
industrial use has been harvested by solar evaporation from shallow ponds since prehistoric times. Bromine,
accumulated after being leached from the land, is economically recovered from the Dead Sea, where it
occurs at 55,000 parts per million (ppm).[189]

Fresh water production

Desalination is the technique of removing salts from seawater to leave fresh
water suitable for drinking or irrigation. The two main processing methods,
vacuum distillation and reverse osmosis, use large quantities of energy.
Desalination is normally only undertaken where fresh water from other
sources is in short supply or energy is plentiful, as in the excess heat
generated by power stations. The brine produced as a by-product contains
some toxic materials and is returned to the sea.[190]

Indigenous sea peoples

Several nomadic indigenous groups in Maritime Southeast Asia live in

boats and derive nearly all they need from the sea. The Moken people live
Reverse osmosis
on the coasts of Thailand and Burma and islands in the Andaman Sea.[191]
desalination plant
Some Sea Gypsies are accomplished free-divers, able to descend to depths
of 30 metres (98 ft), though many are adopting a more settled, land-based
way of life.[192][193]

The indigenous peoples of the Arctic such as the Chukchi, Inuit, Inuvialuit and Yup'iit hunt marine
mammals including seals and whales,[194] and the Torres Strait Islanders of Australia include the Great
Barrier Reef among their possessions. They live a traditional life on the islands involving hunting, fishing,
gardening and trading with neighbouring peoples in Papua and mainland Aboriginal Australians.[195]

In culture

The sea appears in human culture in contradictory ways, as both

powerful but serene and as beautiful but dangerous.[3]: 1 0  It has its
place in literature, art, poetry, film, theatre, classical music,
mythology and dream interpretation.[196] The Ancients personified
it, believing it to be under the control of a being who needed to be
appeased, and symbolically, it has been perceived as a hostile
environment populated by fantastic creatures; the Leviathan of the
Bible,[197] Scylla in Greek mythology,[198] Isonade in Japanese
The Great Wave off Kanagawa by
mythology,[199] and the kraken of late Norse mythology.[200]
Katsushika Hokusai, c. 1830[3]: 8 

The sea and ships have been depicted in art ranging from simple
drawings on the walls of huts in Lamu[196] to seascapes by Joseph
Turner. In Dutch Golden Age painting, artists such as Jan Porcellis, Hendrick Dubbels, Willem van de
Velde the Elder and his son, and Ludolf Bakhuizen celebrated the sea and the Dutch navy at the peak of its
military prowess.[201][202] The Japanese artist Katsushika Hokusai created colour prints of the moods of the
sea, including The Great Wave off Kanagawa.[3]: 8  

Music too has been inspired by the ocean, sometimes by composers who lived or worked near the shore
and saw its many different aspects. Sea shanties, songs that were chanted by mariners to help them perform
arduous tasks, have been woven into compositions and impressions in music have been created of calm
waters, crashing waves and storms at sea.[203]: 4 –8 

As a symbol, the sea has for centuries played a role in literature, poetry and dreams. Sometimes it is there
just as a gentle background but often it introduces such themes as storm, shipwreck, battle, hardship,
disaster, the dashing of hopes and death.[203]: 4 5  In his epic poem the Odyssey, written in the eighth century
BC,[204] Homer describes the ten-year voyage of the Greek hero Odysseus who struggles to return home

The Oceanids (The Naiads of the
Sea), a painting by Gustave Doré (c.
1860)
across the sea's many hazards after
the war described in the Iliad.[205]
The sea is a recurring theme in the
Haiku poems of the Japanese Edo
period poet Matsuo Bashō ( 松尾 芭
蕉 ) (1644–1694).[206] In the works
of psychiatrist Carl Jung, the sea
symbolizes the personal and the
collective unconscious in dream
interpretation, the depths of the sea
symbolizing the depths of the
unconscious mind.[207] Dutch Golden Age painting:
The Y at Amsterdam, seen

Environmental issues from the Mosselsteiger

(mussel pier) by Ludolf
Bakhuizen, 1673[201]
Human activities affect marine life and marine habitats through overfishing,
habitat loss, the introduction of invasive species, ocean pollution, ocean
acidification and ocean warming. These impact marine ecosystems and food webs and may result in
consequences as yet unrecognised for the biodiversity and continuation of marine life forms.[208]

Acidification

Seawater is slightly alkaline and had an average pH of about 8.2 over the past 300 million years.[209] More
recently, climate change has resulted in an increase of the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere; about
30–40% of the added CO2 is absorbed by the oceans, forming carbonic acid and lowering the pH (now
below 8.1[209]) through a process called ocean acidification.[210][211][212] The pH is expected to reach 7.7
(representing a 3-fold increase in hydrogen ion concentration) by the year 2100, which is a significant
change in a century.[213][e]

One important element for the formation of skeletal material in marine animals is calcium, but calcium
carbonate becomes more soluble with pressure, so carbonate shells and skeletons dissolve below its
compensation depth.[215] Calcium carbonate also becomes more soluble at lower pH, so ocean acidification
is likely to have profound effects on marine organisms with calcareous shells, such as oysters, clams, sea
urchins, and corals,[216] because their ability to form shells will be reduced,[217] and the carbonate
compensation depth will rise closer to the sea surface. Affected planktonic organisms will include the snail-
like molluscs known as pteropods, and single-celled algae called coccolithophorids and foraminifera. All of
these are important parts of the food chain and a diminution in their numbers will have significant
consequences. In tropical regions, corals are likely to be severely affected as it becomes more difficult to
build their calcium carbonate skeletons,[218] in turn adversely impacting other reef dwellers.[213]

The current rate of ocean chemistry change appears to be without precedent in Earth's geological history,
making it unclear how well marine ecosystems will be able to adapt to the shifting conditions of the near
future.[219] Of particular concern is the manner in which the combination of acidification with the expected
additional stressors of higher temperatures and lower oxygen levels will impact the seas.[220]

Marine pollution
Many substances enter the sea as a result of human activities. Combustion products are transported in the air
and deposited into the sea by precipitation. Industrial outflows and sewage contribute heavy metals,
pesticides, PCBs, disinfectants, household cleaning products and other synthetic chemicals. These become
concentrated in the surface film and in marine sediment, especially estuarine mud. The result of all this
contamination is largely unknown because of the large number of substances involved and the lack of
information on their biological effects.[221] The heavy metals of greatest concern are copper, lead, mercury,
cadmium and zinc which may be bio-accumulated by marine organisms and are passed up the food
chain.[222]

Much floating plastic rubbish does not biodegrade, instead disintegrating over time and eventually breaking
down to the molecular level. Rigid plastics may float for years.[223] In the centre of the Pacific gyre there is
a permanent floating accumulation of mostly plastic waste[224] and there is a similar garbage patch in the
Atlantic.[225] Foraging sea birds such as the albatross and petrel may mistake debris for food, and
accumulate indigestible plastic in their digestive systems. Turtles and whales have been found with plastic
bags and fishing line in their stomachs. Microplastics may sink, threatening filter feeders on the seabed.[226]

Most oil pollution in the sea comes from cities and industry.[227] Oil is dangerous for marine animals. It can
clog the feathers of sea birds, reducing their insulating effect and the birds' buoyancy, and be ingested when
they preen themselves in an attempt to remove the contaminant. Marine mammals are less seriously affected
but may be chilled through the removal of their insulation, blinded, dehydrated or poisoned. Benthic
invertebrates are swamped when the oil sinks, fish are poisoned and the food chain is disrupted. In the short
term, oil spills result in wildlife populations being decreased and unbalanced, leisure activities being
affected and the livelihoods of people dependent on the sea being devastated.[228] The marine environment
has self-cleansing properties and naturally occurring bacteria will act over time to remove oil from the sea.
In the Gulf of Mexico, where oil-eating bacteria are already present, they take only a few days to consume
spilt oil.[229]

Run-off of fertilisers from agricultural land is a major source of pollution in some areas and the discharge of
raw sewage has a similar effect. The extra nutrients provided by these sources can cause excessive plant
growth. Nitrogen is often the limiting factor in marine systems, and with added nitrogen, algal blooms and
red tides can lower the oxygen level of the water and kill marine animals. Such events have created dead
zones in the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Mexico.[227] Some algal blooms are caused by cyanobacteria that
make shellfish that filter feed on them toxic, harming animals like sea otters.[230] Nuclear facilities too can
pollute. The Irish Sea was contaminated by radioactive caesium-137 from the former Sellafield nuclear fuel
processing plant[231] and nuclear accidents may also cause radioactive material to seep into the sea, as did
the disaster at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in 2011.[232]

The dumping of waste (including oil, noxious liquids, sewage and garbage) at sea is governed by
international law. The London Convention (1972) is a United Nations agreement to control ocean dumping
which had been ratified by 89 countries by 8 June 2012.[233] MARPOL 73/78 is a convention to minimize
pollution of the seas by ships. By May 2013, 152 maritime nations had ratified MARPOL.[234]

See also
Oceans portal

Water portal

Geography portal

World portal
 Ocean surface topography – Shape of the ocean surface relative to the geoid
List of seas
Bay
Gulf

Notes
a. There is no accepted technical definition of sea amongst oceanographers. One definition is
that a sea is a sub-division of an ocean, which means that it must have oceanic basin crust
on its floor. This definition accepts the Caspian as a sea because it was once part of an
ancient ocean.[5] The Introduction to Marine Biology defines a sea as a "land-locked" body
of water, adding that the term "sea" is only one of convenience.[6] The Glossary of Mapping
Sciences similarly states that the boundaries between seas and other bodies of water are
arbitrary.[7]
b. According to this definition, the Caspian would be excluded as it is legally an "international
lake".[10]
c. Hydrous ringwoodite recovered from volcanic eruptions suggests that the transition zone
between the lower and upper mantle holds between one[13] and three[14] times as much
water as all of the world's surface oceans combined. Experiments to recreate the conditions
of the lower mantle suggest it may contain still more water as well, as much as five times the
mass of water present in the world's oceans.[15][16]
d. "As the waves leave the region where they were generated, the longer ones outpace the
shorter because their velocity is greater. Gradually, they fall in with other waves travelling at
similar speed—-where different waves are in phase they reinforce each other, and where out
of phase they are reduced. Eventually, a regular pattern of high and low waves (or swell) is
developed that remains constant as it travels out across the ocean."[3]: 83–84 
e. To help put a change of this magnitude into perspective, when the pH of human blood
plasma is raised from its normal 7.4 to a value above 7.8, or lowered to a value below 6.8,
death ensues.[214]

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External links
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (http://www.noaa.gov/ocean.html)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130424102601/http://www.noaa.gov/ocean.html) 24
April 2013 at the Wayback Machine

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